DK THE ECOLOGY BOOK

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 249

See also: Endangered habitats 236–239 ■ Pesticides 242–247 ■ Deforestation
254–259 ■ Depletion of natural resources 262–265 ■ Ocean acidification 281

Fossil fuels burned These gases react
by industry emit with water in the
sulfur dioxide and lower atmosphere to
nitrogen oxides produce sulfuric acid

into the air. and nitric acid.

Plants and The acids fall as rain Gene Likens
animals into lakes and rivers,
affecting the pH balance Likens was born in Indiana
cannot live in in 1935. After earning a Ph.D.
the acidic water of the water. in zoology from University of
Wisconsin, he was appointed
and die off. assistant professor at
Dartmouth College. In 1963,
Spreading through the lower By the early 1970s, thousands of with fellow scientists F.
atmosphere, these gases react with lakes in Scandinavia had lost their Herbert Bormann, Noye
water to produce dilute sulfuric fish and were virtually dead. By 1984, Johnson, and Robert Pierce, he
acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Brooktrout Lake and others in the began research into the water,
These weak acids fall as rain and Adirondack Mountains, New York, minerals, and life forms in the
enter rivers and lakes, making them were devoid of fish. Acid rain also Hubbard Brook basin. In
more acidic. Increased acidity leaches harmful aluminum from the 1968, his studies recorded
stresses animals and plants. Water soil, and acidic clouds and fog harm the widespread prevalence
snails disappear, fish eggs fail to plants, reducing their ability to of acid rain, the product of
hatch, and insects and the frogs photosynthesize, leading to death. emissions from factories in the
that eat them die. Eventually, lakes Midwest. The team’s work in
will not support any life. Emission control the area over many years was
In the 1970s and 1980s, other areas described as one of the world’s
We experienced eight badly affected by acid rain most thorough studies of how
years of denial, but included the “Black Triangle” of air pollution and land use has
that’s not unusual in Czechoslovakia, Germany, and shaped a drainage basin.
Poland, where large areas of forest Likens’s work on deforestation,
environmental issues. died. Thanks to Likens’s work, land use, and sustainability
Gene Likens stricter controls were brought in led to a change in policy by
after 1990. Scrubber systems that the US Forestry Service. It also
extract SO2 were fitted to power helped shape the amended
station chimneys with great Clean Air Act in 1990. Likens
success. Emissions of the gas were was awarded the National
cut by almost half in the US, and by Medal of Science in 2001.
two thirds in Europe. Fish began to
return to lakes and rivers. However, Key works
the problem of acid rain still blights
parts of Russia, China, and India. ■ 1985 An Ecosystem Approach
to Aquatic Ecology: Mirror
Lake and its Environment
1991 Limnological Analyses

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250

CAAAFFNIINNSIITTUEEPPPWOOORPRTULLODANTLIYON

OVERPOPULATION

IN CONTEXT I n 1968, two scientists in the extinction. Hardin himself proposed
US issued dire warnings about a controversial solution to the
KEY FIGURE overpopulation. Ecologist problem of overpopulation, arguing
Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) Garrett Hardin predicted that that the government should deny
Earth’s resources would soon be welfare assistance to people who
BEFORE used up and environmental damage bred “excessively,” to prevent
1798 Thomas Malthus would increase. In The Tragedy of further births. Biologist Paul Ehrlich
forecasts that continued the Commons, he cited examples similarly advocated population
population growth will exhaust of several major global crises that control in The Population Bomb,
global food supplies by the had been caused by overpopulation: with warnings that human numbers
mid-19th century. the destruction of fish stocks by would soon reach a point where
overfishing; the draining of lakes mass starvation would ensue.
1833 In Two Lectures on the by over-extraction of groundwater
Checks to Population, British for irrigation; deforestation; pollution Growth and decline
economist William Forster of air, land, and sea; and species For most of human history, the
Lloyd discusses overpopulation, world’s population had grown only
using the example of common slowly. It began to increase more
land, which is less productive rapidly in Western Europe and the
if too many cattle graze it. United States in the early years
of the Industrial Revolution, when
AFTER British economist Thomas Malthus
1974 A United Nations warned of a future famine. His
conference in Bucharest fears, however, proved premature
creates the UN’s first World because food production increased
Population Plan of Action. more quickly than many expected.
Life expectancy also fell in the new
2013 British social geographer industrial cities, due to infectious
Danny Dorling outlines in diseases. It rose again with better
Population 10 Billion why it is
unlikely the world’s population Ragpickers Court (1879) by William
will ever reach that number, Allen Rogers shows a poor Italian
contrary to UN estimates. neighborhood in New York City. Such
overcrowding allowed diseases to
spread through poverty-stricken areas.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 251

See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92–95 ■ The Verhulst equation China’s one-child
164–165 ■ Depletion of natural resources 262–265 ■ Urban sprawl 282–283 family planning policy

World population growth, 1750–2100 Until the 1960s, China
encouraged families to have
2.1% 11.2 Billion as many children as possible,
and the population rose
2% 9.8 Billion from 540 million in 1949 to
1.8% 940 million in 1976. However,
the government soon became
1.6% 8.6 Billion concerned about the demand
on resources. In 1978, scientist
1.4% 7.6 Billion and politician Song Jian
1.2% calculated that China’s ideal
population was between 650
1% 4.5 Billion and 700 million people, and in
0.8% 1979, his projections led the
0.6% 3 Billion government to create a new
0.4% policy limiting couples to one
0.2% 2 Billion child per family.
1.65 Billion
0% This one-child policy was
0.9 Billion enforced more strictly in urban
areas than in the countryside;
0.1% in some regions a second child
was permitted if the first was
1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 a girl. In the cities, however,
women were forced to abort
This graph plots a comparison Annual growth rate as a percentage second children, and in 1983
between the annual growth rate of the world population alone, 21 million women were
of the world population and the total World population in numbers forced to undergo sterilization.
population in absolute numbers. The policy was relaxed in 2015,
The data for the years after 2017 but the government still only
is a projection. allows two children per family.

healthcare and nutrition, cleaner still growing quickly in some parts A 1994 poster of a smiling mother
water, and more rights for workers. of the developing world, but the and daughter promotes China’s
By 1924, there were 2 billion people trend is not as rapid as it once was. one-child policy. Many baby girls
in the world, and by 1960 there It took just 11 years for the world’s were abandoned or killed so that
were 3 billion, with most growth population to rise from 6 billion their parents could try for a son.
occurring in the developing to 7 billion, but the increase to
countries of Latin America, Africa, 8 billion is forecast to be 13 years,
and South and East Asia. then another 25 years to reach
9 billion. The UN forecasts a peak
A slowing birthrate of 11.2 billion in 2100.
In Europe and North America in
the 20th century, wider access to Despite the slowing growth,
birth control, better education, and challenges remain. In 2009, a UN
more women entering the labor report warned that the world would
market resulted in lower birth rates. need to produce 70 percent more
This phenomenon is now being food by 2050 to feed its extra
replicated for women everywhere. population, thereby putting more
Although the world’s population pressure on land, water, and energy
passed 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in resources. Future population
1987, 6 billion in 2000, and 7 billion growth is also likely to aggravate
in 2011, the annual rate of increase many environmental problems,
peaked near the end of the 1960s at such as pollution, and rising levels
2.5 percent a year. Populations are of atmospheric greenhouse gases,
fueling global climate change. ■

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252

BDAALROREKTNTOSEWKDIEOSUT

LIGHT POLLUTION

IN CONTEXT According to some ecologists, A map of light pollution across
light pollution—the amount North America (white and red indicate
KEY FIGURE of artificially generated light where it is highest, black where it is
in the world—could be the most lowest) explains why 99 percent of
Franz Hölker damaging pollutant of all. Around Americans cannot see the Milky Way.
80 percent of humanity lives under
BEFORE skies saturated with light. In 2017, intense in industrializing countries
1000 ce The first organized a major German study of light in South America, Africa, and Asia,
system of street lighting pollution, carried out by ecologist but it also continues to increase
(by oil lamps) is introduced Franz Hölker and others using in the already well-lit countries
in Muslim Spain. satellite data, showed that the area of Europe and in the US.
of Earth illuminated artificially
1792 Scottish-born engineer grew 9 percent between 2012 and Astronomers were among the
William Murdock invents the 2016. The brightening is most first to notice light pollution because
gas light. Over the next half it interfered with their ability to see
century, many cities introduce
gas street lighting.

