DK THE ECOLOGY BOOK

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 299

IMASGAAENNDETIVSETRUYRWBIHNEGRE

HUMAN DEVASTATION OF EARTH

IN CONTEXT T he widely held view that George Perkins Marsh in an
the natural world existed to engraving from 1882. As well as being
KEY FIGURE be exploited by humankind an environmentalist, the Vermont
George Perkins Marsh saw a major rebuttal in the form of native was also a skilled linguist,
(1801–82) the 19th-century environmental lawyer, congressman, and diplomat.
movement. Arguments against
BEFORE the “imperial” attitude to nature, Marsh believed that people must
1824 Joseph Fourier, a French which had prevailed since the dawn be made aware of their destructive
physicist, describes the of global exploration in the late 15th impact and find new ways of
greenhouse effect—later century, began with naturalists such managing natural resources to
identified as a contributing as Gilbert White, and were echoed preserve the natural equilibrium.
factor in global warming. in the sentiments of Romanticism. An activist as well as writer, he
Such ideas tended to focus on the helped establish the principle
1830s Scientists posit that the idealization of nature, rather than of protected areas, and inspired
Dutch colonization of Mauritius examining the harm done by human the idea of sustainable resource
in the 17th century caused the conquests of the natural world. management that became a core
dodo to become extinct. element of the 19th-century
In contrast to the emotive environmental movement. ■
AFTER Romantic responses to modernism,
1962 In the US, Rachel American polymath George Perkins
Carson’s Silent Spring Marsh took a close look at humans’
describes the harmful effect of impact on the environment and
pesticides on the environment. suggested changes. Marsh was
horrified by the destructive effects
1971 Greenpeace is founded of human management of natural
by American environmentalists. resources. In his book Man and
Nature, Or, Physical Geography as
1988 The Intergovernmental Modified by Human Action (1864),
Panel on Climate Change he pointed in particular to the mass
(IPCC) is set up to assess the deforestation which had virtually
“risk of human-induced desertified some areas of the US.
climate change.”
See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ A plastic wasteland 284–285
■ Humankind’s dominance over nature 296 ■ Environmental ethics 306–307

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ESNOELRAGRY

IASNBDOTWHIWTHITOHUOUTTCLOIMSITT

RENEWABLE ENERGY

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302 RENEWABLE ENERGY B y the late 19th century, fears By contrast, fossil fuels—such
were already growing in as coal, oil, and gas—have taken
IN CONTEXT industrial Europe that the thousands of years to form, and
world could not rely on fossil fuels when exhausted, cannot be
KEY FIGURE forever. When the first working replaced. Natural gas is an
Werner von Siemens selenium solar cell panel was built abundant fossil fuel, but its
(1816–92) in 1883 by American inventor extraction can cause environmental
Charles Fritts, the progressive problems, such as earth tremors
BEFORE German industrialist Werner von and water contamination. Nuclear
2nd century bce The first Siemens immediately recognized its power, although sustainable for a
water wheels mark a labor- huge potential for renewable energy. long period of time, is not considered
saving turning point in the He declared: “the supply of solar renewable because its production
history of technology. energy is both without limit and requires a rare type of uranium ore.
without cost.” Yet, because no one
1839 French physicist Edmond at the time understood exactly how Energy sources such as solar
Becquerel creates the first selenium created photoelectricity, power, wind, and water are also
photovoltaic cell, using light to and Siemens’s calls for more generally “clean”—unlike fossil fuels,
produce a weak voltage. experiments went unheeded, solar they produce zero or very low
cells were not developed until the greenhouse gas emissions. However,
1873 French inventor Augustin 1950s. Today, solar power is the not all renewables are clean. People
Mouchot warns that fossil fuels fastest growing source of new have burned wood and animal dung
will run out in the future. energy and predicted to dominate for heat and light for hundreds of
future growth in renewables. thousands of years. Trees can be
1879 The first hydroelectric replanted and animals produce more
power plant is built at Niagara Renewables v. fossil fuels dung, so the practice is sustainable,
Falls in the United States. Human civilizations have drawn but burning such fuels also emits
on renewable energy for millennia— carbon dioxide (CO2), which is one
AFTER from burning firewood to
1951 Construction of the first harnessing the wind to propel The Ivanpah solar plant in the
grid-connected nuclear power sailing ships. Renewable sources Mojave Desert, California, generates
plant begins at Obninsk in the such as sunlight or tidal power enough concentrated solar power
USSR. It produced electricity are not at all depleted by use. to serve more than 140,000 homes
from 1954 to 1959. at peak hours of the day.

1954 Bell Laboratories in the
US develop the first practical
silicon photovoltaic cell.

1956 American geologist
Marion King Hubbert predicts
declining oil production after
the year 2000.

1966 The world’s first tidal
power station starts operating
on the Rance River in France.

2018 The International Energy
Agency predicts that the share
of renewables in meeting
global energy demands will
increase by a fifth to reach
12.4 percent in 2023.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 303

See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Ozone depletion Artificial
260–261 ■ Depletion of natural resources 262–265 ■ Waste disposal 330–331 photosynthesis

Solar energy is derived Solar radiation can Since the early 1970s, scientists
from solar radiation. be used to produce have been working to develop
the technology to mimic the
energy on Earth. process of photosynthesis and
create liquid fuels from carbon
Solar energy is The supply of this dioxide, water, and sunlight.
without limit. energy will not stop All three are plentiful, so if the
as long as the Sun exists. process can be replicated it
could produce an endless,
reason why, unlike other forms through an evaporative process, relatively inexpensive supply
of renewable energy, they are not first adopted by 16th-century Arab of clean fuel and electricity.
classed as “alternative” sources. alchemists and used on an
industrial scale in Chile in the late There are two crucial steps:
Renewable, clean energy will 19th century. In the developing to develop catalysts that use
have huge long-term benefits for world, solar disinfection is bringing solar energy to split water into
populations and ecosystems. It safe drinking water to more than oxygen and hydrogen, and
reduces pollution, mitigates against two million people; the process to create other catalysts that
global climate change, builds involves using solar heat and ultra- convert hydrogen and carbon
sustainability, and increases the violet light to kill pathogens. dioxide into an energy-dense
energy security of countries. If it fuel, such as liquid hydrogen,
can be provided cheaply enough, Wind power ethanol, or methanol. Scientists
it will also pull many people out For more than 2,000 years, people at Harvard University recently
of poverty. In some 30 countries, have built windmills to pump water used catalysts to split water
renewable energy now makes up and grind grain. Today, wind farms into oxygen and hydrogen,
more than 20 percent of the supply. onshore and offshore account for then fed the hydrogen, plus
around 9 percent of renewable carbon dioxide, to bacteria.
Solar energy energy consumption. A wind The bioengineeered bacteria
The Sun’s power could supply the turbine’s hugeblades turn around converted the carbon dioxide
world’s energy needs several times a rotor attached to a main shaft, and hydrogen into liquid
over. The International Energy which spins a generator to produce fuels. The next challenge is
Agency (IEA) believes that—in electricity. Wind power is now the to transfer a successful lab
the short term—it has the greatest leading area of energy growth in experiment into something
potential of all the renewables. Its Europe, the US, and Canada. commercially viable.
radiation can be converted directly Almost 50 percent of Denmark’s
into electricity via photovoltaic cells energy comes from the wind, and This solar fuel generator mimics
(as with solar panels on buildings) in Ireland, Portugal, and Spain the the way plants turn sunlight and
or indirectly by using lenses or figure is 20 percent. Its global carbon dioxide in the air into energy
mirrors to create heat, which can potential is thought to be around and oxygen.
be converted to electricity. This is five times its present level.
called concentrated solar power.
It is only economic to build wind
Solar panels on a roof can heat farms where there is regular wind,
domestic water. Sunlight can be however, so the potential is not ❯❯
employed to desalinate water

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304 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Hot-dry-rock energy oil, aims to overcome this … the wind and the sun
problem by fracturing rock and the earth itself provide
Natural rock fractures that bring strata and injecting water into fuel that is free, in amounts
hot water to the surface from it at a great depth. The water that are effectively limitless.
deep underground have been is heated by contact with the
described as the “low-hanging rock, then returns to the surface Al Gore
fruit” of geothermal energy through production wells.
because they are easy to exploit. Depending on the economic American environmentalist and
However, they are rare in most limits of drill depth, the former US Vice President
parts of the world. The vast technology might be feasible
majority of geothermal energy across many parts of the world,
locked beneath Earth’s surface but there are risks. Like fracking,
is in dry, nonporous rock. EGS can cause small earth
tremors, so it should not be
The enhanced geothermal conducted near populated areas
system (EGS), a similar process or power stations.
to fracking for natural gas and

evenly spread around the globe. Paleolithic times. Ancient Romans close to the surface. The potential
Offshore wind is generally stronger made use of it to heat their villas. is much greater, but drilling for
and more regular than onshore. Today it is employed to generate deep resources is very expensive.
Floating turbines can generate electricity in at least 27 different
wind energy far offshore, unlike countries, with the United States, Water power
seabed-anchored wind turbines, the Philippines, and Indonesia the Since water is 800 times denser
which have to be sited in shallow world’s leading producers. than air, even a slow-moving flow
water close to the coastline. can yield considerable amounts of
Geothermal heat is also utilized energy if harnessed, for instance,
Geothermal energy directly to heat homes and roads by dams or tidal barrages that drive
The heat in Earth’s interior is in Iceland. Technology is now
derived both from the original being developed that will use China’s Three Gorges Dam, the
formation of the planet and from geothermal hot water to operate world’s largest hydroelectric dam, was
the radioactive decay of materials desalination plants. The only completed in 2012. Critics point to its
within it. People have bathed in hot drawback of this renewable energy ecological impact on the Yangtze River’s
pools, where geothermally heated source is that it is concentrated habitat and biodiversity, and the risk for
water reaches the surface, since near tectonic plate boundaries, local people of flooding and landslides.
where Earth’s mantle heat rises

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 305

turbines connected to generators. World energy supply by source in 2016
China is the biggest producer of
hydroelectric power (HEP), with Hydro
45,000 small installations in addition 2.5%
to “big-dam” schemes such as the
Three Gorges project, whose 32 Coal Natural Biofuels
giant turbines have the capacity 27.1% gas and
to produce 22,500 megawatts of waste
electricity. A downside of big HEP 22.1% 9.5%
schemes is that reservoirs created Renewables
upstream of the dam can flood 13.7%
good farmland, forcing people to
relocate and destroying ecosystems. Oil Nuclear
Despite this, the IEA has estimated 31.9% 4.9%
that by 2023, hydropower will be Others
meeting 16 percent of the global 0.3% Other
demand for electricity. renewables 1.7%

Tidal power is based on the A pie chart illustrating the sources for the total
same principle: moving water turns energy produced and supplied throughout the world
turbines, which drive electricity in 2016, according to data published by the IEA.
generators. The source of energy “Others” includes nonrenewable wastes and other
from a tidal scheme is reliable, sources not included elsewhere such as fuel cells.
generating power each time the
tide ebbs and flows, but such of Scotland in 2000, and the first grain for biofuels, can also damage
schemes are expensive to construct. multi-generator wave farm opened the environment. Perhaps because
At present, the largest is the Sihwa at Aguçadoura in Portugal in 2008. of this, biomass is a more common
Lake Tidal Power Station in South fuel in nations that cannot afford
Korea, which was completed in Biomass other renewable options. According
2011 and has reduced the annual Organic matter from plants or to the IEA, the majority of solid
amount of CO2 the nation generates animals is known as biomass. biofuel supply in 2016 took place in
by 315,000 tons (286,000 tonnes). It contains stored energy because Africa, accounting for 33.2 percent.
Wave power involves the capture plants absorb the solar power they
of wave energy through a converter. need for growth via photosynthesis, The future
The first commercial wave power and creatures absorb that energy As growth in renewables increases,
scheme began off the west coast either from the plants they eat the advantages of each type must
or from what their prey consumes. be balanced against their adverse
… someday, renewable energy Creating a renewable fuel from effects—from biomass pollution to
will be the only way for people plant, animal, and human waste the reported role of wind turbine
to satisfy their energy needs. products such as straw, dung, and blades in the deaths of migrating
garbage may seem an attractive birds. In 2014, the IEA predicted that
Hermann Scheer option, and some coal-fired power renewables would provide 40 percent
stations have been converted to of global energy needs by 2040. In
President, European Association wood-burners. Burning biomass 2018, the IEA further predicted that
for Renewable Energy produces heat, electricity, and renewables would account for almost
transport fuels, such as ethanol and a third of all world electricity by
biodiesel. However, biomass energy 2023, with solar power taking the
is not necessarily “clean.” Burned biggest share. Energy from ocean
as a fuel, biomass releases CO2, and currents could also generate huge
creates air and particle pollution. amounts of electricity, as could
Clearing prime forest for its wood or large arrays of solar panels in space
to cultivate biomass crops, such as or floating on the seas. ■

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306

IEFTTOAHSRREETLTSHFICMIIWTEESNIHTECAHLESFTTCHOOEBMUESY

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

IN CONTEXT A t its heart, the discipline documented the serious impact
of environmental ethics of pesticides on the environment,
KEY FIGURE extends the boundaries and brought these issues to the
Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) of ethics beyond humans, and into forefront of American public debate.
the natural world. It forces humans Six years later, US ecologist Garett
BEFORE to question their role in the Hardin’s article “The Tragedy of the
1894 In The Mountains of environment, their responsibility to Commons” outlined the danger of
California, Scottish–American the planet itself, and their duty to overusing shared resources and
naturalist John Muir describes future generations. allowing the human population
his travels through wild places to grow unchecked.
in California, evoking the deep The field of environmental
spirituality and adventure he ethics grew out of an urgent sense Other writers viewed the
feels when in the wilderness. of encroaching crisis, expressed impending crisis from a more
in both popular and academic philosophical perspective. Aldo
1909 Gifford Pinchot’s The writings. In 1962, the book Silent Leopold’s “land ethic,” outlined in
ABC of Conservation argues Spring, written by US biologist and A Sand County Almanac (1949),
that future generations should conservationist Rachel Carson, placed human beings on an equal
be able to utilize Earth’s footing with other species in a
natural resources. A thing is right when wider ecosystem. As one part of a
it tends to preserve the larger whole, our ethical concerns
AFTER integrity, stability, and should be with the healthy
1968 US academic Paul R. functioning of the entire ecosystem,
Erlich and his wife, Anne, beauty of the biotic rather than simply the advancement
publish The Population Bomb, community. It is wrong of human health and happiness.
warning of the dangers of when it tends otherwise.
human population growth. In his seminal 1966 lecture
Aldo Leopold “The Historical Roots of Our
1970 On April 22, the first Ecologic Crisis,” later published
Earth Day is celebrated in the as an article, the US historian
US. It becomes an annual Lynn White claimed that the
global celebration of environmental crisis was the fault
environmental education of Western society’s worldview.
and reform. In particular, he blamed the
Christian thinking that promoted
anthropocentrism—the idea that
humans are superior to all other

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 307

See also: Endangered habitats 236–239 ■ Pesticides 236–239 ■ Depletion of
natural resources 262–265 ■ Ecosystem services 328–329

The remote, subalpine Mineral wanted to build a ski resort there. Aldo Leopold
King Valley has survived the threat of The Valley had no official protected
development. It remains an ecosystem designation beyond that of a game Born in 1887, Aldo Leopold
that aims to benefit all—following Aldo refuge, but the Sierra Club argued grew up in Burlington, Iowa.
Leopold’s “land ethic” principle. that the area should be preserved He received his degree from
in its original state for its own the Yale School of Forestry,
creatures, leading to the view that sake. The suit went to the Supreme after which he took a job with
nature was created for humanity’s Court, which in 1974 ruled in favor the US Forest Service. While
use and exploitation. of the Forest Service and Disney. there he was instrumental
By then, however, Disney’s interest in the proposal to manage
Ethical dilemmas had waned; today the Valley is part the Gila National Forest as a
Environmental ethics questions of Sequoia National Park. wilderness area, and in 1924
the moral imperatives behind it became the first official
sustainability and stewardship by The battle between those who Wilderness Area in the US.
asking if the motivations are follow anthropocentric ethics and Leopold then moved to
grounded in anthropocentrism, or those who argue for ecocentric Wisconsin to continue his work
in the protection of the natural world approaches has continued. It often in the Forest Service, and in
because it inherently deserves takes place in political arenas, 1933 became a Professor
protection. These questions have particularly with the increased of Game Management at the
played out not only in philosophical prominence of globally sensitive University of Wisconsin.
arenas, but also in the legal and issues such as climate change. Leopold died in 1948 while
political spheres. Sustainable development has helping fight a grass fire.
generally been an anthropocentric Most of his many essays
In 1969, the Sierra Club, an endeavor, to ensure future on natural history and
environmental lobbying group, generations have their needs met. conservation were published
challenged a US Forest Service Environmental ethicists tend to posthumously in collections,
permit allowing Walt Disney argue that sustainability is only such as A Sand County
Enterprises to survey the Mineral viable if it preserves the future of all Almanac, that greatly
King Valley in California—Disney members of the ecosystem. ■ influenced the emerging
environmental movement.

