The Religions Book - Big Ideas Simply Explained

MODERN RELIGIONS 299

See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Selfless action 110–11
■ Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Striving in the way of God 278 ■ Class systems and faith 302–303

The Khalsa belongs to God,
and Victory belongs to Him.

Traditional
Sikh greeting

The Khalsa order was founded in
response to persecution of Sikhs under
the Mughal empire, when Guru Gobind
Singh called for Sikhs willing to lay
down their lives in defense of the faith.

which was formally laid down by sipahi, or saint-soldier, who first opposite: they were asked to play
the 10th guru, Guru Gobind Singh, and foremost led the life of a saint an active part in it by commitment
when he created the order of the in his devotion to God, but would to family and community, and by
Khalsa, the community of all Sikhs act as a warrior to defend his faith demonstrating a social conscience,
baptized into the faith, in 1699. or prevent injustice, if necessary. which is considered one of the
highest of all the Sikh virtues.
Virtue and courage The Khalsa would protect the
The idea of social justice lies at the weak, and dedicate themselves to Guru Gobind Singh stressed
heart of the Khalsa order (the name a virtuous lifestyle of chastity and that a Sikh should act like a
means “the pure” or “the free”). temperance, ridding themselves of warrior only out of necessity in
Members are encouraged not only the five vices—lust (kaam), anger leading a saintly life: he should
to share with others, but also to (krodh), greed (lobh), emotional be a soldierlike saint rather than
protect the poor, the weak, and attachment (moh), and egotism a saintlike soldier, and all Sikhs
the oppressed. This was a crucial (ahankar)—and keeping God in should act on the principle of “fear
part of Guru Nanak’s original mind at all times. Guru Gobind not, frighten not.” Singh likened
philosophy, and it was reinforced Singh codified a lifestyle that the courage needed to behave
during the period of the Ten Gurus, was appropriate to all Sikhs when in this way to that of the lion,
when Sikhs were persecuted both he established the Khalsa order: and suggested that Sikhs being
by their Muslim rulers and by not only did he prohibit rituals, baptized in the Khalsa order
Hindus, who regarded the Sikh pilgrimages, and superstitious should adopt the surname
faith as heretical. Guru Gobind practices, but he also outlined Singh (“lion”) or Kaur (“lioness”).
Singh’s intention in forming the the virtues necessary to a life
Khalsa was to establish an order devoted to God, such as honesty, Five articles of faith
of Sikhs that embodied the twofold simplicity, monogamy, and After they are baptized in the
virtues of bhakti (spirituality, or avoidance of alcohol and drugs. Khalsa order, Sikhs are expected
devotion) and shakti (powerfulness). to wear the five articles of faith,
He envisioned an ideal of the sant- The Khalsa were not asked commonly known as the “five Ks”,
to renounce the world in their as an outward expression of ❯❯
devotion to God, in fact quite the

300 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT

their status as saint-soldiers. Each articles of faith. Nevertheless, God approves not the
of these—kesh (uncut hair), kangha it has become an essential item distinction of high
(comb), kara (bracelet), kachera of Sikh clothing and has helped caste and low caste.
(undergarment), and kirpan (sword) to give its wearers a strong sense None has he made
—has a deep symbolic meaning, of identity and social cohesion. higher than others.
as well as distinctively identifying The turban was adopted at the
the wearer as a Sikh. suggestion of Guru Gobind Singh, Sri Guru Granth Sahib
who pointed out that all the gurus
Hair is considered by Sikhs had worn a turban, and that doing any action. Similarly, the kachera,
to be a gift from God, and kesh likewise would help the wearer a cotton undergarment—worn
(the practice of leaving the hair to concentrate on following their by both men and women—that
and beard uncut) is seen, in example. The primary purpose resembles loose-fitting shorts,
part, as the avoidance of vanity. of the turban, however, is to pull ostensibly acts as a warning to
However, it is also a symbolic back and protect the uncut hair control sexual passion and desire,
representation of the ideal of of male Sikhs. but is also a symbolic reminder that
leading a life in a way that God Sikhs should strive to overcome
intended, without interference, Proofs against temptation desires of all kinds and lead a
and in harmony with his will, and Just as important as the positive faithful life in a broader sense.
as such is an important outward virtues is the avoidance of vice.
sign of the Khalsa code of conduct. The steel bracelet known as Defending the faith
the kara is a symbol of the vows The soldierly aspect of Sikhism
Sikhs are expected to keep taken by a Sikh during baptism to is encapsulated in the kirpan,
their hair clean and well-groomed, refrain from the five vices. Because the ceremonial sword, which
combing it twice daily with the it is worn on the wrist it is often symbolizes courage and dignity.
kanga, a special comb that is also visible to the wearer, and therefore It encourages its wearer to be
used to hold it in place under a acts as a frequent reminder to constantly determined to defend
turban. This regular grooming is consider carefully whether his the Sikh faith and its moral values,
a constant reminder of the Sikh’s or her actions will lead to evil or and protect the downtrodden
duty to lead a virtuous life devoted wrongdoing. The Jain faith uses from tyranny.
to God, which is why the kanga a very similar device, in the form
is also considered one of the five of its emblem of the raised palm Sikhism has at various times
articles of faith. (p.70): a reminder to stop and been associated with nationalist
consider the intention behind political movements in the Punjab,
The most easily identifiable where it originated. The region
aspect of a male Sikh, his turban, has often suffered from religious
is not actually one of the five conflicts, which Sikhs have

The Sikh turban is an important
symbol of faith and dignity. By keeping
the hair well groomed, it distinguishes
the Sikh man’s appearance from the
matted locks worn by Hindu ascetics.

inevitably been drawn into. ceremonies and worship. However, MODERN RELIGIONS 301
There was even a short-lived as Guru Nanak originally preached,
Sikh Empire formed in 1799 but devotion to God and a socially Guru Nanak
dissolved by the British in 1849. responsible lifestyle are more
After the formation of the Akali, important in Sikhism than rituals The founder of the Sikh
a Sikh reform movement, in the and reverence. This is reflected religion, Guru Nanak, was
1920s, and the Akali Dal political in the institution of the gurdwara, born in 1469 into a Hindu
party in 1966, there were calls for which, as well as being a temple family in Talwandi, in the
an autonomous Sikh state in the for worship, is also the hub of the Punjab region of India (now
Punjab, where violent incidents Sikh community. Sikh worship known as Nankana Sahib,
between Sikhs and Hindus, along is generally not prescribed by the Pakistan). Tension was
with tensions between Muslim gurus, other than the early morning running high between
Pakistan and Hindu India, have prayer, which uses the Mul Mantra the Hindus and Muslims
continued into modern times. composed by Guru Nanak as a there as the Mughal Empire
Outside the Punjab, however, meditation on God’s Name. This spread south into the Indian
the Sikh diaspora has generally can be practiced anywhere, not subcontinent. As a young
integrated into society. just in the gurdwara, and because man, Nanak worked as an
there is no priesthood in Sikhism, accountant, but was always
An updated code of conduct for this, alongside readings and hymns fascinated by spiritual
contemporary Sikhism is offered in from the Guru Granth Sahib, can, matters. According to Sikh
the Sikh Rehat Maryada, published in the spirit of Sikh egalitarianism, tradition, after receiving
in 1950, which gives guidance on be performed by anyone. ■ a revelation, in which God
personal and public life, including gave him a cup of nectar
and told him of his vocation
The “five Ks” of the Sikh religion to spread the message of his
here surround the Sikh symbol of Name, Nanak embarked on a
crossed swords. The sword or 25-year mission, traveling and
kirpan is one of the “Ks,” or preaching with his companion,
articles of faith. The others the Muslim minstrel Bhai
are uncut hair and beard, Mardana. In five long trips,
comb, bracelet, and he visited the major cities
cotton shorts. and religious centers of
India and Arabia, where he
kesh set up dharamshalas, centers
of worship. He was given
kirpan kangha the title guru, or teacher,
by his followers. After his
kachera kara final journey, to Baghdad
and Mecca, he returned to
Punjab, where he remained
until his death in 1539.

302

ALL MAY ENTER
OUR GATEWAY
TO GOD

CLASS SYSTEMS AND FAITH

IN CONTEXT S ikhism is one of the most Guru Gobind Singh, established
egalitarian of all religions, the Khalsa order, into which most
KEY FIGURE quite free of division or Sikhs are initiated (p.299), he
Guru Nanak discrimination by race, class, or made the order open to everyone.
sex. All are welcome in gurdwaras Controversially, for the time, he
WHEN AND WHERE (Sikh temples) regardless of faith; denounced the caste system and
From 15th century, India there are no priests—decisions are gender discrimination. He also
made by the community—and abolished the priesthood in
BEFORE both men and women may read Sikhism, which he felt had become
From 1700 BCE The Vedic from the Sikh holy book. This corrupt and self-serving—guilty of
scriptures divide society into inclusiveness can be traced to the very vices the faith seeks to
four varnas, or classes, with Sikhism’s origins, when Guru overcome. Instead, he appointed
brahmins (priests) at the top; Nanak (p.301) received a revelation custodians of the holy book, the
this rigid social hierarchy from God, and announced: “There Guru Granth Sahib, at each temple,
pervades Indian society to is no Hindu or Muslim, so whose while also permitting all Sikhs,
the present day. path shall I follow? I shall follow male or female, to read from it in
the path of God.” worship at the gurdwara or at home.
AFTER
c.1870 Indian sage Sri Disillusioned about the existing
Ramakrishna advocates religions of India at that time, and
religious tolerance, stating by the social divisiveness he saw in
that all religions may lead to all religions, Guru Nanak considered
God via a heightened state that, from the divine perspective,
of consciousness. religious labels—such as Hindu
or Muslim—were irrelevant. In their
1936 Indian philosopher and place, Guru Nanak offered an
political leader Mahatma alternative, all-embracing faith
Gandhi propagates the notion based on devotion to God rather
of sarvadharma samabhava, than the observance of ritual and
the equality of all religions, reverence for individual holy men.
and speaks out against the
Indian caste system. A legacy of equality Both Sikhs and non-Sikh visitors
Guru Nanak’s teachings were are welcome to join in communal meals
consolidated by subsequent Sikh at Sikh temples. Everyone, whatever
gurus, and when the 10th guru, their race, class, or sex, sits on the floor
to eat, to emphasize the equality of all.

See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Gender and the covenant 199 ■ The Sikh MODERN RELIGIONS 303
code of conduct 296–301 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316
The Guru Granth
Guru Gobind Singh Sahib
abolished all social divisions
The central religious text
in the order of Khalsa, so that of Sikhism is a collection of
Sikhism is open to… hymns and verses compiled
and written by the succession
…people of all castes …both men of 10 Sikh gurus, the leaders of
and nationalities. and women equally. the faith, who lived between
1469 and 1708. This collection
Sikhs believe that all religions consists of some 1,430 pages,
that worship one God are valid... or angs, of their teachings.
The first version of the book,
…and that the salvation shown known as the Adi Granth,
in the Guru Granth Sahib was compiled by the fifth
is available to all. guru, Guru Arjan Dev, from
the sayings and writings of
All may enter our gateway to God. his predecessors, and was
added to by subsequent
gurus. Guru Gobind Singh,
the 10th guru, completed the
text and nominated it, rather
than another human leader,
as his successor, calling it
“the embodiment of the
gurus,” and giving it the title
Guru Granth Sahib. Unlike its
predecessors, this “11th guru”
is available for all to consult,
and a copy takes a place of
pride in every gurdwara, or
Sikh temple. Originally written
in a specially devised script,
Gurmukhi, in a mixture of
dialects collectively known
as Sant Bhasha, it has since
been translated into several
modern languages.

Sikhs do not need to perform any follows the same path as Sikhism, All beings and creatures
particular rituals or undertake and their faith deserves respect. are His; He belongs to all.
pilgrimages, but they are expected Sikhs regard an individual’s
to show their devotion to God in religion to be largely the result Guru Granth Sahib
their everyday lives. It is not even of the culture in which he or
a requirement to worship at the she was brought up: Hindus,
gurdwara. These temples serve as Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs
social centers and exemplify the have a common inspiration, but
notion of community spirit that is the particular form this takes is
such an important component of determined by society. For this
Sikhism. For Sikhs, anyone who reason, Sikhs do not attempt to
believes in and worships one God convert people of other faiths. ■

304

MESSAGES TO
AND FROM HOME

THE AFRICAN ROOTS OF SANTERIA

IN CONTEXT S anteria is a religion that that were established following
combines traditional the Spanish colonization of the
KEY BELIEVERS western African religion islands. The Yoruba people of
Displaced Yoruba people with Catholicism. This blended, present-day Nigeria and Benin
from western Africa or syncretic, religion developed in formed the majority of those taken
Cuba between the 16th and 18th to the Cuban sugar plantations.
WHEN AND WHERE centuries. During this period, huge These slaves came from the well-
From 16th century, Cuba numbers of people from western established Oyo Empire, which had
Africa were enslaved and taken to a sophisticated religious tradition.
BEFORE work on the Caribbean plantations This was outlawed by the Spanish.
From prehistory African
tribal mythologies incorporate Slaves taken from western Africa to the Caribbean
strong links to the land and to
the ancestors. …took their religion with them and incorporated it into
the Christianity of their owners, initially to conceal its
9th–6th centuries BCE The nature from them.
people of the kingdom of
Judah maintain their faith However, they retained the elements of communication
while in exile in Assyria, with their gods, spirits, and ancestors in Africa through
Babylon, and Egypt. trances and possession.

15th–19th centuries In this way, believers continued to transmit
European colonial conquests messages to and from home.
are accompanied by forcible
conversions to Christianity.

AFTER
19th century The slave trade
is abolished; Creole religions
are practiced more openly in
the Caribbean and Brazil.

1970s Santeria becomes
established in the US.

See also: The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 MODERN RELIGIONS 305
■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Ras Tafari is our Savior 314–15
Hybrid religions
A Santeria altar often blends
imagery from both Catholicism Santeria is just one of many
and western African beliefs, with Creole religions—hybrids
particular saints identified with of African and European faiths
particular African deities, or orishas. —that had their origins in
slavery. Yoruba (the dominant
However, the Yoruba slaves soon saint, the Yoruba slaves would culture of the area plundered
learned to conceal the worship of communicate with an orisha with by slave traders in western
their African gods by appearing similar characteristics. This hybrid Africa) figures largely in many
to practice Catholicism. Unaware religion allowed the Yoruba to Creole religions: Candomblé in
of this, the Spanish slave-owners maintain contact with their culture Brazil, Santeria in Cuba, and
dismissed the religious practices and a link with their homeland, and, Orisha-Shango in Trinidad
of their slaves as merely a simplistic they believed, to communicate with and Tobago. However, other
form of Christian worship, and their ancestors through the spirits. African peoples, including
sarcastically dubbed it Santeria, the Igbo from Nigeria, added
the “way of the saints” (a term now Hybrid elements of the religion their cultures to the mix, in
viewed as pejorative by some). include the adoption of numerous religions such as Umbanda
Spanish words and the addition of and Obeah. Perhaps the
The Rule of Osha images of Catholic saints alongside best-known African-European
The Yoruba religion, known as the traditional portrayals of orishas, faith emerged in Haiti, where
Regla de Ocha or “Rule of Osha” and in some cases, the retention French, rather than Spanish,
(Regla Lucumí, in the Yoruba of the traditional framework of a Catholicism was incorporated
language), already had similarities Catholic service. Rituals are presided into African vodun beliefs as
to Catholicism. The Yoruba believe over by a priest or santeros. Hymns voodoo. This also made its
in one God, Olorun (or Olodumare), are replaced with drumming and way into the southern United
the source of all spiritual energy— chanting, with the aim of inducing States. The religions of the
analogous to Catholic worship of a trance state. While in a trance, African diaspora gained some
the one God. They also believe in the believer may become possessed political significance after the
a lesser pantheon of spirits known by spirits conveying messages from abolition of slavery, especially
as orishas, each with an area of their ancestral home. The drums as Pan-African and black civil
responsibility—akin to Catholic convey messages to the orisha. rights movements grew in the
reverence of the saints. So, while 20th century, giving rise
ostensibly praying to a Catholic Although there is a strong to another hybrid religion
element of the supernatural and in Jamaica: the Rastafari
magic in Santeria, and some movement (pp.314–15).
ceremonies call for ritual sacrifice
(usually of a chicken), believers I humble myself before the
are insistent that black magic mysteries of Eshu-Elegba.
is not involved. They maintain
that their beliefs are distinct from You are the messenger
other syncretic religions of the of Olodumare and Orisha
Caribbean, such as Haitian voodoo.
and the Ancestors.
The relationship between Prayer to the orisha Eshu
Santeria and Catholicism still
exists today, although the need
for secrecy no longer remains.
Adherents of Santeria are often
baptized in the Catholic faith and
practice separate ceremonies for
the saints and orishas. ■

306

ASK YOURSELF:
“WHAT WOULD
JESUS DO?”

FOLLOWING THE EXAMPLE OF CHRIST

IN CONTEXT After the ascension of …the original Church
Jesus and the martyrdom turned away from
KEY FIGURES the Gospel in the
Joseph Smith, Jr., of the apostles…
Brigham Young Great Apostasy.