1879 American inventor
Thomas Edison demonstrates
the first commercially viable
electric light bulb.

1976 High-brightness,
high-efficiency, LED lights
are introduced.

AFTER
2050 The date by which
Hölker and others predict that,
with the global population set
to exceed 9 billion, Earth’s
total illuminated area will have
doubled since 2016.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 253

See also: Environmental feedback loops 224–225 ■ Spring creep 274–279 The effect on turtles
■ Man and the Biosphere Programme 310–311
Light pollution is a major
Dark areas are being lost Artificial light can also damage problem for nesting sea
in places where nocturnal birds’ immune systems. Studies turtles, which lay their eggs
animals, insects, and plants have found that house sparrows on land because the embryos
have adapted to darkness infected with the West Nile virus breathe through the
carried the virus twice as long when permeable shells. Females
over billions of years. kept under dim light than when kept need dark, sandy beaches for
Franz Hölker in the dark—doubling the time in their nests, and will go
which mosquitoes could bite them elsewhere if there are bright
celestial objects in the night sky. and pass on the virus. lights from beach resorts,
In 1988, American astronomers Tim street lights, or housing. If a
Hunter and David Crawford founded Ill-effects on animals can have whole stretch of coastline is
the International Dark-Sky a knock-on effect on plants. When illuminated, they may lay their
Association to protect the night moths, which are attracted to light, eggs in inferior habitats or
skies from light pollution. It was are repeatedly drawn to artificial even deposit their eggs at sea,
the first organization of its kind. sources, not only can they be killed where their offspring will die.
by exhaustion (because the light is
Since then, studies have never extinguished), or by the heat Such problems may be the
examined the effects of light generated, but they also become reason for the reduction in sea
pollution on plants and animals, more vulnerable to predators, which turtle populations. Scientists
which rely on the cycles of light can spot them more easily. believe that hatchlings move
and dark to govern life-sustaining toward the brightest light. In
behaviors such as nourishment, The decline in moth numbers natural conditions, this will be
sleep, protection from predators, has a knock-on effect on the plants moonlight shining on the
and even reproduction. Such that they help pollinate, which then ocean, but if there is artificial
research reveals a raft of ill-effects. affects seed yield. In some places, lighting inland, the hatchlings
One study showed that trees in seed yield has declined by as much wander toward that and get
Europe are budding more than a as 30 percent. Researchers who run over by traffic, eaten by
week earlier than they were in the studied a Swiss flower meadow predators, or caught in fencing.
1990s; this alters their period of under street lights found that Solutions include getting
growth, and may mean that they fail nocturnal visits from pollinators people and businesses to turn
to drop their leaves and fruit and declined by two-thirds. ■ off lights at night or use
enter the dormant phase in time to “turtle-safe” lighting, which is
avoid damage over the winter. The solution is simple— virtually invisible to turtles.
turn off unnecessary lights,
Vicious circle use only the amount of light Olive ridley sea turtle
Light pollution also has a detrimental needed for the task at hand, hatchlings make their way toward
effect on animals. Lights on tall the sea at Boca del Cielo Turtle
towers, for example, draw migrating and shield all lighting Research Station, Mexico.
birds, causing them to crash into so it shines down
the towers and into power lines. where it is needed.
Tim Hunter

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AM
HFIUGHMTIANNGIFTOYR

DEFORESTATION

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256 DEFORESTATION Chico Mendes fought Deforestation is the removal
to save the tropical of forest or woodland for
IN CONTEXT rain forest in Brazil. conversion to nonforest
use. This can be conversion to
KEY FIGURE His local actions agricultural land, including cattle
Chico Mendes (1944–88) helped reduce global ranches, or development for housing,
industry, or transportation. Forest
BEFORE CO2 emissions. may be degraded without being
1100–1500 Temperate forest destroyed completely, when valuable
is cleared across large parts Mendes mature trees, such as teak, are
of western and central Europe. realized that he selectively logged or some trees are
had had a global cut down to create a road. This can
1600–1900 Forests are cut effect: “I am fighting have a disproportionate negative
down in North America to for humanity.” effect on the biodiversity of the
make room for agriculture. forest, even though most trees are
left standing. Another form of
Late 1970s Tropical rain forest deforestation is the clearance of
clearance, mostly for ranching, primary forest and its replacement
accelerates dramatically. with monoculture plantations, such
as palm oil, as has happened
AFTER extensively in Indonesia.
2008 The UN launches its
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation can impact all
Deforestation and Degradation kinds of forest habitat, but tropical
(REDD) incentive program. rain forest—tropical moist broadleaf
forest that grows between the
2010 The US converts $21 m Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
(£16 m) of Brazil’s debt into a Capricorn—is the most severely
fund that will protect Brazil’s
coastal rain forest. Polluting smoke swirls up as rain
forest burns to make way for agriculture
2015 The UN Paris Agreement in Brazil. It is estimated that Brazil
sets targets for planting trees clears 2.7 million acres (1.1 million
to offset the threat of climate hectares) of rain forest a year.
change and global warming.

By felling trees … men
bring upon future

generations two calamities
at once: want of fuel and
scarcity of water.

Alexander von Humboldt

19th-century German explorer

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 257

See also: Biodiversity and ecosystem function 156–157 ■ Climate and vegetation
168–169 ■ Global warming 202–203 ■ A holistic view of Earth 210–211