Key works

1933 Game Management
1949 A Sand County Almanac
1953 Round River: From the
Journals of Aldo Leopold
1991 The River of the Mother
of God: and Other Essays

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308

TAHCITNLKOGCLAOLBLYALLY,

THE GREEN MOVEMENT

IN CONTEXT T he roots of the modern its height and the Cuban Missile
“green movement” Crisis of 1962 brought the US and
KEY FIGURES developed in organizations the Soviet Union to the brink of
David Brower (1912–2000), established in the late 19th and nuclear war, galvanizing calls for
Petra Kelly (1947–92) early 20th centuries, such as the nuclear disarmament among
Sierra Club. Faced with the threat many campaigners.
BEFORE of increasing urbanization and
1892 The Sierra Club is industrialization, the Sierra Club In this atmosphere, the idea
founded in San Francisco, sought to protect the natural of conserving particular natural
California, by the Scottish– environment for people’s enjoyment. sites, as in the national parks
American conservationist system in the US and the UK,
John Muir. A greater awareness of humans’ gave way to a much broader
relationship with the environment concept of environmentalism.
1958 Environmentalists led to the emergence of a more Several organizations emerged with
protest against proposals politically active environmental a strong activist agenda involving
for a nuclear power plant movement in the second half of the mass protests and direct action.
at Bodega Bay, California. 20th century. This took off in the
1960s, when the Cold War was at Organized protest
AFTER One of the first of the activist
1970 On April 22, the first Only through care organizations was Friends of
Earth Day is held across the US. for the environment can the Earth. It was founded in the US
the livelihoods of those in 1969 by a group that included
1972 Environmentalist conservationist David Brower,
candidates stand for election most dependent on it a former leader of the Sierra Club,
in Tasmania, New Zealand, be sustained. with the aim of preventing the
and Switzerland. Petra Kelly building of nuclear power plants.
Politically active from the outset,
1996 Ralph Nader stands as Friends of the Earth continues to
candidate for President of the lobby governments across the world
US on the Green Party ticket. and campaigns on a broad range of
environmental issues, emphasizing
the importance of sustainable
economic development. In 1971,
a small group of activists in North
America formed the Don’t Make a

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 309

See also: Citizen science 178–183 ■ Pesticides 242–247 ■ Human devastation
of Earth 299 ■ Halting climate change 316–321

Activists in a dinghy patrol in front formed in Germany in 1979. As Petra Kelly
of two ships from the UK carrying the movement gained momentum,
illegal toxic substances as part of many smaller parties began to Born Petra Lehmann in
regular Greenpeace protests. coalesce to form national, unified Günzburg, West Germany,
Green Parties. in 1947, Kelly later adopted
Wave Committee to protest against the surname of her stepfather,
nuclear bomb testing by the US on In recent years, as issues such an American army officer.
the island of Amchitka, Alaska. as pollution and climate change When she was 12, the family
The organization favored direct have risen up the news agenda, moved to the US, where Kelly
action rather than political lobbying other established political parties studied political science in
and chartered a boat to sail to the have adopted environmentally Washington, D.C.
island in protest. The publicity friendly policies. ■
generated by the group swayed In 1970, Kelly returned
public opinion and halted the tests. We have everything to Europe. While working
This was the first action of what we need, save perhaps, at the European Commission
was to become Greenpeace, an political will. But, you know in Brussels, she joined
organization that continues to what … political will is a Germany’s Social Democratic
use direct action to challenge Party, but grew disillusioned
those engaged in environmentally renewable resource. with traditional politics. She
damaging activities. Al Gore joined Germany’s newly
formed Green Party in 1979,
Green politics and in 1983 was one of 28
During the 1970s, political parties members to be elected to
with dedicated environmentalist parliament. Kelly campaigned
manifestos emerged in several on issues of environmentalism
countries. For example, The Ecology and human rights. In 1992,
Party was established in the UK she and her companion, Green
in 1975, and the Green Party politician Gert Bastian, were
found dead at her home in
Bonn, apparently the result
of a suicide pact.

Key works

1984 Fighting for Hope
1992 Nonviolence Speaks
to Power
1994 Thinking Green: Essays
on Environmentalism,
Feminism, and Nonviolence

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310

TTTHOOEDMAOCYRO’SRNOSAWECQT’SUIOEWNNSOCREOSLNDOF

MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME

IN CONTEXT D uring the second half of UNESCO was founded after World
the 20th century, there was War II with the aim of fostering
KEY ORGANIZATION an increasing global “the building of peace, the
UNESCO awareness of the importance of the eradication of poverty, sustainable
relationship between humans and development and intercultural
BEFORE the natural world. This led, in dialogue through education, the
1925 The International 1971, to the United Nations sciences, culture, communication
Institute of Intellectual Educational, Scientific, and Cultural and information.” As such, it was
Cooperation—which aims to Organization (UNESCO) launching in a unique position to examine
exchange intellectual ideas the Man and the Biosphere carefully the relationship between
and improve quality of life—is Program (MAB). This is an people and the environment.
set up in Paris, France. intergovernmental program devoted
to encouraging environmentally Global network
1945 The United Nations sustainable and equitable economic The organization began by setting
Conference establishes the development, while protecting up a number of internationally
constitution of UNESCO. natural ecosystems. recognized protected sites, known

AFTER Humankind is altering the Such actions have
1983 First International environment with processes consequences.
Biosphere Reserve Congress
takes place in Minsk, Belarus. such as deforestation and
urban sprawl.
1995 Statutory framework
of the World Network of The MAB program Data gathered from global
Biosphere Reserves is agreed. predicts the MAB reserves helps

2015 The UN launches its consequences of generate a picture of what
17 Sustainable Goals initiative. today’s actions on these consequences could be.
tomorrow’s world.
2017 The US withdraws
17 sites from the UNESCO
World Network of Biosphere
Reserves, but 23 new sites
are added elsewhere.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 311

See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92–95 ■ The ecosystem 134–137 ■ The peaceful coexistence of man and
nature 297 ■ Renewable energy 300–305 ■ Environmental ethics 306–307 ■ Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322–323

as the World Network of Biosphere achieved by zoning areas within Moroccan women gather the
Reserves (WNBR). These set out the reserve to protect core health-giving fruits of the argan
to show how human cultural and locations, whilst simultaneously tree. These trees in the Arganeraie
biological diversity are mutually providing places for appropriate Biosphere Reserve are carefully
beneficial and encourage the and sustainable development by sustained by the local population.
balanced integration of people with local inhabitants.
their natural environment. They sharing knowledge across the
also sought to find ways to manage To this end, communities are World Network is key to the
natural resources efficiently for the encouraged to participate in the success of the project as a whole.
benefit of the environment as well management of the reserve, and
as its inhabitants. use their local knowledge of the Conflicting opinions
area to make the best use of natural The sites of the WBNR, as well as
There are now over 650 sites resources. The idea of educating being of international scientific
around the world, providing a people about the environment and significance, are often culturally
platform for collaborative scientific important to the host state. They
and cultural research in a range the outbreak of World War II. are not nominated by UNESCO, but
of marine, coastal, and terrestrial Today, members aim to achieve by national governments, and they
ecosystems. Through the network, their objectives by sponsoring remain under the jurisdiction of the
the program monitors the effects of international educational and states they are in. International
human activity on the biosphere, scientific programs. These recognition of their status does not
particularly examining climate include dedicated projects impinge upon the rights of those
change, and fosters the exchange that promote and protect states over the Biosphere Reserves.
of information. human rights and sustainable
development, while encouraging In recent years, some states
Local knowledge cultural diversity. have chosen to manage certain
The MAB program recognizes sites as national rather than
three interconnected functions of The organization is perhaps international reserves and have
a biosphere reserve: conservation; best known for establishing withdrawn them from the program.
sustainable development; and internationally recognized World Nevertheless, there has been a
support though education and Heritage Sites, which aim to steady increase in sites nominated
training. These objectives are preserve as many aspects as for the program from governments
possible of the world’s diverse around the world. ■
UNESCO cultural and natural heritage.

UNESCO, an agency of the UN
based in Paris, France, was
founded in 1946 to promote
international collaboration for
peace and security. It was
established in line with the
United Nations Charter, through
education, science, and culture.
Today, the organization has 195
member states.

UNESCO continues the work
begun by the League of Nations
International Committee on
Intellectual Cooperation in the
1920s, which was interrupted by

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312

PESCARXIHPZTEAOEIDNNPAICUCCNELTTDSIIANOTIOTGNIFOSN’S IN CONTEXT

POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS KEY FIGURE
Mark L. Shaffer (1949–)

BEFORE
1964 The IUCN publishes its
first Red List of threatened
mammal and bird species.

1965 In The Destruction of
California, ecologist Raymond
Dasmann charts the rapid loss
of flora and fauna in the state.

1967 The Theory of Island
Biogeography by Robert
MacArthur and Edward O.
Wilson explores island patterns
of immigration and extinction.

AFTER
2003 Population viability
analysis (PVA) of the Fender’s
blue butterfly is used to guide
conservation in the US.

2014 PVA studies in the
Sonoran Desert, US, help
assess the response of birds
and reptiles to climate change.

P opulation viability analysis
(PVA), or extinction risk
assessment, is a process
used to estimate the probability
that a population of a target species
has the ability to sustain itself for
a specific time, be it 10, 30, or 100
years. A key feature of PVA is the
definition of minimum viable
population sizes and minimum
habitat areas—information which
can then inform decisions on
conservation priorities.

A tool for conservationists
PVA combines both statistics and
ecology to calculate the fewest
organisms required for a species
to survive long-term in its preferred

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 313

See also: Ecological resilience 150–151 ■ Climax community 172–173 Vulnerability of
■ Metapopulations 186–187 ■ Mass extinctions 218–223 ■ Deforestation 254–259 small populations

Fender’s blue butterfly was not seen A minimum viable population
after the 1930s and was deemed extinct has to be of a sufficient size
until it was rediscovered in 1989. It is not only to maintain itself
endangered, but small populations live under average conditions but
in northwest Oregon. also to endure extreme events.
Mark Shaffer likened this to
habitat, it takes no more than a low a reservoir built to withstand
level of environmental damage or the type of flood that occurs
human disturbance to nudge them only once in 50 years, but not
toward extinction. a devastating once-in-a-
century flood.
habitat. This minimum number Counting grizzlies
also dictates the amount of suitable In 1975, grizzly bear numbers were Small populations are
habitat that the species needs. PVA shrinking in Yellowstone National especially vulnerable to
is a useful tool for conservationists Park. Only an estimated 136 of the multiple threats occurring
when lobbying governments and bears were left, and this isolated successively. The Heath Hen
developers to give protected status population was considered to be in New England, US, had been
to an area. Armed with a PVA, they endangered. As part of his doctoral widespread in colonial times,
can explain precisely why reducing research, Mark L. Shaffer began to but relentless hunting for food
a stretch of forest, heathland, or study the long-term sustainability and sport caused a dramatic
reedbed will threaten certain flora of this geographically isolated decline in Heath Hen numbers
or fauna. Protecting an area that grizzly bear population. by 1908. In that year, the last
is extensive enough to support surviving population on the
a large species also benefits many Shaffer, a pioneer of population island of Martha’s Vineyard
smaller organisms sharing the viability analysis, applied four was given protected status.
same environment. factors that he considered would However, a catastrophic
decide their fate. The first was wildfire during the 1916
A number of creatures can only demographic stochasticity: breeding season, severe
survive in environments where irregular, unpredictable fluctuations winters, inbreeding, disease,
human disturbance is minimal. in numbers, age, gender, and birth and heavy predation by birds
This is especially true for those and death rates. For example, if the of prey all combined to push
that live in specialist habitats, overwhelming majority of animals the Heath Hen population
such as certain owls in old-growth in a population are males, breeding below a viable level. By 1927,
forest, reptiles on acid heathland, success will be poorer than in a ❯❯ only two females remained,
or amphibians in fast-flowing, and the species was extinct
unpolluted streams. However, as Uncertainty is just about by 1932.
the human population grows, there the only certainty in PVA.
is a constant demand for land for
building, agriculture, leisure, roads, Steven Beissinger
or forestry. This pressure is a
particular threat to species that American conservation biologist
cannot easily adapt and move
elsewhere. Where they are already
confined to “islands” of suitable

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314 POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS

A female grizzly and her cubs forage extensive Greater Yellowstone modllers have suggested that
in Yellowstone. A female’s home range Ecosystem—an area of 34,375 sq Yellowstone may have reached its
is 300–550 sq miles (775–1,400 sq km), miles (89,031 sq km) that has the maximum carrying capacity—the
while a male’s is as much as 2,000 sq national park at its core. In 2014, largest number of animals an area
miles (5,000 sq km). the US Geological Survey estimated of suitable habitat can support. In
that around 757 bears lived in the 2017, grizzlies were briefly removed
more evenly balanced population, ecosystem, based on 119 sightings from the threatened species list,
and will influence its chances of of grizzly sows and cubs. However, but their protections were restored
survival. The second consideration the population had dropped to by a federal judge in 2018.
was environmental stochasticity: around 718 in 2018, and population
unpredictable fluctuations in How studies are devised
environmental conditions, such Technology is increasingly PVA studies are now conducted in
as habitat and climate changes, allowing scientists and several ways. The simplest type is
which may affect the availability the time-series PVA, which looks at
of food and shelter. The third policymakers to more closely the entirety of a population over a
was natural catastrophes, such monitor the planet’s period of time in order to calculate
as forest fires or floods. The fourth a rough average growth trend and
of Shaffer’s factors was genetic biodiversity and threats to it. any variations. In such studies, all
changes, including problems Stuart L. Pimm individuals are treated as identical.
created by inbreeding. For each
of these, statistical modeling can American–British biologist Demographic PVAs tend to be
determine a range of possibilities. more precise and detailed. They are
based on estimated reproductive
Since Shaffer’s initial research and survival rates for different age
in the 1970s and ’80s, and bands within the population. Such
subsequent new management and analyses require much more data,
conservation strategies, grizzlies but can provide extra information
have extended their habitat by on the needs and vulnerability of
more than 50 percent within the different sections of the population,

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 315

A population is identified as being at risk.

A population A management
viability analysis is solution is found to
conducted to assess combat the threat

the situation. to the population.

