The Religions Book - Big Ideas Simply Explained

250 INTRODUCTION

The beginning of Muhammad dies The Umayyad Al-Mahdi, the Hidden
the revelation in Medina at dynasty rules the One of Shi‘a Islam,
of the Qur’an the age of 63. growing Islamic
to Muhammad. disappears, not to return
Empire; Shi’a until the end of the world.
Islam emerges.

610 CE 632 CE 661–750 872
11TH CENTURY
629–30 CE 7TH CENTURY 750

Muhammad makes a The sayings (hadith) The Abbasid Ibn Sina attempts
pilgrimage to Mecca, of Muhammad are dynasty rises and to reconcile rational
begins an Islamic
followed by the passed down by word philosophy with
conquest of the of mouth. These are Golden Age. Islamic theology.
later gathered into
holy city.
large collections.

F ounded in the 7th century, and the way a person lives their life interpretation. From the judgments
Islam is nevertheless will be assessed on the Day of of theologians on the holy books
regarded by its followers Judgment. The central professions and an examination of the life
as an ancient faith—one that has of the faith are summed up in the of the Prophet Muhammad, has
always existed as God’s intended Five Pillars of Islam. Religious life emerged a system of religious law
religion. Along with Judaism and revolves round the mosque, which, and moral codes known as shari‘a,
Christianity, it is an Abrahamic as well as being a center of worship which informs the civil law of many
religion, tracing its roots back to and teaching, acts as a focus for Islamic countries.
Ibrahim (Abraham), the first of a the social life of the community.
line of prophets sent to reveal the From its origins, Islam has been
faith—a line that also includes The last prophet entwined with civil and political
Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus). The revelation to Muhammad is life. Muhammad himself was as
Muslims believe the last in this line considered the final and complete much a political as a religious
is the Prophet Muhammad, who revelation from God. Memorized by leader and thinker. Because of his
received the revelations contained Muhammad’s immediate followers, preaching of monotheism, he and his
in the Qur’an and established it was written in the form of the followers were forced to flee Mecca
Islam as it is known today. Qur’an—Islam’s holy scripture and (an event known to Muslims as the
the ultimate and unquestionable Hijra, commemorated annually) for
Islam is a strongly monotheistic word of God. Beyond the Qur’an, Medina, where he established the
religion, emphasizing the oneness there also exist sayings attributed first Islamic city-state, with himself
of an incomparable God, Allah to Muhammad, collectively known as spiritual, political, and military
(Arabic for “the God”), and people’s as the hadith. The scriptures have leader. He then led his people back
duty to serve him. Islam teaches inspired a rich tradition of scholarly to Mecca, conquering the city and
that human life is a gift from God, establishing the beginnings of an

ISLAM 251

Muhammad ibn Mongol invasions The Islamic The Iranian
Tumart founds the led by Genghis Mughal Empire Revolution replaces
Al-Muwahhidun Khan end the Iran’s Westernizing
movement (“those who is established
emphasize unity”). Abbasid era. in India. government.

1082–1130 13TH CENTURY 1526 1979

1095–1291 1453 1948 2011

Islam comes under Mehmed II The State of Israel is The Arab Spring:
attack in a series of of Turkey conquers established, leading democracy is
Crusades, blessed by the
Catholic Church, to regain Constantinople to the start of the established, allowing
Christian control of and founds the Arab–Israeli conflict, the election of
Ottoman Empire.
the Holy Land. which continues to Islamist parties in
the present. several countries.

empire to unite the disparate tribes and Damascus became centers populations. Indonesia is the
of Arabia. Within a century of his of scientific inquiry and learning. country with the largest number
death in 632, the Islamic Empire Islamic writing and poetry also of Muslims, followed by Pakistan,
had expanded across northern flourished, along with decorative India, and Bangladesh.
Africa and into Asia. Despite arts, including calligraphy.
disputes over who should succeed Approximately 25 percent of
Muhammad, which led to the The Islamic Empire eventually Muslims live in the Middle East
division between Sunni and Shi‘a fragmented, but Islam remains and North Africa, and there are
Islam, the Islamic Caliphate—the one of the largest of all religions, now Muslim communities in almost
Muslim political and religious state practiced by some 25 percent every other country in the world.
ruled by a caliph—wielded great of the world population. About
political unity and power. three-quarters of adherents Islam has come into conflict,
are Sunni, and 10 to 20 percent, both ideologically and politically,
The Islamic Golden Age Shi‘a. Around 50 countries have with the Christian world since the
Soon, the Islamic Empire extended a Muslim majority: of these, a Crusades, and following colonial
over a wider area than Christian handful, including Saudi Arabia, domination by the West. Recent
Europe. However, in contrast to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran tensions have given rise to a radical
Christianity, which saw scientific are considered Islamic states, interpretation of jihad (struggle) by
thought to be a threat to its dogma, based on religious law; a large some fundamentalist Muslims as a
Islam saw no incompatibility number of other countries, mainly religious duty to defend their faith
between its theology and the in the Middle East, have Islam as through conflict. However, Islam is
disciplines of philosophy and their official state religion; others essentially a peaceable religion, and
science. Cities such as Baghdad still have secular governments, most Muslims identify more closely
but predominantly Islamic with the compassionate principles
of their faith. ■

252

MUHAMMAD IS
GOD’S FINAL
MESSENGER

THE PROPHET AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM

IN CONTEXT God revealed His Word According to Islamic
to Moses and Jesus. tradition, in around 582 CE
KEY FIGURE a Christian hermit,
Muhammad Humanity misinterpreted Bahira, was living in the Syrian
and corrupted the message desert when, one day, a boy passing
WHEN AND WHERE by with a camel train caught his
570–632 CE, Arabia of the revelations. attention. After talking with him,
Bahira concluded that the sign of
BEFORE God now transmits His Word prophecy was upon the boy. He
c.2000–1500 BCE In the directly to Muhammad. was destined for greatness, Bahira
Hebrew Bible, God makes a foretold, and should be cared for well.
covenant with the patriarch The pure message of Islam
Abraham; Islam will recognize is His final message The young boy was Muhammad
this figure (in Arabic, Ibrahim) to humanity. ibn ‘Abdallah, who became the
as one of the first prophets. prophet of Islam and, according
Muhammad is to Muslims, God’s final messenger.
c.14th–13th century BCE God’s final messenger. This implies, of course, that there
In Jewish, Christian, and were messengers sent by God (in
Muslim tradition, Moses, Arabic, Allah) before Muhammad;
leading the Israelites, receives these include notable figures
commandments from God such as Musa (Moses) and Isa
on Mount Sinai. (Jesus). To Musa, God revealed
the Tawrat, or Torah, to guide the
1st century CE Jesus, later Jews. To Isa, God gave the Injil,
recognized by Muslims a lost scripture with a name that
as a prophet, foretells the translates as Gospel, although it did
coming of a final prophet not resemble in its form the four
or messenger of God. canonical Gospels of Christianity.

AFTER Muslims consider Jews and
19th century In India, Mirza Christians to be People of the Book,
Ghulam Ahmad claims to because, like Muslims, they are also
be a prophet bringing a new monotheists with a holy scripture
message that will reform Islam. that was revealed to them by God.
Muslims honor, in some ways, the
revelations God gave to messengers

ISLAM 253

See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ Jesus’s message to the world
204–207 ■ The origins of Ahmaddiya 284–85

Muhammad is…the Moreover, it marks an end to further Muhammad ibn
Messenger of God and revelation. Muhammad is the Seal ’Abdallah
the Seal of the Prophets. (last) of the Prophets: he marks a
close in God’s revelation and is the Born near Mecca around 570,
Surah 33:40 last of God’s special messengers. Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah
was raised by his uncle, Abu
before Muhammad, but they also By the early 7th century, Talib. The young Muhammad
believe that these revelations Muhammad claimed the authority accompanied his uncle on
became corrupt. Jews introduced of a prophet, whose mission was many of his journeys as a
elements to the Torah that did not to preach the worship of the one, camel-train merchant, meeting
come directly from God. Likewise, true God. Many Jews, Christians, travelers from a wide variety of
Jesus’s followers mishandled his and polytheists in his native cultures and religions. He
message and distorted the Gospels, Mecca believed his message. This gained a reputation for being
misrepresenting God’s original fledgling community of Muslims wise and trustworthy.
intentions. Therefore, Islam teaches was persecuted for its beliefs,
that the Jewish and Christian and so Muhammad left Mecca for When in his early 20s,
scriptures in their current form are nearby Medina, where the Muslim Muhammad was employed by
no longer God’s pure revelations, community expanded. a wealthy widow, Khadija, to
but corrupted by human error. manage her business. She, too,
Given Muhammad’s eminent was a camel-train merchant.
status in Islam, Muslims have Khadija later proposed to
always looked to his life and words him and they were married.
as a model for Islamic living. Many After her death, Muhammad
of the things he said and did are remarried and is said to have
recorded in the Sunna, which had 13 wives or concubines.
comprises authoritative collections
of Muhammad’s sayings (hadith) Muhammad would often
and actions (sunna). These serve as retreat from business and
examples to Muslims seeking family life to a cave in the
guidance on how to live their lives. ■ desert, where he would
meditate. In 610, during a
God’s word uncorrupted moonless night of meditation,
In order to overcome this corruption, the angel Jibrail (Gabriel)
God sent down his undefiled word appeared in a bright light to
one final time, in the form of the Muhammad, offering to him
Qur’an, through Muhammad—his the first of many revelations
final messenger. Thus, Islam is not that would eventually make up
seen by Muslims as a new religion the Qur’an, Islam’s holy book.
with a new holy book. Instead, Muhammad’s career as a
Islam is considered the original, prophet lasted for 22 years.
pure, and unique revelation of God. He died in 632 in Medina.
It supersedes those revelations that
were given to Moses and Jesus and
mishandled by their followers.

Now in Saudi Arabia, Mecca is the
holiest city of the Islamic faith since it
is the birthplace of Muhammad. This is
the Grand Mosque, the heart of the city.

THE QUR’AN

WAS SENT DOWN FROM

HEAVEN

GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL



256 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL

IN CONTEXT According to the Islamic Recite! In the name
faith, God has revealed of your Lord who
KEY TEXT his will to humankind
The Qur’an through nature, history, and, most created, created man
importantly, his word. Nature, or from a blood clot. Recite!
WHEN AND WHERE God’s creation, is a sign pointing
610–632 CE, Arabia to God’s existence. In history, Sura 96:1–5
the rise and fall of empires are
BEFORE signs of God’s sovereignty over for Gabriel) appeared to him in
c.2000–1500 BCE Muslims humankind. But of greatest the cave, summoning Muhammad
believe Moses is given the significance is that God’s will to prophethood and demanding
Torah on Mount Sinai. is revealed through his word and that he “Recite!” (p.253). What
conveyed by his messengers. followed was the first revelation of
10th–9th century BCE Dawud the Qur’an. The whole of the Qur’an
(King David of Israel) receives In Islam, God’s ultimate word was revealed to Muhammad at
the Zabur, a second holy book, and will are contained in the intervals over a prolonged period
from God; this may be the Qur’an, the book that was revealed of time so that he could gradually
biblical book of Psalms. to the Prophet Muhammad, chosen recite it (the Arabic word qur’an
by God as His final messenger means recitation) to others.
1st century CE In Islamic (pp.252–53). Within it are ayat— The revelations, many of which
tradition, God bestows a book verses, or signs, that reveal to the Muhammad was to receive in a
of revelation and truth on Jesus. world what God desires and trancelike state, began in
commands. Another name for the 610 CE and continued over the
AFTER Qur’an is al-Tanzil, the Downsent. next 22 years. At first, Muhammad
c.7th century CE The For Muslims, the Qur’an is God’s memorized the revelations and
companions of the Prophet literal word that has been sent
produce the first Qur’anic text. down to humankind from heaven.