affected. Concern for the rain forest wood for shipbuilding from the Chico Mendes
was first raised in the 1970s when Baltic nations and New England
activist Chico Mendes—who went in the US. Born in 1944, the son of one
on to become a founding member of of the 50,000-strong “Rubber
Brazil’s National Council of Rubber Primeval forest clearance Army” who tapped rubber for
Tappers—called on the Brazilian accelerated globally between 1850 use in the Allied war effort in
government to establish forest and 1920, with the biggest losses in World War II, Mendes started
reserves, from which local people North America, the Russian empire, work as a rubber tapper at the
could extract natural products, and South Asia. In the 20th century, age of nine. Influenced by
such as nuts, fruits, and fibers, the focus shifted to the tropics, priests from the progressive
sustainably. Mendes’s campaign, especially to tropical rain forest, Liberation Theology
which eventually cost him his life, half of which has been destroyed movement, he helped found a
highlighted the ecological damage since 1947, with the proportion of branch of the Workers’ Party
wreaked by forest clearance. the land that it covers having fallen and became leader of the
from 14 percent to 6 percent. Rubber Tappers’ Union.
Human need
The human race has used trees from It is estimated that an area As large areas of Brazil’s
its earliest days. In Neolithic times, equivalent to 27 soccer fields rain forest were cleared to
they were cut down for fuel and is lost from forests globally each make way for cattle ranches,
to construct shelters and fencing. minute. Some regions have been Mendes publicized the
Five-thousand-year-old stone axes hit harder than others. In the tappers’ fight to save the
for chopping wood have been Philippines, for instance, 93 percent forest. He went to
found, as well as ax factories from of tropical broadleaf forest Washington, D.C., to persuade
the same era in Europe and North has been removed; 92 percent Congress and the World Bank
America. During the Middle Ages, of Atlantic forest in Brazil has gone; that cattle-ranching projects
however, as human populations 92 percent of temperate coniferous should not be funded. Instead,
expanded rapidly in western Europe forest in southwest China has hr proposed that forest areas
between 1100 and 1500, extensive disappeared; and 90 percent of dry be protected as “extractive
deforestation took place. Forests broadleaf forest in California has reserves”—public land
were cleared to make way for been cleared. managed by local communities
agriculture, and wood was used to with the right to harvest forest
build homes and boats, and to make Effects on biodiversity products sustainably. Cattle
bows, tools, and other implements. Recent estimates suggest that ranchers saw his movement as
almost half of all forest clearance a threat, and one, Darcy Alves,
Trees were cut down on an is carried out by subsistence ❯❯ shot him dead in 1988. After
industrial scale in central Europe his death, the first of many
and England to produce charcoal, We are unable to such reserves was established,
which became an important fuel remain silent in the face covering 2.5 million acres
(until replaced by coal) because (1 million hectares) of forest
it burns at higher temperatures of so much injustice. around Xapuri.
than wood. An early example Chico Mendes
of sustainable production was
practiced in England, where many
woods were managed as coppices
whose trees were partially cut
back and then allowed to regrow
to create a cyclical supply of
charcoal. Even so, by the 17th
century England had to import

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258 DEFORESTATION

farmers, and a third by commercial I became an ecologist humans—not least because most
interests. Urban development, long before I had ever new medicines are derived from
logging for the best-quality lumber, plants, and so the eradication of
mining and quarrying, and trees heard the word. the rain forest’s rich store destroys
cut for firewood account for any Chico Mendes potential cures for disease.
remaining deforestation. In every
case, the environment suffers. two-thirds of the world’s plants and Rain forests, together with all
Biodiversity is particularly impacted, animals live in this environment. other trees and woodland, also
because only a small number of Between 1.5 million and 1.8 million act like a sponge for rainfall.
mammal, bird, and invertebrate species—mostly insects, followed Tree roots drink up moisture and
species can live on grassland or a by plants and vertebrates—have limit surface runoff. When forest
palm oil plantation, and even fewer already been identified in rain is cut or burned, the soil is leached
in industrial or urban settings. forests, and many others have yet of many of its nutrients. If it covers
Human conflicts also blight forest, to be discovered and described. In a slope, the soil will wash away,
the worst example being the Agent Borneo, Indonesia, for example, an leaving the land unfit for growing
Orange chemical used to defoliate area of just 0.2 sq mile (0.5 sq km) any kind of plants. Deep gullies
trees during the Vietnam War. may contain more species of tree may undermine trees that have
than the combined landmass of not been cut, bringing them down.
The rain forest Europe and North America. Such After heavy rains, catastrophic
Destruction of the rain forest biodiversity is vitally important to mudslides, which happen with
poses a severe threat to global increasing frequency, sweep down
biodiversity because it has been the slope, destroying everything
estimated that between half and in their path—including human
settlements. In May 2014, for
Replacing trees with human example, heavy rainfall on the
settlements destabilizes the soil on deforested slopes of the Caribbean
slopes, and mudslides, such as this island of Hispaniola caused
catastrophic event in Sierra Leone mudslides and floods that killed
in 2017, are more likely to occur. more than 2,000 people. Conversely,
in extended periods of dry weather,

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 259

Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon Reforesting
the Amazon

30000 About 17 percent of rain forest
in the Amazon Basin has
AREA DEFORESTED, IN SQ KM 25000 been lost since the mid-1970s.
At the United Nations Paris
20000 Climate Summit in 2015,
Brazil pledged to restore
15000 nearly 30 million acres (12
million hectares) by the year
10000 2030. In 2017, Conservation
International, in partnership
5000 with the Brazilian government,
launched the area’s biggest
0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 reforestation program to date,
1990 under which Amazonas state
will gain 73 million trees
The depleting rainforest cover in the Amazon Basin is a through seeding and planting.
global concern. The land is now being stripped of trees at a
rate of 8,000 sq km (3,000 sq miles) annually. Local communities are
being enrolled to implement
exposed soil dries out faster than for conserving forest, and the the program, using a
tree-covered areas, making it more creation of extractive reserves, technique called muvuca. This
prone to wind erosion. where local people can harvest involves spreading the seeds
products sustainably. of more than 200 native forest
Fueling global warming species over every square yard
Burning wood or forests adds Globally, alternative sources of land. Less labor-intensive
carbon dioxide (CO2) to the of fuel need to be found, along than traditional tree-planting,
atmosphere. By contrast, living with new ways to develop less the method can reforest land
plants of all kinds reduce CO2, land-hungry forms of agriculture. quickly, delivering around
as they absorb carbon, taking up A few nations are taking the lead 6,000 plants per acre. In
the greenhouse gas to perform in reforestation programs. For addition to the seeding
photosynthesis, thus countering example, a project in which people program some planting will
the damaging impact of human from 500 villages have planted 150 enrich secondary forest and
activities. Globally, forests suck up million mangrove trees on the coast return pasture land to forest.
2.65 billion tons (2.4 billion tonnes) of Senegal will restore mangrove
of CO2 every year. Environmentalists forests to boost fishing and shield
and climatologists worry that rice paddies from the influx of salt
removing large tracts of tropical water. The Chinese aimed to plant
forest could be disastrous. 16.3 million acres (6.6 million
hectares) in 2018, equal to the area
Reforesting Earth of Ireland; in 2000, the proportion of
Currently, about 31 percent China covered by forest had fallen
of Earth’s land surface is covered to 19 percent, but the target is to
by forests, but that figure is rapidly increase this to 23 percent by 2020
decreasing in some parts of the and 26 percent in 2035. ■
world. However, there are regions,
including Europe, where forest The first African woman to win
areas are gradually expanding. a Nobel Peace Prize (2004), Wangari
Measures to restrict deforestation Maathai initiated a community-based
include payments to communities tree planting program to reverse
erosion and desertification in Kenya.