The population has The island foxes of the Channel
a chance to recover. Islands, off California, numbered fewer
than 200 in the late 1990s. By 2015,
there were more than 5,000, but on one
island, a subpopulation is still at risk.

fueling a case for conservation “surrogate” data from one colony dolphins off the coasts of Argentina
where protection is required. As was used to make forecasts on the and Australia. With the development
reliable information on age ranges other two; they proved valid for one of increasingly efficient computer
and breeding rates is often not colony, but not the other. programs incorporating ever more
available for small, threatened variables, PVA will undoubtedly
populations, ecologists sometimes Making a difference be used even more effectively in
use data from other populations of Methods are still being refined, but the future. It is impossible to predict
the same species—or a different but PVA has now become a cornerstone every extinction, but PVA provides
similar species—to conduct a PVA. of conservation biology. PVAs have tools for identifying endangered
However, the results are variable, been applied to populations as populations and determining the
even in populations of the same varied as island foxes in California, management actions likely to
species in the same area. In a 2015 sea otters in Alaska, Fender’s blue be most effective in improving
study of three colonies of California butterflies and Northern Spotted population viability, and preserving
sea lion in the Gulf of California, Owls in Oregon, and bottlenose a species at risk. ■

A Japanese study collected population growth Population viability
data, including the number of analysis can indicate how
The Japanese Rock Ptarmigan female offspring that survived urgently recovery efforts need
lives in the Japanese Alps at to the next breeding season and to be initiated in specific
an altitude of around 8,200 ft the annual survival rate of all
(2,500 m). Its population of some birds. Their calculations included populations.
2,000 birds is divided into variables for a range of offspring William F. Morris
several small communities from each pair.
on mountain peaks. When a American biologist
combination of climate warming Their findings indicated that
and predators moving further there was a relatively low risk of
up the mountains prompted extinction in the next 30 years,
fears for its survival, ecologist even if the starting population
Ayaka Suzuki and his team set was only 15. One potential
out to find the minimum viable conclusion is that the Mount
population size for the birds on Norikura population is strong
Mount Norikura. The team enough to supplement declining
populations on other mountains.

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CCLHIAMNAGTEE

IITS IHSAHPAPPEPNEINNIGNGHNEORWE.

HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE

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318 HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE

IN CONTEXT S ince the Industrial Firefighters battle flames from the
Revolution, humans have “Holy Fire” that ravaged Orange
KEY FIGURES been altering Earth’s natural County, California, in 2018. Higher
Bert Bolin (1925–2007), environment through increased temperatures led to an extended and
Intergovernmental Panel carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. difficult forest fire season.
on Climate Change (1988–) Societies have become more
technologically advanced, but this related catastrophes, such as those
BEFORE technology—from coal-powered impacted by tropical monsoons,
1955 American scientist trains, ships, and factories, to oil- are seeing the most severe
Gilbert Plass concludes that fueled cars and planes—has had repercussions, especially
higher concentrations of an adverse impact on the natural in terms of loss of life and habitat.
carbon dioxide (CO2) will lead world and the species inhabiting
to higher temperatures. it. As scientists have become more Global cooperation
aware of the human causes of Scientists have been aware
1957 American scientist Roger climate change, global research that human actions contribute
Revelle and Austrian physical groups have been formed to study to climate change since 1896, when
chemist Hans Suess jointly the phenomenon and suggest ways Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius
publish a report proving that in which humanity can halt, if not suggested that people burning
the oceans will not absorb the reverse, the damage.
excess CO2 in the atmosphere.
The effects of climate change
1968 British glaciologist are varied. As more CO2 in the
John H. Mercer theorizes a atmosphere creates global warming,
catastrophic rise in sea levels this causes the polar ice caps to
in the next 40 years due to the melt, the oceans to warm and rise,
collapse of Antarctic ice sheets. and species that are unsuited to
warmer oceans to die out. Global
AFTER weather patterns are also changing:
2020 Plans created by the hurricanes in the North Atlantic
Paris Agreement to combat region have increased in intensity,
climate change are due to leaving devastation and death in
be implemented. their wake. Fires and droughts have
become more frequent in dry areas;
winters are more severe in colder
climates. Areas of the world already
susceptible to extreme weather-

Natural causes: Human causes:
• Volcanic eruptions • Deforestation
• Shifting plate tectonics • Farming practices
• Fossil fuel burning
• Ocean currents • Industrial emissions

... lead to increased amounts of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,

causing climate change.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 319

See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ Deforestation 254–259 ■ Man and the Biosphere Programme 310–311
■ Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322–323 ■ The economic impact of climate change 324–325

fossil fuels were adding to global … human beings are now agreement, which was ratified by
warming. It was not until the 1970s, carrying out a large-scale all UN member states, did reduce
however, that governments began geophysical experiment of a greenhouse gas emissions.
to act upon this knowledge. Around kind that could not have
this time, the general public had happened in the past… Creation of the IPCC
begun to be made aware of the In 1988, the Intergovernmental
reality of climate change due to Roger Revelle and Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
news articles and broadcasts that Hans Suess was established in Geneva,
shared the bleak outlooks of climate Switzerland, by two United Nations
scientists with the wider world. ecosystem management, natural organizations: UNEP, and the
disaster relief, and antipollution World Meteorological Organization
International efforts to halt or activities. UNEP later became (WMO). Swedish meteorologist
delay climate change began with responsible for coordinating UN Bert Bolin—who served on the
the first United Nations conference efforts against climate change. Advisory Group on Greenhouse
on the environment, which was Gases that the IPCC supplanted—
held in Stockholm, Sweden, in In 1987, UN members also was the panel’s first chairman.
1972. The conference paid little agreed to the Montreal Protocol,
attention to the issue of climate pledging to protect Earth’s ozone The IPCC was created to serve
change compared to other layer by ending the use of ozone- as a globally coordinated response
environmental issues—such as depleting substances. Although to climate change linked to human
pollution and renewable energy— it was not specifically designed activity. It issues reports based on
but did create the United Nations to combat climate change, the scientific research in support of
Environment Programme (UNEP), the main international treaty on
an agency to oversee environmental climate change: the UN Framework
policies and programs such as Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), which was signed at
An Inconvenient Truth, a 2006 the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
documentary on climate change Brazil, in 1992. The IPCC’s work
by former US Vice President Al Gore, also involves issuing the Summary
aimed to educate the public on the for Policymakers (SPM), which
causes and effects of climate change. provides summaries of climate ❯❯

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320 HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE

change research to governments
around the world to help them
understand the threats to humans
and the environment as a result of
climate change.

The Kyoto plan are on track to meet their target for An underwater cabinet meeting is
Nine years after the creation of the 2020, except for Norway, which had held in the Maldives in 2009 to call for
IPCC, in 1997, UN members signed set a very high target (a 30–40 action against climate change. Rising
the Kyoto Protocol, which sought to percent reduction from 1990 levels). sea levels could mean that the nation
improve regulation of global carbon is eventually swallowed by the ocean.
emissions. This protocol was the Paris and the future
first agreement among nations The Kyoto Protocols set targets for more aggressive global resolution of
to mandate country-by-country nations to meet from 2005 to 2020. climate change, the Agreement was
reductions in greenhouse gas After 2020, signatory nations will signed by 195 UNFCCC member
emissions, aiming to reduce them begin to abide by a new protocol: countries at the UN headquarters
to levels that would stop humans the Paris Agreement. In November in New York City. Like Kyoto, the
from negatively impacting the 2016, after decades of calls for a primary aim of the Paris Agreement
world’s ecosystems. is to cut greenhouse gas emissions
Some scepticism comes from to agreed-upon levels.
Although signed in 1997, the those who suggest scientists’
Kyoto Protocol did not take effect estimations are too alarmist, With the decision of Syria to
until 2005. At the end of the first and that global warming is sign the Paris Agreement in 2017,
commitment period in 2012, all happening more slowly than the United States became the only
signatory nations had achieved predicted. Others see the idea country in the world not to take
their target reduction except for of climate change as a human part in the agreement. Although the
Canada, which withdrew from the phenomenon as a hoax, instead US initially signed the agreement
protocol because it could not meet claiming that global warming is under Barack Obama’s presidency,
its targets. Australia also failed to a natural cycle for the planet his successor, Donald Trump, has
reduce emissions, but in the initial and not a product of human rejected the agreement, claiming
period, their target was set as an behavior. Whatever the reason, that it asked too much of the United
8 percent increase. Most nations denial of climate change among States and too little of other nations.
some policymakers and business This decision struck a blow to the
Climate change denial leaders is a position that that other signatories; as well as having
the IPCC and scientists continue plenty of wealth to fund climate
Despite the consensus by the to disprove. research, the US is also the world’s
majority of scientists around the second-largest greenhouse gas
world that climate change is a emitter. President Trump has since
human-caused phenomenon and clarified his position by saying
requires urgent intervention,
climate change denial persists
in many of the world’s most
powerful nations. Several
scholars have termed the
opposition to the facts of climate
change a “denial machine,” in
which conservative media and
industries benefitting from lax
environmental regulations
create an environment of
uncertainty and scepticism
about climate change science.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 321

that he believes climate change The burden of change
to be a natural phenomenon from
which the world can “come back” Greenhouse gas Developed nations
without significant changes to emissions must will take the
human behavior. peak as soon lead in reducing
as possible. carbon emissions.
Other nations have voiced their The losses suffered Developed
own concerns with the Paris by vulnerable countries will
Agreement. The government of nations due to provide financial
Nicaragua, which joined the accord climate change help to developing
in 2017, criticized the Agreement must be addressed. countries.
for not going far enough and argued
that it will not reduce carbon
emissions quickly enough to avert
global climate disaster. The Paris
Agreement also lacks a mechanism
to ensure that countries that have
signed it comply with its terms.

Desperate measures The Paris Agreement was signed by 195
According to the terms of the Paris member countries of the UNFCCC. It placed
Agreement, countries must work the responsibility on developed nations to assist
together to limit the increase in those who lacked the funds or resources to
the global average temperature combat climate change alone.
to below 2°C (3.6°F) above pre-
industrial levels. The Agreement create a global environment create no emissions without also
also seeks to go further, suggesting mirroring the current highest removing an equivalent amount of
that the increase should be limited temperatures experienced, a 2°C CO2 from the atmosphere.
to only 1.5°C (2.7°F). In a study increase would usher in a “new
published in the journal Earth climate regime” unlike anything The IPCC’s 2018 report also
System Dynamics in 2016, climate humans have seen before. appealed to individuals to do their
scientist Carl-Friedrich Schleussner part to lower CO2 emissions. Land
and his co-researchers argued that Subsequent research has shown use, energy, cities, and industry are
while an increase of 1.5°C would that this 1.5°C target will prove the major areas in which the IPCC
difficult to meet. In 2018, the IPCC suggests change is necessary:
We have presented produced a Special Report on global people should embrace electric cars;
governments with pretty warming, as it had been tasked to walk and bicycle more; and fly less
hard choices. We have pointed do by the Paris Agreement. Its often, because planes produce a
out the enormous benefits of findings were alarming. Rather significant proportion of greenhouse
than being on track for the 1.5°C gases. The IPCC also encouraged
keeping to 1.5°C. target, the world is now headed people to buy less meat, milk,
Professor Jim Skea closer to 3°C above preindustrial cheese, and butter, because reduced
levels. To recover and hit the target demand for these products should
Co-Chair, IPCC working group III of 1.5°C would require nations to lead to lower emissions by the meat
take unprecedented and drastic and dairy processing industries.
measures. Global human CO2 While global agreements such as
emissions would need to drop 45 Kyoto and Paris have dominated the
percent from 2010 levels by 2030, conversation, it is now clear that
and in 2050, would need to reach any and all methods to lower CO2
“net zero,” meaning that humans emissions must be pursued. ■

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322

TWTHOOESRCULASDPT’SAACIPNIOTTPYHUELATION

SUSTAINABLE BIOSPHERE INITIATIVE

IN CONTEXT T he Sustainable Biosphere useful ecological knowledge as
Initiative (SBI) emerged in scientists raced to combat
KEY FIGURE 1988 due to the efforts of environmental degradation.
Jane Lubchenco (1947–) the Ecological Society of America
(ESA) to establish what scientific Prioritizing the planet
BEFORE research should be prioritized given The scientists of the SBI set out a
1388 England’s Parliament the limited funding available. new path for the field of ecology,
makes it illegal to throw waste At this time, the field of ecology and determined which research
into public watercourses such was undergoing a transition areas would be the most important
as ditches and rivers. towards applied science—using in the years to come. They sought
knowledge to develop practical to prioritize three fields of research:
1970s British scientist James solutions relevant to contemporary global change, biological diversity,
Lovelock and American environmental issues. American and sustainable ecological systems.
microbiologist Lynn Margulis environmentalist Jane Lubchenco Studies of global change look at the
develop the Gaia hypothesis. led the SBI, and paved the way atmosphere, climate, soil and water
for the ESA (and others) to promote (including changes due to pollution),
AFTER and patterns of land- and water-use.
1992 Canadian ecologist The SBI has stimulated Research into biological diversity
William Rees introduces the improvements in focuses on the conservation of
concept of the “ecological endangered species and the study
footprint” to describe human understanding and in of natural and manmade changes in
impact on the environment. advancing connections genetic and habitat diversity. Finally,
studies of sustainable ecological
2000 Dutch Nobel laureate between ecological systems analyze the interactions
Paul Crutzen popularizes the knowledge and society. between humans and ecological
idea that the world has entered processes in order for scientists to
a new geological epoch known Jane Lubchenco find solutions to the stresses they
as the Anthropocene, or “Age detect in ecosystems.
of Man.” This era recognizes
the monumental and often The SBI stressed the need for
dangerous ecological impacts funding for such research, and also
humans make on the planet. highlighted the importance of
sharing findings with those outside
the scientific community. It set out
a process for applied ecological

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 323

See also: The ecosystem 134–137 ■ Chaotic population change 184 ■ Gaia 214–217 ■ Overfishing 266–269
■ Halting climate change 316–321 ■ The economics of climate change 324–325 ■ Waste disposal 330–331

research that included not only
acquiring new knowledge, but
communicating it and helping
incorporate it into real-world policy
changes.

The future of research workshops, and creating reports to Wind turbines are explained to young
Lubchenco and her colleagues advance its agenda. The SBI has students. The SBI advocates ecological
created the SBI as both a mission brought ecology into the public eye, education in schools and universities so
statement and an argument for why and today ecologists sit on advisory that people can learn how to manage
ecological research deserved more boards, influencing both corporate and sustain the biosphere.
funding and attention. Their report and government policies.
was published in 1991 in the journal 2013, build on the work of the SBI.
Ecology as “The Sustainable Despite such improvements, They hope to effect greater change
Biosphere Initiative: An Ecological Lubchenco still believes that the in the next two decades, so that
Research Agenda.” It was well changes that have been made have sustainable development can
received within the scientific not kept pace with the growing satisfy humans’ current needs
community, and has been adapted dangers the planet faces. New without compromising the needs
for use at a global level—first in the campaigns such as the ESA’s Earth of future generations. ■
International Sustainable Biosphere Stewardship Initiative, created in
Initiative that was developed in
Mexico in 1991, and then in
Agenda 21, an action plan adopted
in 1992 at the United Nations Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Since 1991, the SBI and its report
have influenced a generation of
ecologists, opening up new avenues
of funding and collaboration,
forming committees, putting on

Jane Lubchenco An acclaimed environmental Oceanic and Atmospheric
scientist and marine ecologist, Administration (NOAA). She
Jane Lubchenco grew up in was the first female and the first
Denver, Colorado. She earned a marine ecologist head of NOAA.
bachelor’s degree in biology at In 2011 Lubchenco oversaw the
Colorado College, and a Master’s creation of Weather-Ready Nation,
in zoology. She got her Ph.D. in a project to prepare the public in
marine ecology at Harvard. case of extreme weather.
She researches the interaction
between humans and the Key works
environment, with an emphasis
on biodiversity, climate change, 1998 “Entering the century of
and oceanic sustainability. the environment: a new social
contract for science,” Science
From 2009 to 2013, she served 2017 “Delivering on science’s
as Under Secretary of Commerce social contract,” Michigan
for Oceans and Atmosphere, and Journal of Sustainability
Administrator of the National

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324

PEWWNLIEAVTYIAHRIRNOTEGNHMEDEINCNAETTURAL

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

IN CONTEXT C limatology is an uncertain habitat destruction, shifts in
science. Future projections growing seasons, and enforced
KEY FIGURE will change, based on human migration.
William Nordhaus (1941–) human actions and new technology,
as well as natural cycles. However, Counting the cost
BEFORE it is vitally important to assess The social cost of carbon (SCC) is
1993 In Reflections on the the financial impacts of climate a monetary estimate of the damage
Economics of Climate Change, change. Once potential costs are to human society caused by every
William Nordhaus summarizes understood, we can explore ways additional tonne of carbon dioxide
the issues surrounding climate in which to mitigate its direct released into the atmosphere.
change and the economy, impacts. It is necessary to consider
highlighting uncertainties not only the direct costs—such as Protesters in Lamu, Kenya,
and potential solutions. damage to property from flooding in 2018, opposing the construction
or fire—but also the costs of a coal-fired power plant. Growing
AFTER associated with broader effects, awareness of ecological damage has
2008 In Common Wealth: such as a decline in biodiversity, seen an increase in public disapproval.
Economics for a Crowded
Planet, Jeffrey Sachs argues
that although humanity faces
daunting economic crises—
including that of climate
change—we have the
knowledge to address them.