8th–9th century CE The The recitation
scholar al-Shafi‘i enshrines According to Islamic tradition,
the Qur’an as the primary Muhammad spent many days
reference for shari’a, or meditating in a cave on Mount
Islamic law. Hira overlooking Mecca. One night
the angel Jibrail (the Arabic name

… is transmitted by … and transcribed
God’s angel Jibrail by his followers
in book form as...
to Muhammad…
The Noble Qur’an
The Word of God
… which retains its
… and therefore miraculous connection
remains the perfect to its heavenly prototype…

expression of…

ISLAM 257

See also: God’s covenant with Israel 168–75 ■ The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53 ■ The central professions of
faith 262–69 ■ The pathway to harmonious living 272–75

The angel Jibrail appears to
Muhammad and delivers the first
revelation. Here, in accordance
with Islamic tradition, a faceless
figure represents the Prophet.

speaking, by length. The
longer chapters are found at the
beginning of the Qur’an, with
shorter chapters arranged toward
the end. As a whole, the chapters
cover a wide range of topics,
providing guidance on worship,
politics, marriage and family life,
care for the disadvantaged,
and even matters of hygiene,
community affairs, and economics.

In an attempt to classify and
date the chapters of the Qur’an,
modern scholars have created a
system for identifying them. In
this method of classification,
revelations that appear to have
been given to Muhammad early
in his prophetic career, when he
resided in Mecca, are known as
the Meccan chapters. The earliest
of these Meccan revelations are
often very rhythmic and full of
imagery. Many begin with oaths. ❯❯

passed them on orally. His followers Many sections of the Qur’an [It is] a Qur’an which we
memorized them in turn, but the contain material that matches, have divided [into parts],
revelations were eventually written or at least corresponds closely in order that you might recite
down, sometimes by Muhammad’s to, portions of the Hebrew Bible and it to the people at intervals.
secretaries, at other times by his Christian New Testament. However,
followers. Portions of the Qur’an according to the Muslim view, And we have sent it
have been found written on pieces these holy books are corrupted down progressively.
of animal bone, leather, stones, (pp.252–53): the Qur’an is therefore
palm leaves, and parchment. believed to function both as a Sura 17:106
corrective to, and a progression
A standardized version of beyond, previous revelations.
the Qur’an in book form was
compiled in the mid-7th century, The ordering of the suras
soon after Muhammad’s death. The chapters (suras) and verses
Muslims believe that this that make up the Qur’an are
compilation, and the ordering of the not arranged chronologically or
114 chapters and 6,000 verses that according to topic but, broadly
resulted, were divinely inspired.

258 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL

For example, chapter 95 of the group of followers, but had become This Qur’an is
Qur’an is introduced with, “By the head of a large, independent not such as could
the fig and the olive and by Mount community of Muslims. ever be produced by
Sinai and by this city of security!” other than God.
As a result, the Medinan
Later Meccan chapters are chapters are characterized less Sura 10:37
more serene and contain frequent by themes of doctrine and the
illustrations of the truth of God’s proofs of God’s signs. Instead, cause for suspicion. The testimony
message drawn from nature and more time is spent in discussion of of those who do not provide the
history. They are more formal legal and social matters and how necessary witnesses should be
than other chapters and often such rulings should be applied rejected and such persons dealt
discuss matters of doctrine. God in order to regulate life within with harshly according to this
is frequently referred to in these the growing Muslim community. Medinan chapter of the Qur’an.
chapters as the Merciful.
For example, in chapter 24 Rote and recitation
Revelations accorded to of the Qur’an, Muslims are told Western scholarship has added
Muhammad when he was living to bring four witnesses in order numbers to the chapters and verses
in the city of Medina are classified to corroborate an accusation of of the Qur’an for ease of reference.
by scholars as the Medinan adultery. This was an important For Muslims, however, chapters
chapters. These chapters are quite safeguard for women in a society are referred to by specific,
different from the Meccan ones in which even the sight of an distinguishing words that appear
because, by this time, Muhammad unrelated man and woman within each chapter. For example,
was no longer leading a fledgling together might be considered the Qur’an’s second and longest
chapter is known as The Cow.
The Qur’an is not arranged in any narrative or chronological This chapter is named after a
order. Opened at any point, it will offer reassurance of God’s will story it contains about a heifer
to the reader through suras (chapters) that often take their name that is reluctantly sacrificed by the
from a story, theme, or truth that they contain. Israelites. In the account, the flesh
of the sacrificed animal is used to
The Letter “Qaf” bring a slain man to life again in
order to identify his murderer.
The Cow The Sun
Muslims also rarely refer
The Constellations The Mountain to individual verses by number,
instead preferring to quote the
The Pen The Elephant The Moon beginning of a passage under
discussion. This form of referencing
of course requires not only great
familiarity with the text of the
Qu’ran but also considerable
memorization skills. Nonetheless,
many Muslims memorize large

ISLAM 259

Reading, learning, and reciting
portions of the Qur’an are central
to Islamic education, and remain
an everyday activity for Muslims
thoughout their adult lives.

portions of the Qur’an, and some This means that, even though the text in particular, should never be
are even able to commit the entire Qur’an was given to Muhammad in left on the floor or in any unclean
book to memory. the form of oral recitations and only place. When displayed among
later written down, the physical a pile of books, it should always
To learn the entire Qur’an by book itself is regarded as sacred. be positioned on top; and when
heart brings great prestige and placed on a bookshelf, it should
blessing, and a Muslim who has Respect for the Qur’an rest on the highest shelf, with
achieved this is known as a hafiz The Muslim belief that the Islamic nothing else beside or above it.
or a guardian of the Qur’an. A hafiz holy scripture exists in heaven
keeps God’s holy book alive, and is makes the handling of its earthly In addition, before handling
often called shaykh, a mark of representations a matter of great the Qur’an, Muslims should make
great respect. Such Muslims often care and delicacy, and there are certain that they are ritually clean
become reciters of the Qur’an, a several guidelines regarding how by washing themselves, just as
role that is undertaken during daily Muslims should treat their sacred they would before worshipping
prayers and other important rituals book. The Qur’an, and the Arabic God. The Qur’an should also be
and ceremonies. This skill carried with care, and for this ❯❯
is so highly prized that auditoriums
are often filled to capacity for
recitation contests.

The Qur’an has a preeminent
place both in Islam and within
God’s plan for the world. It is
considered the divine miracle
brought by the Prophet Muhammad
—the only miracle, in fact, as
Muhammad himself did not perform
them. Muslims believe that the
Qur’an is based on a heavenly
prototype, a book written in Arabic
and existing with God in heaven.

The Qur’an and the Bible being sent from paradise, ...recite the Qur’an
because they begged for His in slow, measured
Readers of the Qur’an and mercy, rather than cast out and rhythmic tones.
both the Hebrew Bible and cursed as in the Bible. Jesus
the Christian Bible will find (as prophet, rather than divine Sura 73:4
many characters and stories figure) appears several times,
in common. The words of the but nowhere near as often as his
Qur’an appear to assume some mother Mary, spoken of in the
familiarity with Jewish and Qur’an with a special fondness.
Christian texts, while offering In a miracle unreported in the
some gentle correctives in Bible, the infant Jesus speaks
certain details. In the Qur’an, up from the crib to defend his
for example, Adam and Hawwa mother’s honor when ill-wishers
(Eve) are forgiven by God before accuse her of fornication.

260 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL

Printed and bound copies of the Many of these rules of respect endeavor. Everything about it, from
Qur’an are checked meticulously for apply not only to the written text the grammatical constructions
accuracy before being distributed—here of the Qur’an, but also to its oral of the Qur’an’s Arabic, to the
by a 600-strong team of readers at the recitation. Since the Qur’an is sound of it when it is read and
King Fahd printworks in Saudi Arabia. perceived as God’s literal word, it chanted, and the prophecies it
is thought to come alive when it is foretells, is considered miraculous
reason it is frequently carried recited. As a result, many Muslims and matchless. According to
in a bag to avoid damage. If it cover their heads when it is read Muslims, any attempt to equal or
should accidentally fall, then it is aloud and sometimes even during surpass the Qur’an will surely fail.
honored, sometimes with a kiss, their personal study of the Qur’an.
and returned to safety. Some Another aspect of the Qur’an’s
Muslims will make a charitable The role of language miraculous nature is its unique
donation in cases where they have The belief that the heavenly repetition of basic themes.
handled the Qur’an carelessly. prototype of the Qur’an is written Opening the Qur’an at any section
in Arabic makes Qur’anic Arabic will often yield a treatment of the
The sacred respect shown not only the sacred language of book’s essential message. This
towards the Qur’an is maintained Islam, but the language of God as formulaic, and almost abbreviated,
for old and worn-out copies as well, well. For Muslims there is therefore style is challenging for non-Muslims,
which may not be thrown away, a very real sense that the Qur’an or those familiar with the narrative
but instead should be disposed of loses its status as divine revelation structure of other holy scriptures.
through a respectful burial. This when it is translated into other For Muslims, however, this style
can be done in any appropriate languages. Due to this belief, is a mysterious testament to the
place for a burial, including at sea. translations of the Qur’an are Qur’an’s unparalleled beauty.
Some Muslims will also allow a frequently accompanied by the
disposal by fire. Arabic text, and even then The Qur’an is not only the
these texts are considered mere most sacred book of Islam, but is
Stipulations for the disposal interpretations or translations of also considered by Muslims, and
of the sacred text are also meant the meaning of the original Arabic. even many non-Muslims, as the
to apply to any paper, jewelry, They are in no way substitutes or crowning achievement of Arabic
decoration, or other material on equivalents of the Arabic Qur’an. literature. As such, the Qur’an
which verses of the Qur’an have is studied for its poetic prose as
been written. For this reason, some Since Qur’anic Arabic is much as it is read for its divine
Muslim-majority regions provide considered a divine language, other guidance. But the respect,
special disposal bins so that such aspects of Muslim life and thought
material can be collected and are further shaped around the Falsehood cannot come
disposed of properly. language. For example, Muslims to it from any direction,
throughout the world memorize the it is preserved by God
Qur’an and their prayers in Arabic, Who said: “Verily, We, it is
regardless of whether or not they We who have sent down the
understand the language. Qur’an and surely, We will
guard it from corruption.
Perhaps most importantly, the
text of the Arabic Qur’an, since it is Sura 15:9
holy, shares certain characteristics
with God, its author. Thus, it is
perfect, eternal, uncreated, and
unchangeable. Known as i‘jaz
al-Qur’an (the miraculousness or
inimitability of the Qur’an), this
doctrine means that the language,
literary style, and ideas revealed in
the Qur’an are irreproducible and
cannot be matched by any human

…a guidance for However, abstract images, such ISLAM 261
the people and clear as patterns, were permitted, and
proofs of guidance and the Arabic script itself developed The transcribers of
the criterion [of right into an elevated art form: beautiful the Qur’an
Arabic calligraphy was used to
and wrong]. write out the Qur’an, often in In order to safeguard the
Sura 2:185 spectacular colored inks and integrity of the Qur’an,
precious gold leaf. Zayd ibn Thabit, one of the
appreciation, and matchlessness Prophet’s close companions,
accorded to the Qur’an are not As a result of the prohibition formed a group of scribes
limited by Muslims to its message on portraying animals or human responsible for writing down
or its recitation. Even the Arabic figures, artists also developed revelations as they came to
script within the holy book has the Islamic arabesque style. This Muhammad. Eventually, Zayd
significant visual value and plays is a form of artistic decoration and his scholars produced
a central role in Islamic art. that consists of rhythmic lines, a full-length manuscript of
elaborate scrolling and interlacing the Qur’an, which was cross-
foliage, and repeated geometric checked with those who had
motifs. These artworks—which memorized the revelations
appear on mosaics, in the Qur’an, to ensure that there were no
and inside mosques—also have an errors. The finished manuscript
important spiritual message: the was presented to Hafsah, one
endlessly intertwining shapes and of Muhammad’s wives.
patterns, in which there appears
to be no beginning or end, are Since Arabic is written
intended to prompt reflection without vowels, a correct
on the infinity of Allah. ■ reading and pronunciation
of the text depends upon the
The art of Islam Islam does not allow representation reader’s familiarity with the
Motivated by a desire to avoid in religious imagery; instead, beautiful language. When discrepancies
idolatry in all its forms, Muslim calligraphy and patterning are used. cropped up, the dialect of
tradition forbade representational The geometric designs reflect the the Quraysh, Muhammad’s
illustration within the Qur’an. order and harmony that Allah brings. tribe, was given precedence.
Even so, variations of the
written Qur’anic text arose.
Consequently, Uthman ibn
Affan, one of Muhammad’s
companions, oversaw the
production of an authorized
version in the mid-7th century.
The book of the Qur’an as it
is known today is largely a
result of this compilation.