WHEN AND WHERE …who take as their In a series of revelations,
1830, US model Jesus himself, priesthood authority
rather than the dogma was restored to Joseph
BEFORE of any existing church. Smith, Jr. and his successors,
1790–mid-19th century The the Latter-day Saints…
Second Great Awakening, a
Protestant revival movement Ask yourself: “What would Jesus do?”
in the United States, leads
to the formation of several In reaction to the rationalism of of the established church and
Adventist churches, based the Enlightenment that spread incorporated charismatic elements of
on belief in the imminent from Europe to the American the faith—“gifts of the spirit,” such as
Second Coming of Christ. colonies in the 18th century, a prophecy and visions. There was also
Christian revival occurred in the a move to restore Christianity to the
AFTER United States at the beginning of principles of the New Testament.
Late 19th century In the 19th century. Many breakaway
the US, the Bible Student Christian groups were formed at this It was against this background
Movement advocates a return time. They rejected the traditions that Joseph Smith, Jr. had the first
to the earliest teachings of of a series of visions, in which God
the Christian Church. This
movement will become
the Jehovah’s Witnesses.

1926 Following what is
claimed to be a new phase of
revelations from God, the Cao
Ðài religion is founded, with
Jesus as one of its saints.

MODERN RELIGIONS 307

See also: Jesus’s message to the world 204–207 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208 ■ A divine trinity 212–19
■ God reveals his word and his will 254–61 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13

when the original Christian Church
became corrupted and diluted. God
conferred on Smith the authority to
reestablish the Christian Church.

Mormonism is the pure Modern-day prophets A Mormon family prays together
doctrine of Jesus Christ, Smith, and his successors, are in their living room during their family
considered by their followers to be home evening. These evenings are
of which I myself modern-day prophets, seers, and a Mormon tradition intended to
am not ashamed. revelators, who received guidance reinforce and solidify family ties.
Joseph Smith from God in the form of revelations
from Jesus Christ. Church members up a Mormon community in Utah.
and Jesus Christ came to tell him believe that, rather than following They hold to a strict moral code,
that he had been chosen to restore the doctrine of any existing Church, The Word of Wisdom, avoiding
the true Church. How the Church of they are living as Christ has taught alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and
Christ would differ from the other them, as “latter-day saints”—a extramarital sexual activity.
restorationist groups was explained term adopted by Smith when he Marriage is among the rituals they
when Smith said an angel had established the Church of Jesus believe necessary for salvation,
guided him to find and translate Christ of Latter-day Saints, although as are baptism and confirmation.
a text, the Book of Mormon, which the movement is more commonly Early Mormons practiced polygamy,
described how God had led his called Mormonism. In addition to but this was renounced by the
followers to the New World. He was taking their lead from revelations, mainstream movement in 1890. ■
told of the Great Apostasy that Latter-day Saints believe they should
followed the ascension of Christ follow Jesus’s example. The most
and the martyrdom of the Apostles, important consideration for them
is, “What would Jesus do?”

After Joseph Smith’s death,
the movement divided into several
branches, with the majority following
Brigham Young (1801–1877), who set

Joseph Smith, Jr. The son of tenant farmers, Joseph by ancient inhabitants of
Smith, Jr. was born in 1805 in America. With divine guidance,
Vermont, but in 1820 moved with Smith supposedly located and
his family to western New York, a translated the scriptures, the
center of the Protestant revival Book of Mormon, and published
movement known as the Second it in 1830, the year that he also
Great Awakening. Confused as founded his Church.
to which of the numerous
denominations he should follow, Persecuted for his heretical
he prayed for guidance and had a beliefs, he moved around
vision in which God the Father frequently, establishing Latter-
and Jesus appeared to tell him all day Saint communities in Ohio
the Churches had “turned aside and Missouri before finally
from the gospel.” He later said he settling in Nauvoo, Illinois. He
had been visited by the angel was arrested for inciting a riot
Moroni, who told him of scriptures in Carthage, Illinois, in 1844,
inscribed on golden plates, written but was killed by an angry mob
before he could stand trial.

308

WE SHALL KNOW
HIM THROUGH
HIS MESSENGERS

THE REVELATION OF BAHA’I

IN CONTEXT Different religions have been established
in various places and at various times in history.
KEY FIGURE
Baha’u’llah (Mirza Husayn- These religions were founded by divine messengers
‘Ali Nuri) such as Moses, Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad.

WHEN AND WHERE Each of these divine …and prophesied
From 1863, Persia messengers revealed God messengers yet to come.

BEFORE in a way that suited the
7th century Muhammad is time and place…
hailed as God’s final prophet,
bearing the message of Islam. …but will be followed by Baha’u’llah is the
After his death, leadership other divine messengers most recent of these
disputes cause a split between messengers, revealing
Shi‘a and Sunni Muslims. in a continuing and religious truth for
progressive revelation. modern society…
1501 Shah Ismail I establishes
the Safavid dynasty, ruling We shall know him
over a united Persia whose through his messengers.
state religion is Shi‘a Islam.

1844 Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad
Shirazi claims he is the Mahdi,
the redeemer predicted in
Shi‘a Islam. He adopts the title
Bab (Gate), and founds a new
religion to succeed Islam.

AFTER
1921 In Lahore (modern
Pakistan), Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad claims to bring a new
message from God for Islam.

MODERN RELIGIONS 309

See also: The promise of a new age 178–81 ■ The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam
270–71 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316 ■ A faith open to all beliefs 321

I n Shi‘a Islam, most followers messengers including Moses, All peoples and
believe that the Mahdi, the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad. nations are of one
descendant of Muhammad Throughout history, he explained, family, the children of
who will come to restore the religion religions have been established by one Father, and should
of God, is Muhammad al-Mahdi, these messengers, with each one in be to one another as
the Twelfth Imam, who lived on turn bringing the religious truth brothers and sisters
earth until 941. His return to bring in a manner that was well-suited
peace and justice to the world is a to the time and place. Each Baha’u’llah
cornerstone of the branch of Shi‘a messenger has also prophesied the
known as the Twelvers (p.271). This coming of another messenger, in a peace, unity, and justice. Central
belief was especially prevalent in progressive revelation, a continual to his message was the concept
19th-century Persia, where Shi‘a unfolding of the message of God. of unity of religion, acceptance of
Islam had for centuries been the the validity of all the world’s major
state religion. It was here, in 1844, The nature of the message religions, and respect for their
that Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad Shirazi In his writings, Baha’u’llah explains prophets as messengers of God.
(1819–50) declared that he was that God has two reasons for With this teaching he hoped to
the Bab (Gate), and had come sending these prophets to the avoid what had before now become
to establish a faith in readiness world: “The first is to liberate the a source of religious conflict, while
for the coming of “He whom God children of men from the darkness promoting the unity of humankind
shall make manifest.” of ignorance, and guide them to and rejecting inequality, prejudice,
the light of true understanding. and oppression. ■
The Islamic authorities The second is to ensure the peace
persecuted his followers, known and tranquillity of mankind, and
as Babis, for their beliefs. Among provide all the means by which
them was Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri, they can be established.”
who came to believe he was the one
whose coming had been predicted Baha’u’llah’s own mission,
by the Bab. He adopted the title as the messenger prophesied by
Baha’u’llah (Glory of God) in 1863, previous prophets, was to bring a
proclaiming that he was a messenger message that was relevant to the
of God, the latest in a line of such modern world, one of worldwide

Baha’u’llah The founder of the Baha’i faith Most of the Babis believed his
was born Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri claims, and, as his followers,
in Tehran, Persia, in 1817, but is became known as Baha’is. In
better known by his adopted title 1868, Baha’u’llah again fell foul
of Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”). He of the Ottoman authorities,
was brought up as a Muslim, but and was sent to a penal colony
became one of the first followers in ‘Akka, in Palestine. He was
of the Bab, Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad gradually permitted greater
Shirazi. In the 1850s, he came to freedom, but nevertheless
believe that he was the fulfillment remained a prisoner in ‘Akka
of the Bab's prophecies. He was until his death in 1892.
imprisoned for his heretical
beliefs, then banished to Baghdad Followers of the Baha’i
and later to Constantinople faith consider it more respectful
(modern Istanbul), where, in 1863, to depict Baha’u’llah not with
he declared himself as Baha’u’llah, an image, but with a stylized
God’s latest messenger on earth. version of his name in Arabic
calligraphy, as shown left.

310

BRUSH AWAY THE
DUST OF SIN

TENRIKYO AND THE JOYOUS LIFE

IN CONTEXT T enrikyo is one of the Throughout the world,
so-called Japanese New God is the broom
KEY FIGURE Religions that appeared for the sweeping of
Nakayama Miki in the 19th century and were
regarded as sects of Shinto. the innermost heart.
WHEN AND WHERE Tenrikyo was founded by a peasant The Ofudesaki
From 1838, Japan woman, Nakayama Miki, following
revelations to her from Tenri-O-no- in order to follow the joyous life
BEFORE Mikoto, God the Parent, during successfully: oshii (miserliness),
6th century Buddhism a Buddhist exorcism ritual in 1838. huoshii (covetousness), nikui
spreads to Japan, bringing She recorded the substance of these (hatred), kawai (self-love), urami
with it ideas of reincarnation revelations in the Ofudesaki (“Tip (grudge-bearing), haradachi
derived from Hinduism. of the Writing Brush”), Tenrikyo’s (anger), yoku (greed), and koman
sacred text, and became known (arrogance). Hinokishin is also
8th century In response to to her followers as Oyasama (“the practiced to give thanks to Tenri-
increasing Buddhist influence, Parent”) or the Shrine of God. O-no-Mikoto for allowing believers
traditional Japanese beliefs in to borrow their bodies in a cycle of
gods and spirits are codified Tenrikyo followers believe in a reincarnation based on the notion
in the Kojiki and the Nihon single, benevolent God, who wishes of kashimono-karimono (“a thing
Shoki, the first texts of Shinto. humans to find happiness in their lent, a thing borrowed”). ■
lives on earth. A major part of
AFTER Tenrikyo practice is to follow the
Late 19th century Tenrikyo Joyous Life, avoiding what are seen
believers attach themselves as negative tendencies. What other
to a Buddhist sect to avoid religions consider as sins, Tenrikyo
persecution, but Tenrikyo is describes as mental dust that
forcibly incorporated into the needs to be swept away by
official state religion of Shinto. hinokishin—the performing
of acts of kindness and charity.
1945 After World War II, State Believers identify eight mental
Shinto is disestablished and dusts that need to be swept away
Tenrikyo is classified as a
separate religion. See also: Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 ■ Escape from the eternal
cycle 136–43 ■ Let kindness and compassion rule 146–47

MODERN RELIGIONS 311

THESE GIFTS
MUST BE
MEANT FOR US

CARGO CULTS OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

IN CONTEXT Western trade and They developed the idea of a golden
colonialism during the age to come, when—by propitiating
KEY BELIEVERS 19th century brought their ancestors and deities with
Pacific islanders modern goods in abundance to the religious rites—the cargo would be
islands of the Pacific and, despite restored to them, and the Westerners
WHEN AND WHERE the work of Christian missionaries, would be driven out of their lands.
Late 19th century, Pacific this had an unexpected impact on
indigenous belief systems. Islanders These cults sprang up in parts
BEFORE came to believe that this material of Melanesia and New Guinea,
Precolonial times Tribes wealth, the cargo of the Western and proliferated in the 1930s as air
in Melanesia, Micronesia, and traders, was of supernatural origin, transport increased. Their spread
New Guinea hold a variety and had been sent to them as a accelerated during World War II,
of beliefs involving ancestral gift from their ancestral spirits, but when the islands were used as
spirits as well as deities. had been seized by the white men. bases by American and Japanese
forces, bringing in large quantities
1790s The first Christian Followers of the John Frum cult of equipment and supplies. The
missionaries arrive in the figure “drill” with model weapons to cult figure John Frum, revered
Pacific islands. attract well-stocked military vessels. on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu,
Some say the name “John Frum” was is often depicted as an American
AFTER originally “John From” America. serviceman. As well as developing
1945 The term cargo cult special religious ceremonies that
is coined in the colonial news frequently mimicked military drills,
magazine Pacific Islands with flags and uniforms, cult
Monthly, and is popularized followers built wharves, landing
by anthropologist Lucy Mair. strips, and sometimes even life-
size models of aircraft to attract
1950s Some Tanna islanders the bringers of goods.
in Vanuatu start to worship
Prince Philip, husband of Cargo cults persist in some
Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, remote areas of the Pacific, but
believing him to be John have been largely superseded as
Frum’s brother, who “married Western influence has spread. ■
a powerful lady overseas.”
See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Social holiness and evangelicalism
239 ■ The African roots of Santeria 304–305

312

THE END OF THE
WORLD IS NIGH

AWAITING THE DAY OF JUDGMENT

IN CONTEXT T he Jehovah’s Witnesses complete destruction in the battle
emerged from the Bible at Armageddon with Satan, when
KEY FIGURE Student movement in only true Christians—Jehovah’s
Joseph Franklin the United States in the 1870s. Witnesses—will be spared.
Rutherford They see their faith as a return to
the original concepts of 1st-century According to the movement,
WHEN AND WHERE Christianity, and refer to this early the present world era is nearing its
From 1931, US and interpretation of the Bible as “the end, having entered its “last days”
Western Europe Truth.” The group believes that in October 1914. This was first
all other religions, and all forms thought to be the beginning of the
BEFORE of present-day government, are battle at Armageddon, but is now
1st century CE Jesus controlled by Satan, and face accepted as the time when God,
announces the arrival of known as Jehovah, entrusted the
God’s Kingdom; in the
Book of Revelation, St. John In 1914, Jesus Christ …where he has corrupted
describes the apocalypse began his rule of God’s the world and fights
that will precede God’s heaven and expelled the true believers,
final judgment.
Satan to earth… Jehovah’s Witnesses.
19th century According
to the Plymouth Brethren’s The world is now in its last God will establish his
Dispensationalist view of Bible days before the battle kingdom on earth after
teachings, all who accept at Armageddon.
Jesus will be swept up into destroying the world
heaven by a “rapture” that will ruled by Satan.
precede global tribulation.
The end of the world
1881 Charles Taze Russell is nigh.
founds what is originally called
the Zion’s Watch Tower Tract
Society; his Bible Student
movement predicts Christ’s
advent on earth.

MODERN RELIGIONS 313

See also: The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ The end of the world as we know it 86–87 ■ Jesus’s message to the
world 204–207 ■ A divine trinity 212–19 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279

Judgment Day is near, according to released into the world. Only Joseph Franklin
Jehovah’s Witnesses, who believe that true believers, a select 144,000 Rutherford
those not of their faith can soon expect Jehovah’s Witnesses, will remain
a reckoning, as depicted here in John when Jesus passes the rule of the Born in rural Missouri in
Martin’s The Great Day of His Wrath. Kingdom back to God. 1869, Joseph Rutherford
came from a poor farming
rule of the Kingdom of Heaven to Because of their dismissal of family and was raised as
Jesus Christ, who then expelled other faiths (even other Christian a Baptist, but became
Satan to earth. During this final denominations) as corrupted by disillusioned with religion
phase, Jesus, aided by a “faithful Satan, Jehovah’s Witnesses have after he left home. He studied
and discreet slave” in the Governing been rejected by most other law and had a successful legal
Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses, will religions. Public opinion has been career in Missouri and New
maintain his invisible rule over adversely affected by their insistent York. His interest in religion
earth. For Jehovah’s Witnesses there door-to-door evangelizing and the was renewed in the 1890s
is no literal second coming; rather, selling of their publications The by the work of Charles Taze
Jesus will at some unknown point Watchtower and Awake!—which Russell, founder of the Bible
begin the battle against Satan, after nevertheless command high Student movement, and he
which God will extend the Kingdom circulation figures worldwide. became actively involved
of Heaven, creating an earthly But their rejection of “corrupt” with the Watch Tower Society,
paradise under Christ’s Millennial government has had surprising becoming its second president
Reign. They believe Christ to be results. Many Jehovah’s Witnesses in 1917, after Russell’s death.
God’s representative ruler and not who would not fight for the Nazis Dramatic changes were made
part of a Trinity. Similarly, the Holy ended up in concentration camps. to the organization under his
Spirit is not part of the deity, but Elsewhere, their refusal to engage leadership, and the doctrines
manifests in forces such as gravity. in the wars of secular governments of present-day Jehovah’s
helped to bring about changes to Witnesses were established.
During the thousand-year reign the laws of conscientious objection, He remained president of
of Christ on earth—a prolonged and their refusal to compromise the Society, increasing its
judgment day—the dead will be their beliefs has led to many court membership by introducing
resurrected and judged by Jesus, cases and influenced civil rights door-to-door evangelizing,
facing a final test when Satan is legislation in several countries. ■ among other things, until his
death from cancer in 1942.