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260

KOTHIZNOEDNHEOOFLLAESYKIENYRWTIHSREIATING

OZONE DEPLETION

IN CONTEXT I n 1982, a team of scientists in spring. Over Antarctica, ozone
working for the British Antarctic measurements have been down
KEY FIGURE Survey (BAS) discovered that by 70 percent compared with 1975.
Joseph Farman (1930–2013) ozone levels above the Antarctic had Over the Arctic, levels have fallen
fallen dramatically. Ozone (O3, a by nearly 30 percent. This effect
BEFORE colorless gas in the stratosphere, became known as “the ozone hole,”
1974 American chemists 12–18 miles (20–30 km) above Earth’s although it is better described as
Frank “Sherry” Rowland and surface, forms the “ozone layer,” a “the ozone depression,” since it is
Mario Molina suggest that protective shield that absorbs most a thinning of the ozone layer rather
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) of the Sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. than a complete hole.
destroy atmospheric ozone. Without it, more of the Sun's harmful
radiation would reach the surface. Antarctic discovery
1976 The US National British geophysicist Joe Farman
Academy of Sciences declares Since the mid-1970s, there has was one of the team who made
that ozone depletion is a reality. been a 4-percent decrease in the the discovery in 1982. BAS teams
amount of ozone in the stratosphere. had been collecting atmospheric
AFTER An even bigger decrease has been data at the Halley Research Station
1987 The Montreal Protocol seen above the poles, particularly in Antarctica since 1957. Their
on Substances that Deplete work was poorly funded, and they
the Ozone Layer, a global Joe Farman [made] relied on dated instruments such as
treaty to phase out CFCs and one of the most important the Dobson meter—a rudimentary
similar chemicals, is agreed. geophysical discoveries of machine that worked properly only
when wrapped in a duvet.
1989 Montreal’s worldwide the 20th century.
ban on the production of CFCs John Pyle and Neil Harris When Farman first noticed the
comes into effect (ratified by drop in ozone levels, he found it
the EU and 196 states to date). Atmospheric scientists, hard to believe, and thought there
University of Cambridge must be a problem with his Dobson
2050 The year in which ozone meter. He ordered a new instrument
over the Antarctic is predicted for the next year—and it recorded
to return to pre-1980 levels; an even bigger dip. The following
however, other harmful year, the dip was bigger again.
emissions may delay recovery. The year after, his team took their
measurements 620 miles (1,000 km)
from Halley. Again, there was a

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 261

See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ Environmental feedback loops 224–225 CFCs
■ Pollution 230–235 ■ The Keeling Curve 240–241 ■ Environmental ethics 306–307
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
A NASA image of the “ozone hole” scientists Frank Rowland and are chemicals made up of
over Antarctica in 2014. The blue area Mario Molina. They had concluded carbon, chlorine, and fluorine
shows where there is least ozone. The that gases containing chlorine— atoms. They are non-toxic,
amount of ozone in Earth’s stratosphere including the chlorofluorocarbons nonflammable, and extremely
overall has stabilized since about 2000. (CFCs) used in aerosol sprays and stable. Their low reactivity
halogen refrigerants—were, in makes them very useful, but
large dip. Farman decided it was the presence of UV light, reacting is also the reason why they
time to publish, and a paper written with ozone in the stratosphere and are so destructive. They can
by him and his colleagues Brian breaking down the gas. A few survive for over 100 years,
Gardiner and Jon Shanklin appeared countries, including the US, banned which gives them time to
in the journal Nature in 1985. the use of these products, but most diffuse into the stratosphere.
were yet to be convinced. There, they are broken down
Reaction and response by the intense UV light to
Most scientists greeted Farman’s When ozone levels continued release chlorine, which reacts
discovery with alarm: the potential to fall throughout the 1980s, opinion with ozone to form oxygen.
increase in UV radiation would make gradually changed. Consequently,
skin cancers, cataracts, and sunburn in 1987, the Montreal Protocol for CFCs were first produced
far more prevalent. a global ban was agreed. The ozone in 1928, and were used as
layer is showing signs of recovery, coolants for refrigerators. They
What could be done? One and it is hoped that by 2075, were later used in a wide
reason for ozone depletion had been stratospheric ozone will return range of aerosol products, for
identified in 1974 by American to 1975 levels. ■ example insect sprays, hair
conditioners, and spray paints.

The replacements for CFCs
were hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), which also deplete
the ozone layer, although to
a much lesser extent, and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
HCFCs will be phased out by
2020. HFCs do not harm the
ozone layer at all—but they
are very powerful greenhouse
gases, and so in 2016 it was
agreed that, from 2019, they
too would be phased out.

Aerosol products such as insect
repellents were widely available
from the 1950s. The damaging
effects of the CFCs they contained
were not known until the 1970s.

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262

FWAOMERANCNEHDEAADNTEGEDE IN CONTEXT

DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES KEY FIGURE
Naomi Klein (1970–)

BEFORE
1972 The UN’s Conference on
the Human Environment calls
for an international approach
to environmental protection.

1980 The World Conservation
Strategy, launched in 35
countries, introduces the
concept of sustainability.

1992 At the UN Earth Summit
in Rio de Janeiro, member
states produce “Agenda 21,”
which outlines plans for
managing resources in the
21st century.

AFTER
2015 The UN Sustainable
Development Summit sets out
17 sustainable development
goals and launches a bold
global agenda, adopted by
193 member states.

I n This Changes Everything
(2014), Naomi Klein railed
against the way that
governments and corporations
deplete natural resources. “Ethical
oil,” she maintains, is not just a
contradiction in terms, “it’s an
outrage.” A Canadian citizen,
Klein has campaigned against the
exploitation of the Athabasca tar
sands, the largest of three major
oil sand deposits in western
Canada. The oil sand deposits lie
under thousands of square miles
of coniferous forests. The open-pit
extraction of oil from tar sands
is particularly harmful to the
environment. Vast acres of forest
are cleared, and ponds of pollutants

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 263

See also: Deforestation 254–259 ■ Overfishing 266–269 ■ The water crisis 288–291
■ Humankind’s dominance over nature 296 ■ Human devastation of Earth 299

Extracting crude oil from Canada’s in a way that was sustainable and Naomi Klein
tar sands is notoriously harmful to fair for all nations around the world.
the environment. It accounts for a Key areas in the struggle for a Born in Montreal, Canada, in
tenth of Canada’s annual greenhouse sustainably managed Earth are 1970 to politically active
gas emissions. use of fossil fuels, deforestation, parents, Klein developed a
and water management. sophisticated understanding
are left behind. These can leak into of the way the world works
the land, rivers, and groundwater, Five years later, at the 1992 while still young. Her first job
killing fish, migrating birds, and Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, was on a Toronto newspaper,
other animals. 172 nations signed environmental The Globe and Mail. Her debut
resolutions. Among them was book No Logo, criticizing
Global action Agenda 21, a plan for governments globalization and corporate
By the 1980s, the environmental to work together to protect natural greed, was a bestseller. Her
effects of industrialization and resources and the environment. second, The Shock Doctrine,
depletion of the Earth’s resources However, implementing changes attacked neoliberalism. Klein
were already becoming a matter of has proved difficult, and subsequent then began campaigning
concern. The United Nations (UN) Earth summits have called for against corporate interests
created a World Commission on better international cooperation taking priority over the
Environment and Development, in order to achieve goals set. environment and the interests
which published a report in 1987 of humanity. Her book This
called “Our Common Future.” Peak oil Changes Everything was later
Contributing experts, including Fossil fuels are among the world’s made into a film. Klein’s many
scientists, agriculturalists, foreign most highly prized resources. campaigns included a protest
ministers, technologists, and People have become increasingly against the construction of the
economists, made it clear that reliant on oil, squandering it to Keystone XL pipeline—a
the future of humans relied on create a lifestyle that is ultimately symbol in the battle against
balancing ecology and economics unsustainable. The oil crises of the fossil fuel use and climate
1970s highlighted how dependent ❯❯ change. In November 2016,
she was awarded Australia’s
Sydney Peace Prize.