2013 The Climate Casino:
Risk, Uncertainty, and
Economics for a Warming
World, by William Nordhaus,
explains how global warming
relates to the world’s economy,
and provides ideas for
reducing its impact.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 325

See also: Renewable energy 300–305 ■ Man and the Biosphere Programme
310–311 ■ Halting climate change 316–321

These damages include reductions emissions. The model divides the William Nordhaus
in agricultural productivity, harm to world into distinct regions for its
infrastructure, energy costs, and analysis. It predicts that the Born in New Mexico in 1941,
impacts on human health. The SCC combined SCC in 2055 will be Nordhaus is a leader in the
provides a starting point for energy between $40–$188 per ton ($44 and field of the economics of
policy. For example, if the SCC is $207 per tonne) of carbon dioxide climate change. He stumbled
factored into proposals for a new released, depending on the rate of upon this field of research
power plant, the cost of building it warming and the mitigation through sharing an office with
becomes much higher. This may policies enacted. a climatologist. Nordhaus’s
also make the cost of alternative economic theories—the
forms of energy—such as solar or Economic models incorporate DICE and RICE models—are
wind power—more financially assumptions, such as the discount widely used to analyze policy
viable. However, it is extremely rate. Discount rates prioritize the decisions. Nordhaus is
difficult to calculate the SCC. present over the future, because the principally concerned with
future cannot be predicted perfectly. placing a realistic price on
Forecast models The rate is selected based on how carbon. Today, the social cost
Economists use several models in the balance between present and of carbon is generally agreed
order to calculate the SCC. In 1999, future priorities is weighted. Higher to be around $40 per ton, but
William Nordhaus developed RICE discount rates indicate that future Nordhaus’s models show that
(Regional Integrated Climate- populations will be wealthier, and it should be higher to account
Economy model)—a variant of his prepared to deal with climate for the impacts of climate
own preceding DICE (Dynamic change. Lower discount rates change. Nordhaus is Sterling
Integrated Climate-Economy model), suggest that the disruption caused Professor of Economics at Yale
which weighed the costs and by climate change will make people University, and serves on the
benefits of slowing down global in the future poorer than we are Congressional Budget Office
warming. The RICE model today. Nordhaus suggests a 3 Panel of Economic Experts
integrates carbon emissions, carbon percent discount rate, meaning that and the Brooking Panel on
concentrations in the atmosphere, if the monetary damages from Economic Activity. In 2018,
climate change, damages, and climate change will be $5 trillion in Noordhaus was awarded the
controls that are in place to reduce the year 2100, we could invest $382 Nobel Prize in economics.
billion today to avoid it. ■
Key works
Analyzing the costs of reducing carbon dioxide
1994 Managing the Global
THE COST OF REDUCING CO2 Marginal Financial Commons: The Economics
benefits cost of Climate Change
2000 Warming the World:
The cost of reducing Economic Models of Global
CO2 increases in line Warming
with the quantity, but
this is offset by the
benefits gained. The
lines intersect at the
point of equilibrium,
where maximum
benefits are achieved
at the lowest cost.

QUANTITY OF C02

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326

DHMMEAOOSRNNTVOOREPCSOOUTYLLITOINEUFGSRSTAEEHRSEEEDAND

SEED DIVERSITY

IN CONTEXT In 1987, Indian environmental Californian rice production is high
campaigner Vandana Shiva yield but there are problems with soil
KEY FIGURE launched a movement to protect salinity. Although salt tolerance can be
Vandana Shiva (1952–) native seed diversity in response genetically introduced, traditional rice
to changes in agriculture and food varieties can be naturally salt-resistant.
BEFORE production. She founded Navdanya,
1966 A new high-yielding a nongovernmental organization, For example, a grass in the genus
strain of rice known as IR8 to protect agricultural biodiversity Oryza was first cultivated for rice in
leads to a big increase in from the combined threat of genetic Asia between 8,200 and 13,500 years
production in several rice- engineering and patents. ago; today, there are more than
growing countries. First 40,000 varieties of this rice in
developed in the Philippines, Agro-biodiversity existence. Intrinsic to agro-
it is also called “miracle rice.” Agricultural biodiversity (also known biodiversity are the many non-
as agro-biodiversity) has resulted harvested species that support
AFTER from the selective breeding, over production. These include
1994 The World Trade thousands of years, of plants and microorganisms in the soil, species
Organization introduces the animals taken from the wild. These that feed on pests, and pollinators.
Trade Related Aspects of practices led to the extraordinary Through the ages, the skills and
Intellectual Property Rights genetic diversity of different breeds knowledge of millions of farmers
(TRIPS) agreement. of crops and domesticated animals. have shaped this biodiversity.

2004 After protests by farmers
who developed the crop, the
Monsanto company’s patent
on an Indian strain of wheat
known as Nap Hal is revoked.

2012 Indian initiative
Navdanya International
launches its worldwide Seed
Freedom campaign to protect
food sovereignty and safety.

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See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92–95 ■ Pesticides 242–247
■ Humankind’s dominance over nature 296 ■ Ecosystem services 328–329

Seed patents threaten new strains are patented by the Vandana Shiva
the very survival and companies that created them.
freedom of peasants … Trade deals impose regulations Environmental campaigner
on who can use what. These work Vandana Shiva was born in
and farmers … against small-scale farmers but northern India. Her mother
Vandana Shiva favor the powerful agricultural was a farmer, and her father
corporations that produce the seed. a forester. She studied in India
From the late 1960s, a technology and Canada, obtaining a
transfer to the developing world Seed sovereignty doctorate in the philosophy
included high-yield varieties Shiva argues that rural farms are of physics. After returning
of cereals in association with threatened if the appropriate seed to India, in 1982 she founded
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, is no longer available. Traditionally, the Research Foundation for
and herbicides, mechanization, most small-scale farmers routinely Science, Technology, and
and more efficient irrigation. save their seed from one harvest to Ecology. Following the Bhopal
Known as the “Green Revolution,” the next. Now, when farmers buy in pesticide plant disaster in
this transformation shifted the seed—especially if it is genetically 1984, her interest in agriculture
focus of agriculture in the developing modified—they often have to agree grew and three years later she
world away from biodiversity to not to save it. Having to buy seed founded Navdanya to protect
higher crop yields. New Green from a company every year can biodiversity and native seeds.
Revolution crops such as “miracle leave them worse off financially. Shiva campaigns against the
rice” (IR8) boosted production, but World Trade Organization’s
there was a downside. As more Shiva criticized the practice of Trade Related Aspects of
emphasis was placed on fewer corporations patenting seed varieties Intellectual Property Rights
productive strains, the genetic base as “biopiracy” and set up Navdanya (TRIPS) agreement, which
of traditional seed varieties for to support “seed sovereignty.” broadens patents to include
grains, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, It campaigns for agro-biodiversity plants and animals. TIME
and cotton declined. via a network of seed-keepers and magazine hailed Vandana
organic producers and has helped Shiva as an Environmental
The United Nations Food and found more than 100 community Hero in 2003.
Agriculture Organization estimates seed banks, effectively gene banks,
that 75 percent of crop biodiversity where seeds of crops and rare plant Key works
has been lost from the world’s fields. species are stored for future use. ■
Some environmentalists have 1989 The Violence of the Green
argued that traditional varieties are Fertilizers have hugely increased Revolution
more compatible with local farming food grain production in India—whose 2000 Stolen Harvest:
conditions, cheaper for farmers to population of 1.3 billion people makes The Hijacking of the Global
use, and more environmentally food security paramount—but the Food Supply
sustainable than new, high-yield chemicals also destroy soil fertility. 2013 Making Peace with
varieties. Additionally, many of the the Earth

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HNSANUUATDMSUTATRANHIANELLIIRAFENECSDOPSEFCYUSILETFSEILMHESLP

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

IN CONTEXT T he benefits that humans As a sacred mountain, Mount Fuji
derive from ecosystems supplies a cultural ecosystem service
KEY FIGURE are referred to by ecologists for the people of Japan, while the
Gretchen Daily (1964–) as ecosystem services. Some of the surrounding rich volcanic soil provides
natural processes most important a service to the local tea plantations.
BEFORE to the continuation of human life
c.400 bce Greek philosopher can be classified as ecosystem Although the idea that humans
Plato is aware of the human services, such as pollination of benefit from nature has a long
impact on nature, noting that crops, decomposition of waste, history, it was not until the 1970s
deforestation can cause soil to and the availability of clean that the balance between nature
erode and springs to run dry. drinking water. Ecologists argue and human needs came to the
that because the enormous forefront of ecological debate. The
1973 German statistician and contributions of ecosystem services term “ecosystem services” first
economist E.F. Schumacher to human life are not readily appeared in the mid-1980s, and in
coins the term “natural capital” quantifiable, humans drastically 1997 the concept was developed
in his book Small is Beautiful. undervalue these services while in two key articles: “Ecosystem
exploiting the natural world’s Services: Benefits Supplied to
AFTER resources for profit. Human Societies by Natural
1998 The UN Environment
program, NASA, and the
World Bank release a study
on how protecting the planet
serves human needs.

2008 A study at the University
of California, Berkeley, shows
that ecological destruction by
the world’s richest countries
means they owe the world’s
poorest countries more than
the developing world’s debt.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 329

See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92–95 ■ Ecological resilience 150–151
■ The Gaia hypothesis 214–217 ■ Human devastation of Earth 299

If current trends nature’s ability to control pests— Gretchen Daily
continue, humanity will as opposed to humans’ use of
dramatically alter virtually pesticides—and the atmosphere’s Born in 1964 in Washington,
all of Earth’s remaining capacity to clean itself naturally, as D.C., Gretchen Daily
well as the control of weather developed a passion for
natural ecosystems hazards through natural buffers ecology at a young age. After
within a few decades. such as wetlands and mangrove her family moved to West
forests. Pollination is another Germany in 1977, she
Gretchen Daily important regulating service, one witnessed a national crisis
that is endangered bythe global over acid rain, and saw people
Ecosystems,” edited by Gretchen decline of pollinators such as bees. protesting in the streets over
Daily, and “The Value of the World’s Cultural services involve the ways environmental degradation.
Ecosystem Services and Natural that humans assign cultural or Daily earned two degrees and
Capital,” edited by American spiritual significance to elements of then her Ph.D. in biology at
ecological economist Robert ecosystems such as sacred trees, Stanford University, where she
Costanza. In 2001, UN Secretary animals, rivers, and mountains. is now the Bing Professor of
General Kofi Annan launched the The esthetic or recreational value Environmental Science.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of a natural landscape is another
(MEA), which helped popularize the type of cultural service. Daily studies biodiversity
concept of ecosystem services in within the framework of
2005, when they published a wide- At its heart, the concept of “countryside biogeography,”
ranging appraisal of how humans ecosystem services allows humans or the portions of nature that
impact the environment. to see how inextricably connected have not been used for human
they are to nature, and how without development, but whose
the natural world human existence ecosystems are still impacted
would be impossible. Ecologists by human activity. She is a
use the concept to illuminate cofounder of the Natural
how precious these systems are Capital Project, which aims to
for basic life conditions and to incorporate environmentalism
convince industries, businesses, into business practices and
and governments of the necessity public policy.
for ecological preservation. ■
Key works
The four types of service Plans to protect air
The MEA’s 2005 report detailed four and water, wilderness and 1997 Nature’s Services:
categories of ecosystem services: wildlife are in fact plans Societal Dependence on
supporting, provisioning, regulating, Natural Ecosystems
and cultural. Supporting services, to protect man. 2002 The New Economy of
such as soil formation and water Stewart Udall Nature: The Quest to Make
purification, allow for the existence Conservation Profitable
of all other services. Provisioning American politician and
services consist of freshwater; conservationist
food, such as crops and livestock;
fibres, including wood, cotton,
and other materials used for human
essentials such as building and
clothing; and natural medicines,
and plants used in pharmaceuticals.
Regulating services include

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WOPWLNEEAEHNATAEROVTEEGALOASIVNTTIONOHTGOHUOEGNRHTHIS

WASTE DISPOSAL

IN CONTEXT M ore than 65,000 people all adding to the world’s garbage
from at least 180 nations heap. Traditionally waste had been
KEY FIGURE traveled to Johannesburg, burned or buried, both options now
Paul Connett (1940–) South Africa, in 2002 to attend the associated with toxic greenhouse
United Nations World Summit on gas emissions and, in the case of
BEFORE Sustainable Development. Its final landfills, the potential for poisoning
1970 The first Earth Day resolutions included a call to ground water. The answer to the
takes place in the US to raise minimize waste and maximize world’s growing waste heap had to
awareness of clean waste reuse and recycling, and to develop be found elsewhere.
disposal and recycling. “clean” waste disposal systems.
The recycling revolution
1988 The Resin Identification In the last decades of the 20th Recycling for reuse is not a new
Code is introduced in the US century, it had become clear that concept, but its use as a way
to encourage the recycling refuse was reaching unmanageable of reducing mountains of public
of plastic goods. proportions. Industrialization, the waste that would otherwise go into
growth of large urban populations, landfill has its origins in the 1960s
1992 At the Rio Earth and increasing use of plastic were and 1970s, when organizations
Summit, 105 heads of state such as Greenpeace made the
pledge their commitment Pollution is nothing but public more aware of environmental
to sustainable development. the resources we are not issues. Recently, campaigners such
harvesting. We allow them as Paul Connett, author of Zero
AFTER to be dispersed because we’ve Waste (2013), have renewed the
2010 The United Nations been ignorant of their value. global call to reduce consumption,
launches its Global Partnership R. Buckminster Fuller and reuse or recycle items, rather
on Waste Management to than discard them.
promote resource conservation American inventor and architect
and efficiency. Since the 1970s, many US states
and most European countries,
2012 Goals outlined at the as well as Canada, Australia, and
UN Conference on Sustainable New Zealand, have introduced
Development include waste curbside collections of recyclable
reduction and eco-friendly items sorted into bins. Sweden has
production methods. been especially active. In 1975,
Swedes recycled only 38 percent
of their rubbish, but today they lead