The Lord declares he has
entrusted his people with
the privilege and obligation

of telling his message.
The Watchtower

314

THE LION OF
JUDAH HAS
ARISEN

RAS TAFARI IS OUR SAVIOR

IN CONTEXT The black peoples of Africa U nlike the Creole religions
have been exploited for that developed among
KEY FIGURE centuries by “Babylon,” the black slaves in
Haile Selassie the Caribbean (pp.304–305),
the white men… Rastafari has little to do with
WHEN AND WHERE traditional African religions.
From 1930s, Jamaica …but it was prophesied that Instead, the movement is largely
a savior from the family of based on the Christian Bible.
BEFORE Judah would come to “Zion” It nevertheless emphasizes its
18th–19th century Creole, binding links to Africa.
or syncretic, religions arise (Africa) to free them
among slave communities, from oppression. Rastafari (followers dislike the
fusing African beliefs with the term Rastafarianism, and indeed
Christian faith that slaves are The savior appeared in all “isms”) is as much a political
forced to adopt by their masters. the form of Ras Tafari, or social movement as a religious
God’s chosen king on earth… faith. It emerged during a period
1920s Written in Anguilla, the of increasing awareness of the
Holy Piby identifies Ethiopians …who became Emperor “African-ness” of the black
as God’s chosen people, and Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, population of the New World.
Marcus Garvey as a prophet; the Holy Land for Rastafarians. Pan-Africanism—the movement to
it becomes an influential unite and inspire people of African
Rastafari text. The Lion of Judah descent—was also on the rise. This
has arisen. movement had begun in the 19th
AFTER century, but gained momentum in
Mid-20th century In the US, the 1920s and 1930s, particularly
the Nation of Islam movement through the work of the political
proclaims W. Fard Muhammad activist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940).
to be the messiah predicted He was especially influential in his
by both Judaism and Islam. native Jamaica, which at that time
While fighting for African– was still under British rule.
American and black Muslim
rights, the movement becomes Garvey’s denunciation of
heavily politicized. oppression and exploitation
chimed with many Jamaicans,
especially as large numbers lived
in poverty. The vast majority of

MODERN RELIGIONS 315

See also: Jesus’s message to the world 204–207 ■ Social holiness and evangelicalism 239 ■ The African roots
of Santeria 304–305 ■ The Nation of Islam 339

Jamaicans were descended from The Rastafari flag with its imperial believe Haile Selassie to be
African slaves, and had been forced lion is waved behind Damian “Jr. Gong” the second coming of Jesus, an
to adopt the British slave-owners’ Marley, son of reggae legend Bob Marley. incarnation of their God, Jah, but
mainly Protestant Christianity, some see him as simply God’s
while their own African-based the Christian scriptures, rather earthly representative and ruler.
religious beliefs and traditions than a synthesis of African and
had been largely quashed. What Christian beliefs. Rastafari spread in the post-
evolved was therefore a uniquely World War II years as Caribbean
black Jamaican interpretation of A savior in Zion migrants left to seek work in Britain
Inspired by black nationalism and and America. Jamaican culture and
Pan-Africanism, some Jamaicans music, especially reggae, became
claimed that much of the Bible had very popular in those countries in
been changed by white men as part the 1960s and 1970s, and Rastafari
of their ongoing oppression of Africa gained a considerable following
and Africans. They interpreted the in its wake. ■
Old Testament’s Zion as Africa,
and believed that a savior would Many discouraging hours
come to rescue African peoples will arise before the rainbow
from oppression by “Babylon”—the of accomplished goals will
corrupt Europeans. The savior was
prophesied to come to Zion from the appear on the horizon.
family of Judah. When Ras Tafari Haile Selassie
came to the throne of Ethiopia with
the dynastic title “His Imperial
Majesty Haile Selassie I, Conquering
Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of
God and King of the Kings of
Ethiopia,” the prophesy was seen as
fulfilled, and the Rastafari movement
was born. Most Rastafarians

Haile Selassie Born Tafari Makonnen, inheriting Ethiopia, returning in 1941 after
the title “Ras” (analagous to the British liberation. Although
Duke) as the son of Ethiopian respected around the world, he
nobility, Haile Selassie became became increasingly unpopular
Regent of Ethiopia in 1916. He in his home country, and in 1974
replaced the heir to the throne, was deposed and imprisoned by
Iyasu, whose links with Islam and members of the armed forces
general misconduct precluded his calling themselves the Derg
becoming head of state. On the (Committee). Many members of
death of the Empress Zewditu in his family and government were
1930, Tafari, a devout member of imprisoned or executed, and,
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, in August of the following
was crowned Emperor, and took year, it was announced that
the regnal name of Haile Selassie, the ex-Emperor had died of
“Might of the Trinity.” He spent respiratory failure, although
some years in exile in England there was some controversy
following Mussolini’s invasion of around the causes of his death.

316

ALL RELIGIONS
ARE EQUAL

CAO ÐÀI AIMS TO UNIFY ALL FAITHS

IN CONTEXT I n 1920, a Vietnamese civil Sun Yat-sen. In unifying the world’s
servant, Ngô Van Chiêu, stated faiths and removing the religious
KEY FIGURE that during a seance he was differences that lead to aggression,
Ngô Van Chiêu contacted by the Supreme Being, Cao Ðài hopes to achieve world
who informed him that the time peace. Despite this ambition,
WHEN AND WHERE had come to unite all the world’s the movement became associated
From 1926, Vietnam religions into one. Referring to in the mid-20th century with the
himself as Cao Ðài (Supreme Palace Vietnamese nationalist movement,
BEFORE or Altar), God explained that in the and was involved in political
6th century BCE In China, past, his message had been and military resistance to French
Confucius teaches a philosophy revealed through prophets colonialism and, later, Communism. ■
of morality, respect, sincerity, in two periods of revelation and
and justice. salvation, which had given rise Because of the very
to all the world’s major religions. multiplicity of religions,
3rd century BCE Buddhism, He had now chosen, in a third humanity does not always
founded in India by Siddhartha period, to reveal his truth via live in harmony. That is
Gautama, spreads to China. seance ceremonies. Ngô Van why I decided to unite
Chiêu, along with others who
1st century CE Jesus, revered had received similar revelations, all…into one.
as a saint in Cao Ðài, promises founded the Ðài Ðao Tam Ky Pho God’s message to
to return to earth to complete Ðo (“Religion of the Third Great
God’s purpose for humankind. Period of Revelation and Salvation”), Ngô van Chiêu
commonly known as Cao Ðài.
6th century Muhammad
receives the Qur’an, and says Combining elements of several
it is a renewal of the message religions, especially Buddhist and
given to Moses and Jesus. Confucian philosophy, Cao Ðài
reveres the prophets of all the
AFTER major world faiths, along with more
1975 The Communist regime surprising figures such as Joan of
in Vietnam proscribes Cao Ðài. Arc, Shakespeare, Victor Hugo, and

1997 Cao Ðài is granted See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Jesus’s message to the world 204–207
formal recognition by the ■ The origins of Ahmadiyya 284–85 ■ The revelation of Baha’i 308–309
Vietnamese authorities.

MODERN RELIGIONS 317

WE HAVE FORGOTTEN
OUR TRUE NATURE

CLEARING THE MIND WITH SCIENTOLOGY

IN CONTEXT S cientology as a religious Scientology headquarters in Berlin,
philosophy evolved from the Germany, displays the eight-pointed
KEY FIGURE work done by science-fiction cross, representing the eight dynamics
L. Ron Hubbard author L. Ron Hubbard in the 1930s of existence that are defined in the
and 1940s on Dianetics. This was a movement’s theology.
WHEN AND WHERE self-help system based on elements
From 1952, US of psychotherapy with an emphasis Operating Thetan, and rediscover
on dealing with past traumatic their original potential. Hubbard
BEFORE experiences to achieve spiritual was keen to secure celebrity
1950 L. Ron Hubbard sets up rehabilitation. This process of endorsement for Scientology, and
the Hubbard Dianetic Research counseling, known as auditing, this, along with the high cost of
Foundation and publishes an is at the heart of Scientology. one-to-one auditing sessions and
article on Dianetics in the sci-fi study materials, led to accusations
magazine Astounding Science Followers of Scientology believe that it was a moneymaking cult.
Fiction, followed by his book that man’s true spiritual nature After protracted court cases in the
Dianetics: The Modern Science is embodied in an eternal spirit US and elsewhere, Scientology now
of Mental Health. known as the Thetan, which has has tax-exempt status as a religion
been reborn continually in human in some parts of the world, but
AFTER form, and has consequently lost is still not recognized in
1982 A Religious Technology its true nature of spiritual purity. many countries. ■
Center is established to oversee By undergoing one-to-one auditing,
Scientology technology; some using an E-meter (an instrument
members see this as against for detecting electric current,
original Scientology principles designed by Hubbard), practitioners
and form a breakaway group, can free their unconscious minds
which they call the Free Zone. of images of trauma, known as
engrams, and return to the state
1993 Scientology is formally of Clear—their true spiritual
recognized as a religion identity. Progressing through
in the US. various levels of auditing, they
eventually reach the level of

See also: The ultimate reality 102–105 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43
■ Purging sin in the Unification Church 318

318

FIND A SINLESS
WORLD THROUGH
MARRIAGE

PURGING SIN IN THE UNIFICATION CHURCH

IN CONTEXT T he Holy Spirit Association Wedding Blessing ceremonies,
for the Unification of World often with hundreds of couples
KEY FIGURE Christianity, commonly participating, are not legal marriages,
Sun Myung Moon known as the Unification Church, but are believed to free the couple’s
or more pejoratively as the Moonies, offspring from original sin.
WHEN AND WHERE was founded by Sun Myung Moon
From 1954, South Korea in Seoul, South Korea, in 1954. Children born without sin
His family had converted from The path to complete redemption
BEFORE Confucianism to Christianity when for humankind, Moon maintained,
1st century St. Paul affirms he was ten years old, and, as would begin with his own marriage
that all humankind inherits a teenager, Moon had a vision of to Hak Ja Han in 1960, and be
sin from the Fall, and also that Jesus asking him to complete followed by the mass weddings
marriage is a sacred state. his mission of redemption. and rededications that became
characteristic of the Unification
From 2nd century The early To do this, Moon established the Church and are its core ceremonies.
Christian Fathers formulate Unification Church, which he saw Children of these marriages, in
the doctrine of original sin, but as a Christian denomination based which premarital and extramarital
dispute whether Adam or Eve on the Bible and on his own book sex are prohibited, would then be
was more responsible for it. the Divine Principle, but offering born without fallen natures,
a radically different interpretation thus heralding the advent of
4th century St. Jerome uses of the Christian story of the Fall that a sinless world. ■
the example of Jesus to argue led to original sin: Moon believed
that celibacy is the preferred that Eve’s spiritual relationship with
state for a truly holy life. Satan before her sexual one with
Adam led to all of her progeny being
7th century The notion that born with defective, sinful natures,
Mary, mother of Jesus, was and, crucially, that Jesus came
herself conceived free from to rectify this, but was crucified
original sin gains ground. before he had the opportunity to
marry—and therefore he only
16th century Martin Luther achieved a partial redemption.
reasserts that all humans are
born sinful, with the exception See also: The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Wisdom lies with the
of Mary, mother of Jesus. superior man 72–77 ■ Augustine and free will 220–21

MODERN RELIGIONS 319

SPIRITS REST
BETWEEN LIVES
IN SUMMERLAND

WICCA AND THE OTHERWORLD

IN CONTEXT P robably the best known of Although Wiccans believe in an
the 20th-century neopagan afterlife, they emphasize making
KEY FIGURE (new pagan) religions, the most of the present life in
Gerald Gardner Wicca originated in England, and nature-based rituals. These include
was popularized by a retired civil celebrations of the seasons, and
WHERE AND WHEN servant, Gerald Gardner, in rites of passage such as initiation,
From 1950s, UK the 1950s. Although he referred wiccaning (similar to baptism),
to the religion as witchcraft, and and marriage or sexual union.
BEFORE its adherents as the Wica, the
Pre-Christian era Celtic and version he founded and its various Because of some apparent
Norse mythologies include the subsequent branches or traditions resemblances to Satanism (the
idea of otherworlds such as are today known as Wicca. Horned God, for example), Wicca
Asgard, where the Norse has often been confused with black
heaven Valhalla is situated. Wiccan beliefs are centered on magic cults, and has, until recently,
the principles of masculine and suffered prejudice and persecution,
19th century Spiritualists feminine, as embodied in the especially in Christian countries. ■
and Theosophists coin the complementary Horned God and
name Summerland to describe Moon Goddess, and the existence I do not remember
an astral plane where virtuous of an otherworld known as my past lives clearly;
souls rest in bliss. Summerland where souls spend the
afterlife. Many branches of Wicca I only wish I did.
1920s Anthropologist also believe in reincarnation, and Gerald Gardner
Margaret Murray publishes see Summerland as a resting place
work on the Christian for souls between lives, where they
persecution of witches in can examine their previous life and
history, identifying witchcraft prepare for the next. These souls
as a pagan religion separate are sometimes contacted by
from black magic cults. Wiccans in magic ceremonies
similar to those of spiritualism,
AFTER involving mediums or ouija boards,
1970s In the US, feminist but this practice is not universal.
politics is incorporated into
Wicca by practitioners of See also: Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49
Dianic Witchcraft. ■ The power of the great goddess 100

320

NEGATIVE THOUGHTS
ARE JUST RAINDROPS
IN AN OCEAN OF BLISS

FINDING INNER PEACE THROUGH MEDITATION

IN CONTEXT I n 1958, Maharishi Mahesh
Yogi traveled to the West
KEY FIGURE to teach Transcendental
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Meditation (TM), with the original
intention of founding a Hindu
WHEN AND WHERE revival movement. His methods
From 1958, Europe evolved from Hindu mantra
meditation techniques, with
BEFORE the similar aim of transcending the
From 1700 BCE Meditation confines of physical consciousness
techniques are found in early to tap into a creative force.
Indian Vedic practices.
Cultivating inner peace Maharishi Mahesh Yogi founded
From 6th century BCE The practice of TM involves sitting TM as the Spiritual Regeneration
Meditation is practiced in meditation for 20 minutes, twice Movement. Today it is an organized
in Buddhism in India and a day, using a personal mantra. This international movement with its
Confucianism in China. is believed to result in improved headquarters in the Netherlands.
psychological and physical well-
19th century European being and increased potential for Bhagavad-Gita. Today, proponents
intellectuals discover Eastern creativity, allowing the individual to of TM offer it as a scientific method
philosophy and arouse general experience “communion with the for self-development that is open
interest in Buddhist and Hindu wellspring of life” and overcome to all. TM techniques have been
meditation and yoga. negative thoughts, which become adopted not only by individuals, but
merely “raindrops falling into the also by business institutions, and
AFTER ocean of your bliss.” even in some medical practices,
1967 The Beatles meet posing the question as to whether
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in At first, TM initiates were it should be considered as religion,
London and visit his ashram encouraged to give thanks to or simply a form of therapy based
in India for TM training. the Hindu deities for providing the on traditional Indian techniques. ■
knowledge behind the method
1976 TM promotes its and to study the Vedas and the
Siddhi program with
the claim that it enables See also: Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Zen insights that go beyond
practitioners to levitate. words 160–63 ■ Life-energy cultivation in Falun Dafa 323

MODERN RELIGIONS 321

WHAT’S TRUE
FOR ME IS
THE TRUTH

A FAITH OPEN TO ALL BELIEFS

IN CONTEXT T he Unitarian Universalist This notion of respect runs through
Association (UUA) was the UUA philosophy and its “Seven
KEY MOVEMENT formed in 1961 by the Principles”: the inherent worth and
Unitarian Universalism merger of two movements founded dignity of every person; justice,
in the 19th century: the Universalist equity, and compassion in human
WHEN AND WHERE Church of America and the relations; the acceptance of one
From 1961, US American Unitarian Association. another and encouragement to
and Canada Although it emerged from a largely spiritual growth; a free, responsible
Christian tradition, and some search for truth and meaning; the
BEFORE members have beliefs that are right of conscience, and the use
6th century BCE Confucius Christian in nature, the UUA aims of the democratic process within
asserts that virtue is not sent to be a “non-creedal, non-doctrinal congregations and in society at
from heaven, but can be religion which affirms the large; the goal of world community;
cultivated in the self. individual’s freedom of belief.” and respect for the interdependent
Members acknowledge the need for web of all existence. ■
1st century CE Angering the a spiritual and religious dimension
Jews, who consider themselves to life and believe individuals can The freedom of the
the chosen people, Jesus learn from all the world’s religions. mind is the beginning
asserts that God’s kingdom They place more emphasis on of all other freedoms.
is open to all who accept him. a humanist search for truth and Clinton Lee Scott
meaning in this life than on belief
16th century In Protestant in a supreme being and salvation in
Christianity, the authority of an afterlife. Some followers are in
Rome is replaced by spiritual fact agnostic or even atheist.
self-examination.
For the Unitarian Universalist,
19th century The Baha’i personal experience, conscience,
Faith emerges as one of and reason form the basis for
the first universalist new religious faith; the opinions and
religions, open to all. beliefs of all men and women
should therefore be respected.
20th century Cao Ðài is
founded on the principle See also: God-consciousness 122–23 ■ Why prayer works 246–47 ■ The
that all religions are equal. revelation of Bahá’i 308–309 ■ Cao Ðài aims to unify all faiths 316

322

CHANTING HARE
KRISHNA CLEANSES
THE HEART

DEVOTION TO THE SWEET LORD

IN CONTEXT T he Hare Krishna movement Chaitanya taught that by using this
or International Society for mantra anyone, even if born outside
KEY FIGURE Krishna Consciousness the Hindu class system, could
A.C. Bhaktivedanta (ISKCON) is best known for the achieve Krishna consciousness.
Swami Prabhupada practice of chanting the Maha In the 1960s, one of Chaitanya’s
Mantra. ISKCON has its roots in the followers, A.C. Bhaktivedanta
WHEN AND WHERE Gaudiya Vaishnava movement in Swami Prabhupada, traveled to
From 1960s, US and Hinduism, founded by Chaitanya the US and founded ISKCON.
western Europe Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), in which Its ideas dovetailed well with the
believers use devotional practices hippie culture and a new interest
BEFORE known as bhakti to please and to in Eastern spirituality, and spread
4th century BCE First develop a loving relationship with to Europe after being popularized
evidence of worship of Lord the god Krishna, believed to be the by celebrities such as the Beatles. ■
Krishna, a key figure in the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Hindu epics, appearing as
an avatar of the god Vishnu The Maha Mantra Lord Krishna provides
in the Mahabharata. The mantra is chanted as a means everything we need
of clearing the mind and cleansing to bring the spiritual
6th century The bhakti the heart. The repeated use of world into our lives.
tradition of devotional worship the holy name enables Krishna A.C. Bhaktivedanta
develops in Hinduism. consciousness to emerge from Swami Prabhupada
the soul, free of the distraction of
16th century The Gaudiya sensual or physical consciousness.
Vaishnava movement in India The chant “Hare Krishna, Hare
sees Krishna as the original Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare
form of God—the source of Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama,
Vishnu, and not his avatar. Rama Rama, Hare Hare” calls upon
the energy of God (Hare), the
1920 Srila Bhaktisiddhanta all-attractive (Krishna), and the
Sarasvati Thakura Prabhupada highest eternal pleasure (Rama).
founds the Gaudiya Math, an
organization to spread the See also: A rational world 92–99 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ Buddhas and
Gaudiya Vaishnava message bodhisattvas 152–57 ■ The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59
around the world.