THE FIVE

PILLARS

OF ISLAM

THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH



264 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH

IN CONTEXT Shahada By which we affirm that
Profession of faith there is no god but God
KEY SOURCE and Muhammad is the
Hadith (sayings) Salat
of Muhammad Prayer messenger of God.

WHEN AND WHERE Zakat By which we offer worship to
Early 7th century, Arabia Almsgiving God, proclaiming His greatness.

BEFORE Sawm By which we offer worship
From 1000BCE The Torah, then Fasting to God, acknowledging His
the Talmud, set down the rules
for Jewish life that form part of Hajj sovereignty and caring
God’s covenants with Israel. Pilgrimage to Mecca for those in need.

1st century CE Christianity By which we purify ourselves
incorporates the Judaic before God in His great mercy.
covenants, in particular the
Ten Commandments. By which we embrace the unity
of the Muslim community
610 CE The Prophet and draw close to God.
Muhammad starts to receive
the revelation of the Qur’an.

AFTER
680 CE Shi‘a Islam introduces
additional pillars that guide
faith and observance.

8th century CE Schools of
Islamic law develop, offering
further interpretations that
guide Islamic life and practice.

A ccording to a tradition these five practices lie at the core the first pillar, and central creed of
narrated by Abdallah ibn of the faith, and all branches of Islam, is a simple acknowledgment
‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, one Islam accept and perform them. of the distinctiveness of the one,
of Muhammad’s companions, the true God and the unique place of
Prophet summarized Islam by The profession of faith his messenger, Muhammad. This
saying that the religion is based While not summarizing the whole profession of faith, known as the
on five principles: “To testify that of Islam as a religion, the pillars shahada (witness), is the only
there is no god but God and serve as a kind of outline of means by which a person may
Muhammad is God’s messenger; minimal obligations for Muslims become a Muslim. The shahada
to offer the prayers dutifully and to abide by. Their simplicity and is whispered in a Muslim’s ear at
perfectly; to pay the obligatory straightforwardness are intentional, birth and at death. It is also offered
alms; to perform the pilgrimage for Muslims are intended to follow as a testimony throughout the day
to Mecca; and to observe the fast God unencumbered by the heavy when Muslims are called to prayer.
during the month of Ramadan.” burden of religious stipulations. Although succinct, the shahada is
As the Qur’an confirms, “[God] made up of two significant parts.
Known as ‘ibadat (acts of has not laid upon you in religion In the first part, Muslims bear
worship) to Muslims, and often any hardship.” With this in mind, witness to the absolute oneness
referred to as the pillars of Islam,

ISLAM 265

See also: The burden of observance 50 ■ Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68–71 ■ From monolatry to monotheism
176–77 ■ Writing the Oral Law 182–83 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam 270–71

Each Muslim baby has the shahada,
the profession of faith, whispered in
his or her ear at birth; an earlier Arabic
tradition still practiced by many is to
dab honey on the baby’s lips.

of God. This affirms one of the core and evening. In earlier times, and Abdallah ibn ‘Umar
beliefs of Islam (tawhid, or God’s in some cases even today, a prayer
unity), but it also functions as a leader, or muezzin, would ascend Abdallah ibn ‘Umar ibn
reminder that polytheism (belief in a minaret, a tall tower outside the al-Khattab was the oldest son
more than one god) and the worship mosque, and call local Muslims of ‘Umar I, the second leader
of any being or thing alongside, or to prayer by chanting the shahada of the Muslim community after
in association with, God is the and urging them to come to the Muhammad’s death. He was
ultimate sin in Islam. mosque. Today, muezzins often born in the early 7th century
chant into a microphone, which and converted to Islam along
The second part of the shahada projects the summons into the with his father. As a close
recalls that Muhammad is not just community via loudspeakers. companion of Muhammad, Ibn
God’s prophet, but his special Sometimes a prerecorded call Umar stood by the Prophet’s
messenger, surpassing other may be played. Often, Muslims side in several battles and
prophets before him. He is also gather for prayers at a mosque, was esteemed for his nobility
honored as the final prophet. but when this is not possible, and selflessness.
prayers can be performed alone
Commitment to prayer or in groups in any location. Most importantly, Ibn
The second pillar of Islam is salat ‘Umar is known as one of the
(prayer). While Muslims may offer Prayers are preceded by most trustworthy authorities
informal, personal prayers or purification, an act so important that on the early history of Islam.
requests to God as they wish, Muhammad is thought to have said Given his close relationship
the main prayers of Islam are it was “half the faith.” For the five with Muhammad and other
prescribed, quite formal and prayers, Muslims begin by washing important figures in early
regulated, and are a designated their hands, mouth, and nostrils Islam, he had extensive
opportunity to worship God. with water. They wash their entire knowledge of the period.
face and clean their forearms, also He also served as a credible
Muslims are summoned to passing a wet hand over their heads, source for many Hadith
prayer five times every day: at and cleaning their feet and ankles. (sayings) of Muhammad.
dawn, noon, midafternoon, dusk, The number of times each body When he was approximately
part is cleansed varies in different 84 years old, Ibn ‘Umar made
There is no god but God schools of Islam. Having ritually a pilgrimage to Mecca and
and Muhammad is the cleansed themselves, Muslims ❯❯ died there in 693.

messenger of God.
The shahada

266 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH

stand facing the direction of and an offering of peace to others God is most great. I testify
Mecca, the holiest city of Islam, is offered with the words: “May the that there is no god but God.
and recite their prayers. In mosques, peace, mercy, and blessings of God
this direction is marked by a be upon you.” These prayers are I testify that Muhammad
decorated niche known as a mihrab. offered in Arabic and worshippers is the messenger of God.
Outside mosques, Muslims may accompany them with prostrations Hurry to prayer. Hurry to
find the exact direction of Mecca and bows, together with raising success. God is most great.
using specially marked compasses and lowering their hands.
and even web-based applications. Call to prayer
Those praying outside the mosque To non-Muslim observers, the
will usually perform their prayers Islamic prayer rituals may appear through acts of charity, which are
on a special prayer mat, signifying complex and overly regulated. For encouraged, but also by paying an
that the act of prayer is performed Muslims, however, participating alms tax. All adult Muslims who
in a clean place. in the habits of ritual purification are able to do so offer a percentage,
and prescribed prayer allows not just of their monetary income,
Prayer is begun with the them to worship God freely, but of their entire assets for this
declaration, “God is most great.” unencumbered by the burden of tax. This percentage is traditionally
Then Muslims recite a set of fixed their own agendas. As they join in set at 2.5 percent, a figure arrived
prayers that include, among other unison with other Muslims to pray, at by scholarly agreement, and
passages, the opening chapter they are also reminded of God’s drawn from references in the Sunna,
of the Qur’an: “In the name of greatness, knowing that fellow for instance “one-quarter of one-
God, the Most Gracious, the believers all over the world are tenth” of silver. In some cases, the
Most Merciful. All praises and worshipping God in the same way. offering may be up to 20 percent of
thanks be to God, the Lord of the farming or industrial assets.
Universe, the Most Gracious, the The importance of charity
Most Merciful, the Ruler on the Day The third pillar of Islam is zakat Often, almsgiving is voluntary,
of Judgment. You do we worship (almsgiving). A central concern but in some countries it has been
and You we ask for help. Guide us in the Qur’an is the treatment regulated by governments. In such
along the Straight Path, the way of of the poor, marginalized, and cases, stamps made specifically
those on whom You have bestowed disadvantaged. Consequently, for sending alms are distributed.
Your grace, not of those who earned Muslims are enjoined to care for Otherwise, offerings can be placed
Your anger or who are lost.” The the social and economic well-being in distribution boxes in mosques
profession of faith is then repeated of their communities, not simply and at other locations.

Not only is the giving of alms
considered an act of worship to
God, but it is also thought to be
something that is owed. If what

The call to prayer is made from the
top of the mosque’s minaret or tower
by a chosen individual known as a
muezzin, who may also indicate
the prayer schedule to be followed.

ISLAM 267

Righteous are those The direction of Mecca from any location is
who…give the zakat. determined using the Great Circle method—in
other words, the shortest route (over one of the Poles
Sura 2:177 if necessary). Calculating this was a preoccupation
of Muslim scientists during the
Golden Age of Islamic
scholarship, from the
8th to the 13th
centuries.

Muslims receive comes to them condition, considering any wrong prayer said only during the month
from God’s sovereign blessing, committed, remembering God’s of fasting. Likewise, some Muslims
then it is only right for them to great mercy, and contemplating the use Ramadan for acts of piety, such
give to those who have received needs of their communities. as reciting the entire Qur’an.
less. With this in mind, almsgiving
is not considered an act of charity Each morning before daybreak, Ramadan ends with a special
for Muslims, but a duty they families gather for a small meal feast, known as ‘Id al-Fitr, which
perform on behalf of those who that must sustain them throughout breaks the month of fasting. The
require and deserve assistance. the day. In the evening, after dark, feast is obligatory and is an ❯❯
According to the Qur’an, worthy families visit one another and take
recipients of alms are the poor, part in a larger meal that often
orphans, and widows, as well includes special foods, such as
as causes that aim to eliminate dates, which Muhammad is
slavery, to help those who are in believed to have eaten in order
debt, and to spread Islam. to break his fast.

Observance of Ramadan Many Muslims go to their local
The fourth pillar of Islam is mosque for evening prayer during
sawm (fasting), and in particular, Ramadan and recite a special
the fast of Ramadan. This is the
name for the ninth month in the The direction of Mecca, or Qibla, is
Islamic lunar calendar. The commonly shown in public buildings in
penultimate night of this the Muslim world for purposes of prayer.
monthlong fast commemorates the
time when Muhammad received
the first revelation of the Qur’an
from the angel Jibrail. Pious
Muslims may pray for the entire
evening, hoping that their prayers
will be answered. In general during
Ramadan, all Muslims who are
physically able abstain from food,
drink, and sexual relations during
daylight hours. Instead, they use
this time for purifying themselves
by reflecting upon their spiritual

268 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH

The hilal or crescent moon that
appears after the new moon announces
the beginning and the end of the
fasting month of Ramadan, although
this period may also be calculated.

enormously joyous occasion. built by Ibrahim (Arabic for Muhammad’s guidance, it was
Families visit one another to share Abraham) and his son Ismail cleansed of these shrines and
in special meals and to exchange (Arabic for Ishmael) in order to restored as a symbol of worship
gifts and sweets. Businesses often house a black stone given to of the one God, Allah.
close for part of the celebrations, Ibrahim by the angel Jibrail
which can sometimes continue (Gabriel). The stone was meant Before arriving at the Kaaba,
for several days. to symbolize God’s covenant Muslim pilgrims must purify
with Ismail. In pre-Islamic times, themselves. To do so, men wear
Pilgrimage to Mecca the Kaaba was also a pilgrimage seamless white robes and cut their
The fifth pillar of Islam is hajj: site for followers of polytheistic hair, and some even shave their
making a pilgrimage to the holy religions. At that time, the heads. Similarly, some women
city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, Kaaba was filled with shrines to wear white robes, but many others
which begins after the month of various tribal gods. But under choose to wear simple clothing that
Ramadan. Every adult Muslim is traditional to their country of
who is physically able, and has the …eat and drink until origin. In this state of purity, both
financial means to make the trip, the white thread of dawn men and women refrain from sexual
should perform the pilgrimage at appears to you distinct activity, and from wearing jewelry
least once in his or her lifetime. To or perfume. They also refrain from
do so, Muslims travel by whatever from the black thread, bathing, arguing, or anything that
means possible to Mecca. Many then complete your fast might taint their purity. In essence,
Muslim travel agencies even offer everyone in their white robes
special hajj packages to groups until the nightfall. represents not only purity, but unity
and individuals to help ensure Sura 2:187 and equality as well. On the one
a memorable and problem-free hand, the hajj is meant to be free
experience. As pilgrims near the of hierarchy and disunity, placing
city, they often shout, “I am here, emphasis on total devotion to God
oh Lord, I am here!” The main and Muslims’ special worship
focus of the pilgrimage is the
Kaaba, the cube-shaped structure Whoever performs hajj for
sitting at the center of Mecca’s the sake of pleasing God…
Grand Mosque. According to shall return from it as free
tradition, the Kaaba was originally from sin as the day on which
his mother gave birth to him.