Key works

2000 No Logo
2007 The Shock Doctrine: The
Rise of Disaster Capitalism
2014 This Changes
Everything: Capitalism vs
The Climate

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264 DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

… the conservation of yet to be discovered. In the early loss of forests worldwide directly
natural resources is the 21st century, new dates were given, causes 15 percent of global
fundamental problem. some extending the timeline for greenhouse gas emissions.
oil to 2030 or beyond. In 2011,
Unless we solve that however, US environmentalist Bill Rain forests, estimated to
problem it will avail us McKibben declared that calculating contain 50 percent of the world’s
little to solve all others. a peak oil date was pointless; if all species, are particularly vulnerable
Theodore Roosevelt known oil reserves were burned, to deforestation. Around 17 percent
the carbon produced would be of the Amazon rain forest alone has
industrialized nations were on an five times the amount required been lost in the past 50 years. As
economically viable supply. With to heat the planet by 3.6°F (2°C)— “Our Common Future” suggested,
this came, too, the realization that the “safe” temperature limit that part of the problem is that
oil is a finite resource. Scientists climatologists had worked out in developing countries can earn
had already considered the problem 2009. The science has evolved, money from large corporations if
and calculated the date when the but the predicted risks of burning they clear rain forests for mining,
supply of oil would peak, before it fossil fuels remain dire. logging, and cash crops. In
ran out or became uneconomical to Indonesia, for example, intensive
extract. In 1974 the peak oil date Saving trees deforestation took place to make
was predicted to be 1995, with the Forests are a valuable natural asset way for palm oil plantations.
caveat that there were several that Earth cannot afford to lose. Greenpeace reports that the amount
potential variables and unknowns Their diminished numbers pose a of Indonesian rain forest logged,
such as consumption rates, significant threat for the climate; burned, or degraded in the last 50
available technology, and reserves trees are “carbon sinks,” meaning years is equivalent in area to twice
they take in carbon dioxide and use the size of Germany. The UN and
it to fuel growth. This then prevents other bodies now offer developing
carbon from contributing to global countries technical advice and
warming. Trees are a renewable financial incentives to manage their
resource, and people, businesses, forests in a more sustainable way.
and nations often plant them to
offset fossil fuel use, but not in Deteriorating soil
sufficient numbers. According to Topsoil is perhaps one of the
Friends of the Earth, the annual world’s most undervalued
resources. This vast ecosystem,

Easter Island stone, but logs were needed Some 887 moai cover the slopes of
as rollers to transport them from Rano Raraku, Easter Island’s volcanic
The fate of the ancient people the quarries to ceremonial sites. crater, the source of the stones from
of Easter Island illustrates As the island’s many palms were which the statues were carved.
the importance of managing cut down, there was no wood
natural resources. Once a left for fishing canoes, which
thriving community of 12,000 led to many people starving
people who erected enormous to death.
stone monuments, they had
dwindled to just a couple of The final tragedy came in
thousand by the time Europeans 1862, with the arrival of slave
discovered the island in 1722. traders, who captured 1,500
islanders and took them to Peru,
Mismanagement of a fragile where almost all of them died.
ecosystem, especially mass The 15 islanders who eventually
deforestation, and warring managed to make it home
between tribes, had been the unwittingly introduced smallpox
cause of their demise. The giant to the island. By 1877, only 111
heads, or moai, are made of inhabitants survived.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 265

Thick forests like the one in this locked away in glaciers or in deep innovative ways to minimize
15th-century painting by Italian artist underground aquifers. Only one- environmental impacts and
Paolo Uccello are returning to Europe, hundredth of 1 percent of all the manage resources.
where they have grown by 42 million water in the world is readily
acres (17 million ha) since the 1990s. available for human use. Drinking Some progress is being made,
water is also not distributed in part thanks to campaigning by
composed of animals, microbes, equally, being naturally scarcer in people like Naomi Klein. A number
plant roots, and minerals, is a hot, arid areas of the world than of European and Asian countries,
complex and delicate structure that in temperate zones. including the UK, have decided
is slow to form and easily lost. The to phase out fossil-fuel vehicles.
World Wildlife Fund estimates that Population pressures and wealth In other areas, however, socio-
half of the world’s topsoil has been also have an impact on water economic and political problems
eroded by wind and rain in the last supplies. The UN believes everyone remain obstacles to reform. As “Our
150 years. Particles then collect in should have access to at least 88 Common Future” stated, meeting
streams and rivers, clogging them pints (50 liters) of freshwater a day, humanity’s goals and aspirations
with sediment. Soil loss occurs but people in sub-Saharan Africa responsibly “will require the active
due to overgrazing, removal of manage on 21 pints (10 liters) a day, support of us all.” ■
hedges, and use of agrochemicals while the average American enjoys
that affect the soil structure. almost 740 pints (350 liters). You have to
Meaures such as resting the soil, think in terms of the
terracing, dams, and strategic Around the world, water sources
planting can help. In the village of are also being bought up by large survival of human
Aamdanda in Nepal, for example, corporations. Some scientists warn society … it is not only
steep-sided slopes are stabilized that, if our current usage patterns
with broom grass. The plant binds continue and population rates grow the magnitude of
the soil; it is also a fodder crop at their current rate, by 2030 global change, it’s the pace
and is used to make brooms, demand for clean water will exceed at which it changes.
which the villagers sell. supply by 40 percent. Benjamin Horton

Water pressures Future plans British geographer
Clean drinking water is a limited New strategies are evidently
resource. Water covers around 75 required to save the world from
percent of Earth’s surface, but human destruction. Transition
97.5 percent of it is salt water. Of engineering, an emerging multi-
the remaining 2.5 percent, most is disciplinary field, may help. It
aims to use existing businesses,
organizations, and systems to find

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266

BFNBSEIOOMGWWAAGTLEESYLRROECFUARHIN’SAVADHSENIBDGNIOGGTGER IN CONTEXT

OVERFISHING KEY FIGURE
John Crosbie (1931–)

BEFORE
1946 The International
Whaling Commission is set up
to review and control whaling,
reversing a dramatic decline
after centuries of hunting.

1972 Overfishing and a strong
El Niño cause Peru’s coastal
anchovy fisheries to crash—a
blow to the national economy.

AFTER
2000 The World Wildlife Fund
places cod on its endangered
species list and launches a UK
Oceans Recovery Campaign.

2001 Jeremy Jackson and
other marine biologists trace
the history of overfishing.

2010 The UNESCO Aichi
Biodiversity Target 11 calls for
a tenth of coastal and marine
areas to be protected by 2020.

I n 1992, one piece of legislation
changed the ecological,
socioeconomic, and cultural
structure of Canada’s Atlantic
Maritime provinces. John Crosbie,
the Federal Minister of Fisheries
and Oceans, placed a moratorium
on the Atlantic cod fishery; no
further cod could be harvested
from the ocean. His ruling was a
necessity; the volume of northern
cod was down to 1 percent of
previous levels. The region had
been overfished to the point where
recovery could not occur if fishing
were allowed to continue. Crosbie
called it the toughest political
moment of his career. The decision
put thousands of Canadians out of