MODERN RELIGIONS 323

THROUGH QIGONG
WE ACCESS
COSMIC ENERGY

LIFE-ENERGY CULTIVATION IN FALUN DAFA

IN CONTEXT T here was a revival of but also a way to put practitioners
interest in the meditative in touch with the energy of the
KEY FIGURE exercises known as qigong universe in order to elevate them
Li Hongzhi (literally “life-energy cultivation”) in to higher levels of existence.
China in the second half of the 20th
WHEN AND WHERE century, and while the Communist In his book Revolving the
From 1992, China authorities saw it as a way to Wheel of Law, Li describes five
improve public health, others found core exercises to cultivate the
BEFORE spiritual meaning in the practice. mind, body, and spirit. He explains
c.2000 BCE Various movement Among them was Li Hongzhi, who that the Falun (the law wheel) is
and breathing exercises are founded the Falun Dafa movement situated in the lower abdomen,
developed for meditation and (popularly known as Falun Gong) in and its rotation—in sympathy
healing in China, and are later the early 1990s. He advocated the with the revolving of the universe
collectively known as qigong. practice of Falun Gong (“Practice of —rids the practitioner of negative
the Wheel of Law”) as not only a influences, allowing access to
5th century BCE Qigong means of cultivating life-energy, cosmic energy. Complementing
exercises are incorporated these exercises is a philosophy
into the philosophies of Qigong exercises aim to rebuild or based on the virtues of zhen-shàn-
Daoism, Confucianism, rebalance qi, the essential life force or ren (truthfulness, benevolence, and
and Buddhism in China. energy, through controlled movement, forbearance), similar to traditional
breathing, and mental awareness. Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist
1950s The Chinese ideas, which governs the conduct
Communist government of Falun Dafa practitioners.
adopts qigong techniques
as part of a secular health- Viewed by some as a new
improvement program. religion, but by others as a practice
continuing in the Chinese tradition
AFTER of cultivation of the mind, body,
1990s Li Hongzhi moves to the and spirit, Falun Dafa has attracted
US; the Chinese Communist many followers in China, where
Party declares Falun Dafa a its religious overtones have,
heretical organization, while however, led to it being outlawed. ■
in the West, the practice of
qigong gains in popularity. See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Physical and mental discipline
112–13 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43

DIRECTO

RY

326

DIRECTORY

D espite the apparent prevalence of atheism in the West, the
number of people professing some kind of religious belief is
increasing worldwide. Christianity and Islam, both proselytizing
religions, are now espoused by more than half of the world’s total
population. Other faiths, such as Hinduism, have also continued to attract
followers into the 21st century. Religions spread for all kinds of reasons,
such as the missionary activities of their adherents, population increases,
and the need to fill “belief vacuums” that occur when primal or other local
religions go into decline. So, while many people in Africa have left behind
traditional beliefs to embrace new Christian churches, in Europe
dissatisfaction with Christianity and interest in ideas from the East has
led to a modest growth in Buddhism and other Eastern religions.

MAJOR WORLD FAITHS

NAME FOUNDED FOUNDER GOD ADHERENTS

Baha’i Faith Tehran, Persia, Baha’u’llah One God, revealed through 5–7 million
Buddhism 1863 various religions

Northeastern Siddhartha Theravada is nontheistic; 376 million
India, c.520 BCE Gautama, Mahayana involves devotion to
or Buddha the Buddha and bodhisattvas

Cao Ðài Vietnam, Ngô Van Chiêu One God, and reverence for founders 8 million
1926 of other faiths (including Buddhism,
Daoism, and Christianity)

Christianity Judea, Jesus Christ One God, in the form of the Holy 2,000 million
c.30 CE
Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit

Church of Massachusetts, Mary Baker One God, no Holy Trinity 400,000
Eddy
Christ (Scientist) 1879

Church of Jesus New York, Joseph Smith, Three separate beings: God the 13 million
Christ of Latter- 1830 Jr. Father; Jesus Christ the Son;
day Saints and the Holy Spirit
(Mormons)

Confucianism China, 6th–5th Confucius None, although Confucius believed 5–6 million
centuries BCE in the Great Ultimate, or dao

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NAME FOUNDED FOUNDER GOD ADHERENTS

Church of California, L. Ron Hubbard None Not known
Scientology 1954 20 million
Daoism Laozi Dao pervades everything 10 million
Falun Dafa China, c.550 BCE 900 million
Hinduism Li Hongzhi Many gods and spiritual beings 1,500 million
China, 1992 4 million
Islam Indigenous Many deities, all manifestations 7 million
India, of one supreme reality 15 million
Jainism prehistoric 1 million
Muhammad, the One God, Allah 3–4 million
Saudi Arabia, final Prophet 3–4 million
7th century CE 23 million
Mahavira No gods, but devotion to some 1 million
India, c.550 BCE divine beings 3 million
(official figure)
Jehovah’s US, 1872 Charles Taze One God 1–3 million
Witnesses Russell
200,000
Judaism Israel, Abraham, One God, YHWH
2000 BCE Moses

Rastafari Jamaica, 1930s Haile Selassie I One, Jah, incarnate in Jesus
movement and Haile Selassie

Santeria Cuba, early None; a More than 400 deities
19th century syncretic faith

Shinto Japan, Indigenous Many gods and spirits,
prehistoric known as kami

Sikhism Punjab, India, Guru Nanak One God
1500 CE

Tenrikyo Japan, 1838 Nakayama Miki God the parent

Unification South Korea, Sun Myung God, the heavenly parent of
Church 1954 Moon all humanity

Wicca Britain, 1950s, Gerald Gardner Usually two: the Triple Goddess
based on and the Horned God
ancient beliefs

Zoroastrianism Persia, 6th Zoroaster One God (Ahura Mazda),
century BCE but dualism embraced

328

BRANCHES OF HINDUISM

T he Hindu faith is thought to have originated in the Indus Valley
(Pakistan and northwest India) more than 3,000 years ago. Today,
it has almost a billion followers, most of them in India. Hindus all
worship a supreme being, though the identity of this deity differs according
to sect. There are four principal denominations: Vaishnavites, for whom
Vishnu is god; Shaivites, who are devoted to Shiva; Shaktis, who worship
the goddess Shakti; and Smartas, who can choose their deity. These and
other branches of Hinduism share many beliefs; the Vedas (pp.94–99) are
their most sacred texts, and central to Hindu belief is the idea that a person’s
deeds affect their future in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

VAISHNAVISM by a higher divinity. Shaivites Shakti; those who worship her are
(worshippers of Shiva) believe known as Shaktis (p.104). Although
c.600 BCE, India that Shiva embodies this coming the roots of goddess worship in
together of opposites like no other India extend to the earliest Indus
The largest devotional sect within deity. He embraces many dualities, Valley civilizations, Shaktism is
Hinduism, Vaishnavites focus such as life and death, time and thought to have arisen as an
on the worship of Vishnu as the eternity, and destruction and organized movement in the 5th
one supreme god. He is seen as creation, and takes a multiplicity century CE. The goddess of Shakti
the preserver of the universe, a of forms. In one popular depiction devotion has many names and can
figure unparalleled in his divine he appears as Nataraja, Lord of take many forms (fearsome,
benevolence. Vishnu is said to give the Dance. After destroying the wrathful, benign, and homely), but
life to the creator, Brahma, who sits universe, he dances its re-creation, all point to her as a manifestation of
in a lotus blossom at Vishnu’s navel, carrying both fire (symbolizing divine power and energy. The sacred
and to sustain and protect all that destruction) and a drum (the first texts of the faith are the Vedas, the
Brahma creates. As well as inspiring sound to be made at the beginning Shakta Agamas, and the Puranas.
devotion in his own right, he is also of creation). Shaivism encompasses Some devotees hope to come closer
worshipped in the form of his avatars, many subsets, and is widespread in to the goddess by using yoga, puja,
Rama and Krishna. Followers, or India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka today, and tantra (pp.112–15).
Vaishnavas, emphasize devotion and its influence is felt as far as
over doctrine. Their final goal is Indonesia and Malaysia. THE DARSHANAS
freedom from the cycle of birth
and death, and spiritual existence SHAKTISM 2nd–13th centuries CE, India
in the presence of Vishnu.
5th century CE, India While the followers of theistic sects,
SHAIVISM such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism,
Shaktism is one of the main and Shaktism, worship deities,
c.600 BCE, India devotional branches of Hinduism. Hinduism also encompasses six
According to Hindu belief, Shakti schools, or darshanas, which focus
One of the four major denominations, is the divine power that creates on philosophy rather than gods.
of Hinduism, Shaivism holds that and sustains creation; the great These schools emphasize the
Shiva is the supreme god. At the goddess (known as Devi or ultimate reality or Brahman, the
heart of Hinduism is the belief Mahadevi) embodies Shakti and great self who must be realized to
that dualities can be reconciled is often referred to by the name attain liberation from reincarnation.

DIRECTORY 329

The darshanas follow sacred texts They reject the authority of the ARYA SAMAJ
written in early Indian history, and Brahmin caste and of the sacred
each branch relates to a different texts, the Vedas, promoting 1875, India
sphere. The six darshanas are a message of social equality and
Samkhya (cosmology), Yoga (human reform. The movement retains a Arya Samaj is a modern religious
nature), Vaisheshika (scientific laws), large following in southern India. and social reform movement
Nyaya (logic), Mimamsa (ritual), founded by Swami Dayananda,
Vedanta (metaphysics and destiny). SWAMINARAYAN a religious leader who sought to
SAMPRADAY reaffirm the supreme authority of
SMARTISM the ancient Hindu texts, the Vedas
Early 19th century, western India (pp.94–99). He built a number of
9th century, India schools throughout India in the late
Swaminarayan Sampraday was 19th century designed to promote
One of the four major sects of founded by the religious reformer Vedic culture. Similar projects
Hinduism, Smarta derives its name Swami Narayan at the beginning continue today, including the
from the Sanskrit word smriti, which of the 19th century, largely as a establishment of colleges and
refers to a group of sacred Hindu response to alleged corruption orphanages, and activities that
texts. This orthodox Hindu sect among other Hindu sects. Rituals, focus on social reform and the
draws from Advaita Vedanta laws, observances, and prayers alleviation of injustice and
philosophy, which propounds the are based on Hindu tradition and hardship. The sect is opposed to
unity of the the self and Brahman, the teachings of the movement’s the caste system, but has been
and the teachings of the monk- founder. By following these moral criticized for intolerance of other
philosopher Adi Shankara, who and spiritual codes in everyday faiths. Arya Samaj upholds the
is thought to have founded the life, the aim is to become an ideal doctrines of karma and samsara
movement in India in the 9th satsangis (adherent) and thereafter and the centrality of rituals
century. Followers uphold the rules attain ultimate redemption. The connected with major events
of conduct outlined in the ancient movement has several million in life. The movement is popular
texts, known as the sutras, and followers throughout the world. in northern and western India.
worship the supreme god in any
form (Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, BRAHMOISM SATYAT SAI BABA
Ganesha, or Virya); for this reason, SOCIETY
they are considered liberal and 1828, Calcutta, India
nonsectarian. 1950, India
Brahmoism is a Hindu reform
LINGAYATISM movement that can be traced to Sathyanarayana Rajuin (born 1926) is
the Brahmo Samaj (Divine Society), thought to have performed numerous
12th century, southern India founded by Ram Mohan Roy in miracles. At age 14 he was stung by
Calcutta in 1828, which aimed a scorpion and went into a trance.
Followers of the Lingayat sect take to reinterpret Hinduism for the On waking he claimed to be a
their name from the linga, emblem modern age. Brahmoism differs reincarnation of the guru Shirdi Sai
of the god Shiva, which devotees from orthodox Hinduism in its Baba, and was henceforth known as
wear around their necks. The adherence to one universal and Satya Sai Baba. His fame spread in
movement is thought to have been infinite deity. It rejects the authority the 1950s due to his miracles; he
established in southern India in of the Vedas (pp.94–99) and, attracted several million devotees
the 12th century by the teacher in some cases, belief in avatars who are guided by four principles:
and religious reformer, Basava. (incarnations of deities) and karma truth, satya; duty, dharma; peace,
Lingayats are distinctive for their (effects of past deeds). One of shanti; and divine love, prema.
worship of Shiva as the sole deity; its key features is social reform. Unlike many Hindus, he did not
in their monotheistic belief, Shiva Brahmoism has a following in attach a specific dharma to each
and the self are one and the same. Bengal, India, and in Bangladesh. social class—all are said to be equal.

330

BRANCHES OF BUDDHISM

Now followed in many parts of the world, Buddhism originated
in northern India over 2,500 years ago with the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism arose within Hinduism, which, at
the time, was producing some of its most deeply philosophical and abstract
texts, and Buddhism is dominated by ideas, not deities and doctrines. It has
one aim—to guide each person on to the path that leads to enlightenment,
or spiritual liberation from the worldly self. Buddha himself taught that any
means by which this aim could be achieved was valid, and as Buddhism
spread geographically, it also diversified to suit local traditions of worship.
It now takes several forms, from the ascetic to the highly ritualized.