Hadith Sahih
Bukhari 26:596

ISLAM 269

I am here, oh Lord, Permissible pilgrimage discouraged, because it might
I am here! lead to worship of things other
Only Muslims may enter the than God—the sin of idolatry, or
Pilgrim’s prayer upon holy city of Mecca and, in shirk. Since there is no concept of
reaching Mecca the very conservative form of a sacred site or shrine, therefore,
Sunni Islam that is practiced in many old buildings in Mecca
Saudi Arabia, the Kaaba is the have been demolished to make
only permissible destination way for new development, giving
for pilgrimage. Under this the city an almost entirely modern
orthodox form of Islam, known appearance. Not all forms of
as Wahhabism, veneration of Islam follow this interpretation
historical sites, graves, and of shirk—Sufism, for example,
buildings associated with holds the tombs of its saints
Islamic history is strongly and scholars in deep reverence.

during the pilgrimage. On the other God, asking for forgiveness for What if the direction of prayer
hand, the great variety shown in the sins of the entire Muslim cannot be established? What if a
female pilgrims’ clothing reflects community. From here, pilgrims Muslim is unable to fast on one of
the diverse character of the global return to Mecca, to the Grand the days of Ramadan? God offers
Muslim community coming Mosque, where they circle the a simple solution to such obstacles:
together in spiritual unison at Kaaba again in a farewell tawaf. “And to God belong the east and
the Grand Mosque. the west, so wherever you turn
The pilgrimage ends with there is the face of God. Surely God
Rites of Mecca a feast commemorating Ibrahim is All-Sufficient for his creatures’
Once pilgrims enter the Grand and his obedience to God. Even needs, All-Knowing.”
Mosque they perform the tawaf, Muslims who have not made the
walking around the Kaaba in an pilgrimage celebrate this feast, The essential point for Muslims
conterclockwise direction seven which lasts for three days. Much is to turn toward God in worship in
times. They will try to get as close food is eaten, with the leftovers the best way that they know how,
as they can to the structure, and, distributed to the poor and needy. until such a point in time when
if possible, will kiss or touch the they may worship him just
black stone exposed in one of Those who have made the as their fellow believers. ■
the Kaaba’s corners. During the journey to Mecca honor the
following seven days, pilgrims faithfulness shown by Ibrahim The Kaaba in Mecca is a square,
pray in the Grand Mosque and by symbolically stoning the devil: stone building that predates Islam
take part in other ceremonies. they throw stones at three pillars by many centuries. The Grand
For example, pilgrims drink water representing evil. Finally, many Mosque was built around it.
drawn from the Zamzam well pilgrims end their pilgrimage
inside the mosque. According to by visiting the city of Medina and
Muslim tradition, this well was the mosque in which the Prophet
miraculously created by God in Muhammad is buried.
order to sustain Ismail as a baby
when he was stranded in the Lightening the burden
desert with his mother, Hajar The five pillars of Islam may be
(Arabic for Hagar). Some pilgrims seen to be representative of the
run between two hills, Safa and faith as a whole, and to reflect the
Marwa, to commemorate Hajar’s light burden that God places on his
search for water. They may also followers. However, although they
travel beyond Mecca, to Mina and show the simplicity of Islam, any
Mount Arafat, where they pray to number of practical difficulties may
be encountered in attempting to
follow the necessary stipulations.

270

THE IMAM IS
GOD’S CHOSEN
LEADER

THE EMERGENCE OF SHI‘A ISLAM

IN CONTEXT W hen the Prophet Muhammad was considered to
Muhammad, founder of have a divine right to rule, but
KEY FIGURE Islam, died in 632, he this prerogative ended with him.
‘Ali ibn Abi Talib had established Islamic authority The majority of Muslims believed
over the entire Arabian peninsula that the small group known as the
WHEN AND WHERE through a campaign of warfare and Companions of the Prophet were
c.632–661, Arabia conquest. However, Muhammad best suited to leadership, since
had no sons who survived him, they were the people most closely
BEFORE and on his death the Muslim guided by Muhammad and they
From 1500 BCE The Hebrew community was divided over who were also the compilers of the
Bible identifies Abraham was to succeed him as their leader. Qur’an. One of Muhammad’s
and his successors as having
been chosen by God to Who should succeed the Prophet Muhammad?
lead the Israelites.
Many followers believe The Shi‘a ‘Ali party believe
1st century CE After his that electing a leader is in that God has indicated
death, Jesus is known as accordance with the Sunna— a line of rightful
Jesus Christ, the Messiah the teachings and sayings succession within the
or anointed one. His mother Family of the Prophet.
Mary becomes a major of Muhammad.
devotional figure.
Sunni Islam is therefore Shi‘a Islam is therefore
c.610 CE In Islam, Muhammad headed by a leader headed by an imam who
is chosen by God to receive
the revelation of the Qur’an. chosen by consensus. is chosen by God.

AFTER
c.1500 The Persian Safavid
dynasty converts from Sunni
to Shi‘a Islam, and Iran
develops as the major bastion
of Shi‘ism, while Arabia
remains mainly Sunni.

See also: God reveals his word and his will 262–69 ■ Striving in the way ISLAM 271
of God 278 ■ The origins of Ahmaddiya 284–85
Further divisions in
The first imam, ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, Shi‘a Islam
and his sons were members of the
Household of the Prophet, so were The succession from ‘Ali, first
seen to have divine knowledge, here imam of Shi‘a Islam, has been
depicted as shining down from heaven. marked by further divisions
caused by disagreement over
closest companions, Abu Bakr, was son-in-law and cousin ‘Ali ibn succession. Disputes after the
adopted as his successor. Abu Bakr Abi Talib, because Muhammad deaths of the fourth and sixth
was to be succeeded in turn by two had publicly honored ‘Ali’s ability imams led to the formation of,
more of the Companions, Umar and to lead the community. Shi‘a respectively, the Five-Imam
Uthman, as caliph, or ruler, of the Muslims take their name from ‘Ali, Shi‘as, or “Fivers,” and Seven-
Islamic territories. These caliphs whom they see as the Prophet’s Imam Shi‘as, or “Seveners.”
were recognized as wise leaders rightful heir—they are known as
and the best of Muslims. Their the Shi‘a ‘Ali (Party of ‘Ali). The Seveners, also known
followers believed that choosing a as Ismaelite Shi‘as, divided
leader by community consensus ‘Ali was eventually appointed to yet again over the question of
best accorded with the ideas in the lead the whole Muslim community which Family member was the
Sunna, Muhammad’s teachings in 656, after the death of Uthman, rightful successor in the eyes
and sayings. These early caliphs but when ‘Ali died, Muslims were of God; their largest branch
were therefore appointed or elected, again divided; Shi‘as supported is known as Nizari Ismailism,
and the supporters of Abu Bakr and ‘Ali’s son as successor, while currently led by the Aga Khan.
his two successors became known Sunnis supported the election of
as Sunni Muslims. Muawiyah I, a powerful governor of Twelve-Imam Shi‘as, or
Syria. To this day, Shi‘as remain a “Twelvers,” are by far the
An alternative choice minority group within the Muslim largest group within Shi‘a
A minority group of believers community, dedicated to ‘Ali and Islam. They believe that their
disagreed with Abu Bakr’s original his successors. These descendants last imam, the six-year-old
appointment; they believed that the of Muhammad, known as imams, Muhammad al-Qa’im, did not
rightful leader should have been a have absolute religious authority— actually die but went into a
close relative of Muhammad, and, their knowledge is considered to be hidden existence in 874, and
in particular, a member of a special divine and infallible. The largest will eventually return as
group known in the Qur’an as the branch of Shi‘a Islam, whose imam the messianic figure known
Household (family) of the Prophet. is currently absent (see right), is led as the Imam al-Mahdi. His
This group claimed that Muhammad by proxy figures, or marjas—for reappearance will signal the
had suggested a successor: his example, Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini. beginning of the ultimate
struggle for good that, in Islam,
Since the dispute concerns marks the end of the world.
the issue of leadership, Shi‘a Islam
is considered a movement within God intends only to remove
Islam, not a separate belief system. from you the impurity [of sin],
However, it does have its own Oh People of the [Prophet’s]
emphases. To the Five Pillars of
Islam Shi‘as add another five: Household, and to purify
making offerings for the benefit of you with purification.
the community, commanding good, Sura 33:33
forbidding evil (all beliefs shared by
many non-Shi‘as), plus two unique
to Shi‘a Islam—loving the Household
of the Prophet, and turning away
from those who do not. ■

272 IN CONTEXT

GOD GUIDES KEY FIGURE
US WITH Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad
SHARI‘A ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i

THE PATHWAY TO HARMONIOUS LIVING WHEN AND WHERE
767–820 CE, Arabia

BEFORE
1500 BCE The Torah records
the Ten Commandments:
religious and ethical laws
given to Moses by God.

7th century CE The Prophet
Muhammad receives the
revelation of the Qur’an;
his sayings and actions are
passed down by his followers.

AFTER
c.14th century Ibn Taymiyyah,
an Islamic scholar, issues a
fatwa against the Mongols for
not basing their laws on shari‘a.

1997 The European Council for
Fatwa and Research is founded
to assist European Muslims in
interpreting shari‘a.

I n Islamic thought, to submit
oneself to God’s guidance
(islam means submission)
is the mark of a true Muslim. To
help followers navigate life in ways
that are pleasing to him, God has
offered a pathway known as shari‘a,
meaning literally “the road to the
watering hole.” In the context of
Arabia’s deserts, a road to water
is a great treasure and, similarly,
shari‘a is the pathway, by God’s law,
to harmonious living. It is a system
of ethics and a science of law (fiqh)
that is meant to govern humankind
and guide everything people do.

This system required sources to
refer to, and, early on, Muslims relied
on Muhammad’s revelations (the

ISLAM 273

See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ The personal quest for truth 144
■ Writing the Oral Law 182–83 ■ God reveals his word and his will 254–61

How do we live a life By looking for We can consult the
that pleases God? his guidance in Qur’an for his word.

every matter.

We can use the We can ask for We can look to the
mind God gave us to the opinion of our Prophet for example.
fellow believers.
reason his will.

All of these things All of these things God guides us
form shari‘a, the path come from God. with shari‘a.

to good living.

Qur’an) and his example (Sunna) for By the 8th century, Muslims differed “The road to the watering hole”—
direction. With his death, however, widely on the application of shari‘a. the literal translation of shari’a—
this guidance ceased. As it was, the Scholar Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad is a concept that has considerable
question of how to apply existing ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i, seen by many as resonance for believers who came
revelations to everyday life, across the father of Islamic jurisprudence, from an unforgiving desert climate.
the various cultures of the growing came to the fore to offer unifying
Muslim community, was a delicate thought on the legal concerns of
matter. Despite the emergence of the day. According to al-Shafi‘i,
Islamic judges who could rule on there were four sources of law: the
public and private concerns, there Qur’an, the Sunna, the consensus
was a call for more uniform and of the community (ijma), and
clearly defined shari‘a. analogical reasoning (qiyas).