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 331

See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Urban sprawl 282–283 Methane from landfill
■ A plastic wasteland 284–285 ■ Renewable energy 300–305
After carbon dioxide, methane
Refuse plastic Rethink as you shop. is the most critical greenhouse
bags and excessive Do you really need what gas. Although its atmospheric
packaging. Buy products concentrations are lower than
in large containers or you are buying? CO2, methane is 25 times more
without packaging. powerful at trapping heat in
the atmosphere. Atmospheric
Individual actions can methane comes from various
reduce waste—households natural sources, including the
in the developed world add a decay of vegetation in habitats
tonne of waste to landfill such as bogs and wetlands,
but also from livestock rearing,
each year. from the use of fossil fuels,
and from the decomposition
Reuse what you Recycle what of trash in landfill sites.
can or pass it on can’t be used so that
to someone else it can be turned into In many places, including
the UK and US, a number of
who can use it. new products. landfill sites are now trapping
and collecting methane
the world, recycling 99 percent of silver, copper, and palladium used to produce energy. Landfill
household waste. About 50 percent in circuit boards. It has been shown gas contains up to 60 percent
of this waste is burned in recycling that “mining” landfill sites to methane, depending on the
plants that generate heat for the extract the metals can be more composition of the waste and
nation’s homes. Sweden also cost-effective than mining natural the age of the site. Vertical
imports waste from other countries mineral deposits. However, e-waste and horizontal pipelines are
to process in its 32 incineration also includes toxic metals, such placed through the landfill
plants. In 2015, it imported some as cadmium, lead, and mercury. to collect the methane, which
2.5 million tons (2.3 million tonnes) In countries that both generate and is then processed and filtered.
of waste from Norway, the UK, import e-waste, landfill scavenging Most of it is used to generate
Ireland, and other nations. for metals can be polluting. While electricity, but it may also be
Europe now has an e-waste used in industry. After further
“Mining” electronics reprocessing industry, relatively few processing, it can be turned
The fastest-growing type of waste efficient schemes exist elsewhere. into fuel for vehicles, too.
is discarded electronics. E-waste
from mobile phones, computer hard There are many new initiatives, Methane is extracted at the
drives, TVs, and other electrical but the world is still very far from Payatas landfill, Manila—the first
goods reached almost 46 million Connett’s zero waste ideal. A huge in the Philippines to have the gas
tons (42 million tonnes) in 2014— challenge remains for individuals converted to energy, as part of a
almost 25 percent more than in and governments: cut consumption United Nations program.
2010. E-waste often contains and recycle global refuse that will
precious metals, such as the gold, soon reach 21/4 billion tons (2 billion
tonnes) a year. ■

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DIRECTO

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334

DIRECTORY

I n addition to the scientists covered in the preceding chapters of this
book, many other men and women have made significant contributions
to the development of ecology. They have ranked among the greatest
scientific thinkers of their time. Some have excelled in academia, while
some came from other walks of life but pioneered new approaches to
advance. Still more have been formidable campaigners. Although they
worked in a range of disciplines, all have contributed to our understanding
of Earth’s biosphere, how it has evolved, and humanity’s place in it.
Crucially, their work continues to show what needs to be done to preserve
the natural world and to protect Earth from the destructive consequences
of human behavior.

SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN undescribed species and used yarn notably in Canadian Wild Flowers (1865)
to “band” birds—meaning he tied it to and Studies of Plant Life in Canada
1574–1635 their legs, allowing him to identify (1885). Her many albums of plant
individual bird—to find out more about collections are housed in the National
A French explorer, cartographer, soldier, their movements. Herbarium of Canada, at the Canadian
and naturalist, Champlain explored and See also: Animal ecology 106–113 Museum of Nature in Ottawa.
mapped much of Canada. He founded See also: Endangered habitats 236–239
the city of Quebec and established MARY ANNING
the colony of New France. As a sharp KARL AUGUST MÖBIUS
observer and chronicler, he documented 1799–1847
animals and made notes about plants, 1825–1908
including details of leaves, fruits, and In 2010, the Royal Society named
nuts, and inquired about how the Anning as one of the 10 British women A German pioneer, Möbius was primarily
Native American people used them. who have most influenced the history of interested in the ecology of marine
See also: Classification of living things science. She found fame as a fossil ecosystems. After studying at the
82–83 collector and paleontologist, and her Natural History Museum of Berlin,
extraordinary fossil finds, from Jurassic and earning a Ph.D. at the University of
JAMES AUDUBON strata in the cliffs of the Dorset coast, Halle, he opened a seawater aquarium
included the first correctly described in Hamburg in 1863. While a professor of
1785–1851 ichthyosaur, two relatively complete zoology at the University of Kiel, his work
plesiosaurs, and the first pterosaur from on the viability of commercial oyster
The pioneer of North American outside Germany. Her finds helped production in the Bay of Kiel led him
ornithology, Audubon grew up in Haiti change views about Earth’s history, to recognize the various dependent
and France before emigrating to the providing strong evidence for extinction. relationships between organisms in
US in 1803. He developed an interest See also: Mass extinctions 218–223 the oyster bank ecosystem.
in nature, especially birds, and was See also: The ecosystem 134–137
a talented artist. His artistic technique CATHERINE PARR TRAILL
was unusual: after shooting a bird, ERNST HAECKEL
he held it in a “natural pose,” using fine 1802–1899
wire, and painted it with a backdrop of 1834–1919
the bird’s natural habitat. Between 1827 A botanist and prolific author, Traill
and 1838 he published The Birds was born in the UK and emigrated to Haeckel was a biologist, physician,
of America in a series of installments. what is now Ontario, Canada, after she and artist who popularized Charles
It included 435 colored prints of 497 married in 1832. There, she wrote about Darwin’s ideas in Germany (while also
species, six of which are now extinct. life as a settler in Canada. She also rejecting many of them) and introduced
Audubon also discovered 25 previously wrote about the natural environment, the word “ecology” in 1866. Born in

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DIRECTORY 335

Potsdam, he studied at several went on to pioneer phytosociology, the MARJORY STONEMAN DOUGLAS
universities before becoming a zoology study of natural plant communities, first
professor at the University of Jena in using the term in 1896. In the 1920s 1890–1998
1861. Haeckel was the first biologist Paczoski established the world’s first
to propose the kingdom Protista—for institute of phytosociology, at the A formidable campaigner for the
organisms that are neither animal nor University of Poznan, where he was protection of the Florida Everglades,
vegetable—and he researched and professor of plant systematics. An Douglas was also a successful journalist
painstakingly recorded tiny deep- accomplished botanist, he published and author, suffragist, and campaigner
sea protozoans called radiolaria. works on central European flora, for civil rights. Her 1947 book The
See also: Evolution by natural selection including that of the Białowieza Forest, Everglades: River of Grass was
24–31 which he managed as a national park. influential in building an appreciation
See also: Organisms and their of the Florida wetlands, and in 1969 she
WILLIAM BLAKE RICHMOND environment 166 founded the Friends of the Everglades
to defend the area from draining for
1842–1921 JACK MINER development. Douglas remained active
well into her second century, and at
Best known as a British artist, sculptor, 1865–1944 the age of 103 she was awarded the
and designer of stained glass and Presidential Medal of Freedom.
mosaics, London-born Richmond Also known as “Wild Goose Jack,” Miner See also: Citizen science 178–183
became an environmental activist moved with his family from the US to
after having to endure the poor light Canada in 1878. He was illiterate until BARBARA MCCLINTOCK
and smoky air produced by London’s the age of 33 but embarked on local
winter coal fires. In 1898 he founded conservation projects, such as building 1902–1992
the Coal Smoke Abatement Society winter feeding stations for Bobwhites.
(CSAS) to lobby politicians for clean He was one of the first people in North In 1983 McClintock became the first
air. The CSAS was instrumental in the America to put aluminum bands on solo woman to win the Nobel Prize in
introduction of the UK’s Public Health birds’ legs to track their movements. A Physiology or Medicine, and the first
(Smoke Abatement) Act in 1926 and duck banded by him, and later seen American woman to win any unshared
the Clean Air Act in 1956. in South Carolina, was the first banding Nobel Prize. The award recognized her
See also: Pollution 230–235 recovery made in North America. Miner discovery—more than 30 years before—
is thought to have banded more than of transposable genetic elements, or
THEODORE ROOSEVELT 90,000 wildfowl, helping establish “jumping genes,” which sometimes
a huge database of migration routes. create or reverse mutations. As a
1858–1919 See also: Citizen science 178–183 cytogeneticist concerned with how
chromosomes relate to cell behavior, she
To deal with severe childhood asthma, JAMES BERNARD HARKIN also discovered the first genetic map
Roosevelt became an active sportsman for corn—linking physical traits with
and outdoorsman, developing a lifelong 1875–1955 regions of the chromosome—and the
passion for nature. When, in 1900, he mechanism by which chromosomes
stood as William McKinley’s running Sometimes referred to as the “father exchange information.
mate in the US presidential election, he of Canadian national parks,” Harkin had See also: The role of DNA 34–37
did so on a ticket of peace, prosperity, a passion for politics and conservation.
and conservation. Roosevelt became In 1911, he was appointed the first JACQUES COUSTEAU
the 26th President when McKinley was commissioner of the Canadian National
assassinated in 1901, and went on to Parks Agency and oversaw the 1910–1997
establish the US Forest Service, five establishment of Point Pelee, Wood
new national parks, 51 bird reserves, Buffalo, Kootenay, Elk Island, Georgian French undersea explorer Cousteau was
and 150 national forests. Bay Islands, and Cape Breton Highlands well known as the presenter of several
See also: Deforestation 254–259 national parks. Harkin realized the documentaries on the aquatic world.
commercial value of the parks, and After inventing underwater breathing
JÓSEF PACZOSKI his policy of encouraging road-building apparatus called the Aqua-Lung in
to attract tourists was not universally 1943, he worked with the French Navy
1864–1942 popular. He was a prime mover behind to clear underwater mines after World
legislation to regulate the hunting War II. He later converted the Calypso,
Paczoski was a Polish ecologist, born of migrant birds in 1917. a former minesweeper, into a research
in what is now Ukraine. He studied See also: Endangered habitats 236–239, vessel from which he explored the
botany at the University of Kiev and Deforestation 254–259 oceans, writing several books and

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336 DIRECTORY

making hours of television. The Australia. He graduated from the women toured the country, speaking
Calypso was badly damaged in 1996, University of Sydney with a degree at meetings to highlight the dangers
but Cousteau died suddenly in 1997 in botany and zoology in 1937, and then of the dump, which they feared could
before he could afford to replace it. studied at Harvard University, earning grow as foreign governments and
See also: A plastic wasteland 284–285 a Ph.D. for his work on termites. After corporations saw an opportunity to
World War II, he returned to Australia, dispose of their radioactive waste.
PIERRE DANSEREAU where he became the first head of See also: Pollution 230–235
the Commonwealth Scientific and
1911–2011 Industrial Research Organization’s EUGENIE CLARK
Division of Forest Research in 1976.
Dansereau was a French Canadian Particularly known for his work on 1922–2015
plant ecologist who pioneered the study myxomatosis and its use in controlling
of forest dynamics and is considered rabbit populations, Day published his Known as the “Shark Lady” for her
one of the “fathers of ecology.” Born in first paper in 1938, and his last—on research on shark behavior, Clark was a
Montreal, he gained his Ph.D. in plant moths—74 years later. Japanese-American marine ecologist
taxonomy at the University of Geneva See also: Thermoregulation in insects and a pioneer in the use of scuba diving
in 1939. He later helped set up the 126–127 ■ Invasive species 270–273 for scientific research—she undertook
Montreal Botanical Garden and many dives around Florida’s Cape Haze
wrote numerous papers on botany, JUDITH WRIGHT Marine Laboratory, where she worked
biogeography, and the interaction of alongside other female ecologists such
humans and the environment. In 1988 1915–2000 as Sylvia Earle. Clark made several
he was appointed Professor Emeritus key discoveries about sharks and fish,
at the University of Montreal, a post he Principally a poet, Wright was also and was a major advocate of marine
held until he retired, aged 93, in 2004. renowned in her native Australia for conservation. In 1955, she founded the
See also: Biogeography 200–201 campaigning on Aboriginal land rights Mote Marine Laboratory, which works
and environmental issues. She was to protect shark species, preserve coral
MARY LEAKEY born in Armidale, New South Wales, reefs, and found sustainable fisheries.
and studied at the University of Sydney, See also: Animal behavior 116–117
1913–1996 before publishing her first book of
poetry in 1946. Between 1967 and 1971, DAVID ATTENBOROUGH
London-born Mary Leakey, one of the along with artist John Busst and
world’s foremost paleoanthropologists, environmentalist Len Webb, she built 1926–
experienced her first archeological an alliance of conservation groups,
excavation at the age of 17, when she was trade unions, and concerned citizens to British naturalist and television
hired as an illustrator at a “dig” in Devon. fight Queensland state government’s producer Attenborough served as a
In 1937 she married paleoanthropologist plans to open up the Great Barrier Reef controller for the BBC before stepping
Louis Leakey, and the couple moved to to mining. The campaign, detailed in down to dedicate more time to writing
Africa to work in the Olduvai Gorge— her book The Coral Battleground (1977), and producing documentaries. He
a site rich in fossils—in what is now eventually succeeded. wrote and narrated a series of nature
Tanzania. In 1948, Mary found the fossil See also: The Green Movement 308–309 programs, notably the Life series,
skull of an 18-million-year-old ancestor of beginning with Life on Earth (1979).
apes and humans, Proconsul africanus. EILEEN WANI WINGFIELD Attenborough’s work has been credited
More breakthroughs in understanding with renewing public interest in nature
human ancestry followed, including the 1920–2014 and conservation in Great Britain.
discovery in 1960 of Homo habilis, a See also: A plastic wasteland 284–285
1.4–2.3-million-year-old hominid who As a young Aboriginal woman in
used stone tools. Australia, Wingfield herded cattle and PETER H. KLOPFER
See also: Evolution by natural selection sheep with her father and sister. In the
24–31 early 1980s she lay down in front of 1930–
bulldozers at Canegrass Swamp in
MAX DAY opposition to construction of the Berlin-born Klopfer is an ecologist
Olympic Dam uranium mine. Later, whose main area of interest is ethology,
1915–2017 Wingfield teamed up with Eileen studying animal behavior in a natural
Kampakuta Brown and other Aboriginal environment. His influential 1967 book
An ecologist and entomologist, Day elders to campaign against the An Introduction to Animal Behavior:
developed an interest in wildlife, government’s proposals to dump Ethology’s First Century acted as a
particularly insects, as a boy in nuclear waste in South Australia. The survey and synthesis of past and

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present ethological theories. In 1968, determines where animals choose to and the author of books on nature and
he began teaching in the Department live. His 1963 paper on habitat selection the environment. He cofounded the
of Zoology at Duke University, North by prairie deer mice demonstrated that David Suzuki Foundation in 1990 to
Carolina, where he was instrumental instinct and experience both play a role investigate sustainable ways for people
in starting its primate center. in how the mice select their habitat. to live in harmony with the natural world.
See also: Animal behavior 116–117 See also: Ecological niches 50–51 See also: Environmental ethics 306–307