THERAVADA BUDDHISM auxiliary role in helping to sustain their compassion, six perfections:
the monks in their pursuit of an generosity, morality, patience, vigor,
6th century BCE, Northern India ascetic way of life; for example, meditation, and wisdom.
supplying them with food in return
Theravada Buddhism is, with for blessings and teachings. PURE LAND BUDDHISM
Mahayana Buddhism, one of the
two main forms of Buddhism. MAHAYANA BUDDHISM 7th century CE, China
The oldest surviving branch
of Buddhism, it is generally 3rd–2nd century BCE, Arising in China out of the
considered the form closest to the Northwestern India Mahayana tradition, Pure Land
dhamma—the original teachings Buddhism now consists of several
of Buddha. It is practiced today Mahayana Buddhism, which, with sects based in China and Japan.
in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Theravada Buddhism, is one of the All are centered on devotion to
Burma. Central to Theravada is the two main forms of Buddhism, spread Amitabha, the Buddha of Infinite
concept of the sangha or monastic eastward from India and is today Light, said to rule a paradise
community. Theravada monks practiced in large areas of Asia, known as the Pure Land. By means
(and sometimes nuns, although including China and Korea. Unlike of various spiritual techniques
they have a lesser status) have Theravada Buddhists, who believe focused on Amitabha, the faithful
few possessions and live in basic that total enlightenment represents may avoid the cycle of death and
accommodation. They follow a departure from this existence, rebirth, go to dwell with him in the
the Eightfold Path and the Five adherents of Mahayana Buddhism Pure Land, and thereafter achieve
Precepts (pp.136–43), travel believe that Buddha has remained enlightenment. The main Pure Land
around villages, and teach the eternally present in this world, text is the 1st-century Lotus Sutra,
dhamma and the scriptures of the guiding others to enlightenment. In which states that devotion to
Pali Canon. Their most important this tradition, there is no purpose to Amitabha is the one true way.
activity is meditation, which enlightenment unless it is used to
they practice to empty their assist other people on their spiritual TIBETAN BUDDHISM
minds of the self and move closer path. Mahayana Buddhists believe
to nirvana (perfect enlightenment). other people may become buddhas, 7th century, Tibet
Although a full-time monastic and revere those who have come
existence is the ideal, there is also close to nirvana as bodhisattvas Buddhism was introduced to Tibet
a place in Theravada Buddhism for (wisdom or enlightenment beings), by Indian missionaries in around
lay people. They play an important and who possess, in addition to the 7th century CE. Although

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derived from the Mahayana ZEN BUDDHISM SOKA GAKKAI
tradition (see opposite), Tibetan
Buddhism evolved quite differently 12th century, Japan 1937, Japan
from Buddhism in other countries.
It has its own orders of monks The Chinese version of Buddhism In 1937, two Japanese reformers,
and its own religious practices, (Ch’an) took root in Japan in the Tsunesaburo Makiguchi and Josei
including devotion to a guru and 6th century, where it became known Toda, founded an education
the use of mandalas, or symbolic as Zen. The religion has also had society inspired by the teachings
diagrams, as meditation aids. a significant impact in countries of the Japanese Buddhist monk
influenced by Chinese culture, such Nichiren. Following Makiguchi’s
One of Tibetan Buddhism’s as Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan. death in 1944, Toda refounded the
most distinctive features is its Zen Buddhism emphasizes devotion organization as a religious sect,
nomination of lamas. These to meditation, the attainment naming it Soka Gakkai. Like
spiritual teachers are the most of enlightenment, the value of Nichiren Buddhism, it places
revered of all the monks, and experience over scripture, and strong emphasis on the Lotus
several are believed to have been the belief that human beings are Sutra, and on the ritual chanting
spiritual leaders in a previous life. identical with the cosmos and share of the words of its title. The
Succession is by reincarnation. an identity with all that is in it. movement has attracted some
When a lama nears the end of his 12 million followers in Japan and
life, he gives a series of clues as to For its followers, Zen pervades around the world, partly as a result
the identity of his next incarnation. every aspect of life—the physical, of determined recruiting.
His followers then search for the intellectual, and spiritual realms.
child who best matches these clues. Composing poetry and creating TRIRATNA BUDDHIST
minimalist rock gardens are COMMUNITY
TANTRIC BUDDHISM considered particularly expressive
activities. The best-known schools 1967, United Kingdom
7th century, India of Zen are Rinzai and Soto.

Tantric Buddhism takes its name NICHIREN BUDDHISM Formerly the Friends of the
from the texts known as Tantras, Western Buddhist Order (FWBO),
which became powerful tools in 13th century, Japan the Triratna Buddhist Community
the quest for buddhahood. The was founded by the English-born
texts describe how a person can The Japanese monk Nichiren Buddhist monk Sangharakshita.
realize their Buddha nature more founded this school of Buddhism After studying in India he returned
quickly than in other forms based on the passionate faith he to the UK to form the movement in
of Buddhism. The techniques placed in the supreme spiritual 1967, with the aim of explaining
involved include the use of rituals, power of the Lotus Sutra, how Buddhism’s basic teachings
meditation, mandalas, and even a collection of Buddhist teachings can be applied to life in the West
magic. The Tantras seek to reconcile from around the 1st century CE. today. Members are ordained, but
all states and emotions, recognizing He encouraged his followers to may choose a monastic or a lay
that all are part of the essential chant from the text: “I take refuge lifestyle. They commit to a number
Buddha nature of all people. in the Lotus of the Wonderful of core principles: taking Triple
Law Sutra.” Rejecting all other Refuge in the Buddha, the
Tantric Buddhists revere forms of Buddhism, he believed dhamma, and the sangha; the
many buddhas and bodhisattvas that only the study of the Lotus ideal of buddhahood; and belief in
(including Amitabha, the Buddha Sutra could lead to buddhahood. other teachings of the Buddhist
of Infinite Light), seeing each Many Nichiren Buddhist sects still tradition. These combine a
as a manifestation of buddha flourish in Japan and a number balance of moral precepts, study,
nature. Today there are schools of of new religious movements take and devotion. The movement has
Tantric Buddhism in Tibet, India, his teachings as their basis, for affiliations with groups in Europe,
China, Japan, Nepal, Bhutan, example, Soka Gakkai (see right). North America, and Australasia.
and Mongolia.

332

BRANCHES OF JUDAISM

J udaism is the religion of the Jews. Dating back to around 2000BCE,
it is the oldest of the three main monotheistic faiths (the others being
Christianity and Islam), all of which have roots in the Middle East.
According to Moses, the patriarch to whom God revealed the tablets of the
law, the Jews were God’s chosen people and received his guidance in the
form of the Torah. For much of their history the Jews were exiled from their
homeland, so followers of Judaism may be found far beyond the Jewish state
of Israel, giving rise to geographical branches of the faith. Jews interpret
their faith in different ways, with varying emphasis on the centrality of the
Torah and Oral Law to their beliefs and observances.

ORTHODOX JUDAISM SEPHARDIC JUDAISM HASIDIC JUDAISM

c.13th century BCE, Canaan 10th century BCE, Iberia c.1740, Mezhbizh (now in Ukraine)

Orthodox Judaism sees itself as The name Sephardic Judaism Hasidic Judaism (from hasid,
the continuation of the religious refers to the Jews who lived in meaning “pious one”) is a branch
tradition developed in Canaan Iberia (modern-day Portugal and of Orthodox Judaism that stresses
3,000 years ago, and practiced by Spain) from as early as the 10th a mystical relationship with God.
the Jews in the time of Moses. It is century BCE, and their descendants. Followers believe the Torah
not a single movement, but is made Despite some restrictions, Jews is made up of words that are in
up of many branches that share a coexisted peacefully for centuries some sense realignments of the
set of core beliefs. At the heart of with Christians and then Muslims name of God, YHWH. A true
the faith is the belief that the Torah in Iberia. However, following the Hasid is cut off from the world
—the first five books of the Hebrew Christian conquest of Spain in and meditates, prays, and studies
Bible—contains the actual words 1492, and of Portugal in 1497, the the Torah to become closer
of God, and provides guidance on Sephardim who resisted conversion to God. A core belief of Hasidism
every aspect of life. From the to Christianity were expelled by is that God is both the center
Middle Ages, Orthodox Judaism Christian decree and fled to North of the cosmos and infinite.
was deeply rooted in Central and Africa, Italy, France, England, the
Eastern Europe. These communities Netherlands, the Ottoman Empire, NEOORTHODOX JUDAISM
of Jews were known as Ashkenazim, and even America. Today there are
from the name of a patriarch. They thriving Sephardic communities Late 19th century, Germany
were persecuted and frequently in Israel, France, Mexico, the US,
ghettoized over the centuries, and and Canada. Many of the The Neoorthodox movement arose
millions of Orthodox Jews in Europe fundamental beliefs of Sephardic out of the persecution of Jews in
died during the Holocaust. After Judaism are consistent with those the West in the late 19th century.
World War II, many Jews traveled to of Orthodox Ashkenazi Judaism, It provided a middle ground for
the US, and later to the State of though there is more emphasis those who wished neither to
Israel, which was established in on mysticism, and some notable withdraw completely into
1948, and where Orthodox Judaism differences in culture and Orthodox communities nor
is the state religion. More than practice, including those to wholly renounce them. Although
50 percent of practicing Jews relating to language, diet, adhering to the teachings of the
consider themselves to be Orthodox. holidays, prayer, and worship. Torah, Neoorthodox Judaism

DIRECTORY 333

attempted to accommodate, laws than their Orthodox be an appropriate response to
and adapt to, the demands of equivalents. Many of the rulings modernity. This branch of Judaism
the modern world. Followers of Conservative rabbis have been considers the laws of the Torah to
consider it vital that Jews rejected by Orthodox Jews, but the be useful only if they have a clear
engage with non-Jewish people. movement has proved popular, purpose for the Jewish people,
especially in the US. or for humanity as a whole, and
REFORM JUDAISM that the laws therefore require
JEWISH SCIENCE continuous reinterpretation.
1885, Pittsburgh, PA Some of the changes that have
1920s, Cincinnati, OH been effected in Reconstructionist
Popular in western Europe and Judaism are quite radical. For
North America, Reform Judaism The Jewish Science movement example, their Sabbath Prayer
has its origins in 19th-century was founded in the early 1920s Book includes no mention of the
efforts to update liturgy and in the US by Alfred G. Moses, Jews as a chosen people, and
worship in Europe. Reform Jews Morris Lichtenstein, and Tehilla does not look forward to the
tend to see the Torah as written Lichtenstein. It is often considered coming of a Messiah. In place of
by a number of different writers to have been a response to the such doctrines, Reconstructionism
inspired by God, rather than as growing influence of Christian strives for a better world for all,
God’s actual words. They have Science, as developed by Mary populated by better people.
adapted their beliefs and practices Baker Eddy (p.337) at the end of
to be more consistent with modern the 19th century. Adherents HUMANISTIC JUDAISM
lifestyles and are accordingly less are encouraged to cultivate a
strict in their observances than sense of personal contentment 1963, Michigan
Orthodox Jews. For example, and a positive attitude toward
Reform Jews have abandoned themselves and others. Rather Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine founded
many traditional dietary laws and than being regarded as a paternal Humanistic Judaism in the US
adopted new traditions, such as figure, God is seen as an energy or in the 1960s to offer nonreligious
the ordination of women rabbis. force that permeates the universe, Jews a nontheistic alternative to
and as the source and restorer of the traditional religion. Humanistic
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM health. Self-help, visualization, Jews hold that Judaism is an
and affirmative prayer (focusing ethnic culture formed by the
1887, New York City, NY on a positive outcome) are central Jewish people, with no connection
to the faith and are believed to to God. The tradition’s humanistic,
Many Jews felt that the Reform promote both physical and egalitarian philosophy is reflected
movement in the late 19th century spiritual well-being. Jewish in its uplifting celebration of
went too far in rejecting the Science acknowledges modern Jewish culture: nontheistic rituals
traditional tenets of their faith. medicine and, unlike Christian and ceremonies are open to all,
As a result, in 1887, the Jewish Science, permits conventional Jew and non-Jew, regardless of
Theological Seminary was founded medical treatment. gender and sexual orientation.
to foster a branch of the faith that Participation in religious festivals
preserved the knowledge of RECONSTRUCTIONIST is considered important, although
historical Judaism as exemplified JUDAISM all references to God are omitted
in the Hebrew Bible and the from services, and religious
Talmud. This form of Judaism, now 1920s–40s New York City, NY passages have been rewritten from
known as Conservative or Masorti a secular perspective. Adherents
Judaism, holds that the Torah and The Reconstructionist movement are encouraged to focus on self-
Talmud do have a divine origin, was founded by Mordecai Kaplan, determination, self-help, and
and that their laws must be a Lithuanian-born American. He reason to shape their lives,
followed; however, rabbis have a proposed a progressive approach rather than on the intervention
freer hand in interpreting those to Judaism, which he regarded to of divine authority.

334

BRANCHES OF CHRISTIANITY

The world’s largest religion, with more than two billion adherents,
Christianity is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, which are
chronicled in the Gospels—four books in the New Testament of the
Bible. Christianity is a monotheistic religion that has common roots with
Judaism. However, Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised
in the Old Testament. For centuries the main religion of Europe, Christianity
spread around the world with European colonization from the 15th century.
Political and doctrinal differences saw Christianity diversify into Eastern
and Western branches in the Great Schism of 1054, and then into numerous
denominations following the Reformation, which began in the 16th century.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH century CE. The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians worship in their own
Church was founded around 340 CE language using a 5th-century
1st century CE, Rome, Italy as a branch of the Coptic Church. translation of the Bible. Their
It follows several Jewish-influenced churches are plain and they have
The Roman Catholic Church is practices, such as observing a day two kinds of priests: parish priests
the original, and still the largest, of rest on the Sabbath, circumcision, who, unless they are monks, must
Christian Church. Its leaders, the and certain dietary rules that link marry before ordination; and
popes, claim to be the descendants it to its Middle Eastern origins. doctors, who are celibate and
of St. Peter, who founded the first The Syrian Orthodox Church has may become bishops.
Christian Church in Rome in the members in southern Turkey,
1st century CE. This lineage is seen Iran, Iraq, and India, as well as EASTERN ORTHODOX
to connect the Pope directly with in Syria itself. The Syriac language CHURCHES
Christ’s first followers, and therefore is used in worship, and the liturgy
to give him a unique authority: he is one of the richest of all the 1054, Constantinople (Istanbul)
is considered infallible when ruling Christian Churches.
on key articles of faith. The Eastern Orthodox Churches of
ARMENIAN CHURCH Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and
ORIENTAL ORTHODOX western Asia arose from a split
CHURCHES c.294 CE, Etchmiadzin, Armenia between the Western Catholic
Church and the Churches of the
3rd–4th centuries CE, various Armenia was the first country to Byzantine Empire in the Great
make Christianity its state religion: Schism of 1054. This split was
The Oriental Orthodox Churches, St. Gregory converted its ruler, King caused by differing views about the
which include the Coptic Church Tirirdates III, in the late 3rd century Holy Trinity (pp.212–19). In addition,
and those of Syria and Ethiopia, CE. The Armenian Church was at the Western Church tends to stress
as well as Armenia (right), share first close to the Eastern Orthodox humankind’s sinful nature, while
the view that Christ has one nature Churches, but around 506 CE they the Eastern Church recognizes its
(inseparably human and divine). split over definitions of the nature of essential goodness; the Western
All Oriental Orthodox Churches Christ. Like the Oriental Orthodox Church focuses on dogma, while
trace their origins directly to the Church, of which it is part, the the Eastern is more centered on
early centuries of Christianity. The Armenian Church sees Christ as worship. All Orthodox Churches
Coptic Church is Egypt’s national having one nature, simultaneously celebrate seven sacraments, like
Christian Church, dating to the 3rd human and divine. Armenian those of the Catholic Church, but

DIRECTORY 335

they are referred to as mysteries. MENNONITE CHURCH BAPTISTS
The mystery at the heart of the faith
is emphasized by the fact that large 1540s, The Netherlands Early 17th century,
parts of the Eastern Orthodox The Netherlands and England
service take place behind a screen, The Dutch preacher Menno Simons,
out of sight of the congregation. originally a Catholic who joined the The first Baptists were English
Anabaptists—a radical Reformation Protestants; their Church was
LUTHERANISM group—in 1536, believed in Church founded in England in 1612 by
reform, pacifism, and the baptism Thomas Helwys. Baptist beliefs
1520s, Germany of adult believers only. His followers, include the primacy of the Bible and
known as Mennonites, spread that baptism should be reserved for
The Lutheran Church traces its throughout Europe. German adult believers who can profess their
origins to German reformer Martin Mennonites were among the early faith. Baptist churches spread across
Luther (p.235). Lutheranism spread settlers of America, and many the US and are especially popular
across northern Europe during Russian Mennonites migrated to with the black community there; they
the 16th and 17th centuries. the US after World War II. Today, have gained ground internationally
Followers see the Bible as the only the majority of Mennonites live in and are one of the world’s largest
guide to doctrine and believe that North America and pursue a Bible- Christian groups today.
people come to God through faith in based faith. They anticipate the
Jesus Christ, not good works. There Second Coming of Christ and live QUAKERS
are now around 70 separate Lutheran a life of holiness and prayer.
Churches, all under the umbrella Missionary and relief work is c.1650, Great Britain
of the Lutheran World Federation. important to believers.
The Quaker movement began in
ANGLICANISM PRESBYTERIANISM the 17th century, led by George Fox.
The name originated when Fox told
1534, London, England 16th century, Scotland a magistrate to quake at the name
of the Lord. Fox and his followers
The Anglican Church separated Presbyterianism originated with had no clergy, no sacraments, and
from the Roman Church in the 16th 16th-century reformers, such as no formal liturgy, believing that the
century due to ecclesiastical and French theologian John Calvin Friends—as they called themselves
political conflicts surrounding King (p.237). As well as his influential —could communicate directly with
Henry VIII’s petition to the Pope for ideas on predestination, Calvin God. They opposed warfare and
a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. believed Christian groups should be refused to take legal oaths. Although
It retained many Catholic features governed by elders. This appealed widely persecuted, they are now
at first, but was later influenced by to church leaders in Scotland, keen to admired for their campaigns for
Protestant reformers. Today, the increase community involvement in peace, prison reform, and abolition
Anglican Church embraces those religious affairs. Presbyterians are so of slavery. Modern Quakers still
who favor elaborate ritual, known named for being governed by emphasize direct contact with God,
as Anglo-Catholics, as well as presbyters (ministers or elders) and gathering together in silence until
those termed Evangelical who hold have no bishops. Congregationalism the Spirit moves a member to speak.
simpler services. The Anglican developed for similar reasons,
Church includes 30 autonomous especially in England, and was AMISH
Churches around the world, known the religion of the Pilgrims who
as the Anglican Communion. emigrated to America. In the late Late 17th century, Switzerland
All believe in the importance of 20th century, the Presbyterians and
Scripture, accept an unbroken line of Congregationalists joined to form The Amish are members of a strict
bishops (traced back to the Apostles), the World Alliance of Reformed Protestant group that originated in
and celebrate two sacraments: Churches, whose members see Switzerland under the leadership of
baptism and the Eucharist (p.228). salvation as the gift of God. a Mennonite minister, Jacob ❯❯