Defining Islamic law Believed to be the literal word
Scholars keen to standardize Islamic of God, the Qur’an is the primary
jurisprudence emerged in many source for Islamic principles and
Muslim communities, leading to values. In many passages, it directly
disagreement over how to apply the addresses matters such as murder,
law. Should its scope be restricted to exploitation of the poor, usury, theft,
the teachings of the Qur’an and the and adultery, clearly condemning
Sunna, or could jurists incorporate them. In other instances, the Qur’an
their own analysis and reason? works to curb certain behavior
over time. For example, early ❯❯

274 THE PATHWAY TO HARMONIOUS LIVING

revelations on alcohol suggest that authority to the traditions of the There has come to
while some good may be found Prophet. However, collections of you from God a light and
in it, it may also have a connection Muhmmad’s sayings, actions, and
to sin (2:219). Later revelations what he prohibited and allowed a clear book by which
prohibit Muslims from praying while grew in number, requiring the God guides those who
drinking (4:43), and the latest plainly application of a strict process of
condemn the use of alcohol (5:93). validation. As a result of this, pursue his pleasure
The Qur’an also guides Muslims legitimate traditions of Muhammad to the ways of peace…
in personal and community affairs. —that is, those with a proper chain
For instance, while it does not of authority and not contradicting Sura 5:15–16
expressly prohibit slavery, it does the Qur’an—can be brought to bear
offer guidance on how to treat on legal matters. behalf of wider Muslim society.
slaves. Marriage concerns such as There remained some situations
polygamy, dowry, and inheritance Legal interpretation where no authoritative text existed,
rights for women are also governed. Even with al-Shafi‘i’s definitions, and when consensus could not be
situations could arise that are not reached. Initially, jurists used their
Stipulations such as these are specifically addressed in either the own judgment to arbitrate new legal
explicit in the Qur’an and offer Qur’an or Sunna. With Muhammad concerns. This was known as
clear guidance. However, while no longer alive to offer guidance ijtihad, or striving intellectually,
the Qur’an treats other matters of on such legal matters, the role and incorporated a judge’s personal
morality and civic duty in a similar of interpretation became crucial. opinion or reasoning. Al-Shafi‘i
fashion, much of its treatment of Al-Shafi‘i therefore sought to give restricted the role of personal
legal concerns tends to be generic. authority to legal interpretations reasoning in ijtihad to the use
In these cases, the example of reached by consensus among of deductive reasoning to find
Muhammad given in the Sunna the Muslim community. Early analogous situations in the Qur’an
supplements the Qur’anic material. on, this was a practical way for or Sunna from which new legal
While the Sunna cannot replace the solving problems on which the rulings could be derived. For
Qur’an’s authority, the belief that Qur’an and the Sunna were silent; example, the Qur’an prohibits
Muhammad was inspired by God majority opinion would help in making a sale or a purchase
led to the acceptance of his example reaching decisions. Over time, during the call to Friday prayers:
as authoritative. Al-Shafi‘i refined however, “the community” came Muslims are instead urged to cease
the use of the Sunna in legal to be defined in legal terms as a trading so that they may gather
matters by restricting the use of the collective body of legal scholars for worship (62:9–10). What about
term Sunna to Muhammad. Doing and religious authorities whose other contracts that might be made
so eliminated any confusion with decisions would be made on during the call to prayer? Should a
local customs, and added greater marriage, for example, be arranged
during this time? The Qur’an is
silent on the matter, but analogical

Muslim scholars and religious
leaders are relied upon to interpret
original sources where guidance
on certain matters is not explicit.

Analogical reasoning can be used to ISLAM 275
determine acceptable behavior. The
Qur’an makes no mention of drugs, but Abu ‘Abdallah
does forbid alcohol. So we can infer Muhammad ibn Idris
that other intoxicants are forbidden too. al-Shafi‘i

reasoning can be used to derive a Further schools of law developed Much legend has grown up
legal opinion. If the aim of the in Shi‘a Islam. Given the key role of around the life of al-Shafi‘i.
Qur’an is to discourage actions the imam for Shi‘a Muslims, these As a result, the details of his
preventing Muslims from worship, schools emphasize the traditions of early years remain uncertain,
then, likewise, restriction on ‘Ali and the imams. Muhammad’s but according to the oldest
business can be applied to other cousin ‘Ali is seen by Shi‘as as the surviving accounts he was
contracts, actions, or services such first imam—a point on which Sunnis born in Gaza in 767. When he
as a marriage. Instead of scholars and Shi‘as disagree. Shi‘as often was young, his family moved
merely offering a personal opinion favor the rulings of the imam, their to Mecca, where he studied
on matters such as these, al-Shafi‘i supreme leader and highest authority Hadith (the words and deeds
helped to ground creative thinking on law, over analogical reasoning of Muhammad) and law. He
in the authoritative sources of and community consensus. is said to have memorized
Islam, the Qur’an and the Sunna. the Qur’an by the age of 10.
The schools of law remain in He then moved to Medina,
Schools of law Muslim society today. In regions studying law under Malik ibn
Although al-Shafi‘i’s summation of where Muslims are predominant, Anas, founder of the Maliki
the four sources of law—the Qur’an, scholars rule on legal matters in School of Islamic law. He
the Sunna, community consensus, courts of law and issue fatwas taught in Baghdad, finally
and analogical reasoning—did much (rulings). In turn, judges enforce and settling in Egypt. Through
to unify shari‘a, different schools of uphold the law. Muslims facing more his work as a teacher and
law use these sources in different mundane questions as to the best scholar, he became known
ways. From the 13th century, four way to live a Muslim life may also as the father of Islamic
schools have predominated in ask for authoritative advice. In non- jurisprudence, helping to
Sunni Islam, the largest branch of Muslim societies, local scholars offer shape Islamic legal thought.
the faith. Each school is named for guidance to their communities and, He died in 820 and was
the individual who framed its main in a modern twist, Muslims can also buried in al-Fustat (Cairo).
concerns: Shafi‘i, Hanbali, Hanafi, consult web-based helplines run
and Maliki. The Shafi‘i and Hanbali by international centers devoted Key works
schools rely on evidence from the to Islamic law. While there is still
sources in interpreting law, while debate about how best to derive 9th century Treatise on
the Hanafi and Maliki encourage legal rulings, shari‘a remains for the Foundations of Islamic
analagous reasoning as well. many a straight path to the best Jurisprudence; The Exemplar
life God can give to his followers. ■
My community
will never agree

on an error.
Hadith of Muhammad

276

WE CAN THINK ABOUT
GOD, BUT WE CANNOT
COMPREHEND HIM

THEOLOGICAL SPECULATION IN ISLAM

IN CONTEXT We are told that We do not know how,
all bounty is in or in what sense,
KEY FIGURE the hand of God. this is true.
Abu al-Hasan al-Ash‘ari
Questioning it would We must just believe
WHEN AND WHERE lead to innovation, and accept it.
10th century, Arabia which is forbidden.

BEFORE We can think about God, but
c.990 CE Syrian philosopher we cannot comprehend him.
Abu al-‘Ala al-Ma‘arri uses
rationalism to reject religious I slam teaches that God is actions. This was the conclusion
dogma, denouncing its transcendent, or beyond reached by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari
claims as “impossible.” human comprehension. While in the 10th century, when Islam
this does not prevent Muslims from entered a controversy stirred up
AFTER thinking about God, and reflecting by philosophical speculation about
11th century Ibn Sina on aspects of who he is and what the nature of God.
(known in the West as he does, they must never do so
Avicenna) attempts to in the expectation of being able In the 8th century, caliphs (civil
reconcile rational philosophy to understand his nature or his and religious heads of the Muslim
with Islamic theology. state) of the Abbasid dynasty

11th century Al-Ghazali
writes The Inconsistency
of the Philosophers on
the use of philosophy in
Islamic theology.

12th century Ibn Rushd
(known in the West as
Averroes) publishes a
response to al-Ghazali’s
work: The Inconsistency
of the “Inconsistency.”

ISLAM 277

See also: Defining the indefinable 184–85 ■ The pathway to harmonious living 272–75 ■ The unity of divinity is
necessary 280–81

God…is unlike whatever which was the greatest sin. The he asserted that God might be
occurs to the mind or is Mu‘tazilites proposed that such described as having hands without
pictured in the imagination… references are metaphorical. So, for Muslims knowing how this might
example, a reference to God’s hand be possible. Al-Ash‘ari and his
‘Ali al-Ash‘ari could be interpreted as indicating group of fellow-thinkers, known
his power. They then applied Greek as the Ash‘arites, left the words
had encouraged the development logic to other theological issues, of the Qur’an intact, but also kept
of scholarship and the arts in such as free will, predestination, theological thinking about God
the Islamic world, and Arabic and determining the nature of pure, by refraining from speaking
translations of works by Greek the Qur’an itself—whether it had about him in human terms, since
philosophers, such as Aristotle, existed eternally, or had been God is beyond comprehension. ■
became available to Muslim created by God at some point.
theologians. Some of these scholars Islamic scholars are free to think
applied the new Greek ways Before long, however, the about God and reflect on aspects of
of thinking to the content of the wide-ranging speculation of who he is and what he does, but they
Qur’an. They formed a group called the Mu‘tazilites began to attract must never expect to understand his
the Mu‘tazilites, which became censure and turn public opinion nature or his actions.
a prominent force in Islamic against them. Theological and
theology in the 9th century. philosophical speculation about Mu‘tazilite theologian until the
God is permissible and indeed age of 40, when he abandoned
Radical thinkers important to Islamic thought, but much of Mu‘tazilite thought.
The Mu‘tazilites were inspired by seeking answers to questions not Some say this followed a
the idea that Greek philosophical specifically addressed by the Qur’an theological dispute with his
methods could be used to resolve or Muhammad is, according to teacher, others that he realized
apparent contradictions in the Islam, not only unnecessary, but also there were contradictions
Qur’an. The Qur’an stresses the a sin—bid‘ah, the sin of innovation. between Islam and Mu‘tazilite
unity of God—he is indivisible, theology. He died in 935.
and so cannot have any kind of One Mu‘tazilite thinker,
body, made up of parts, as humans al-Ash‘ari, refused to reduce the Key works
have. Yet there are passages in Qur’an’s descriptions of God to
the Qur’an that specifically refer, metaphors, but he also refused 9th–10th century Theological
for example, to God’s hands and to anthropomorphize God. Instead, Opinions of the Muslims; The
eyes. To take descriptions such Clarification of the Bases of
as these literally would lead to Abu al-Hasan the Religion
anthropomorphism (attributing al-Ash‘ari
human characteristics to God)
and might be seen as comparing Abu al-Hasan al-Ash‘ari
God with the beings he created, was born in around 873 CE
in Basra, in present-day Iraq.
He is credited with much of
the development of kalam (the
science of discourse on divine
topics), and taught many of
Islam’s greatest scholars.
Through his thinking and the
work of his pupils, Ash‘arite
theology became the dominant
school of theology for orthodox
Muslims. He remained a