DIAN FOSSEY SYLVIA EARLE DANIEL B. BOTKIN

1932–1985 1935– 1937–

Most of what is known about the lives An American marine biologist, author, Botkin, a prominent American author
and social structures of wild mountain and conservationist, Earle is an expert and environmentalist, earned his Ph.D.
gorillas in Africa derives from the work on the impact of oil spills. In 1991, she in plant ecology in 1968 at Rutgers
of primatologist and conservationist assessed the damage caused by the University. He writes and speaks on all
Fossey. The daughter of a San Francisco destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells during the areas of the environment, from forest
fashion model, she graduated and Gulf War. Earle undertook similar work ecosystems to fish populations, and also
worked as an occupational therapist after the Exxon Valdez, Mega Borg, and advises agencies, corporations, and
before visiting Africa, where she met, Deepwater Horizon oil spills. In 2009, governments. After decades spent
and was inspired by, Mary and Louis Earle launched Mission Blue, which, by researching climate change, Botkin has
Leakey. In early 1967 Fossey founded 2018, had established nearly 100 marine questioned how far it is impacted by
the Karisoke Research Center in the protected areas around the world. human activity. He is a research scientist
Rwandan mountains, where she See also: Pollution 230–235 at the Marine Biological Laboratory, near
studied gorillas. Her best-selling 1983 Boston, and is involved in environmental
book about her experiences—Gorillas ROBERT E. SHAW studies programs at several American
in the Mist—was later adapted for the universities.
screen. Fossey was murdered at her 1936– See also: Halting climate change 316–321
camp in December 1985, probably
because of her anti-poaching stance. Shaw is an American pioneer EILEEN KAMPAKUTA BROWN
See also: Animal behavior 116–117 of ecological psychology, which looks at
how perception, action, communication, 1938–
TOMOKO OHTA learning, and evolution in humans
and animals are determined by the In the early 1990s, the Australian
1933– environment. In 1977 he coedited the government revealed plans to build a
book Perceiving, Acting, and Knowing: nuclear waste dump near Woomera, in
Ohta is a Japanese population Toward an Ecological Psychology, the South Australian desert. Together
geneticist who in 1973 proposed the which effectively launched this new with Eileen Wani Wingfield, Brown, an
revolutionary Nearly Neutral Theory, area of study. In 1981 Shaw was the Aboriginal elder, established a kungka
which included the idea that mutations founding president of the International tjuta (women’s council) in the town of
that are neither neutral nor harmful play Society for Ecological Psychology and Cooper Pedy to fight the plans. They
an important part in evolution. After is now an emeritis professor in the were aware of the birth defects, cancer,
graduating from the University of Department of Psychological Sciences and other health issues following the
Tokyo in 1956, Ohta worked on the at the University of Connecticut. British military’s nuclear tests in the
cytogenetics (how chromosomes relate See also: Using animal models to desert in the 1950s and 1960s, and
to cell behavior) of wheat and sugar understand human behavior 118–125 feared that radiation could seep into the
beet, and now works at Japan’s groundwater. The plans were abandoned
National Institute of Genetics. DAVID SUZUKI and Brown and Wingfield won the 2003
See also: The selfish gene 38–39 Goldman Environmental Prize.
1936– See also: Pollution 230–235
STANLEY C. WECKER
Canadian scientist Suzuki earned a LYNN MARGULIS
1933–2010 Ph.D. in zoology from the University of
Chicago in 1961, and two years later 1938–2011
An American animal behaviorist, became a professor in the genetics
Wecker was an influential researcher department at the University of British American biologist Margulis attended
into animal population and community Columbia. Since the mid-1970s, he has Chicago University aged only 15 and
ecology, especially the study of what also been a TV and radio broadcaster gained her Ph.D. at the University

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338 DIRECTORY

of California, Berkeley, in 1965. The next work on chaos theory. In his 1975 paper movement. In the early 1980s, he was
year, at Boston University, she proposed “Period Three Implies Chaos,” written one of the leaders of a successful
that cells within nuclei had evolved with Chinese mathematician Tien-Yien campaign to prevent the building of
as a result of the symbiotic merger Li, he argued that above a certain rate the Franklin Dam, which would have
of bacteria. This idea, although not of growth, population forecasts become destroyed key habitats. In 1996, Brown
generally accepted until the 1980s, totally unpredictable, a discovery with was elected to the Australian Senate as
transformed the understanding of major ecological implications. a Green Party representative. On
cell evolution. See also: Population viability analysis retirement in 2012, he set up the Bob
See also: The Gaia hypothesis 214–217 312–315 Brown Foundation to campaign for the
protection of Australian habitats.
PAUL F. HOFFMAN IAN LOWE See also: The water crisis 288–291

1941– 1942– BIRUTE GALDIKAS

Canadian scientist Paul Hoffman’s Lowe, an Australian environmentalist 1946–
discovery of “cap carbonates”—evidence who studied engineering and science at
for ancient glaciation in Precambrian the University of New South Wales and German-born anthropologist and
sedimentary rocks in Namibia—revived earned his Ph.D. in physics at the primatologist Galdikas has pioneered
the “Snowball Earth” hypothesis in University of York, advises the UN’s the study of orangutans in the wild.
climate change studies in 2000. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Along with Jane Goodall and Dian
term was first used by American Change. He is outspoken on the need Fossey, she was one of “The Trimates,”
geologist Joseph Kirschvink in 1992, for renewable energy, arguing that it chosen by Louis Leakey to study great
although there had been speculation is “quicker, less expensive, and less apes. Leakey persuaded her to support
since the late 19th century that Earth’s dangerous than nuclear power.” In the establishment of an orangutan
surface was almost entirely frozen more 1996, Lowe chaired the expert group research station in Borneo, to which she
than 650 million years ago. responsible for the first report on the moved in 1971. For more than 30 years,
See also: Ancient ice ages 198–199 state of Australia’s environment. Lowe Galdikas studied the great apes,
is now Emeritus Professor of Science, advocated protection for them and their
SIMON A. LEVIN Technology, and Society at Griffith rain forest habitat, and undertook the
University, Brisbane. rehabilitation of orphaned orangutans.
1941– See also: Renewable energy 300–305 See also: Animal behavior 116–117
■ Halting climate change 316–321
Levin, an American ecologist, specializes BRIAN A. MAURER
in the use of sophisticated mathematical AILA KETO
modeling, alongside field and lab 1954–2018
observation, to understand the workings 1943–
of ecosystems. He also researches the Maurer’s 1989 paper “Macroecology:
relationships between ecology and Keto spent much of her youth exploring The Division of Food and Space Among
economics. Levin earned a Ph.D. the Great Barrier Reef and surrounding Species on Continents”—written with
in mathematics from the University rain forests. She studied biochemistry James H. Brown—was the first clear
of Maryland in 1964 and taught at and went on to work at the University articulation of the idea that there is value
Cornell University from 1965 to 1992. of Queensland. In 1982, with her in studying ecological patterns and
After moving to Princeton, he was husband Keith, she founded the processes over large areas and long time
appointed director of the university’s Australian Rain forest Conservation frames. In his last years he researched
Center for BioComplexity, which Society, which did much to save the dynamics of the spread of exotic birds
investigates the mechanisms that Australia’s Wet Tropics area. and species diversity among mountain-
generate and maintain complexity See also: Biomes 206–209 dwelling mammals in North America.
in the living world. See also: Macroecology 185
See also: Predator–prey equations 44–49 BOB BROWN
NANCY GRIMM
JAMES A. YORKE 1944–
1955–
1941– After studying medicine at the
University of Sydney, Brown practiced Based at Arizona State University,
An American mathematician and in Australia and the UK. He moved to Grimm is a climate change ecologist
physicist based at the University of Tasmania in 1972 and soon became and sustainability scientist, whose
Maryland, Yorke is best known for his involved in the environmental research concentrates on the

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DIRECTORY 339

interaction of climate change, human such as the Hawaiian chain, where the SARAH HARDY
activity, and ecosystems. Her work has date of each island is already known
particularly focused on the movement with some accuracy. Most of her work 1974–
of water and chemicals through is focused on the evolution of spider
ecosystems. Grimm is a past president species. Gillespie is based at the Hardy is an American marine biologist
of the Ecological Society of America University of California, Berkeley, where and polar explorer who studies the effect
and a senior scientist on the US Global she runs the EvoLab, a research group on the environment of deep-ocean
Climate Change Research Program. that focuses on arthropods, such as mining. She argues that to protect
See also: Ecosystem services 328–329 spiders and insects. marine communities and biodiversity
See also: Thermoregulation in insects it is important to develop a systematic
TIM FLANNERY 126–127 ■ Island biogeography 144–149 approach to the zoning of the oceans—
with deep-sea marine protection areas a
1956– HARVEY LOCKE priority. Hardy studied marine biology at
the University of California and earned
One of Australia’s most prominent 1959– her Ph.D. in oceanography at the
environmentalists, Flannery earned University of Hawaii in 2005.
a Ph.D. in 1984 from the University of Born in Calgary, Canada, Locke trained See also: A plastic wasteland 284–285
New South Wales for his work on and practiced as a lawyer before
kangaroo evolution. He later built switching to full-time conservation KATEY WALTER ANTHONY
a reputation as a mammalogist, work in 1999. He is committed to areas
discovering several new species, and of ecology known as large landscape 1976–
as an expert on climate change. He and connectivity conservation, which
was chief commissioner of the Climate involve the connection of all lands, Based at the University of Alaska,
Commission, an Australian government whether urban or wild, across a wide Walter Anthony is an aquatic
body, and champions renewable energy. network. Locke was a founder of the ecosystems ecologist specializing in
See also: Renewable energy 300–305 Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation polar environments. She has studied
Initiative, which campaigns to create carbon dioxide and methane emissions
SUSAN KAMINSKYJ a continuous wildlife corridor between from lakes in the North American
those two areas of North America. In Arctic. In 2017, she discovered that
1956– 2009, Locke also cofounded the Nature unusually large amounts of methane
Needs Half movement, which advocates were escaping from an Arctic lake,
From her laboratory at the University for the protection of half of Earth’s land where the gas was seeping into the
of Saskatchewan, Canada, Kaminskyj— and water area by 2050. Locke argues water from greater depths than
a cell biologist and mycologist—has that this policy is necessary to avoid previously discovered. If replicated
pioneered the use of fungi to clean a sixth mass extinction on Earth. elsewhere, such emissions from
oil-contaminated site, in a process See also: Mass extinctions 218–223 reserves deep in the permafrost could
known as bioremediation. Kaminskyj produce a dramatic increase in the
and her team found that when seeds MAJORA CARTER amount of methane in the atmosphere.
are treated with a fungus named See also: The Keeling Curve 240–241
TSTh20-1, plants can establish in the 1966–
substrate of such land and clean the AUTUMN PELTIER
soil as they grow. When her dog led her through a
See also: Ubiquity of mycorrhizae degraded brownfield site to the banks 2004–
104–105 ■ Pollution 230–235 of the Bronx River, in her native New
York City, Carter realized the potential Peltier, a member of the Wikwemikong
ROSEMARY GILLESPIE for the regeneration of this area. She First Nation who lives in Ontario,
won funding from the city council to Canada, is a campaigner for clean
1957– develop Hunts Point Riverside Park on drinking water, arguing that humanity
the site, providing a natural retreat and should treat water with greater respect.
Scottish-born Gillespie studied zoology river access for locals. Subsequently In 2018, at the age of 13, she was one
at the University of Edinburgh before her organization, Sustainable South of the youngest people ever to speak
moving to the US to earn her Ph.D. at Bronx (SSBx), advocated and won to the UN General Assembly. Here, she
the University of Tennessee. She is support for “green” urban renewal in advocated the policy that “No child
known particularly for investigations disadvantaged communities elsewhere should grow up not knowing what clean
into what drives biodiversity at species in New York. SSBx also campaigns to drinking water is, or never know what
level, concentrating her evolution improve air quality and food choices. running water is.”
research on “hotspot archipelagos” See also: The Green Movement 308–309 See also: The water crisis 286–291

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340

GLOSSARY

Abiotic Nonliving; often used to Biogeography The study of how Citizen science Scientific research
refer to the nonliving components plants and animals are distributed carried out by amateurs, typically
of an ecosystem (such as climate geographically, and the changes involving large-scale data collection.
and temperature). to this distribution over time.
Climate change A shift in the
Abundance The number Biological community A world’s interconnected weather
of a given species within an collection of living organisms patterns; a gradual natural process
ecosystem; an abundant species within one location; when exacerbated by human actions.
is strongly represented within the combined with their environment,
wider population. they make an ecosystem. Climax A biological community
or ecosystem that has reached
Acid rain Any form of precipitation Biomass The total quantity of a a stable point, so that populations
with high levels of acidity, causing given organism within a habitat, of organisms will remain steady.
damage to the environment; may generally expressed as weight or This is the end result of succession,
occur naturally or as a result of volume. Also a type of fuel made in which the type of species and
human activity. from organic matter, usually burned population sizes that make up
to generate electricity. a community change over time.
Anthropogenic Originating in,
or influenced by, human activity. Biome An area of Earth that can Climax species A plant species
be classified according to the that will not change as long as its
Apex predator A predator that species of plant and animal life environment remains stable.
is not prey for any other species. within it.
Clutch size The number of eggs
Atmosphere The layer of gases Biosphere The layer of Earth laid in one birthing.
surrounding Earth. It also protects in which life can exist, situated
organisms from ultraviolet radition. between the atmosphere and Community ecology The study of
lithosphere; the sum of all how species interact within a given
Autotroph A producer; an ecosystems on the planet. geographical space.
organism that makes its own food
from sources such as light, water, Botany The scientific study Competitive exclusion
and chemicals in the air. of plant life. principle The idea that multiple
species reliant on exactly the same
Behavioral ecology The study of Carnivore An organism which resources cannot exist together
animal behavior and how ecological eats only meat. without one population rising and
pressures influence this. the other falling, as one will always
Catastrophism The theory that have an advantage over another.
Biodegradable Usually used changes in Earth’s crust were
in reference to waste products, caused by dramatic and unusual Coniferous Describes trees with
meaning something that can be events, as opposed to gradual seed cones which mostly do not
broken down by natural processes. change over time. shed their needlelike leaves
during winter.
Biodiversity The variety Cells The smallest structural and
of ecological life within a given biological unit that can survive Conservation The protection and
geographical area, encompassing on its own; the “building blocks” preservation of animal life, plant
variety between and within species. of all life on Earth. life, and natural resources.

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GLOSSARY 341

Consumer A species that eats Endangered Describes a species the connections between them,
other organisms to obtain its whose population is so small that illustrating how communities
required nutrients; this term can it is at risk of dying out completely. interact on a wider scale to survive.
apply to any organism that is not
at the very bottom of the food chain Epidemiology The study of Fossil The remains of a prehistoric
how diseases spread through organism, preserved and solidified
Deciduous Describes trees that populations, and the impact this in sedimentary rock or amber.
shed their leaves in the fall. has on the wider ecosystem.
Fossil fuel Nonrenewable fuels
Decomposers Organisms, Ethology The scientific study formed over millions of years from
primarily bacteria and fungi, that of the evolution of animal behavior plant and animal remains.
break down dead organisms and as an adaptive trait, with a
waste matter to obtain energy. particular focus on observing Fracking A process by which oil
animals in their natural habitat. or gas can be extracted from the
Deforestation The cutting down ground. Fracking involves drilling
of a large area of trees, carried out Evolution The process by which down and injecting liquid into
for a range of purposes, including species change over time as traits the rock at a high pressure in
farming, industry, and construction. are passed down over generations. order to force the oil and gas to
the surface.
Detritivores Organisms that feed Extinction The permanent dying
on waste matter. out of an entire species. Fungi A group of organisms,
including mushrooms, that produce
Diatom Any of a large group of Extirpation Extinction of a spores and feed on organic matter.
microscopic algae that often play species on a local level—when Unlike plants, fungi do not utilize
an important role in stabilizing an a species dies out within a specific sunlight for growth.
ecosystem and facilitating the geographic area but still exists
existence of a range of life forms. elsewhere on the planet. Gene The most basic unit of
heredity; part of a DNA molecule
Diversity A measure of the variety Feedback loop The effect that one that transmits characteristics from
of species within a biological part of an ecosystem has on the a parent to its offspring.
community or ecosystem. rest, and how this change feeds
back into the system as a whole. Genome The complete set of an
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. A organism’s genes.
large molecule in the shape of a Fertilizers Substances, which
double helix that carries genetic can be either natural or chemical, Geology The scientific study
information in a chromosome. that are added to soil to increase of Earth’s physical formation and
its nutrient content and help plants structure. Geologists examine our
Ecology The scientific study of grow more successfully. planet’s history and the ongoing
the relationships between living processes that are acting upon it.
organisms and their environment. Fieldwork Studies undertaken
in the wild, rather than under Global warming A gradual
Ecosystem A community of controlled laboratory conditions. increase in the temperature of
organisms in a given environment Earth’s atmosphere caused by the
that interact with and affect Food chain A series of predators accumulation of greenhouse gases.
one another. and prey, in which each organism
is dependent on the preceding GMO Genetically Modified
Ecosystem services The benefits lifeform for food. Organism—any life form that has
humans receive from an ecosystem; been artificially and chemically
a term highlighting the importance Food web A collection of food altered by engineering techniques
of the environment to humanity. chains within an ecosystem and that modify its DNA.