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 267

See also: A holistic view of Earth 210–211 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Human Marine reserves
devastation of Earth 299 ■ Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322–323
A promising tool for fish
Trawlers catch too many fish management is the creation of
marine protected areas
Immature fish Mature fish Large predator (MPAs), which legally protect
Do not live to Loss of breeding fish fish stocks and ecosystems.
reproduce MPAs cover around 3.5
stock Changes balance percent of the world’s oceans,
of species in but only 1.6 percent of MPAs
ecosystem are the strongest “no-take
zones” where fishing,
Fish stocks decline or become unsustainable extraction of materials,
dumping, drilling, and
Solution: Solution: Solution: dredging are banned. One
Set minimum Set quotas and/ Institute lengthy meta-analysis of scientific
studies showed that the
size limits or institute moratoriums volume of fish species is on
moratoriums average 670 percent greater
in fully protected “no-take”
jobs. For 500 years, the cod fishery conditions in which both the cod marine reserves than in areas
had supported Maritime residents, and its food sources struggle to that have no protection, and
particularly in Newfoundland. survive. A further blow to 343 percent greater than in
Newfoundland’s fishermen—who partially protected MPAs.
The 1992 moratorium was largely turned to catching shrimp No-take zones effectively
initially supposed to last only two and crab—is that where cod preserve and restore damaged
years, but, with the stocks not yet numbers improved, cod began ecosystems, too; coral reefs in
recovered, it is still largely in place. eating the shrimp. The ecosystem protected zones of the Pacific
From around 2005 to 2015, the cannot support both a large-scale Line Islands recovered from an
volume of northern cod rose by shrimp and crustacean industry, El Niño event within a decade,
about 30 percent each year along and large-scale cod fishing. but those in unprotected areas
Newfoundland’s northeast coast, did not. Some studies suggest
although stocks further south did A sustainable harvest that legally enforced reserves
not recover as fast. In 2017 and The Newfoundland problem may even help replenish
2018, however, cod numbers demonstrates the complexities of fisheries outside their borders.
declined sharply, and the overall fishery management, which often
stocks are still too low to support relies on the concept of maximum Bigeye trevallies are among the
large-scale fishing. Climate change sustainable yield: the volume of fish many species in the Malpelo Fauna
has contributed to the problem: harvested from the sea should be ❯❯ and Flora Sanctuary, the biggest
higher temperatures have created no-fishing zone in the Eastern
Tropical Pacific, noted for its sharks.

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268 OVERFISHING AND THE GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES CRISIS

Disrupting the ecosystem I didn’t take
the fish from the
Large-scale fishing goddamn water.
operations disturb the balance John Crosbie
of marine ecosystems in
various ways, depleting the
target fish species, upsetting
the food chain, and damaging
the marine environment.

Bycatch

Physical impact
of fishing gear

Harvest Incidental demand.
mortality mortality The management strategies
adopted depend on the nature of
Habitat the problem. If fish are being taken
modification before they are mature, this will
or destruction Discarded limit the stock’s future ability to
bycatch reproduce at a maximum level and
and offal keep their numbers replenished.
Decline in mean trophic level Placing minimum size limits on
fish can help control this type of
Biological overfishing. If too many mature fish
interactions are being caught, this could leave
too few to reproduce and replenish
Altered ecosystem structure and function the present population. In this case,
moratoriums and quotas are among
equal to the volume replenished short-term economic gains of measures that can help. Finally,
through reproduction. This is catching more fish rather than on ecosystem overfishing occurs when
usually achieved through quotas, long-term sustainability. Fishery a fishery is so depleted that the
which limit the number of fish that management can be further ecosystem itself changes and is
can be brought in during a season. complicated by factors such as the no longer able to support the fish
Quotas can curb unsustainable open access nature of the ocean, stock at a sustainable level. It
fishing: for example, 16 percent of illegal fishing, and an absence of generally occurs when large
fish stocks in American waters regulation and oversight. predatory fish are overfished,
were overfished in 2015, down from allowing populations of smaller
25 percent in 2000. However, the A worldwide crisis forage fish to increase and alter the
quota system can encourage Overfishing is now a global issue, entire ecosystem. This happened
fishermen to take the largest fish with more than 30 percent of the in the North Atlantic cod fishery:
possible, and to throw back smaller world’s fisheries harvested beyond without the cod to keep them in
fish, which frequently die from the their biological limits, and 90 check, the cod’s three main food
stress of being caught. In many percent of fish stocks currently sources—shrimp, crab and capelin
cases, quotas are also not set at a at their limits or overfished. fish—all increased in numbers.
truly sustainable limit; commercial Sustainable management is now
fishermen often have considerable essential if fisheries are to continue The overfishing problem is now
lobbying power, and focus on the to provide jobs and meet consumer compounded by climate change
and pollution, which are also
affecting ocean ecosystems. The
consequences could be dire. If

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 269

global warming continues, it will annually in the 1960s to more than Effects of pollution
cause higher ocean temperatures, 44 lb (20 kg) in 2016. Global demand
sea ice will melt further, and wind is predicted to reach around 236 Two main types of pollution
and ocean current patterns will million tons by 2030. Aquaculture, damage marine ecosystems.
change. As a result, nutrients from the farming of fish and seafood, has Runoff from fertilizers is a
the upper ocean will be transferred begun to meet much of the demand common problem: the nitrogen
to the deep ocean, starving marine and has the potential to reduce the and phosphorus that many
ecosystems and reducing pressures on wild fish stocks. contain produce algal blooms
photosynthesis by phytoplankton, However, aquaculture has its own (overgrowths of algae, or
which serve as the base food in the problems. Nutrients and solids phytoplankton), which later
ocean food chain. Within three added to the water can cause the die. As they decompose, they
centuries—by 2300—the world’s environment to degrade. The take up oxygen, creating a
fisheries could be 20 percent less buildup of organic matter from “dead zone” in the water that
productive, and between 50 to 60 many fish in a farm can change the cannot sustain life. Because
percent less productive in the North sediment chemistry, which has an fish must leave such water or
Atlantic and western Pacific. The impact on the surrounding water. perish, juvenile fish living
predictions, calculated in 2018 by Fish may escape, introducing alien close to the shore are at risk
scientists at the University of species or diseases into the outside before they move into the open
California, Irvine, are based on freshwater or marine environment. ocean. In 2017, the annual
extreme global warming—a 17°F dead zone in the Gulf of
(9.6°C) increase, but their models While fish farming helps meet Mexico was more than
show that it is a possibility. demand, overfishing still poses 8,500sq miles (22,000sq km).
huge dangers for the health of the Plastic pollution is another
Finding new solutions world’s marine ecosystems, and the threat because fish eat it and
Seafood consumption has risen economic future of many nations. get caught in nets and debris.
from 21.8 lb (9.9 kg) per capita The Canadian moratorium severely Estimates suggest there are
disrupted the economy and culture more than 5 trillion pieces of
A deep-sea salmon farm, built in of Newfoundland and neighboring plastic in the ocean, with
China, begins its journey to Norway. maritime provinces. To avoid such over 8 million tons added
The huge, semi-submersible cylinder crises, more governments will have each year. If plastic pollution
aqua-farming platform is designed to to develop sustainable fishing continues unchecked, the
produce 1.5 million salmon a year. practices, and protect the health volume of plastic in the
of ecosystems and fish stocks. ■ ocean will exceed that of
fish by 2050.

Thick blooms of phytoplankton
appear in red on this satellite image
of the Gulf of Mexico. Bacteria break
down decaying algae, releasing CO2
and absorbing essential oxygen.

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270

LOCTIHFOTEUTALLIFNDEETDHWROAORRDMAUBCBTIITOSN IN CONTEXT

INVASIVE SPECIES KEY FIGURE
Ryan M. Keane, Michael J.
Crawley (1949–)

BEFORE
1951 The International Plant
Protection Convention is set up
to prevent the introduction and
spread of pests of plants and
plant products as a result of
international trade. It is
adopted in many countries.

1958 The Ecology of Invasions
by Plants and Animals by
British ecologist Charles
Elton is the first book to be
published on invasion biology.

AFTER
2014 Studies of some of
the “world’s worst” invasive
species by ecologists at
Queen’s University, Belfast,
and Stellenbosch University,
South Africa, reveal that the
ecological impacts of these
species could be predicted
from their behavior.