278

JIHAD IS OUR
RELIGIOUS DUTY

STRIVING IN THE WAY OF GOD

IN CONTEXT D espite the guidance given Even the youngest students learn
by the Qur’an, Muhammad, the importance of striving to be a good
KEY FIGURE and shari‘a, maintaining a Muslim by upholding the faith, seeking
Shams al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi focus on God and a disciplined life God’s mercy, avoiding temptation, and
remains a challenge for Muslims. pursuing justice for others.
WHEN AND WHERE Disobedience is always a temptation
11th century, Persia and evil is a constant presence. stage, Islam should be defended
Muslims, therefore, must constantly with peaceful argument. The third
BEFORE strive to stay close to God and stage allowed for followers to defend
7th century CE Muhammad’s struggle against evil. This striving the Muslim community against
armies conquer and unite or struggling is known as jihad. injustice. In the fourth stage,
much of Arabia under the Muslims are called on to engage in
banner of Islam. For most Muslims, jihad is used armed conflict, within specific legal
in two different ways. The “greater and Qu’ranic guidelines, when the
8th century Islamic expansion jihad” is the most common. This Islamic faith is under threat. ■
continues into Spain in the is the constant struggle against
west and Persia in the east. personal sin, involving repentance
and seeking God’s mercy, avoiding
8th century Legal scholar temptation, and pursuing justice for
Abu Hanifa argues that Islam others. The “lesser jihad”, although
only permits defensive war. less common for Muslims, is the
more widely known. It involves the
AFTER legitimate use of force, sometimes
12th century Ibn Rushd militarily, against those who do evil.
(Averroes), an Islamic
philosopher, divides jihad In the 11th century, one of Islam’s
into four types: jihad by the most noted legal scholars, Shams
heart, by the tongue, by the al-A’imma al-Sarakhsi, discussed
hand, and by the sword. lesser jihad as a four-stage process.
He argued that in the first stage,
1964 Egyptian author Sayyid jihad toward others should be
Qutb argues for jihad as peaceful and passive. In the second
the mission to make Islam
dominant in all the world. See also: Augustine and free will 220–21 ■ The pathway to harmonious living
272–75 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90

ISLAM 279

THE WORLD IS
ONE STAGE OF THE
JOURNEY TO GOD

THE ULTIMATE REWARD FOR THE RIGHTEOUS

IN CONTEXT A ccording to the Qur’an, paradise in a treatise entitled
the end of the world will The Book of Fear and Hope. He
KEY FIGURE be accompanied by the argued that those who truly fear
Abu Hamid Muhammad Day of Judgment, when the fate of God will run toward him, longing
al-Ghazali every person will be determined by for his mercy. Al-Ghazali likens
the scales of justice. Those whose the desire for a meeting with
WHEN AND WHERE good deeds on earth outweigh their God to a farmer who sows seed
1058–1111, Persia bad deeds will proceed to jannah in tilled ground, faithfully waters
(paradise), depicted in Islam as a the seed, weeds the ground
BEFORE luxurious garden; while those regularly, and rightly hopes for
500 BCE The Hebrew Bible whose bad deeds outweigh their a harvest. Similarly, the Muslim
describes humankind’s first good deeds will be relegated to the who believes in God, obeys his
existence in a heavenly garden. fiery torments of jahannam, or hell. commands, and pursues morality
can expect both compassion from
1st century CE Jesus This idea of divine judgment is God and the rewards of paradise. ■
announces the inauguration set against the Qur’an’s pervasive
of God’s kingdom on earth. descriptions of God’s mercy and And nothing but the
forgiveness. Indeed, Muslims are reins of hope will lead to
From 874 Shi‘a Muslims distinguished clearly from non- the vicinity of the Merciful
believe that the hidden imam Muslims as those who hope for and the joy of the Gardens.
will return in the future to God’s mercy. They also hope
usher in the end of days. for a meeting with God (the Day Al-Ghazali
of Judgment is often referred
1014–15 Muslim philosopher to as this in the Qur’an), when
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) writes they will receive his clemency.
his most important work on
eschatology, Al-Adhawiyya. Hope and paradise
The Muslim scholar Abu Hamid
AFTER Muhammad al-Ghazali focused
1190 Muslim philosopher on the relationship between the
Ibn Rushd (Averroes) discusses Muslim concepts of hope and
the Day of Judgment in his
On the Harmony of Religions See also: Preparing for the afterlife 58–59 ■ The promise of a new age 178–81
and Philosophy. ■ Jesus’s message to the world 204–207

280

GOD IS
UNEQUALED

THE UNITY OF DIVINITY IS NECESSARY

IN CONTEXT I slam is a monotheistic religion of tawhid features widely in the
and one of its central tenets Qur’an and forms the first part
KEY FIGURE is tawhid (literally “oneness”) of Islam’s central creed, the
Muhammad ibn Tumart —the doctrine of divine unity. shahada: “There is no god but
According to Muslim thought, there God.” Conversely, the doctrine
WHEN AND WHERE is only one God, and he is single of divine unity also forms the
1082–1130, North Africa in nature; he is not a trinity, as basis for the greatest sin in
Christians believe. The notion Islam, and one that is unforgivable:
BEFORE
c.800–950 CE Aristotle’s works Reason tells us that things However, at the beginning
are translated into Arabic. in the world (including of all events and beings, there
humans) are changing, must be something that was
10th century Muslim impermanent, and were
scholar al-Farabi discusses created by something not itself caused by
the First Cause (God). that preceded them. any other thing.

1027 Persian philosopher Ibn The unique creator did not This is God, the
Sina (known in the West as “begin” and will not end— unique creator.
Avicenna) argues that reason
requires God’s existence. God has existed and
will exist forever.
AFTER
c.1238 Ibn ‘Arabi, a prominent The absolute creator God is one being, that has
Sufi teacher, reflects on the is the only being that no partners or equals.
“Oneness of Being.” is unchanging, eternal, and
the First Cause of everything.
1982 The Palestinian thinker
Ismail al-Faruqi writes
Tawhid: Its Implications
for Thought and Life.

1990 Ozay Mehmet argues
that tawhid is the basis
for Muslim religious and
secular identity.

See also: Defining the indefinable 184–85 ■ A divine trinity 212–19 ■ The ISLAM 281
central professions of faith 262–69 ■ Theological speculation in Islam 276–77
Muhammad
High in the Atlas Mountains of ibn Tumart
Morocco, the Tin mal Mosque became
the spiritual center of the Almohad Muhammad ibn Tumart
creed in the 12th century. was a Berber born in the
Atlas Mountains of modern-
just to scholars, but to a wide day Morocco in around 1082.
audience that would be able to test He traveled to the East to
its assertions against their own study Islamic theology and,
logic and personal experience. growing in religious fervor,
he formed a movement based
shirk, which is the violation of Cause and effect on a desire to reform Islam
tawhid. Literally meaning “to share,” The Almohad creed begins with along the lines of his vision
the sin of shirk is committed when certain sayings of Muhammad that of the oneness of God.
a partner is attributed to God. suggest the notion of divine unity
This is because it suggests either was, to him, the most significant Ibn Tumart returned to
a belief in many gods, or a belief part of Islam. The creed then Morocco around 1118; here his
that God is less than perfect and offers the unique assertion, movement grew in strength
therefore requires a partner. largely derived from Aristotelian and numbers. In 1121, he
philosophy: that reason and logic— proclaimed himself the Mahdi
A creed of unity rather than faith—demand the (Guided One, or redeemer)
Throughout the history of Islam, truth of God’s existence. As a who would restore purity to
Muslims have reflected on the result, those with reason can Islam. He died in around 1130,
notion of divine unity. In the deduce whether or not God exists. before his followers came to
12th century, this gave rise to a reign over large portions of
movement whose followers were The Almohad creed uses northwestern Africa and
known as Al-Muwahhidun (“those deductive reasoning to argue for parts of Spain.
who emphasize unity”), or the God’s unity, building each of its
Almohads. Founded by Muhammad assertions on the one before it. It Ibn Tumart’s movement
ibn Tumart, this movement was argues that everything has a maker receded in the 13th century.
based on its conception of divine —something has caused each None of his texts survive,
unity, which came to be expressed thing in the world to be made although writings about him
in the Almohad ‘aqida, or creed. (whether that was a human making and his followers (including
a tool, or an acorn growing into a those of the Almohad creed)
The Almohad creed combined tree). Humans themselves are are preserved in Le livre de
elements of kalam—theological creations of extraordinary Mohammed ibn Toumert
speculation on God’s nature—with complexity. And if everything in (The Life of Muhammad
direct interpretation of the Qur’an the world was made by something, ibn Tumart).
and the Sunna (the sayings and there must be a being at the
actions of Muhammad). One of its beginning of that chain of cause It is by the necessity
most significant characteristics is and effect that was not brought of reason that the
that it was meant to appeal not about by something before it— existence of God,
the initial cause of everything else.
This being is God—who is unique Praise to Him, is known.
and absolute (without a beginning Almohad ‘aqida
or an end). If we acknowledge his
absolute existence, then we must
also acknowledge that no other god
can share his power, and therefore,
God alone is one and unequaled. ■

282

ARAB, WATER POT,
AND ANGELS ARE
ALL OURSELVES

SUFISM AND THE MYSTIC TRADITION

IN CONTEXT If shari‘a law is, for Muslims, an Muslim elite as they gained in
exterior pathway leading to the power, disenchanted Muslims
KEY FIGURE true worship of God, then Sufi wished to return to what they felt
Jalal al-Din Rumi mysticism is an interior path helping was the purity and simplicity of
its practitioners not only to follow Islam during the time of Prophet
WHEN AND WHERE God, but to be closer to him. In the Muhammad. They pursued an
13th century, Persia early stages of Islam’s development, ascetic lifestyle by removing
simple obedience to the will of God themselves from the material world
BEFORE was not a strict enough doctrine for and seeking a direct, personal
8th century An early Sufi some Muslims. In response to the experience of God. Some Sufi
poet, Rabi‘a al-‘Adawiyya, growing indulgence of the ruling Muslims even declared that God
from Basra, Iraq, fuses was within them.
asceticism and devotion in Revered for his ascetism and
her development of Sufism. kindness, Sufi saint Nizamuddin As Sufism developed, groups,
Awlia’s tomb is visited by thousands or orders, were founded, in which
10th century Persian master of Muslims and non-Muslims each day, religious masters taught the doctrine
al-Hallaj declares in a trance where they light incense and pray. to students. At the heart of many of
“I am the Truth”; his words are these orders lay the belief that the
interpreted as a claim to be self must be renounced in order to
God, for which he is executed. fully abide in God. Accordingly, Jalal
al-Din Rumi, a 13th-century Sufi
AFTER master, wrote of an impoverished
13th century Some Sufi Arab and his greedy wife who live
practices, such as reciting in the desert. The woman urges her
God’s names, are incorporated husband to offer their filled water pot
into Jewish worship. to God, hoping they might receive
something in return. Although
19th century Emir ‘Abd reluctant, the husband succumbs
al-Qadir, a Sufi scholar, leads to his wife’s urgings and offers the
the struggle against the pot—and, in return, it is filled with
French invasion of Algeria. gold. This treasure is, however, of
little use to them in the desert and
21st century More than a therefore acts as a reminder that the
hundred Sufi orders exist. pursuit of wealth and self-interest
detracts from the correct focus on

ISLAM 283

See also: The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59 ■ Zen insights that go
beyond words 160–63 ■ Mystical experience in Christianity 238

God cannot fill a vessel that is already filled.

We must empty We must cleanse We must free
our lives of our minds of our hearts of
earthly desires.
material concerns. selfish distractions.