336 DIRECTORY

Amman, but now mostly live in SHAKERS of gold tablets bearing the word of
the eastern US. Of several groups God by an angel. He translated them
of Amish that exist today, the most c.1758, Great Britain as The Book of Mormon (1830), which,
distinctive is the Old Order, who together with other Mormon texts,
adopt traditional clothes, shun The Shakers’ name is derived and the Bible, form the religion’s
recent developments such as from the trembling experienced by writings. Smith claimed the right
motorized transport, and run their members in religious ecstasy. Their to guide the Church through further
own schools, preferring to help each founder, Ann Lee, claimed she had revelations, including permission
other than to accept state funding. revelations that she was Christ’s for polygamous marriages and the
Worship takes place in their homes, female counterpart. Persecuted possibility for all men to become
with different homeowners taking in England, she and her followers gods. After his death in 1844, the
turns to host the Sunday service. emigrated to America, where they Mormons followed a new leader,
held their possessions in common Brigham Young, to Utah, where the
MORAVIAN BRETHREN and were celibate. Although the Church remains strong.
group was popular in the 19th
1722, Saxony, Germany century, membership declined PLYMOUTH BRETHREN
in the 20th century, and today
In 1722, German Count Nikolaus there are few members. However, 1831, Plymouth, England
von Zinzendorf invited a group of the Shakers are still respected
Protestants from Moravia (now in for their austere lifestyle and the The Plymouth Brethren began
the Czech Republic) to form a simple furniture they created. as a group of Christians who
community on his estate in Saxony. rejected the sectarian nature of
Owing their origins to the earliest UNITARIANISM the existing Protestant churches,
Protestants, the followers of reformer seeking a less formal religion.
Jan Hus, who was burned at the 1774, England They believed that all should have
stake in 1415, they became known equal access to their faith, and did
as the Moravian Brethren. Their Unitarians believe in one God but not ordain priests. Enthusiastic
Church looks to the Scriptures for not the Holy Trinity (pp.212–19), preachers, they emphasized the
guidance on faith and conduct, with and they seek truth based in human importance of regular worship,
little emphasis on doctrine. A key experience rather than religious Bible study, and missionary work.
part of their worship is the sharing of doctrine. Unitarian ideas began to In 1848, they divided into two
a communal meal called a lovefeast. emerge in Poland, Hungary, and broad groups, the Open and the
They are evangelical, sending England in the 16th century, but the Exclusive Brethren, differing in
missionaries throughout the world. first Unitarian Church was founded their interpretation of certain
in England only in 1774, and in the theological issues and their
METHODISM US in 1781. Numbers declined in attitudes toward outsiders.
the 20th century, but there are still Today, there are an estimated
1720s–30s, England thriving congregations in the US two million members of the
and Europe. Congregations are group around the world.
Methodism was founded by John independent of one another
Wesley in England in the 18th and there is no Church hierarchy. CHRISTADELPHIANISM
century. It is now one of the four
largest Churches in Britain and has MORMONISM 1848, Richmond, VA
more than 70 million adherents
worldwide. Methodists believe that 1830, New York The name Christadelphians
Christians should live by the method (“Christ’s brothers”) reflects a desire
outlined by the Bible, and place The Church of Jesus Christ of of the Church’s English founder,
major emphasis on Scripture and Latter-day Saints was founded by John Thomas, to return to the faith
little on ritual. Preaching is American Joseph Smith, Jr. He of Jesus’s first disciples. He rejected
considered especially important. claimed to have been guided to a set the term Christianity, believing that

DIRECTORY 337

the Christian Churches had distorted JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES as tongues of flame. The Churches’
Jesus’s true message. Followers roots are in the work of the preacher
adhere to Jesus’s teachings but 1872, Pittsburgh, PA Charles Parham. These Churches
reject the doctrine of the Holy Trinity emphasize spiritual experiences,
and look forward to the Second The Jehovah’s Witnesses such as healing, exorcism, prophecy,
Coming of Christ. The Church does (pp.312–13) have their roots in and speaking in tongues after
not ordain priests, and its members the International Bible Students’ baptism in the Holy Spirit. Parham’s
do not vote or take part in politics, Association. They believe that Jesus student, William J. Seymour,
and reject military service. Christ was not, himself, God, but founded the Apostolic Faith Gospel
God’s first creation. They anticipate Mission in Los Angeles, which
SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST the coming of the kingdom of God, inspired the founding of Pentecostal
CHURCH reject nationalism, and dispute Churches worldwide.
doctrines such as the Trinity. The
1863, Battle Creek, MI Church aims to convert others by CHARISMATIC
door-to-door proselytizing. MOVEMENT
Adventists are Protestant Christians
who believe in the imminent Second CHURCH OF CHRIST 1950s–60s, various
Coming of Jesus Christ. At this time, (SCIENTIST)
known as the Advent, Christ will The Charismatic movement is a
return to earth, destroy Satan, and 1879, Boston, MA worldwide movement of Christian
create a new world. The American revival. At its heart is the belief
Adventist William Miller claimed Mary Baker Eddy dedicated her in the charismata, or gifts of the
this process would begin around life to reviving the early healing Holy Spirit (p.219). Worship tends
1843. When it did not, he blamed ministry of Jesus after she was to be informal and the Second
people’s refusal to keep the Sabbath cured without medical treatment Coming of Christ is often seen as
(hence the term Seventh-day following an injury. Eddy claimed imminent. The movement stresses
Adventist) and founded the Church to be able to heal the sick, and the importance of the Holy Spirit,
in 1863. Adventists follow the believed that those who understand which is said to enter believers
dietary rules of the Old Testament, the link between God and love can during baptism.
eschew worldly pursuits (such as also become healers. She founded
gambling and dancing), and observe the Church of Christ (Scientist) in NEW AFRICAN CHURCHES
the Sabbath on Saturday. 1879. Eddy’s own writings and the
Bible form the basis of the religion. 20th century, Africa
THE SALVATION ARMY Services feature readings from both,
but have no sermons. Christian The last hundred years have seen
1865, London, England Science is today established in the rapid rise of a specifically
more than 80 countries. African form of Christianity south
Methodist preacher William Booth of the Sahara. In the late 19th
founded the Salvation Army in PENTECOSTALISM century, Africans began to reject the
London in 1865. His beliefs were Christianity imported by Western
strongly influenced by his religious 1900–1906, Topeka, KS; missionaries, creating independent
background, but the sect’s Los Angeles, CA African Churches. The largest
organization was inspired by the include the Kimbanguists, founded
military. The church leader is its Pentecostal churches are prevalent in the Democratic Republic of the
general and its ministers are officers in the developing world, and in Congo, with some 10 million
and wear uniforms. Booth’s aim was poorer communities in the members; and the similarly sized
to do missionary and social work developed world. They take their Celestial Church of Christ in Benin.
on a large, organized scale, and the name from the first Pentecost, Many of these Churches arose in
denomination gained a reputation (p.219) when the Holy Spirit is said times of persecution and have a
for helping the poor. to have descended on the Apostles strong sense of sacred places.

338

BRANCHES OF ISLAM

The most recently founded of the three great monotheistic religions,
Islam spread quickly from its roots in the Middle East and has
been hugely influential in scholarship and politics all over the
world. The most significant division within Islam is that between Sunni
and Shi‘a, two branches that developed when the early Muslim community
disagreed over who was to succeed their first leader, Muhammad. Later
conflicts over leadership led to further subdivisions, but there are also
groups within Islam that are set apart by doctrinal differences: Sufism, or
mystical Islam, for example, is vigorously opposed by some more orthodox
Muslim groups that consider its practices un-Islamic.

SUNNI ISLAM nominated his cousin ‘Ali to should be inherited, but rather that
lead the faith as his successor. it should be won by election. The
7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula Its largest branch identifies ‘Ali sect gained a reputation for their
and a continuous line of 11 extreme militancy and opposition
More than 85 percent of the Muslim descendants as the imams, or to established authority; however,
population of the world is Sunni. In spiritual leaders, of Islam, whose some Islamic scholars have
most Islamic countries, the majority authority is divinely sanctioned. interpreted their actions as an
of Muslims are Sunni, with the This branch is known as Twelve- attempt to uphold justice. The
exception of Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Imam Shi‘a, or the Twelvers. Kharijites maintained a literal and
and Yemen, as well as some of the Another group of Shi‘a Muslims, unswerving observance of the
Gulf States. The founders of this the Seveners, does not recognize Qur’an, lived puritanical lives
form of Islam were the group of the last five imams in this lineage. strictly according to Islamic
Muslims who believed that Abu Both groups also have doctrinal rule, and held that anyone who
Bakr, Companion and father-in-law differences with Sunni Islam: for committed a major sin could not
of Muhammad, should succeed example, they hold that God may remain a Muslim. The early
the Prophet as the first leader or change his decisions (a concept Kharijites were almost wiped out
caliph (literally, successor). Sunni called bada’). in their frequent uprisings, but
Muslims take the Sunna, or tradition members of a more moderate
of Muhammad, as the model for KHARIJITES group survive today in North
Muslim conduct and have a further Africa, Oman, and Zanzibar.
allegiance to one of four schools 7th century CE, Middle East
that interpret Islamic law, or shari‘a ISMAILISM
(p.273): Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali, The assassination of the third
and Shafi’i. caliph, ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, in 7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula
656 CE sparked a bitter conflict
SHI‘A ISLAM that split the Islamic world. At Ismailism is a sect of Shi‘a Islam and
its center was a group of rebel itself has numerous subsects,
7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula Muslims responsible for the including the Druze (see opposite).
assassination, who later became The movement has its origins in
Shi‘a Islam is named after the Shi‘a known as the Kharijites, a name the late 7th century CE, following
‘Ali, or Party of ‘Ali, the group within deriving from the Arabic for “to a conflict within Shi‘a Islam over
the early Muslim community that leave” or “exit.” They did not who should succeed Jaafar
claimed that Muhammad had believe that the position of caliph al-Sadiq as the sixth imam.

DIRECTORY 339

Those who considered his son spiritual teacher and seek a direct SALAFISM
Ismail to be the rightful successor and personal experience of God,
established a breakaway group, which is often characterized by Late 19th century, Egypt
and became known as Ismailis. intense, ecstatic experiences,
Although there are variations including trancelike states. The Salafism is a modern, conservative
within Ismailism, its followers spinning of the Whirling Dervishes, movement within Sunni Islam that
generally uphold fundamental a Sufi order, is an expression of looks to the Salaf, or predecesors,
Muslim belief with respect to this attempt to experience God. the earliest Muslims, for guidance
the unity of God, the Prophet Because Sufism involves such on exemplary Islamic conduct. The
Muhammad, the Qur’an, and practices, which are thought to movement is considered to have
shari‘a law. However, among their lead to the union of the individual emerged as a reaction to the
principal doctrines is a belief that with God, Sufis have been accused spread of Western, specifically
the religion has exterior and of turning their backs on Islam. European, ideology in the late
interior aspects, and that the However, they insist that their 19th century; Salafists believe in
exterior features hold hidden, experience of the love of God is eliminating foreign influence to
inner truths that will be made the anchor of their Islamic faith, ensure a return to the pure faith.
clear via the imams. The imams’ and that adherence to shari‘a law They have a strict interpretation
interpretations of the Qu’ran’s (pp.272–73) is as vital to them as of the sins of shirk (idolatry) and
hidden truths are regarded as it is to other Muslims. bida’h (innovation), and reject
binding in the community. kalam, or theological speculation.
AHMADIYYA Followers uphold the precedence
DRUZE of shari’a law (pp.272–73) and the
1889, Punjab, India literal truth of the Qu’ran. Salafism
11th century, Middle East is said to be Islam’s fastest-
Controversy has surrounded the growing movement worldwide.
The beliefs of the sect known Ahmadiyya movement since its
as the Druze developed out of establishment in Punjab toward THE NATION OF ISLAM
Ismailite doctrine. This small sect the end of the 19th century. The
is characterized by extreme founder of the movement, a Sunni 1930, US
secrecy: many of its teachings Muslim named Mirza Ghulam
and practices have been withheld, Ahmad, claimed not only to have Arising out of the Depression of
not only from the outside world, been divinely inspired, but also to the 1930s in African-American
but also from its own members. be a messiah figure (pp.284–85). areas in the US, the Nation
The Druze community is divided This conflicted with the accepted of Islam was founded by Fard
into the ukkal (initiated) and the idea of Muhammad as the last true Muhammad, to whom some have
juhhal (uninitiated); only the ukkal prophet, and as a result most other ascribed divinity. Other key
have access to the faith’s sacred Muslims regard followers of the figures have included the civil
texts and may participate fully Ahmadiyya movement as heretics. rights activist Malcolm X and
in rituals and ceremonies. The The movement does, however, Louis Farrakhan. The theology
majority of Druze now live in share many traditional beliefs of of the movement combines core
Lebanon, with smaller groups Sunni Islam and accepts the Islamic beliefs with a strong
in Syria and Israel. Qur’an as its holy text. Adherents political agenda focused on
believe that the message about African-American unity and
SUFISM their version of Islam should be rights. The Nation of Islam has
conveyed to non-Muslims as well been accused of being both black
13th century, Turkey as Muslims, and the movement supremacist and anti-Semitic, but
has spread throughout the world, has nevertheless been effective in
The mystical and ascetic branch building centers of worship and spreading ideas about faith and
of Islam is known as Sufism learning in Africa, North America, equality among black people, and
(pp.282–83). Devotees follow a Asia, and Europe. upholds a strict code of ethics.

340

GLOSSARY

Key Arhat (B) A perfect being who has includes the Jewish books of the law,
(B) Buddhism attained nirvana. Jewish history, and the prophets; and
(C) Christianity the New Testament, which deals
(D) Daoism and other Artha (H) The pursuit of material with the life and work of Jesus, his
wealth, one of the duties of a person followers, and the early Church.
Chinese religions in the “householder” stage of life, the See also Hebrew Bible.
(H) Hinduism second phase of the ashrama.
(I) Islam Bodhisattva (B) Someone on the
(J) Judaism Ashkenazim (J) Jews from path to becoming a buddha, who
(Jn) Jainism Eastern and Central Europe, and puts off final enlightenment to help
(S) Sikhism their descendants around the world. other people to reach the same state.
(Sh) Shinto
(Z) Zoroastrianism Ashrama (H) The stages of life, of Brahma (H) The creator god, one of
which there are four, in the Hindu the Hindu Trimurti.
Adi Granth (S) See Guru social system: student; householder;
Granth Sahib. retiree; and ascetic. Brahman (H) The impersonal and
unchanging divine reality of the
Advaita Vedanta (H) A school of Atman (H) The individual self. universe. All other gods are aspects
Hindu philosophy developed in the of Brahman.
9th century, which gives a unified Avatar (H) An incarnation of a
explanation of the Vedas, and Hindu deity; especially the various Brahmin (H) A priest or seeker of
focuses on the idea of Brahman. incarnations of the god Vishnu. the highest knowledge; the priestly
class and custodians of dharma.
Ahadith (I) See Hadith. Avesta (Z) The principle sacred
texts of Zoroastrianism. Buddha (B) An enlightened being.
Ahimsa (B, H, Jn) A doctrine
of nonviolence of both thought Ayat (C) The smallest entries in Canonization (C) The process by
and action. the Qu’ran, which are short verses which the Christian Church declares
or “signs.” that a person is a saint.
Akhand path (S) A complete and
uninterrupted oral rendition of the Baptism (C) The sacrament that Charismata (C) Spiritual gifts
Guru Granth Sahib. admits a person to the Christian conferred by the Holy Spirit of God
Church in a ritual that involves being on believers, manifesting in forms
Allah (I) The name of the one God. sprinkled with, or immersed in, water. such as the ability to heal, or speak
in tongues.
Amrit (S) Sweetened holy water Bar/bat mitzvah (J) The ceremony
used in religious ceremonies; the marking a Jewish boy’s or girl’s Christ (C) Literally, “anointed one”;
specific Sikh ceremony of initiation. admission to the adult religious title given to Jesus.
community; the state of having
Analects (D) The collected sayings reached religious adulthood. Confirmation (C) A ritual in which
of Confucius and his contemporaries, those who have been baptized
written by his followers. Bhakti (B, H) An active religious confirm their Christian faith.
devotion to a divinity leading
Ananda (H) A state of bliss. to nirvana. Covenant (J) An agreement
between God and the Jewish people
Anata (B) A state of freedom from ego Bible (C) The collection of books in which the Jews are identified as
to which Buddhists aspire. that constitute the sacred text of the group he has chosen to play
Christianity. The Christian Bible a special role in the relationship
Anicca (B) The impermanence comprises the Old Testament, which between himself and humanity.
of existence.