S ome of the greatest damage
to ecosystems is caused by
invasive species. These are
plants, animals, or other organisms
that are not native to an ecosystem
but introduced largely through
human action, either deliberately
or by accident. They can become
competitors, predators, parasites,
and hybridizers of native plants and
animals, ultimately threatening the
survival of those species.

The rise of the rabbit
One of the most notable species
invasions has been that of the
European rabbit in Australia.
It began in 1788, when 11 ships

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 271

See also: Predator–prey equations 44–49 ■ Non-consumptive effects of predators on their prey 76–77 ■ Human activity and
biodiversity 92–95 ■ The food chain 132–133 ■ The ecosystem 134–137 ■ Chaotic population change 184

Spread of rabbits in Australia

The harlequin ladybug is the world’s
most invasive ladybug. In the UK,
where it was first seen in 2004, it
is reportedly responsible for the decline
of seven native ladybug species.

landed at Botany Bay from Britain, Since their arrival KEY 1900–1910
to establish the first Australian in Australia, rabbits < 1870 1910–1920
penal colony. On board the “First have spread throughout 1870–1880 > 1920
Fleet,” along with more than 1,000 the country. They have 1880–1890 Not included in analysis
people, including convicts and contributed to the decline 1890–1900
emigrants, were six European of many native plants and
rabbits, brought along for food. animals, and may have
caused several small
By the 1840s, rabbits had mammals to go extinct.
become a staple food in Australia,
and were contained within stone There have been several attempts without accidentally introducing
enclosures. All this changed to control the feral population, from additional ecosystem problems.
in 1859 when a settler, Thomas rabbit-proof fences stretching more Despite being hampered by the
Austin, imported 12 pairs of than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) to the lack of comparative data on those
European rabbits and released more successful introduction of the invasive species that fail to
them on his estate near Geelong in myxoma virus and the rabbit succeed, scientists have developed
Victoria. Twenty years later, rabbits calicivirus, in 1950 and 1995 a number of theories to explain the
had migrated to South Australia respectively. The resulting disease success of certain species in
and Queensland, and then in the has proved the most effective way nonnative environments, including
next two decades to Western of controlling their numbers and the resource availability hypothesis,
Australia. By 1920, the rabbit protecting native species. the evolution of increased
population was 10 billion. competitive ability hypothesis, and
The secrets of success the enemy release hypothesis.
Rabbits appear to be innocuous As invasive species have spread
creatures, but they have wreaked throughout the world, scientists In general, species success
havoc on Australia’s native species, have tried to determine what depends on a variety of genetic,
competing with them for resources makes some of these species so ecological, and demographic
such as grass, herbs, roots, and successful, and how to control them factors. The resource availability
seeds, and degrading the land. hypothesis, first proposed in 1985 ❯❯
They become particularly
troublesome during a drought,
when they eat anything they
can find in order to stay alive.

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272 INVASIVE SPECIES

The zebra mussel They have fewer They are well
enemies than suited to the new
The case of the zebra mussel native species.
demonstrates the diverse environment.
ways to approach invasive
species control, and the Why invasive species succeed
challenges that result. Zebra
mussels are small, fingernail- They out-compete They are toxic
sized mollusks with a dark- native species. to native species.
striped shell. The mussel is
native to Eurasia but was by the ecologists Phyllis Coley, mustard (Alliara petiolata). Native
discovered in the Great Lakes John Bryant, and F. Stuart Chapin, to Europe, western and central
area of North America in 1988, argues that an invasive species Asia, and northwestern Africa,
probably carried there in thrives because it is already well it was brought to North America
ballast water discharged from suited to its new environment by early settlers to use in cooking
ships traveling from Europe. and can take advantage of any and medicines, and rapidly spread.
Since then, zebra mussels surpluses in resources. The Continued infestation has affected
have spread throughout the evolution of increased competitive the growth rate of tree seedlings
midwestern United States, ability hypothesis, published by and reduced the native plant
and have been found as far ecologists Bernd Blossey and diversity, leading to changes in
west as California. Rolf Nötzold in 1995, suggests the forest ecosystems invaded.
that invasive plants facing fewer
The zebra mussels attach herbivores in their naturalized In its native range, garlic
themselves to clams and other environment can allocate more mustard is consumed by as many
mussels, filtering out algae resources to reproduction and as 69 insect species, but none of
that the native species need survival and so out-compete the these is present in North America.
for food to survive. They also native species. The enemy release This lack of predation and the
clog water intake pipes used hypothesis, set out by ecologists plant’s invasive success provide
for power plants and drinking Ryan M. Keane and Michael J.
water supplies. Current Crawley in their 2002 article “Exotic Garlic mustard is highly invasive
control mechanisms include Plant Invasions and the Enemy in North America, inhibiting other
chemicals, hot water, and Release Hypothesis,” argues that the plants. In its native habitat, it is
filtering systems. While each invasive species has fewer enemies considered an attractive wildflower,
has had some success, none in its naturalized environments, and although it can have a strong smell.
of these solutions has been so can spread farther. The reality is
capable of safely eradicating that the success of invasive species
the mussels. As a result, they is likely due to many mechanisms
continue to spread throughout working together.
the waterways of the US.
Plant invaders
We are seeing one of the great One plant that appears to support
historical convulsions in the multiple hypotheses about the
success of invasive species is garlic
world’s fauna and flora.
Charles Elton

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 273

Since their introduction to
Australia in 1935, cane toads have
out-competed native frogs because
they reproduce far more quickly.

support for the enemy release
hypothesis. Garlic mustard also
successfully competes with native
plants for resources, fulfilling the
resource availability hypothesis.
The plant even exudes secondary
compounds that may “attack”
native plants by inhibiting their
germination and growth. This
supports the “novel weapons”
hypothesis, proposed by ecologists
Wendy M. Ridenour and Ragan M.
Callaway in 2004, which posits that
invasive species have biochemical
weapons that give them a key
advantage over native species.

The art of control Not all biological controls are the economy of local communities.
Successful invasive species are effective, and some measures have Regulators are, therefore, often
extremely difficult to control and had disastrous consequences. For hesitant to support biological
almost impossible to eradicate. example, in 1935 cane toads were controls without extensive prior
If the species is a plant, the most introduced to Australia to control research. No magic bullet exists
obvious way to remove it is to the invasive grayback cane beetle, that can control every invasive
pull it up or cut it down, but such which was destroying sugar cane species. They are dependent on
methods are highly labor-intensive, fields. The cane toad had been complex ecosystem interactions,
especially over a wide area. The effective in controlling beetles and scientists continue to design
use of chemicals to destroy in Hawaii, so the assumption was field experiments to test their
invasive species is often that it would be equally successful hypotheses of how invasive
successful, but it can also kill in Australia. However, grayback species function in the wild. ■
native species and undermine soil cane beetles feed primarily at the
health, with the added threat of top of sugar cane stalks, which is Now is the time to take action.
harm to humans. out of reach for the cane toads. The costs to habitats and the
A lack of understanding of the economy are … out of control.
One frequently used method different environments favored
of control, known as biological by the two creatures meant that Bruce Babbitt
control, or “biocontrol,” pits an the cane toad was the wrong
invasive species’ own enemies choice as a biological control. By US Secretary of the Interior ,
against it. In an early success, the time the mistake was realized, (1993–2001)
the cactus moth was introduced the toad had spread throughout
to Australia from South America Australia, poisoning any predator
in 1926 to feed on the prickly species that tried to eat the
pear. This plant had itself been toxic amphibian.
introduced in the 1770s and was
choking farmland in New South Even when biological controls
Wales and Queensland. By the curb an invasive species, they may
early 1930s, most prickly pears create imbalances in ecosystems or
had been eradicated.