We must let ourselves be filled by nothing but God. Jalal al-Din
Muhammad Rumi
Thus we will find God within ourselves.
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi
God. In the same parable, Rumi God the merciful, God the great) was born in 1207 in Balkh
recounts the heavenly angels’ or meditative breathing exercises. (in modern-day Afghanistan).
jealousy of Adam. They, too, forsake Becoming absorbed in these His family claimed descent
their focus on God. The parable, for exercises helps the Sufi practitioner from Abu Bakr, the Prophet
Rumi, describes humanity in general to forget worldly attachments and Muhammad’s companion and
and the temptation to pursue the focus more fully on God. successor. After traveling
self. For Sufis, an individual’s focus with his father throughout
should be the denial of the self in Rumi placed particular emphasis Persia and Arabia, he settled
the pursuit of an experience of God. on using both music and dance to in Konya (in modern-day
pursue a direct experience of God’s central Turkey).
Renouncing the worldy presence. The Whirling Dervishes,
In Sufism, achieving a personal the Sufi order founded by his In Konya, Rumi met the
experience of God involves moving followers, use singing or chanting Sufi master Shams-i Tabrizi (of
through successive stages of and bodily movements to enter Tabriz). At the time, Rumi was
renunciation, purification, and ecstatic states to experience union a professor of Islamic sciences,
insight. As a result, not only are with God. Their rhythmic spinning but the Sufi master had such
Sufis ascetic—breaking ties to the dance is said to symbolize the solar a deep impact upon him that
material world through poverty, system, which they mimic by he abandoned his studies in
fasting, silence, or celibacy—but turning in circles around their leader. order to devote himself to
they also place great emphasis mysticism. His followers
on devotional love of God, often In the view of many Muslims, founded the Mawlawi order
through religious experiences or some Sufis pressed the boundaries of Sufis, known to many as
psychological states. This is often of Islamic orthodoxy, and Sufism the Whirling Dervishes.
achieved through the repetition was suppressed from the 17th
of God’s names (for example, century onward. However, orders Though known for his
are still found worldwide, attracting philosophy and scholarship,
both Muslims and non-Muslims. ■ Rumi is best remembered for
his mystic poetry. He died in
Konya in 1273.

Key works

1258–1273 Spiritual Couplets
13th century The Works of
Shams of Tabriz
13th century What is Within
is Within

284

THE LATTER DAYS
HAVE BROUGHT FORTH
A NEW PROPHET

THE ORIGINS OF AHMADIYYA

IN CONTEXT There can be no prophet I n 1882, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
after Muhammad. declared himself to be a minor
KEY FIGURE prophet, or divinely appointed
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad But Islam’s followers have reformer, of Islam. He had come, so
lost the pure message he claimed, to rejuvenate Islam and
WHEN AND WHERE from God that he brought. to return it to its pure foundations.
Late 19th century, India The movement that formed around
A new message is needed him came to be called Ahmadiyya.
BEFORE to steer Muslims back to the
632 The Prophet Muhammad, In orthodox Muslim thinking,
the final prophet of Islam, pure path of the faith. the Prophet Muhammad is the
dies in Medina. final prophet of Islam, and anyone
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, as else claiming the status of prophet
872 The Mahdi, the Hidden renewer and minor prophet, should therefore be denounced. But
One of Shi‘a Islam, disappears, Ghulam Ahmad did not claim to
supposedly not to return until brings that message. bring a new revelation beyond the
the end of the world. Qur’an. Rather, he simply offered a
new interpretation, with the aim of
19th century The anti- bringing the Muslim community
British Indian independence back to its roots. As such he was
movement grows in strength, comparable with other, minor
with some militant elements. prophets who did not bring the law,
but restored it: Aaron, for example,
AFTER who is thought by Muslims to
1908 Hakim Noor-ud-Din have been sent by God to revitalize
assumes Ahmadiyya leadership. the message given to Musa (Moses).

1973 Ahmadiyya splits into Ghulam Ahmad had previously
Qadiani and Lahori groups. developed some unorthodox
teachings. Part of his message was
1983 A Qadiani Ahmadiyya that Isa (Jesus) did not die on the
conference attracts 200,000 cross, nor was he—as Muslims
participants; the following traditionally believed—saved from
year, restrictions are placed death on the cross by being raised
on the group in Pakistan. up to heaven by God. Ghulam
Ahmad claimed that Jesus merely

ISLAM 285

See also: The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252–53 ■ The emergence of Shi‘a Islam 270–71 ■ Striving in the
way of God 278 ■ The rise of Islamic revivalism 286–90

The Qadiani belief in Ghulam
Ahmad’s prophethood continues to
incite strong feeling in orthodox Islam,
even leading to occasional public
protests against the movement.

swooned, subsequently recovered, given to him. For these reasons, as they were willing to go. They,
and went to Afghanistan and Ghulam Ahmad and his followers too, rejected his claim that he
Kashmir in search of the lost were rejected by many Muslims. was a minor prophet.
tribes of Israel. Ghulam Ahmad
also challenged Islamic thinking Even within his own movement, In Pakistan in 1973, Qadiani
concerning jihad, claiming that the Ghulam Ahmad’s assertions Ahmadiyyas were legally declared
only acceptable form was a spiritual caused controversy. After his death non-Muslims, and, in 1984, an
jihad designed to peacefully spread in 1908, the Ahmadiyyas split into ordinance was drafted allowing for
the message of Islam. This was a two factions: Qadiani Ahmadiyyas, punishment of any Qadiani who
particularly significant idea in the who maintained Ghulam Ahmad’s claimed to be a Muslim, used
context of 19th-century India, where teachings, and a new branch Islamic terminology, or referred to
anti-British unrest was growing. known as Lahori Ahmadiyya. his or her faith as Islam. The Qadiani
The Lahori branch accepted Ahmadiyyas have since moved their
Controversial claims Ghulam Ahmad as a renewer of international headquarters from the
Ahmad’s claims evolved as his the Islam faith, but this was as far Indian subcontinent to London. ■
followers grew in number, and he
declared himself not just to be Islam’s
prophetic reformer, but its redeemer
—a messianic figure known to
Muslims as the Mahdi—and the
spiritual successor of Jesus. For
many Muslims, these claims went
too far and challenged the place of
Muhammad and the revelation

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was born a set of rules to guide all who
in 1835 in Qadian, a village near joined his movement. Ghulam
Lahore in India. His twin sister Ahmad traveled widely across
died shortly after their birth. In northern India, spreading his
a society where the majority was message and debating with
illiterate, Ghulam Ahmad studied Islamic leaders. He died in 1908,
Arabic and Persian, and learned leaving the leadership of the
aspects of medicine from his Ahmadiyya movement to a
father, a physician. As a young companion, who eventually
man, he took a position with the passed it to Ahmad’s eldest son.
government, while continuing
his religious studies. Key works

He announced his divine 1880–84 The Arguments
mission in 1882, and in 1888 he of the Ahmadiyya
asked his followers to formally 1891 Victory of Islam
pledge allegiance to him. Some 1898 The Star of Guidance
40 did so, and in 1889 he published

ISLAM MUST

SHED THE INFLUENCE OF

THE WEST

THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM



288 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM

IN CONTEXT Islam grows weak Islam must be strong to
under the influence of offer itself as the best
KEY FIGURE Western powers and system of living for
Sayyid Qutb
ideas. the world.
WHEN AND WHERE
20th century, Egypt Muslim countries We must return to the
and communities example of Muhammad
BEFORE must be governed
1839–97 Activist and writer well, according to and the Qur’an to
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani Islamic principles. regain Islam’s
criticizes the colonial presence
in Islamic countries. Such governance will purity.
guide Muslims back
1849–1905 Egyptian Islam must shed
scholar, jurist, and reformer to the message of the influence of
Muhammad ‘Abduh decries the Qur’an.
Western influence. the West.

1882 British forces occupy
Egypt. The British presence
and influence grow with time.

AFTER
1903–79 Abul A’la Mawdudi,
a revivalist thinker, becomes
one of the most widely read
Muslim writers.

1951 Ayman al-Zawahiri, a
friend of Sayyid Qutb, plays
a major role in the militant
group al-Qaeda.

By the end of the 18th century, that science and technology, each had their own contexts and
the world’s great Muslim Western politics and economics, emphases, they were all aware of
powers were in decline. and even fashion had in their lives. the weakness of the global Islamic
The Ottoman and Mughal empires Some wished simply to protect community at the time, and felt
had lost political influence, and Islam against the secularization that Muslims straying from Islam
Western powers were colonizing that came with modernization; under Western influence were
the predominantly Muslim areas others were more militant and responsible. As a result, they sought
of northern Africa and parts of anti-Western, seeking to overthrow to revive the role of Islam as the
Asia—French North Africa, British imperialist governments; others dominant influence in their societies.
India and the Middle East, and still were prepared to accept a
Dutch Indonesia. Some Muslims degree of Western influence, but Many Muslim revivalists felt
welcomed the changes and sought clear dictinctions between that the best way forward was to
modernizations that came with what was Islamic and un-Islamic. restore Islam by not only shedding
the Western presence. For others, the influence of the West, but by
however, the influence of the West Out of this context emerged a emphasizing the superiority of
forced them to consider the place number of very influential Islamic Islam as well. To do this, they
thinkers and reformers. Although argued for the central role of jihad

See also: God reveals his word and his will 254–61 ■ The pathway to ISLAM 289
harmonious living 272–75 ■ Striving in the way of God 278
Sayyid Qutb
and corrupt under British colonial
rule. Having become disillusioned Born in 1906 in Qaha, a
by his experience of the West and farming town just north of
its cultural influence, Qutb sought to Cairo, Sayyid Qutb attended
lead fellow Muslims out from under a local school, where he
foreign control and back to Islam. He memorized the Qu’ran by
wrote extensively on the Qur’an and the age of 10. He went on to a
its interpretation, as well as matters British-style education in Cairo
of religion and the state, and joined and began work as a teacher.
the Muslim Brotherhood, a group At first enamored with
formed in Egypt in the 1920s, Western culture, he developed
which aimed to use the Islamic an interest in English literature
faith as a means of “ordering the and studied educational
life of the Muslim family, individual, administration in the US.
community…and state.”
However, his experience
Egyptian workers are searched by Ages of ignorance of what he considered the
British soldiers during the Suez Crisis Qutb’s interpretation of jihad was irreligious culture of the US,
in 1956. Religious insensitivity and consistent with the perception of along with his view of British
poor treatment by the British troops Islam as a religion that provides the policies during World War II,
fed Islamic revivalism. perfect model for living. He believed soured his vision of the West.
that Muslims had an obligation to Back in Egypt, he joined the
(p.278) in religious and political life. establish their moral standards on Muslim Brotherhood, began
Taken in this sense, jihad became earth so that everyone could benefit writing on Islamic topics, and
a revolutionary struggle against from them. Jihad, then, became a advocated an Islamic ideology
un-Islamic forces, eliminating continual struggle against unbelief in place of Western influences.
perceived evil in pursuit of what and injustice, or what Qutb called
revivalists believed was justice jahiliyya. This term was traditionally In 1954, Qutb was arrested
and righteousness. Likewise, the used to describe the age of ignorance along with other Muslim
revivalists thought that immoral —the period before the revelation of Brotherhood members for
governments should be replaced the Qur’an—but it was applied by conspiring to assassinate
by Islamic systems established Qutb to everything he considered ❯❯ Egypt’s president, Gamal
according to divine principles. In Abdel Nasser. After serving
many Muslim revivalists’ minds, a I went to the West and saw a 10-year sentence, he was
government based upon the Qur’an Islam, but no Muslims; I got released, only to write his
and Islam would provide the perfect most controversial work,
social system, and the best way back to the East and saw Milestones, in which he called
to achieve it was by a jihad that Muslims, but not Islam. for a re-creation of the Muslim
expressed itself through militant Muhammad ‘Abduh world based on Qur’anic
action, resistance, and revolution. principles. In so doing, he
rejected forms of government
Egyptian activism that were not truly Islamic. He
Sayyid Qutb, a Muslim activist in was arrested and sentenced to
20th-century Egypt, became one death for plotting to overthrow
of the most influential revivalist the Egyptian state. In August
thinkers. From Qutb’s perspective, 1966, he was executed and
Egypt had grown increasingly weak buried in an unmarked grave.