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342 GLOSSARY

Greenhouse effect The way in Irrigation The controlled Migration A large-scale movement
which gases in Earth’s atmosphere application of water to areas of of a species from one environment
trap heat. The buildup of these land, usually through the creation to another; often occurs seasonally.
gases leads to global warming. of channels, to help crops grow.
Monoculture Using land for the
Greenhouse gas Gases such as Keystone species A species cultivation or growth of only one
carbon dioxide and methane that that plays a centrally important type of plant or animal. This often
absorb energy reflected by Earth’s role in an ecosystem, often has damaging effects on the land,
surface, stopping it from escaping disproportionate to its biomass, as it can decrease its mineral value.
into space. and whose removal would alter
or endanger the entire ecosystem. Morphology The study of the
Green Movement A political external structure of organisms.
ideology that encourages a greater Kin selection An evolutionary
focus on the importance of the strategy whereby individuals Mutation A change of
environment, and asks people to pursue the best tactic for their structure within an organism’s
take action to prevent damage relatives’ survival, even at the DNA, which may result in a
to Earth’s natural habitats. expense of their own safety, well- genetic transformation giving
being, or reproduction. it uncharacteristic traits. One
Groundwater Water found below example of a mutation is
Earth’s surface, such as in spaces Mass extinction The widespread albinism, a lack of pigmentation.
in the soil, sand, or rock. and rapid dying out of an abnormally
large number—at least half—of Mutualism A situation in which
Habitat The area in which all species; this sharp change in two or more organisms depend
an organism naturally lives. biodiversity usually marks a shift on each other for survival.
to a new geological era in our
Herbivore An organism that eats planet’s history. Mycorrhizae Types of fungi
only plants. that grow among the roots of
Metabolism The chemical plants and exist in a symbiotic
Homeostasis The regulation processes that occur within the relationship with these plants.
of conditions within an organism, cells of an organism to keep it alive,
such as temperature, water, and such as the processes that enable Natural selection The process
carbon dioxide, to maintain a the digestion of food. by which characteristics that
stable internal state. increase an organism’s chances
Metacommunity A set of of reproducing are preferentially
Hypothesis An idea or assumption, independent communities that passed on.
used as the starting point for interact and are connected by
a theory, which is then tested the movement of some species Niche The specific space and
through scientific experimentation. between those communities. role that a species occupies within
an ecosystem.
Inheritance The passing on of Metapopulation A collection
genetic qualities and behavioral of smaller populations of a given Omnivore An organism that feeds
predispositions to offspring, species that are linked by the on both animals and plants.
through both genetic information movement of some individuals.
and parental nurture. Organism General term for
Microorganism An organism, any living thing, from single-cell
Invasive species A nonnative invisible to the human eye, bacteria to complex, multicellular
species that has been introduced that can only be seen with a life forms such as plants and animals.
to an ecosystem and spreads microscope, such as a bacterium,
rapidly, damaging the ecological virus, or fungus; also known as Ornithology A branch of biology
balance of the area. a microbe. that concerns the study of birds.

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GLOSSARY 343

Overfishing The depletion of the Prey A species that is hunted Thermoregulation The internal
fish population in a given area as by another species. processes that occur within an
a result of fishing too intensively. organism to ensure it maintains
Primary producer Any organism a stable temperature, a function
Ozone layer Part of the upper that makes its own food from that is crucial for survival.
level of Earth’s atmosphere, with nonorganic sources, namely light
a high concentration of ozone (O3) and/or chemical compounds such Transmutation The process of
molecules; provides protection as carbon dioxide and sulfur, and evolutionary divergence by which
from ultraviolet radiation. thus sustains the animals that one species transforms into an
feed on it. entirely new one.
Paleontology The study of fossils
and biology of Earth’s geological Primary vegetation The Trophic cascade The impact
past. Paleobotany is the branch vegetation that has prevailed in a that the removal of a trophic level
studying plant fossils. given area since the start of its of a food chain with at least three
current climatic conditions. levels has on the wider ecosystem
Parasite An organism that lives on as a whole.
or in another organism, and obtains Recycling The process of
nutrients from its host. converting waste into new objects Trophic level The place of an
or materials, or burning it to organism within an ecosystem’s
Pesticides Chemicals used to kill generate energy. hierarchy; organisms that are
certain types of pest in order to on the same level of the food chain
protect cultivated plants. They can, Renewables Fuel sources that are on the same trophic level.
however, also kill nontarget species are not finite, such as solar power,
and damage the wider ecosystem. hydropower, and wind power. Tropics The region of Earth that
surrounds the equator, between the
Photosynthesis The process Species A group of organisms lines of the Tropic of Cancer and
by which plants and algae transfer capable of exchanging genes with the Tropic of Capricorn, and does
the Sun’s light energy into chemical one another through reproduction. not experience the same seasonal
energy as glucose, allowing it to be changes as the rest of Earth.
passed along the food chain. The Stochasticity Unpredictable
process absorbs carbon dioxide and fluctuations in environmental Urbanization The process which
releases oxygen. conditions that affect populations occurs when rural areas are built
and ecological processes. upon intensively, almost always
Physiology A branch of biology with negative consequences for
that focuses on the everyday Succession The process by which the natural environment.
functioning of organisms. a biological community evolves
over time, from a few simple species Urban sprawl The outward
Pollination The transfer of pollen to a complex ecoystem, through growth of a previously concentrated
from a male plant part to a female species’ impact on the environment. urbanized area, often with negative
one—by birds, insects, and other consequences for the environment.
animals, or by the wind—enabling Taxonomy The science of naming
fertilization and seed production. and classifying different organisms. Variation Differences within a
species, caused either by genetic
Pollution The introduction of Tectonic plates Pieces of Earth’s or environmental factors.
harmful contaminants to the crust and uppermost mantle that
natural environment, inducing gradually shift over time, causing Vascular plant A type of plant
changes to the atmosphere. seafloor spreading, continental with conductive tissue for the
drift, and mountains, rift valleys, movement of water and minerals
Predator A species that hunts volcanoes, and earthquakes at throughout, such as a fern or a
other animal species for food. plate boundaries. flowering plant.

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344

INDEX

Numbers in bold refer autogenic ecosystem engineers 189 biosphere 95, 136, 153, 160, 197, 204–205, 215
to a topic’s main entry autotrophs 132 biosphere reserves 236, 310, 311
Avery, Oswald 19, 34 Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)
A axolotls 283, 283 310–311
Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (SBI)
acacia trees 57–58, 57 B 322–323
acid rain 93, 222, 229, 234, 248–249
adaptation 72 Bacon, Francis 294, 296, 296 bipedalism 72
Bacon, Roger 84 birds
see also ecophysiology; natural selection bacteria 30, 31, 31, 68, 69, 84, 85, 90, 100,
Agassiz, Louis 196, 198–199 bird counts 180–181, 182, 183
Age of Discovery 80, 296 102, 103, 136, 139, 164 birdsong 235
Age of Enlightenment 18 Bak, Per 184 eggs 114–115
aggression 124–125, 124 balsam fir 151 light pollution damage 253
Aguado, Catalina 181 Baltimore Orioles 199 migration 180, 180, 199, 278
air pollution 93, 95, 232, 233–234, 233, 248 Banks, Jonathan 276 social behavior 189
Al-Jahiz 108, 130, 132 bark beetles 277 bison 143
albinism 30 Barlow, Maude 288, 289, 289, 291 black widow spiders 39, 39
algae 132, 151, 217 barnacles 54, 55, 55, 62, 63 Blackburn, Tim 185
algal blooms 166, 269 Barro Colorado Island 157, 157 blood-suckers 127
alleles 30 Bartram, William 297 Blue Tits 114, 114
allogenic ecosystem engineers 189 Bateson, William 29 Blue-footed Boobies 115, 115
altruistic behavior 19, 29, 38, 39, 125 bats 54, 67, 155 Blue-gray Gnatcatchers 176–177, 176
Alvarez, Luis and Walter 22, 221, 221 Bazalgette, Joseph 233 bluebirds 111
Amazon Basin 97, 259 bears 51, 51, 72, 109, 109, 191, 313, 314, 314 Bodenheimer, Frederick 112
amphibian viruses 280 beavers 65, 65, 111, 188, 189 boneworms 139
Anderson, Roy 68, 70–71 bees 29, 29, 38, 39, 66, 85, 100, 101, 126, 127, bonobos 120, 123, 125, 125
Andrews Forest, Oregon 153, 153 Bonpland, Aimé 162
animal behavior see ethology 278, 279 Botkin, Daniel B. 337
animal ecology 106–113 behavioral ecology 154–155 Boyle, Robert 85
Beklemishe, Vladimir 204 Bradley, Richard 130, 132
behavioral ecology 154–155 Beneden, Pierre-Joseph van 56, 58 Brown, Bob 338
see also ecological niches; food chains; food webs benthic communities 142 Brown, Eileen Kampakuta 337
Anning, Mary 334 Biblical flood 198, 198, 199 Brown, James H. 131, 146, 148, 185, 338
Anthony, Katey Walter 339 big ecology 153 Bruckner, John 132, 133
Anthropocene epoch 322 Big Garden Birdwatch 182 Brugger, Ken 181
anthropogenic biomes 95 bioaccumulation 94 Buckland, William 199
antibiotics 103 biodiversity 63, 81, 90–97, 131, 137, 149, 235, budworm 151, 151
antibodies 103 buffalo 95, 110
antiseptics 103 237, 258, 322 Buffon, Comte du 20, 23, 26
ants 48, 57–58, 57, 94, 142 agricultural 326–327 bullfrogs 280
aphids 49, 58, 224 and ecosystem functioning 156–157 bushmeat 124
aquaculture 269 effects of human activity on 93 butterflies 127, 181–182, 277, 279, 313
aquifers 289, 290, 291 hotspots 96–97
Aral Sea 288, 290, 290 key threats to 93–95 C
archaea 91 loss 156, 157
Arditi-Ginzburg equations 46 neutral theory of 152 C:N:P ratios 74, 75
argan trees 311 biofuels 289 cactus 173
Aristotle 42, 80, 82–83, 83, 100, 130, 166, 296 “biogenic” rocks 30 Caldeira, Ken 281
Arrhenius, Olaf 185 biogeography 94, 130–131, 162–163, 166, 197, Callendar, Guy Stewart 240
Arrhenius, Svante 202–203, 240, 318–319 200–201, 209 camels 73
atmosphere 197, 204, 215 biological species concept 88–89 camouflage 83
Attenborough, David 93, 167, 336 biomass 62, 112, 113, 238, 305 cancer research 75
Audubon, James 181, 334 biomass energy 305 cane toads 273, 273
Audubon Society 182 biomes 95, 135, 173, 197, 206–209, 209

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INDEX 345

carbon 74, 75 Connett, Paul 330 barcoding 37
carbon dioxide (CO2) 65, 136, 228, 259, 281, conservation 124, 142, 236, 239, 267, 295, junk DNA 123
mitochondrial DNA analysis 81
302–303, 305, 318, 321 307 mutations 19, 30, 30, 31, 36–37
Keeling Curve 240–241, 241 see also environmentalism sequencing 37, 89
social cost of carbon (SCC) 324–325 continental drift 196, 212–213 Dobzhansky, Theodosius 29–30, 31, 96
carbon sinks 264 convergent evolution 209 dodos 299
carnivores 109, 133, 141 Cooke, Wells 180 dogs 89, 101, 116
Carson, Rachel 138, 139, 229, 244–245, 244, cooling ponds 137 Dolly the sheep 34
247, 299, 306 cooperative behavior 124 dolphins 97, 285, 291
Carter, Majora 339 coral bleaching 207, 238 donkeys 89
Caswell, Hal 152 coral reefs 135, 152, 189, 193, 203, 205, 207, Dorling, Danny 250
Celsius, Anders 87 207, 238 Douglas, Marjory Stoneman 335
Central Park, Manhattan, New York 149 Cousteau, Jacques 335–336 dragonflies 43, 51, 76–77, 77, 109, 111, 189
cephalopods 222, 223 Cowles, Henry Chandler 160, 170, 172, 174 droughts 70, 288, 318
CFCs 229, 260, 261 crabs 142 Drude, Oscar 172
Chambers, Robert 20 Crawford, David 253 dunes 170, 172
chameleons 185 creationism 18, 20, 22, 28, 196 dung beetles 126, 127
Champlain, Samuel de 334 Crick, Francis 19, 32, 34–35, 35 Dutch elm disease 70
Chapman, Frank 181 crocodiles 42, 222
Chargaff, Erwin 182 Croll, James 224 E
Charpentier, Jean de 198 Cronquist, Arthur 175
cheetahs 47 crows 67 E. coli 31, 31
chemotrophs 133 cuckoos 199 eagles 133, 229, 235
chestnut blight 175 Curtis, John 161, 174, 175 Earle, Sylvia 337
Chicxulub Crater 220, 221, 237 Cuvier, Georges 18, 22 Earth Day 211, 211, 295, 306, 308, 330
chimpanzees 101, 120, 121, 121, 122, 122, cyanobacteria 161, 189, 205 Earth Summits 153, 323, 330
123–125, 123, 124 cystic fibrosis 37 earthworms 189
cholera 69–70, 233 Easter Island 264, 264
Christmas Bird Count (CBC) 180–181 D echidnas 209
chromosomes 123 echolocation 67
Chutkan, Robynne 102 Dachille, Frank 220 ecological drift 192
chytridomycosis 280 Daily, Gretchen 329, 329 ecological equivalence 51
citizen science 161, 178–183 Daisyworld 216 ecological footprint 322
cladistics 86, 87, 90, 91 damselflies 109 ecological niches 22, 43, 50–51, 108, 110–112,
classification 20, 37, 81, 82–83, 86–87, 90–91 D’Ancona, Umberto 46–47, 48
Clements, Frederic 135, 138, 152, 160–161, 166, Dansereau, Pierre 336 176, 192
167, 168, 170, 172–73, 174, 175, 197, 206–207, Darwin, Charles 18, 21, 22, 23, 26–28, 26, 29, competitive exclusion principle 42–43, 52–53,
208, 210 112
climate change 95, 109, 113, 185, 202–203, 207, 32, 42, 56, 59, 72, 116, 120, 130, 133, 146, generalists and specialists 111
223, 224, 225, 228–229, 267, 268–269, 276, 281, 150, 162, 167, 193, 200, 297 guilds 152, 161, 176–177
295 Dawkins, Richard 19, 38–39, 39, 88, 116, 123, niche construction 188–189
climate change denial 320 154 niche overlap 51, 111–112
economic impact 324–25 Day, Max 336 niche partitioning 51, 112
halting 316–21 DDT 229, 244–245, 246, 247 ecological pyramids 112, 112
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change “dead zone” (oceans) 269 ecological resilience 131, 137, 150–151
(IPCC) 276, 295, 299, 319–320, 321 decomposers 139, 141 ecological stoichiometry 43, 74–75
and spring creep 276–279 decoupling of interactions between species ecological succession 170–171, 171, 172, 173
climax communities 172–173, 174 278–279 ecophysiology 72–73
cloning 34 deer 49, 77, 97 ecoregions 237–238
clownfish 59, 59 deforestation 93, 97, 228, 237, 238, 250, ecosystem ecology 157
cockatoos 201 254–259, 264, 294 ecosystem services 328–329
cod fisheries 266–267, 268 detritus feeders 133 ecosystems 128–159
“cold-blooded” 126 developmental traps 279 biomes 95, 135, 173, 197, 206–209, 209
colobus monkeys 124 diatoms 112, 189 biotic and abiotic elements 135–136, 208
competition dinosaurs 22, 222, 223 categories 136
competitive exclusion principle 42–43, 52–53, Diogenes 297 ecological epidemiology 68–71
112 disease energy flow 134, 138–139
exploitation 53 ecological epidemiology 68–71 equilibrium 136, 137
food chains and webs 109 infectious diseases 280
interference 53 DNA 19, 26, 30, 32, 34–37, 38, 123
interspecific 53
intraspecific 53
Connell, Joseph 43, 55, 62, 170