GLOSSARY 341

Dao (D) The path or way that Gathas (Z) The most sacred texts Haram (I) Conduct that is forbidden;
an individual aims to follow; the of Zoroastrianism, supposedly something sacred or inviolate.
underlying way or pattern governing composed by Zoroaster himself.
the working of nature. Hasid (J) A member of a Jewish
Gentile (J) A non-Jew. group founded in the 18th century
Darshan (H) The worshipping of a that places a strong emphasis
deity by means of viewing an image Gospels (C) The four books of on mysticism.
of the god or goddess. the New Testament of the Bible,
attributed to the apostles Matthew, Haskalah (J) The Jewish
Dhamma (B) A variant of dharma, Mark, Luke, and John, which tell of Enlightenment, a movement
most commonly used in Buddhism. Jesus’s life and teachings; Gospel among European Jews in the
(good news) can also refer to the 18th–19th centuries.
Dharma (H) The underlying path or content of Christian teaching.
pattern that characterizes the cosmos Hebrew Bible (J) A collection of
and the earth; it also refers to the Granthi (S) An official who takes sacred writings that form the basis
moral path that a person must follow. care of the Guru Granth Sahib and of Judaism, including the Torah,
the gurdwara. A granthi is also a revelations of prophets, and other
Dukkha (B) Suffering or skilled reader of the sacred book. sacred texts; the equivalent of the Old
dissatisfaction; the idea that all Testament in the Christian Bible.
life is suffering, the first of the Four Gurdwara (S) A Sikh temple; the
Noble Truths defined by Buddha. place where the Guru Granth Icon (C) A sacred image, usually
Sahib is housed. depicting Christ or one of the saints,
Eightfold Path (B) The path of which is used as a focus for devotion,
disciplined living that Buddhists Guru (H) Teacher; (S) One of the especially in the Orthodox Churches.
follow in the hope of breaking free 10 founder-leaders of Sikhism.
from the cycle of death and rebirth. Imam (I) Leader of prayers in a
Followers aim to achieve correct Guru Granth Sahib (S) The Sikh mosque; or, one of the great leaders of
understanding, intention (or thought), sacred book, also known as the the Muslim community in the Shi‘a
speech, conduct, occupation, effort, Adi Granth. branch of the faith.
mindfulness, and concentration.
Hadith (I) Traditional accounts of the Incarnation (C) The belief that in
Enlightenment (B) Discovery of the deeds and teachings of the Prophet the person of Jesus Christ, divine and
ultimate truth, and the end of dukkha. Muhammad; the second source of human natures were made one.
Islamic law and moral guidance after
Eucharist (C) One of the main the Qur’an. Jihad (I) A religious duty to struggle
sacraments, involving the taking against evil in the name of God,
of wine and bread as the blood and Hafiz (I) A term of respect for a whether spiritually or physically.
body of Christ; it is known as Mass in person who has memorized the
Catholicism, Holy Communion in the Qur’an. Jina (Jn) A spiritual teacher.
Anglican Church, and the liturgy in See tirthankara.
the various Orthodox churches. Haggadah (J) The body of teaching
of the early rabbis, containing Kaaba (I) One of Islam’s most sacred
Fatwa (I) A nonbinding judgment legends, historical narratives, and buildings, sited in Mecca inside the
on a point of Islamic law given by a ethical precepts. Masjid al-Haram mosque; a principal
recognized religious authority. destination for those on hajj.
Hajj (I) The pilgrimage to Mecca, the
Four Noble Truths (B) A central fourth of the five pillars of Islam; all Kabbalah (J) An ancient Jewish
teaching of Buddhism, explaining Muslims hope to make this journey mystical tradition based on an
the nature of dukkha, its causes, once in their lives. esoteric interpretation of the
and how it can be overcome. Hebrew Bible.
Halal (I) Conduct that is permitted;
Fravashi (Z) A guardian angel who specifically, the correct method of Kaccha (S) Long shorts worn under
protects the souls of individuals as slaughtering livestock, and the meat other garments by Sikhs; one of the
they struggle against evil. from correctly slaughtered animals. distinguishing “five Ks” of Sikhism.

342 GLOSSARY

Kalam (I) Discussion and debate, or other training, or one who is Murti (H) An image or statue of
especially relating to Islamic theology. considered to be the reincarnation a deity, seen as the dwelling place
of a previous spiritual leader. or embodiment of the deity.
Kami (Sh) A spirit or deity in Shinto
religion. There are many thousands Mandala (B) A sacred diagram, Nirvana (B) The state of liberation
of kami in the Shinto pantheon. usually depicting a conception from the round of death and rebirth.
of the cosmos, used as a focus for
Kangha (S) A small comb worn in meditation and in other rituals, Puja (H) Worship through ritual.
the hair by Sikhs; one of the “five Ks” especially in Tibetan Buddhism.
of Sikhism. Puranas (B, H, Jn) Writings not
Mantra (B, H) A sacred sound or included in the Vedas, recounting
Kara (S) A steel bangle worn by word used to bring about a spiritual the birth and deeds of Hindu gods
Sikhs on the right wrist. One of the transformation; in Hinduism, the and the creation, destruction, or
“five Ks” of Sikhism. metrical psalms of Vedic literature. re-creation of the universe.

Karma (B, H) The law of moral cause Matha (H, Jn) Monastic and similar Pure Land (B) The paradise where,
and effect that influences our rebirth religious establishments. according to some forms of Buddhism,
after death. the souls of believers go after death;
Matsuri (Sh) A festival or ritual in known in Japanese Buddhism as jodo.
Kesh (S) Uncut hair; one of the “five Shinto. Many feature processions
Ks” of Sikhism. of shrine-bearing worshippers. Purusha (H) The eternal and
authentic self that pervades all
Khalsa (S) The community of Maya (H) The illusion of the world things in the universe.
initiated Sikhs, founded by Guru as experienced by the senses.
Gobind Singh. Qi (D) The life force or active
Mihrab (I) A niche in the prayer hall principle that animates things in
Khanda (S) A two-edged sword of the of a mosque, indicating the qibla. the world, according to traditional
kind used by Guru Gobind Singh in a Chinese philosophy.
ritual that marked the founding of the Mishnah (J) The first major written
Khalsa; now a symbol of Sikhism. redaction of the Jewish oral traditions Qibla (I) The direction that a Muslim
and also the first major work of should face when praying—that of the
Kirpan (S) A sword worn by Sikhs; rabbinic Judaism. Kaaba in Mecca.
one of the “five Ks” of Sikhism.
Mitzvah (J) A commandment from Qigong (D) A system of breathing
Kirtan (S) Hymn singing that forms God, specifically either one of the and exercise for physical, mental, and
an important part of Sikh worship. 10 principal commandments, or spiritual health.
one of the 613 instructions found
Koan (B) In Zen Buddhism, a in the Torah. Qur’an (I) The words of God as
problem or riddle without logical revealed to the Prophet Muhammad
solution, which is intended to Moksha (H) The release from the and later written down to form the
provoke an insight. round of life, death, and rebirth; also sacred text of Islam.
known as mukti.
Kojiki (Sh) The sacred text of Shinto. Rabbi (J) A teacher and spiritual
Mool mantra (S) A statement leader of a Jewish community.
Kosher (J) Sanctioned by religious of Sikh belief in the oneness of god,
law; especially food deemed fit to eat, composed by Guru Nanak; also called Rabbinical (J) Of, or relating
according to Jewish dietary laws. the mool mantar. to, rabbis.

Kundalini (H) Life force or energy Mudra (B, H) A symbolic gesture, Ramadan (I) The ninth month of
that is coiled at the base of the spine. usually with the hands. the Islamic calendar; a month of daily
fasting from dawn until sunset.
Lama (B) An adept spiritual teacher Mullah (I) An Islamic religious
in Tibetan Buddhism, specifically one scholar, who may also preach and Ren (D) Benevolence or altruism
who has undergone particular yogic lead prayers in a mosque. in Confucianism.

GLOSSARY 343

Sabbath (J) The rest day of the Shari‘a (I) The path to be followed Torah (J) The first five books of the
Jewish week, lasting from sunset in Muslim life and, therefore, Islamic Hebrew Bible, seen as representing
on Friday to sunset on Saturday. law, based on the Qur’an and on the teaching given by God to Moses
the Hadith. on Mount Sinai.
Sacraments (C) The solemn rites
of Christianity. The Catholic and Shi‘a (I) One of the two main groups Trimurti (H) The trio of principal
Orthodox Churches recognize seven: of Muslims, consisting of those who Hindu gods—Brahma, Vishnu, and
baptism, Eucharist, penance, believe that Muhammad’s cousin ‘Ali Shiva—or a threefold image of them.
confirmation, ordination, extreme was his rightful successor as caliph.
unction (last rites), and marriage. See also Sunni. Trinity (C) The threefold god,
Most Protestant Churches recognize comprising Father, Son, and Holy
only two: baptism and the Eucharist. Shirk (I) The sin of idolatry or Spirit in a single divinity.
polytheism.
Sadhu (H) A holy man who has Upanishads (H) Sacred texts
dedicated his life to seeking God. Sruti (H) The Vedas and some of containing Hindu philosophical
the Upanishads. teachings; also known as the
Salat (I) Prayer; the second of the five Vedanta, the end of the Vedas.
pillars of Islam. Muslims are expected Sufi (I) A member of one of a
to pray five times each day. number of mystical Islamic orders, Vedas (H) Collections of hymns
whose beliefs center on a personal and other writings in praise of
Samsara (B, H) The continuing relationship with God. Sufi orders can the deities.
and repeating cycle of birth, life, be found in Sunni, Shi‘a and other
death, and rebirth. Islamic groups. Sufism is associated Wa (D) Harmony, in which the group
with the ecstatic whirling dances of takes precedence over the individual.
Samskara (H) Imprints left on the the dervishes.
mind by experience in current or Wuwei (D) Uncontrived and
past lives; Hindu rites of passage. Sunna (I) Muhammad’s way of life, effortless doing.
taken as a model for Muslims and
Sawm (I) Fasting, especially during recorded in the hadiths. Yin–yang (D) The two principles of
the month of Ramadan; the fourth of the cosmos in Chinese philosophy,
the five pillars of Islam. Sunni (I) One of the two main seen as opposite but complementary
groups of Muslims, followers of those and interacting to produce a whole
Sangha (B) An order of Buddhist who supported an elected caliphate. greater than either separate part.
monks and nuns. See also Shi‘a.
YHWH (J) The four letters that
Satya (H) Truth, or what is correct Sutra (B, H) A collection of represent the name of God in
and unchanging. teachings, especially sayings Judaism, considered to be too holy
attributed to Buddha. to utter, but pronounced “yahweh.”
Sefirot (J) The 10 emanations, the
attributes of God in kabbalah. Talmud (J) Text made up of a body Yoga (H) A form of physical and
of discussion and interpretation of mental training. One the six schools
Sephardim (J) Jews who come from the Torah, compiled by scholars and of Hindu philosophy.
Spain, Portugal, or North Africa, or rabbis, and a source of ethical advice
their descendants. and instruction, especially to Zakat (I) The giving of alms in
Orthodox Jews. the form of a tax to help the poor;
Seva (S) Service to others, one of the the third pillar of Islam.
important principles of Sikhism. Tantra (B) Text used in some
kinds of Buddhism (mainly in Tibet) Zazen (B) Seated meditation.
Shahada (I) The Muslim profession to help users to reach enlightenment,
of faith, translated as, “There is or the practices based on such a text. Zurvan (Z) The God of time; in some
no God but God; Muhammad is the forms of Zoroastrianism, the primal
messenger of God”; the first and Tirthankara (Jn) One of the 24 being, from whom were derived the
most important of the five pillars spiritual teachers or jinas who have wise lord Ahura Mazda and the
of Islam. shown the way of the Jain faith. hostile spirit Angra Mainyu.

344

INDEX

Numbers in bold refer to main entries. Baha’i faith 295, 308–309, 326 Buddhism, beliefs (cont.)
Baiga 19, 32 Four Noble Truths 128–29, 135,
A Baptists (Christianity) 335 138–39, 140, 142, 154
Bar Kokhba, Simeon (Judaism) 181 human cravings and needs 138–39
Aborigines (Australian) 19, 34–35 Barth, Karl 218, 219, 245 interconnectedness 130–35, 142–43,
Abraham (Judaism) 166, 170–71, 175 Benedictine order (Christianity) 220, 148, 150, 157
Abu Bakr (Islam) 271, 283, 338 Jataka tales (birth stories) 154–55
Adi Shankara (Hinduism) 91, 118–21, 222, 223 metta (loving kindness) 146–47
Benson, Herbert (prayer study) 246 The Middle Way 129, 132–34, 135,
122, 329 Bible Student movement see Jehovah’s 145, 147, 148
African Churches (Christian), new 337 moral guidelines 140–41
Agni, Hindu god of fire 96 Witnesses nihilism, rejection of 133–34
Ahmadiyya movement (Islam) 151, Booth, William (Salvation Army) 337 nirvana, mental training for 139,
Brahman (Hinduism) 91, 95, 96, 97, 141–43, 155
284–85, 308, 339 nonviolence 146–47
Ahura Mazda (Zoroastrianism) 62–63, 102–105, 122–23 rebirth 154–57, 331
Buddhism 326 self as constantly changing 148–51,
64, 65, 327 157
Ainu 19, 24–25 bodhisattva 152–57 three poisons, freedom from 113
Alexander the Great 79 Bodhi Tree 132, 138 unselfish action 110
Almohad movement (Islam) 281 elements in Confucianism 77 wisdom acquisition, stages of 144
Amish (Christianity) 335–36 existentialism 151 Yogacara Buddhism 158
Amitabha (Buddhism) 156, 330, 331 Japan 82–83, 85, 310, 330
Anglicans (Christianity) 221, 236, 335 Lokayata philosophy 132, 133–34 Buddhism, branches of 330–31
Anthony, Saint (Christianity) 221, 223 mandala 156, 158, 331 Mahayana Buddhism 114, 128, 129,
Anubis, Egyptian god 59 meditation 141–42, 144, 146–47, 154–57, 330–31
Aristotle 62, 203, 229, 277, 281 Nichiren Buddhism 145, 331
Armenian Church (Christianity) 334 156, 157, 162–63, 330, 331 Pure Land Buddhism 330
Arya Samaj (Hinduism) 329 monastic life 134, 135, 145, 330, 331 Soka Gakkai Buddhism 331
al-Ash’ari, Abu al-Hasan (Islam) 277 ritual and repetition 158–59, 331 Tantric Buddhism 129, 154, 158–59,
Ashkenazim (Judaism) 166–67, 332 Samkhya philosophy (Indian) 113, 331
Asoka (Emperor) (Buddhism) 147 Tibetan Buddhism 158–59, 330–31
Augustine of Hippo (Christianity) 203, 329 Theravada Buddhism 129, 140, 145,
spread and diversification 129 150, 155, 330
214, 218, 220–21 symbolism 155–56 Triratna Buddhist Community 331
Avalokiteshvara (Buddhism) 155–56, 159 Tibetan Lamas 159 Zen Buddhism see Zen Buddhism
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (Islam) 278 timeline 128–29
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (Islam) 250, 276, 280 Vedic religion, rejection of 133, 134 Buddhism, figures 129, 154–57, 159
Aztec civilization 18, 42–45 Buddhism, beliefs Amitabha (Buddha of Infinite Light)
ahisma (nonviolence) 146–147 156, 330, 331
B anata (lack of fixed essence) 134, 135 Asoka (Emperor) 147
anicca (impermanence) 134, 135 Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisattva of
Baal Shem Tov (Judaism) 188 conventional and absolute truth 151 Compassion 155–56, 159
Babylonian Dynasty 54, 56–57, 176–77, debate, importance of 144 Dalai Lama 147, 156, 157, 159, 331
dhamma, (Wheel of Life) 136–43, Emerald Buddha 150
179–80, 183 Nagarjuna (philosopher) 157
155, 331 Nagasena (sage) 149–51
dukkha (truth of suffering) 129, 134, Nishida Kitaro (Zen Buddhism) 161
Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) 90,
138, 139 128, 132–33, 138, 326
Eightfold Path 135, 138–43, 154, 330 Sixteen (or Eighteen) Arhats 149
enlightenment 54–55, 129, 132, 144,