Key Works

1949 Social Justice in Islam
1954 In the Shade of the
Qur’an
1964 Milestones

290 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM

We…believed once in English He strongly opposed any system …Islam possesses or is
liberalism and English of government in which people capable of solving our basic
were in “servitude to others,” problems…without doubt
sympathy; but we believe considering this to be a violation it will be more capable than
no longer, for facts are of God’s sovereignty. This included any other system we may
communist nations (because of seek to borrow or imitate,
stronger than words. Your their state-imposed atheism) as
liberalness we see plainly well as polytheist nations such as to work in our nation.
India, and Christian and Jewish Sayyid Qutb
is only for yourselves… states. Qutb also argued that
Sayyid Qutb many Muslim countries lived in exerted their influence. This
a state of jahiliyya because they meant that Muslim scholars
alien to Islam. For him, jahiliyya accepted alien—and in particular who interpreted the Qur’an in
was not just a period of time, but Western—ideas and tried to such ways as to suggest that its
a state of being that was repeated incorporate them into their discussions of jihad were no longer
every time a society strayed from governments, laws, and cultures. applicable in the modern world
the path of Islam. For Qutb, the only effective way were misled. Qutb argued that
to rid society of jahiliyya was by jihad was meant to be enforced
Islamic governance implementing an Islamic way of in his day in the same way it was
Qutb applied the concept of life with its superior strategies and when the Qur’an was revealed; this
jahiliyya to governments that he beliefs for governing humanity. might not mean eliminating every
did not consider properly Islamic. non-Muslim from power, but it did
Renewed jihad mean shedding the influence the
This line of thinking about West had upon the world. Muslims
jahiliyya led Qutb and his followers should do what was necessary
to advocate the implementation of to ensure that a pure Islam as
jihad. Understood this way, jihad a system of governance could
might be necessary for each new flourish uninhibited by un-Islamic
generation of Muslims, at least as pressures. In this way, Qutb helped
long as foreign, un-Islamic forces to shape not only how future
Islamic revivalists would see
the world but how the people in
the West would come to perceive
Islam in the late 20th century. ■

Supporters of Mohamed Morsi,
a prominent member of the Muslim
Brotherhood, celebrate his election as
President of Egypt in 2012. The Muslim
Brotherhood remains a major force in
Egyptian social and political life.

ISLAM 291

ISLAM CAN BE A
MODERN RELIGION

THE COMPATIBILITY OF FAITH

IN CONTEXT O ne of the most significant Tariq Ramadan advises European
questions faced by governments on Muslim relations;
KEY FIGURE Muslims today is how he is a prominent communicator
Tariq Ramadan to relate Islamic faith to secular, and advocate of Muslim integration.
modern life. This question becomes
WHEN AND WHERE more pressing when people from take the traditional sources referred
1960s, Switzerland Muslim countries move to the to by Islamic scholars—the Qur’an
West, bringing with them not just and Sunna—and to interpret them
BEFORE their religion, but their religion as in the context of their own cultural
711 CE Muslims begin raids practiced in a specific cultural background, taking responsibility
on the Iberian Peninsula. context. As a result, many Muslims for their faith in the environment
face a disconnection between what they inhabit. Ramadan’s goal is to
827 Muslims begin conquest is Islamic and what is modern, help Muslims contextualize many
of Sicily and establish an secular, or Western. modern issues facing Islam, so that
Emirate in 965. they are able to become Western
The idea developed by Tariq Muslims whose culture and religion
15th century Islamic Ramadan—an Islamic scholar, are compatible. ■
Ottoman Empire expands whose family went into exile from
in the Balkans. Egypt to Switzerland because of
his father’s membership of the
AFTER Muslim Brotherhood (p.289)—is that
1960s Large-scale Muslim it is possible to be at once a Muslim
emigration begins from and an American or a European:
Turkey and northern Africa religion and national culture are
to Europe. separate concepts, and it is the
duty of a Muslim not only to respect
1979 The Iranian Revolution the laws of the host country’ but to
leads to the overthrow of Iran’s “contribute, wherever they are, to
Westernizing government. promoting good and equity within
and through human brotherhood.”
2008 Rowan Williams, the Ramadan encourages Muslims to
Archbishop of Canterbury,
states that the adoption of See also: Faith and the state 189 ■ Progressive Judaism 190–95
aspects of shari‘a law is ■ The central professions of faith 262–69
inevitable in the UK.

MODERN

RELIGIO

FROM 15TH
CENTURY

NS

294 INTRODUCTION

Guru Nanak founds Claiming guidance Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Western trade in
Sikhism in the Punjab from God and the angel Nuri proclaims the Pacific region
region of India during Moroni, Joseph Smith, leads to the rise of
Jr. translates the Book of himself a messenger the so-called cargo
a time of tension Mormon and founds the of God, adopts the cults in Melanesia
between Hindus Church of Jesus Christ of title Baha’u’llah, and and New Guinea.
and the Muslim Latter-day Saints, US. founds the Baha’i
Mughal Empire. Faith in Persia.

1499 1830 1863 1885
18TH–19TH CENTURY 19TH CENTURY 1880S 1926

Creole religions evolve A number of new The Watch Tower Tract After a revelation
within communities of religions emerge Society, part of the Bible from the Supreme
African slaves in the in Japan, including Student Movement in the
Tenrikyo, Oomoto, US, lays the foundations Being, Ngô Van
Caribbean. and Kurozumikyo. for what becomes known as Chiêu founds the
the Jehovah’s Witnesses. Cao Ðài religion

in Vietnam.

M ost of the world’s major in Europe, and the exploration and Their status as new religions
religions evolved out of colonization of new lands—gave depends greatly on how much
the ancient civilizations, rise to a number of new religious they are accepted or rejected
with their foundations in the folk movements fueled by reluctance to by the parent religions.
traditions that preceded them. compromise in the face of change.
The Abrahamic religions (Islam, In some cases, syncretic
Judaism, and Christianity), for New faiths religions—amalgams of two
example, trace themselves back to It is often difficult to determine very different faiths—have evolved,
the stories of Noah and the Flood, whether a breakaway group is especially among displaced or
long before any Middle Eastern a branch of an older religion, or a oppressed people. For example,
civilizations, and, similarly, the completely new faith. Mormons while Africans taken to the
various branches of Hinduism and Jehovah’s Witnesses, for Caribbean as slaves were forced to
are based on beliefs that predate example, both believe in the adopt their masters’ Christianity,
Indian civilization. divinity of Jesus, but many of their they used it as a framework for
other beliefs separate them from practicing the religions of their
As philosophical and scientific mainstream Christianity. Similarly, homelands, resulting in creole
thinking became increasingly Tenrikyo and other new Japanese faiths, such as Santeria (also
sophisticated over the millennia, religious movements bear many known as Regla de Ocha or
these faiths faced a choice: to similarities to both Buddhism Lukumí), Candomblé, Orisha-
adapt with the times and embrace and Shinto, and both the Hare Shango, and Vodun (or Voodoo),
change, or denounce anything Krishna and Transcendental depending on the tribe they had
new as heretical. Breakaway sects Meditation movements are come from. In the 20th century, a
emerged, and—driven by events obviously derived from Hinduism. Jamaican religion, the Rastafari
such as the Industrial Revolution movement, grew out of the Black

MODERN RELIGIONS 295

The Rastafari Based on L. Ron Maharishi Mahesh A.C. Bhaktivedanta
movement begins Hubbard’s theories of Yogi founds the Swami Prabhupada
in Jamaica, after Dianetics, Scientology Transcendental
Ras Tafari becomes takes the Hindu
is developed as a Meditation movement, tradition of chanting
Emperor Haile religion in the US. using traditional Hindu to the US, where he
Selassie I of Ethiopia. meditation techniques. founds ISKCON, the Hare
Krishna movement.

1930 1952 1957 1965
1950S 1954 1961 1992

One of a number of Sun Myung Moon The “non-creedal, In China, Li Hongzhi
neopagan religions, establishes the non-doctrinal” Unitarian combines meditative
Wicca is founded in Universalist Association qigong practices with
Britain after the repeal Unification Church Daoist and Buddhist
of the Witchcraft Act. in Korea. is founded in the US. ideas in Falun Dafa,
also called Falun Gong.

Consciousness movement, building the indigenous American people. such as ISKCON, Transcendental
a mythology around the Emperor Other modern religions have been Meditation, and Falun Gong; while
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, a country established with the aim of uniting others, notably Scientology and
that Rastafarians consider to be all faiths, or at least recognizing some modern Japanese religions,
Judah. Western influence in the the validity of other beliefs and have grown out of loosely science-
Pacific region also led to new embracing them in their own faith: based beliefs. Many of these
varieties of traditional folk religions, these, which include Baha’i, Cao Ðài, new religions were founded by a
known as the cargo cults. and Unitarian Universalism, have charismatic leader or prophet who
arisen in various areas of the world claimed divine revelation, and have
Many other new religions have where a variety of major faiths have been dismissed as cults designed
emerged as specific to a particular historically coexisted. for the glorification of their leaders.
location. Sikhism, for example, is Some such faiths have declined in
associated with the Punjab region Search for the spiritual popularity, but others have gained
of Pakistan and India; the religion A quest for mystical enlightenment a strong following and an eventual
was founded as a reaction to the produced the Hasidic movement in acceptance as new religious
hostility between Hindus and Judaism, and Sufism in Islam, and movements in their own right.
Muslims in the area, and was some Christian denominations Before dismissing them, it is as
based on a peaceful, democratic have become more charismatic in well to remember that Christianity
social foundation. The Church of recent years. Others in the West was initially considered a cult
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints have drifted away from religious by the Romans and Jews, and
in its Book of Mormon provided a tradition: some to the past and that Muhammad was driven out
specifically US addition to the neopagan religions such as Wicca; of Mecca with his small group of
Christian Bible, with a mythology others to movements from the East followers for his heretical beliefs. ■
of saints and angels among

WE MUST

LIVE AS

SAINT-SOLDIERS

THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT



298 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT

IN CONTEXT The Sikh religion was the first of a succession of 10
founded by Guru Nanak, Sikh gurus, whose teachings are
KEY FIGURE a devoutly spiritual man collected in the Sikh holy book,
Guru Nanak who became disillusioned with the Adi Granth. This book came
the Hinduism that had surrounded to be considered as the 11th and
WHEN AND WHERE him when he was growing up in final guru of Sikhism, and is known
15th–16th century, India a village near Lahore (in modern as the Guru Granth Sahib (p.303).
Pakistan) in the 15th century. Nanak’s followers became known
BEFORE Islam had also influenced this as Sikhs, from the Sanskrit word for
6th century BCE Jainism and area since the 10th century, learner or disciple, guided in their
Buddhism reject the Hindu and its importance grew as the way of life by God and the gurus.
concept of a just war, arguing Mughal empire in India expanded.
for absolute nonviolence. Finding God in a good life
Guru Nanak viewed the Hindu Like Hindus, Sikhs believe in the
7th century CE The Qur’an emphasis on ritual, pilgrimage, cycle of death and rebirth. However,
contains verses that suggest and reverence for prophets and they take a different view of the
war in the defense of the faith holy men as a hindrance to what purpose of human life. For the Sikh,
and the faithful is righteous. he considered most important—our the aim is not to attain a place in
relationship with God. Although paradise, since there is no final
AFTER he used many different names destination of heaven or hell.
1699 The Sikh Khalsa order for God, he recognized him as Instead, Sikhism teaches that
sets out the conditions and one omnipresent, transcendent being born human is a God-given
principles justifying conflict. divinity, similar to the concept of opportunity to take the path to
Brahman in Hinduism. Following salvation, which follows five stages,
18th century Sikh armies a revelation from God when he from sinning to achieving freedom
engage in war with the was around 30 years old, Nanak from the cycle of death and rebirth.
Mughal and Afghan empires. devoted his life to preaching the The five stages are: wrongdoing;
path to salvation. He argued that devotion to God; spiritual union
1799 The Sikh kingdom the way in which believers conduct with God; attainment of eternal
of Punjab is established. their lives is an integral part of bliss; and freedom from rebirth.
achieving unity with God and
1947 The partition of India finding salvation. After accepting To make the most of this
and Pakistan splits Punjab and the title of guru, or teacher, from his opportunity, Sikhs follow a strict
sparks religious tension. followers, he went on to become code of conduct and conventions,

A good Sikh should:

Conquer the Wear the five Keep God in Defend the
five vices. articles of faith. mind at all times. faith and protect

the weak and
oppressed.

We must live as saint-soldiers.