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346 INDEX

ecosystems cont. evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131, 154–155 forests see deforestation; rain forests
evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131, evolutionary theory 16–39 Fossey, Dian 336–337
154–155 fossil fuels 93, 203, 217, 225, 240, 263, 302,
experimental 157 coevolution 56, 59
external disturbances 136–137 convergent evolution 209 319
feedback loops 136, 217, 224–225 early theories 20–21 fossils 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30–31, 105, 196,
guilds 161, 176–177 heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32–33
holistic concept 175, 210–211 kin selection 19, 29, 39 212, 212, 213
keystone species 43, 60–65, 109, 130, 142 natural selection 18–19, 21, 22, 24–31, 38, 66, 72, Fourier, Joseph 203, 299
mutualism 42, 43, 56–59, 100, 104, 105, 157 81, 154 foxes 132, 225, 315
resilience 131, 137, 150–151 Red Queen theory 46, 49 fracking 304
techno-ecosystems 137 see also DNA; genetics Frank, Albert 100, 104, 105
see also biodiversity; competition; ecological extinction 22, 81, 92–93, 95, 96, 143 Franklin, Rosalind 19, 35
niches; food chains; food webs; predators current rate of 92–93 Friends of the Earth 297, 308
and prey extinction risk assessment 312–315 Frisch, Karl von 116, 123
extirpation 93, 95 Fritts, Charles 302
ecozones 209 Holocene extinction 223 frogs 109, 280
ectotherms 126, 222 island species 147, 148 fruit bats 155
Eden Project, UK 137 K-Pg extinction event 221–222 fruit flies 75, 164–165, 165
eggs mass extinctions 22, 218–223 fungal diseases 280
“the Great Dying” 223 fungi 58, 70, 91, 91, 100, 136, 139, 222, 278
birds 114–115
clutch size 101, 114–115 F mycorrhizae 104–105, 104, 105
turtles 253
Egler, Frank 173 G
Egyptians, ancient 82
Ehrlich, Paul 56, 59, 134, 250 facultative siblicide 115 Gaia hypothesis 197, 210, 214–217
electron microscopy 81, 85, 90 Faraday, Michael 233 Galdikas, Birute 338
electronic waste (e-waste) 331 Farman, Joe 260–261 game theory 154, 155
elephants 22, 62, 64, 109, 139 feedback loops 136, 217, 224–225 garlic mustard 272–273, 273
elk 65, 110 fermentation process 102, 103 Gaston, Kevin 185
Elliott, Christopher 173 fertilizers 327 Gause, Georgy 42–43, 52–53, 112, 190
Elser, James 43, 74, 75 Gause’s Law 52–53, 112
Elton, Charles 50, 51, 100, 108, 109, 110–111, runoff 151, 234, 239, 269 gazelles 47, 73
112, 130, 132, 270, 272 field manipulation experiments 63 genetically modified food 36, 36
empathy 125 fieldwork 43, 54–55, 116–117 genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 36
endangered species 93, 95, 312 fig trees 65 genetics 19, 29, 154
endotherms 126, 222 fig wasps 58
energy finches 27, 27, 110, 193 gene mapping 123
biomass energy 305 fireflies 89 gene selfishness 38–39
energy flow through ecosystems 134, fires 137, 171, 318, 318 gene therapy 19, 35
138–139 Fisher, Ronald 19, 29, 30, 114 genetic drift 81
energy transfer 113, 136 fishing genetic engineering 35, 296
Enlightenment 20, 298 genetic markers 123
environmentalism 294–331 fish farming 269 heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32–33
early history of 296–299 harmful practices 207, 238 human genome 19, 34, 37, 123
environmental ethics 306–307 moratoriums and quotas 267, 268 see also DNA
Green Movement 297, 299, 308–309 overfishing 93, 150, 207, 229, 250, 266–269 geothermal energy 91, 304
halting climate change 316–321 fishing cats 97 germ theory of disease 70, 102, 103
Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) fixed action patterns (FAPs) 116–117 Gessner, Conrad 80, 82, 83
310–311 Flannery, Tim 339 giant pandas 51, 51
renewable energy 300–305 fleas 112 Gillespie, Rosemary 339
Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (SBI) Fleming, Alexander 102, 103 giraffes 18, 21
322–325 flight, insects 126–127 glaciation 198–199
waste disposal 330–331 flooding 238, 239, 258, 277 glaciers 198, 199, 199, 203
epidemics 71 food chains 69, 75, 94, 108, 130, 132–133, 277 Gleason, Henry 152, 161, 171, 172, 174–175
epiphytes 169, 169 DDT biomagnification 246 Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF)
Esmark, Jens 198 ecological pyramids 112, 112 180, 183
essentialism 18, 20 producers and consumers 112, 132–133, 139, global warming 185, 202–203, 207, 223, 224,
ethology 101, 116–125 277, 279 268–269, 276, 281, 318, 319
animal models and human behavior 101, food limitation hypothesis 115 goldfinches 181
118–125 food webs 108, 108, 109, 133, 138, 140, 141, 142 Gondwana 213, 222, 223
eukaryotes 90, 91 Forbes, James 199 Goodall, Jane 101, 120–122, 121, 122, 124, 125
eusocial species 39 Forbes, Stephen A. 160, 166
eutrophication 151

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INDEX 347

Gore, Al 244, 304, 309, 319 HFCs 261 JK
gorillas 94, 123 hibernation 278
Gosling, Raymond 19 Hoffman, Paul F. 337–338 jaguars 65
Gould, Stephen Jay 38 Holdridge, Leslie 197, 206, 209 Janzen, Daniel 43, 55, 56–57
“great chain of being” 83 holistic theory 175, 210–211 Janzen–Connell hypothesis 55
Great Lakes, North America 150–151 Hölker, Franz 252 Jenner, Edward 84, 102
Great Oxygenation Event 189 Holling, Crawford 131, 150–151 Johnson, Roswell Hill 50
Great Pacific Ocean Garbage Patch (GPOGP) Holmes, Arthur 212 Johnston, Emma 235, 235
Holyoak, Marcel 190 Jones, Clive 189
284 homeostasis 215, 217
Great Tits 279, 279 hominids 124 Kaminskyj, Susan 339
Green Movement 297, 299, 308–309 Hooke, Robert 22, 42, 80, 84, 85, 85, 102 kangaroo rats 185
Green Revolution 327 hornets 127 Keeling, Charles 202, 228, 240
greenhouse gases and greenhouse effect 95, horses 31, 89 Keeling Curve 240–241, 241
Hubbell, Stephen P. 152, 190 Kelly, Allan O. 220
153, 202, 202, 203, 228, 239, 240, 241, 264, human behavior, animal models and 101, 118–125 Kelly, Petra 308, 309, 309
294, 299 human genome 19, 34, 37, 123 kelp 64–65, 143
Greenpeace 299, 309, 330 Humboldt, Alexander von 42, 72, 160, 162–163, kestrels 111
Grew, Nehemiah 85 Keto, Aila 338
Grimm, Nancy 338–339 163, 166, 168, 174, 176, 206, 256 keystone species 43, 60–65, 109, 130, 142
Grinnell, Joseph 42, 50–51, 108, 110, 112, 176 hummingbirds 110, 110 kin selection 19, 29, 39
Grisebach, August 172 Hunter, Tim 253 Klein, Naomi 262, 263, 263
Growth Rate Hypothesis (GRH) 75 hunting behavior 124 Klopfer, Peter H. 336
guilds 152, 161, 176–177 Hutchinson, George Evelyn 50, 51, 52, koala bears 111, 111
gulls 101, 117 Koch, Robert 100, 102
111, 139 Kolbert, Elizabeth 92, 202, 222
H Hutton, James 18, 23, 196, 198, 204 Krakatua 149, 149
Huxley, Julian 19, 26, 86 Krebs, Charles 224
habitats hydroelectric power 294, 302, 304–305 Kyoto Protocol 153, 320
carrying capacity 47 hydrosphere 197, 204, 215
destruction 93, 94, 95, 124, 137, 239, 280 L
endangered 236–239 I
fragmentation 93, 124, 130, 157 Lack, David 101, 114, 115
protected 239 ibis 97 Lack’s principle 115
ice ages 198–199 ladybugs 224, 271
Haeckel, Ernst 91, 166, 206, 334–335 ice cap melting 225, 318 lake ecosystem 211
Hairston, Nelson 130, 141 idealization of nature 298, 299 Laland, Kevin 188
Hamilton, William D. 19, 29, 38, 39, 154 immunity 70 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 18, 20–21, 21, 26, 28, 32
Hansen, James 225 imperial ecology 296, 299 land ethic 294–295, 306
Hanski, Ilkka 161, 187, 187 imprinting 116, 117 landfill sites 331
Hardin, Garrett 108, 229, 250, 306 inbreeding 314 Lawton, John 189
Hardy, Sarah 339 Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot 96, 97 Leakey, Louis 120, 121
hares 110, 110, 188 industrial melanism 31, 31 Leakey, Mary 336
Harkin, James Bernard 335 Industrial Revolution 20, 31, 228, 232, 241, Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 42, 84–85, 100,
Harrison, Nancy 189
Hartig, Theodor 104 294, 296 102, 130, 132
Hatton, Harry 54 Ingersoll, Andrews 224 Leibold, Mathew 190, 192, 193
hawk-dove “game” 155 insects Lenski, Richard 31
Hawking, Stephen 37 Leonardo da Vinci 22
Hawkins, Charles 161, 177 mass extinction 223 Leopold, Aldo 140, 142, 167, 244, 294, 297, 306,
HCFCs 261 thermoregulation 126–127
Heath Hen 313, 313 interbreeding 88, 89 307, 307
heavy metals 105 intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) 55 Levin, Simon A. 338
Heinrich, Bernd 101, 126 International Dark-Sky Association 229, 253 Levins, Richard 52, 186
Hennig, Willi 81, 90 Internationl Union for Conservation of Nature Lewontin, Richard 188
hens 165, 313 (IUCN) 236 lichens 171
herbivores 109, 113, 133, 139, 142 invasive species 93, 148, 270–273 life zone classification 197, 209
heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32–33 animals 270–271 ligers 89
Herodotus 42 plants 272–273, 282
Hess, Harry 212 island biogeography 94, 130–131, 144–149,
heterotherms 101, 126 193
heterotrophs 133

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348 INDEX

light pollution 235, 252–253 Mendel, Gregor 19, 26, 29, 32–33, 33, 296 nest predation hypothesis 114, 115
Likens, Gene 229, 248, 249, 249 Mendes, Chico 256, 257, 257, 258 Nestler, Johann Karl 33
Lindeman, Raymond 112, 113, 130, 138–139 metacommunities 190–193, 192 Neumann, John von 154
Linnaeus, Carl 20, 42, 80–81, 82, 83, 86–87, 87, 91, metamorphosis 77, 276, 279 Newport, George 101, 126
metapopulations 161, 186–187, 190 nitrogen 74
120, 132, 133, 162, 168 methane 331 noise pollution 235
lions 49, 109 Mexico City 283 noosphere 205
Lithops (“flowering stones”) 168 miasma 69 Nordhaus, William 324, 325, 325
lithosphere 197, 204, 212 mice 70, 71 nuclear power 217, 235, 302, 308
lizards 112 microbes 90, 91, 102–103
Locke, Harvey 339 microbial resistance 103 O
locusts 75 microhabitats 147
Loreau, Michel 131, 156–157 microplastics 284 oak trees 171, 189, 277
Lorenz, Edward 184 microscopy 80, 84–85, 100, 102 obligate siblicide 115
Lorenz, Konrad 101, 116, 117, 117, 120, 123 Miescher, Friedrich 26, 32 oceans
Lotka, Alfred J. 42, 46, 47, 52, 224–225 migration
Lotka–Volterra equations 42, 46–49, 52, 225 acidification 207, 238, 281
Lovelock, James 197, 204, 210, 214, 215, 215, 216, birds 180, 180, 199, 278 garbage patches 183, 284–285
butterflies 181–182 octopus 83
322 Miller, Brian 62, 65 Odling-Smee, John 161, 188, 189
Lowe, Ian 338 Miller, G. Tyler 137 Odum, Howard and Eugene 134, 138, 197, 210,
Lubchenco, Jane 322, 323, 323 Miller, Hugh 221 210–211, 214
Lyell, Charles 18, 23, 26, 196 Miner, Jack 335 Odum, William E. 43
lynx 48, 77, 110, 110, 188 “missing link” 121 Ohta, Tomoko 337
Möbius, Karl August 334 oil extraction 262, 263–264, 263
M moles 21 oil spills 234–235
Molina, Mario 229, 260, 261 one-child policy (China) 251
MacArthur, Robert 43, 52, 53, 66, 131, 146–147, monarch butterflies 181–182, 182 open community theory 174–175
147, 150, 312 monoculture plantations 256 optimal foraging theory (OFT) 43, 66–67
monsoons 291, 318 orangutans 123
macaws 111 Montreal Protocol 260, 261, 319 orcas 234
McCallum, Malcolm 280 Moore, Charles J. 284, 285 orchids 59
McClintock, Barbara 335 Morgernstern, Oskar 154 Ortelius, Abraham 212
McKendrick, Anderson Gray 68, 164 Morris, Desmond 116, 120, 122 ospreys 247
McKibben, Bill 264 Morrone, J.J. 200 overgrazing 93, 140, 239, 265
MacMahon, James 161, 177 mosquitoes 127, 247, 253 overharvesting 93, 94–95
macroecology 185 mosses 169, 171 overpopulation 229, 250–251
Malle, Adolphe Dureau de la 170, 171 moths 31, 31, 56, 57, 59, 101, 126, 253, 273 see also population dynamics
Malthus, Thomas 18, 27, 46, 47, 164, 165, 165, mountain goats 191 Owen, Richard 22
mudslides 258, 258 owls 111
184, 250 Muir, John 228, 236, 237, 237, 298, 306 oxpeckers 58, 110
mangroves 146, 147, 239, 259 mules 89 oystercatchers 66, 67, 67
Marae Moana 239 Munroe, Eugene 146 ozone depletion 260–261, 319
marginal value theorem (MVT) 66, 67 musk oxen 72, 239 ozone emissions 93
Margulis, Lynn 204, 210, 215, 322, 337 mussels 63, 67, 272
marine conservation 182–183, 239, 267 mutualism 42, 43, 56–59, 100, 104, 105, 157 P
marmots 278 service-resource relationships 58
Marsh, George Perkins 134, 135, 294, 299, 299 service-service relationships 58, 59 Paczoski, Jósef 335
marsupials 209, 213 mycelium 104 Paine, Robert 43, 54, 62–63, 63, 76, 130, 140,
mathematical modeling 54, 70, 74, 146–147, mycorrhizal fungi 104–105, 104, 105
Myers, Norman 81, 96–97, 97 141
155, 184 Pangaea 212–213, 223
matriarchal societies 125 N parasites 49, 68, 71, 112, 187
Matthews, Blake 188 parasitoids 49, 49
Mauna Loa 241, 241 national parks 236, 237, 237, 239, 298, 307 Paris Agreement 318, 320–321, 321
Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de 20 natural resources, depletion of 262–265 Parmesan, Camille 277, 277, 278
Maurer, Brian 185, 338 natural selection 18–19, 21, 22, 24–31, 38, 66, 72,
May, Robert 68, 70–71, 108, 150, 184
mayflies 85 81, 154
Mayr, Ernst 81, 88 Nelson, Gaylord 211, 295
meadowlarks 89 nematodes 143
meat-eating 109, 123–124, 133
megacities 282
megatsunami 221