145, 154–57, 330
eternal cycle, escape from 136–43
Five Precepts 146–47, 330
fixed ego and existential

unhappiness 161

INDEX 345

Buddhism, texts Christianity (cont.) Christianity, branches of (cont.)
Lotus Sutra 155, 330, 331 Romanticism, effects of 243–44 Eastern Orthodox churches 203,
Pali Canon 128, 140, 330 scientific discovery, effects of 203, 334–35
Perfection of Wisdom sutras 157 242–45 Indian Baptist, Methodist, and
The Questions of King Milinda social change movements 207 Gospel Churches 46
149–51 Spanish Inquisition 203 Jehovah’s Witnesses 218, 294, 306,
theologians of hope 247 312–13, 337
C timeline 202–203 Jesuits 237
and Tzotzil religion 45 Mennonites 335, 336
Calvin, John (Christianity) 221, 237, Wars of Religion 203 Methodism 203, 239, 336
335 Moonies (Unification Church) 318, 327
Christianity, beliefs Moravian Brethren 336
Cao Ðài 295, 306, 316, 326 Arianism amd monotheism 216 Mormonism 294, 295, 306–307, 326,
cargo cults, Pacific Islands 294, 295, conditional immortality and rejection 336
of dualism 211 Oriental Orthodox churches 334
311 Eucharist 202, 203, 227, 228–29, Pentecostal Church 218, 219,
Caribbean see Rastafari; Santeria 335 337
Cathars 65 foreknowledge of God, rejection of Pietist Movement 243
cave paintings 20–23 246–47 Plymouth Brethren 336
Celtic deities 54, 55, 319 forgiveness of sinners 206 Presbyterians 236, 335
Charismatic movement (Christianity) free will and Pelagian controversy Protestant Liberalism 242–45
220–21 Quakers 335
219, 306–307, 337 Hell, meaning of 225 Rastafari 294–95, 305, 314–15, 327
Chewong 19, 38 immortality 210–11 Roman Catholicism 203, 210, 226,
China incarnation of Jesus 208 227, 236–37, 334
indulgences, sale of 233–34 Sabellians 216, 217
Buddhism 114, 129, 154–57, 330 infant baptism 220–21 Salvation Army 337
Confucianism see Confucianism Messiah, and second coming 202, Seventh-day Adventists 337
Daoism see Daoism 204–206, 335, 337 Shakers 336
Falun Dafa (Falun Gong) movement miracles 206 Unitarians 218, 296, 321, 336
original sin 221, 318
295, 323, 327 papal authority 226, 227 Christianity, figures
Christadelphians 336–37 prayer, relevance of 246–47 Anthony, Saint 221, 223
Christian Humanist movement 234, 237 purgatory 233–34 Augustine of Hippo 203, 214, 218,
Christianity 326 sacraments 202, 226–27, 334–35, 220–21
see also Eucharist (above) Barth, Karl 218, 219, 245
Andean mummies, destruction of 37 Ten Commandments 264 Calvin, John (Protestant Reformer)
Crusades 203 transubstantiation 228–29 221, 237, 335
ecumenical movement 224 Trinity doctrine 202, 214–19, 334, Cyprian (theologian) 225–26
Fourth Lateran Council 226, 227 336, 337 disciples 205, 227
Great Schism 202, 203, 226 Erasmus (Christian Humanist) 232, 234
heretics 65, 227, 242 Christianity, branches of 334–37 Fox, George (Quakers) 335
hierarchical structure 226 African Churches, new 337 Galileo as heretic 242
Jewish roots, separation from 206–207 Amish 335–36 Garvey, Marcus (Rastafari) 314
Latin, use of 232–33 Anglicans 221, 236, 335 Haile Selassie (Rastafari) 314–15
martyrdom 209, 211 Armenian Church 334 Helwys, Thomas (Baptists) 335
Mayan civilization 45 Baptists 335 Jesus’s message to the world
monasticism 222–23 Benedictine order 220, 222, 223 204–207, 211
mysticism 186, 238 Charismatic movement 219, Luther, Martin (Protestant Reformer)
Origen of Alexandria 210–11 306–307, 337 203, 233–35, 239, 335
Platonic philosophy 62, 210–11 Christadelphians 336–37 Miller, William (Seventh-day
Protestant Reformation 203, 221, 227, Christian Humanist movement 234, Adventism) 337
237 Schleiermacher, Friedrich
232–37 Church of Christ (Scientist) 326, 333, (theologian) 243–45
religious gatherings and Church 337 Smith, Jr., Joseph (Mormonism) 294,
Congregationalists 335 307, 336
membership 224–25 Coptic Church 334
Renaissance and humanism,

challenge of 203

346 INDEX

Christianity, figures (cont.) E H
Teresa of Avila (Carmelite nun) 238
Thomas Aquinas 203, 228–29, 242 Eastern Orthodox churches Haile Selassie (Rastafari) 315
Wesley, John (Methodism) 203, 239, (Christianity) 203, 334–35 Haitian voodoo 305
336 Hare Krishna movement 294, 295, 322
Young, Brigham (Mormonism) 307 Eddy, Mary Baker (Church of Christ Hasidic movement (Judaism) 167, 187,
Scientist) 333, 337
Christianity, texts 188, 295, 332
Bible in vernacular 232–37 Egypt, Ancient 58–59 Hatun Runa 36–37
Biblical texts, historical criticism of afterlife belief 54, 58–59 Helwys, Thomas (Baptists) 335
244–45 Anubis, god of the dead 59 Herzl, Theodor (Judaism) 167, 189,
Gospels 252, 253 divine Pharaoh cult 54
Heidelberg Catechism 232 ka, spiritual life force 58, 59 196–97
Nicene Creed 202, 203, 208, 212–19, mummification 58–59 Hinduism 327
Testaments, Old and New 225 Osiris 58–59
Aryans, influence of 95–96, 97
Church of Christ (Scientist) 326, 333, Emerald Buddha 150 class system (varnas) 97–98, 99,
337 Erasmus (Christian Humanist) 232,
108–109, 125, 302, 329
Confucianism 72–77, 326 234 definition problems 90
Analects (teachings) 74–75, 77 Essenes (Judaism) 222 mathas (monastery schools) 101
belief in inherent human goodness meditation 100, 121, 128, 320
77, 321 F puja offerings 114–15, 328
Buddhist elements in 77 Shiva (destroyer) 97
Daoist elements in 55, 77 Falun Gong (Falun Dafa movement) soma (drink of the gods) 96
Five Constant Relationships 76, 77 295, 323, 327 Tantric rituals 100, 158, 328
Golden Rule 76 time cycles 94–95
Mandate of Heaven 75, 76 Fard Muhammad (Nation of Islam) 339 timeline 90–91
Neo-Confucianism 77 Fox, George (Quakers) 335 Vedanta philosophy 91, 118–19,
rulers, advice to 75–76
virtue and moral superiority 74–75 G 118–19, 122, 329
yoga 91, 100, 112, 328
Congregationalists (Christianity) 335 Galileo Galilei 242 Hinduism, beliefs
Conservative (Masorti) Judaism 333 Gandhi, Mahatma (Hinduism) 91, ahimsa (nonviolence) 124–25, 146
Constantine I 80 atman (pure consciousness) 102–105
Coptic Church (Christianity) 334 124–25, 302 bhakti (religious devotion) 90, 91, 94,
Creole religions 294, 305 Garvey, Marcus (Rastafari) 314
Crete (Minoans) 78 Gaudiya Vaishnava movement 114, 115, 122, 159
Cyprian (Christianity) 225–26 Brahman (absolute reality) 91, 95,
(Hinduism) 322
D Geiger, Abraham (Judaism) 192, 193 96, 97, 102–105, 122–23
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad Brahman, unknowable 118–21
Dalai Lama (Buddhism) 147, 156, 157, consciousness and knowledge
159, 331 (Islam) 279
Gobind Singh, Guru (Sikhism) 299, 119–20
Daoism 55, 66–67, 327 dharma (universal order and right
elements in Confucianism 55, 77 300, 302, 303
immortality concept 67 Greece, Ancient, 78–79 way of living) 94, 106–109, 110
meditation 67 Four Stages of Life 106–109
mental and physical discipline 112 Aristotle 62, 203, 229, 277, 281 inner transformation 123
rulers, advice to 75 hierarchy of deities 55 karma and reincarnation 329
tai-chi 66 Minoan culture 54, 78 moksha (release from endless cycle of
oracles 79
Darshanas (Hinduism) 101, 328–29 Plato 62, 210–11 birth and rebirth) 90–91
Dogon 19, 48–49 moral principles 109
Dreaming, the 34–35 other religions as paths that lead to
Druze (Islam) 338, 339
the same truth 123
personal devotion as means of

liberation 98–99
religious teaching levels 101
ritual and worship 92–98, 114–15,

329

INDEX 347

Hinduism, beliefs (cont.) I Islam, beliefs (cont.)
sacrificial ground and fire 96 compassionate God 279
samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth of Ibn Tumart, Muhammad (Almohad Day of Judgment 279
the atman, the soul) 90, 104, 329 movement) 280–81 divine unity doctrine 280–81
satyagraha 124–25 Five Pillars 250, 264–69, 271
self, nature of 102–105 Ibn ‘Umar, Abdullah (Islam) 265 fundamentalism 251
selfless duty 91, 110–11, 112, 320 Incas 18, 36–37 God beyond human comprehension
sense experience and pure India 276–77
consciousness, distinction jahiliyya (age of ignorance) 289–90
between 120–21 Baiga 19, 32 jihad and striving against evil 251,
tolerance 91 Buddhism see Buddhism 278, 285, 288–90
Vedic sacrifice 92–99, 111 Hellenization 150 monotheism 176, 250, 280–81
Hinduism see Hinduism Ramadan observance and fasting
Hinduism, branches of 328–29 Jainism see Jainism 267–68
Arya Samaj 329 Parsis (Zoroastrianism) 62 salat (prayer), commitment to 265–66
Brahmoism 329 Samkhya philosophy 113, 329 shahada (profession of faith) 264–65,
Darshanas 101, 328–29 Sikhism see Sikhism 280–81
Gaudiya Vaishnava movement 322 Iran (Persia) shari’a law 256, 272–74, 291, 338,
Hare Krishna movement 294, 295, Baha’i faith see Baha’i faith 339
322 Manicheism 65, 221 tawhid (oneness) 280–81
Lingayatism 329 Shi‘a Islam 270, 271
Satya Sai Baba Society 329 Zoroastrianism see Zoroastrianism Islam, branches of 338–39
Shaivism 328 Islam 327 Ahmadiyya movement 151, 284–85,
Shaktism 100, 328 Arab Spring democracy 251 308, 339
Smartism 329 Arabic script as art form 261 Almohad movement 281
Swaminarayan Sampraday 329 Aristotle, philosophy of 277, 281 Druze 338, 339
Transcendental Meditation (TM) 294, Crusades 251 Ismailism 338–39
295, 320 Egyptian revivalist 289 Kharijites 338
Vaishnavism 328 European Council for Fatwa and Muslim Brotherhood 289, 291
Mu‘tazilites 276–77
Hinduism, figures Research 272 Nation of Islam 339
Adi Shankara 91, 118–21, 122, 329 Golden Age and Abbasid dynasty Qadiani Ahmadiyyas 285
Agni, god of fire 96 Salafism 339
avatars (gods) 115, 328, 329 250, 251 Shi‘a Islam 250, 251, 270–71, 309,
Gandhi, Mahatma 91, 124–25, 302 and Greek philosophy 276–77 338
goddesses 100 ideological and political conflict 251 Sufism 269, 282–83, 295, 339
gods as aspects of order 96–97 Islamic Revivalism 288–90 Sunni Muslims 251, 269, 270, 271,
Krishna 110–11, 328 Jesus recognized as prophet 252 275, 338, 339
Ramakrishna 91, 122–23 Jibrail’s (Gabriel’s) appearance to Twelvers 271, 309
Shiva 91, 97, 328, 329 Wahhabism 269
Trimurti trinity 91, 97 Muhammad 253, 256–57 Whirling Dervishes 339
Varuna 97 Mecca 250, 253, 266, 267–69
Vishnu 91, 97, 115, 328 as modern religion 291 Islam, figures
Vivekenanda 123 muezzins 265, 266 Abu Bakr 271, 283, 338
purification before prayer 265–66 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam (Ahmadiyya
Hinduism, texts schools of law 275 movement) 151, 284–85, 308,
Bhagavad-Gita 91, 107, 108, 110–11, Sunna (authoritative sayings and 339
112, 320 al-Ash’ari, Abu al-Hasan 277
Mahabharata 91, 101, 111, 115, 322 actions) 253, 266, 270, 273, 274, 281 Averroes (Ibn Rushd) 278
Ramayana 91, 101, 111, 114 theological speculation in 276–77 Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 250, 276, 280
Rig Veda 65, 96, 97, 99 timeline 250–51 Fard Muhammad (Nation of Islam)
Upanishads 90, 91, 99, 101, 102–105, Western influences, rejection of 339
118, 120–21, 133, 135, 148 al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad
Vedas 54, 90, 91, 99, 100, 101, 107, 289–90, 339 279
109, 114, 320, 329 Islam, beliefs Ibn Tumart, Muhammad (Almohad
movement) 280–81
Hubbard, L. Ron (Scientology) 317 almsgiving, importance of 266–67 Ibn ‘Umar, Abdullah 265
Humanistic Judaism (Judaism) 333 Christian and Jewish scriptures,
Hupa 18, 51 belief in human corruption of 252,

257

348 INDEX

Islam, figures (cont.) Judaism 327 Judaism, branches of (cont.)
Al-Mahdi (Hidden One) 250, 271, anti-Semitism 197 Reform Judaism 175, 181, 189, 192,
285, 309 Diaspora 166–67, 181, 196–97 193, 195, 199, 333
Muhammad 250, 252–53, 265, early foundations of 54 Sadducees 183, 210
270–71, 284–85 European emancipation 192 Sephardic Judaism 332
Qutb, Sayyid 289–90 Exodus, from Egypt 166, 171–72 Zionism 167, 189, 196–97
Ramadan, Tariq 291 festival dates 195
Rumi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Halacha (Jewish law) 194 Judaism, figures
282–83 Haskalah movement (Jewish Abraham 166, 170–71, 175, 327
al-Sarakhsi, Shams al-A’imma 278 Enlightenment) 189, 196–97 Baal Shem Tov 188
al-Shafi’i (scholar) 256, 274–75 Holocaust 167, 193, 198, 332 Bar Kokhba, Simeon, as possible
Talib, ‘Ali ibn Abi 271 Israelites’ exile 170, 174, 179, 186, Messiah 181
196 Geiger, Abraham 192, 193
Islam, Qur’an 250, 253, 256–61, Israelites and Jews, distinction 179 Herzl, Theodor 167, 189, 196–97
273–75, 281, 339 Jerusalem 166, 181 Kaplan, Mordecai 333
Jesus as possible Messiah 181 Luria, Isaac (kabbalah) 186–87
Arabic language as sacred 260–61 maternal line 167, 175, 199 Maimonides, Moses 181, 182,
and Bible, similarities between messiah, origin of term 178 184–85
Messianic Era 178–81 Mendelssohn, Moses 189
259 prosecution 167 Moses 171, 172–73
and Day of Judgment 279 Sabbath observance 172, 173, 194 Noah, covenant with 173
disposal of 260 Son of God, use of term 208
inimitability of 260 Star of David 197 Judaism, texts
Meccan chapters 257–58 timeline 166–67 Dead Sea Scrolls 180
memorization and recitation of YHWH as greatest god 170, 176–77 Deuteronomy and third covenant 173
Mishnah text 166, 182–83
258–59, 260, 267 Judaism, beliefs Talmud 170, 172–73, 182–83, 186,
physical respect for 259–60 covenant 170–75 187, 192, 333
suras (chapters) and verses, ordering David’s line, Messiah from 179–80 Ten Commandments 172, 174, 194, 264
Golden Rule 174 Torah (Pentateuch) 166, 167, 170–74,
of 257–58 Jews as God’s chosen people 188, 189, 195, 332, 333
174–75, 204 Zabur (book of Psalms) 256
J kashrut (dietary law) 194–95 Zohar (mystical text) 184
life after death 181
Jainism 66, 68–71 Messiah 178–181 K
Five Great Vows 69, 70 monotheism 176–77, 184–85, 193–94
Mahavira 55, 68–69, 71, 90, 94 Oral Law 182–83 kabbalah (Judaism) 167, 186–87
meditation 70 prophecies 180–81 Kaplan, Mordecai (Reconstructionist
nonviolence 69, 70, 146
Samvatsari festival 70 Judaism, branches of 332–33 Judaism) 333
self-denial 69–70 Ashkenazim 166–67, 332 Karaites (Judaism) 183
shrines and temples 71 Conservative (Masorti) Judaism 333 Khalsa order (Sikhism) 299–300, 302
soul liberation 71 Essenes 222 Kharijites (Islam) 338
symbolism 70, 300 Hasidic movement 167, 187, 188, Krishna (Hinduism) 110–11, 328
295, 332
Japan Humanistic Judaism 333 L
Ainu 19, 24–25 Jewish Science movement 333
Buddhism 82–83, 85, 162–63, 310, kabbalah and mysticism 167, Laozi see Daoism
330, 331 186–87 Liberal Judaism 175, 195
Shintoism 55, 82–85, 310, 327 Karaites 183 Lingayatism (Hinduism) 329
Tenrikyo 294, 310, 327 Liberal Judaism 175, 195
Zen Buddhism 129, 162–63 Neoorthodox movement 332–33
Orthodox 181, 194, 332, 333
Jehovah’s Witnesses (Christianity) 218, Pharisees 210
294, 306, 312–13, 337 Progressive Judaism 192–95
Reconstructionist Judaism 195, 199,
Jesus (Christianity) 202, 204–207, 208, 333
211, 334,

Jewish Science movement 333