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TASHTEEMPDEREATLURIECSAINTCREELASYE,

DFBAAILSLANLACESRD SIRNYSATTEYOM

SPRING CREEP

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276 SPRING CREEP M ost scientists now agree may be triggered by temperature,
that climate change, rainfall, or the length of daylight,
IN CONTEXT driven by an increase but temperature is probably the
in greenhouse gases, is raising single most important factor in
KEY FIGURE the global mean temperature. The Earth’s temperate and polar regions,
Camille Parmesan (1961–) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate whereas rainfall is the key factor in
Change (IPCC) cites an increase the tropics. In 2003, climate change
BEFORE of 1.8°F (1°C) since 1880, although scientists Camille Parmesan and
1997 A group of American in some regions the warming has Gary Yohe proved that spring
scientists publishes evidence been even more marked. This change is now happening earlier—
of a longer plant growing warming has affected both plant a phenomenon called spring creep.
season at northern high and animal behavior, and the IPCC
latitudes in 1981–91. forecasts a further increase Season creep
of 2.5–9.9 °F (1.4–5.5°C) during the For several decades, people have
2002 Naturalist Richard Fitter next 100 years. observed leaves and flowers
reveals that the first flowering appearing earlier in spring. In
date of 385 plant species in the The life cycles of plants and the past, these claims were often
UK has advanced by 4.5 days animals change in line with the dismissed as lacking “hard science,”
in the previous decade. seasons. Phenology is the study such as facts, figures, or datasets.
of these seasonal changes. They
AFTER
2006 Jonathan Banks, from The impact of seasonal
the American Clean Air Task changes on plants and animals
Force, is the first person to use
the term “season creep” to
describe the increasingly early
onset of the seasons as a result
of climate change.

2014 In the US, the National Plants grow leaves, Mammals breed and raise
Climate Assessment confirms produce flowers and fruit, young. Some mammals go into
long-term trends toward and shed their leaves. hibernation over the winter.
shorter, milder winters and
earlier spring thaws.

Seasonal changes
in the weather

We are seeing Birds nest and breed. Many birds After hatching, amphibians, insects, and
change happen (and some other animals) make some other animals metamorphose from
much faster than long-distance migrations. one body form into another.
I thought it would

10 years ago.
Camille Parmesan

All life forms respond to changes in weather brought
about by the seasonal cycle. Migration, breeding,
flowering, hibernation, and metamorphosis are
some of the events affected by this cycle.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 277

See also: Animal ecology 106–113 ■ Animal behavior 116–117 ■ The foundations of plant ecology 167 ■ Global warming
202–203 ■ Endangered habitats 236–239 ■ Halting climate change 316–321

When Camille Parmesan and Gary than before, providing a longer The leaves of some oak species
Yohe published evidence in 2003— growing season for plants. As turn red shortly before they fall in fall.
based on an analysis of more than some regions become drier and Comparing the date on which this
1,700 species—they demonstrated some wetter, bouts of extremely occurs from year to year can provide
that change was very real. Their heavy rainfall and flooding have evidence for climate change.
data showed that spring change become more common. Toxic algal
was indeed taking place earlier—by blooms in lakes are occurring more In Spain, botanists studied data for
an average of 2.3 days per decade. frequently. Ice cover in polar regions 29 species of plants. They found
Studies by other scientists in recent is also decreasing. All these changes that in 2003, leaves first appeared
years have supported their findings. have affected and will continue to 4.8 days earlier on average than
affect animal and plant behavior. in 1943; flowers first bloomed
Many of the changes that take 5.9 days earlier; trees produced
place in plants are governed by Since 1993, the European fruit 3.2 days earlier; and leaves
temperature, including growth Environmental Agency (EEA) has died 1.2 days later. In the UK, the ❯❯
spurts; the appearance of leaves, worked in earnest to pull together
flowers, and fruit; and leaves dying data from thousands of studies—
in fall. Most food chains start with dating back to at least 1943—to
plants, so these changes affect create a picture of spring creep in
grazers and browsers, from rabbits Europe. The EEA’s evidence shows
to deer, and pollinators, including earlier dates for plants producing
bees and butterflies. All of these pollen, frogs spawning, and birds
are at the bottom of the food chain nesting. According to their data,
(primary consumers). If they many insects whose life cycles
struggle to find food, those that prey are governed by air temperature
on them (secondary consumers) also (thermophilic insects, such as
suffer from the absence of prey. butterflies and bark beetles) now
have a longer breeding season,
Effects of climate change enabling them to produce extra
A warmer Earth produces many generations each year. For example,
effects. In most cooler parts of the some butterflies that previously had
world, the frost-free season is longer two generations now have three.

Camille Parmesan Born in 1961, Professor Camille figure in the IPCC and her work
Parmesan is an American has won her many accolades
academic who has established and has been cited in hundreds
a reputation as one of the leading of academic papers. She is
climate change scientists. She professor in Integrative Biology
received her Ph.D. in biological at the University of Texas at
sciences from the University of Austin and advises international
Texas at Austin in 1995 and her conservation bodies.
early research concerned the
evolution of insect–plant Key works
interactions. For the best part of
20 years, she has focused on 2003 “A globally coherent
documenting the shifting fingerprint of climate change
geographical ranges of butterflies impacts,” Nature
across North America and Europe, 2015 “Plants and climate
linking these to climate change. change: complexities and
Parmesan has been a leading surprises,” Annals of Botany

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278 SPRING CREEP

evidence was even more dramatic: undergo explosive population their destination 25 days sooner
across 53 plant species, leaves, increases and produce damaging than previously. However, there is
flowers, and fruits appeared almost infestations. Warmer springs allow evidence that birds migrating from
six days earlier in 2005 than they pine sawflies, whose larvae eat Central America to New England in
had done in 1976. Similarly, the pine needles, to develop too rapidly the US have declined faster than
fruiting season of 315 different for the birds and parasites that feed birds that remain in New England
kinds of fungi studied in Britain on them to keep their numbers in all year. This is probably because
lengthened from 33 to 75 days in check. Out of control, the sawflies the migrant birds have been unable
the second half of the 20th century. strip trees of their needles and to adjust their departure dates from
stunt their growth. Central America to arrive in time to
Longer plant growing seasons benefit from the earlier abundance
sound like good news, but warmer Migration and hibernation of insects the way local birds do.
temperatures create problems as Birds that migrate in spring to
well as advantages. Not all insects reach rich food sources also face Climate change also appears
are welcome, and shorter, milder problems. Some have adjusted their to have changed the behavior of
winters kill fewer dormant insects, flight schedules to benefit from the hibernating mammals. Zoologists
some of which may consequently earlier abundance of insects. After at the Rocky Mountain Biological
making the long journey from sub- Laboratory found that yellow-
Some bee species now emerge earlier Saharan Africa, the first swallows bellied marmots living in Colorado
in spring, in line with earlier flowering arrive in the UK about 20 days emerged 38 days earlier in 1999
dates for the plants that they pollinate. earlier than they did in the 1970s, than they had done in 1975. In
Other bees, though, have not been able and the first Bank Swallows reach 2012, scientists at the University
to synchronize their emergence. of Alberta found that in the last two
decades, late snowfall has delayed
the emergence of the Rocky
Mountain ground squirrel from
hibernation by 10 days. This has
cut down the already short active
period in which they mate, give
birth, and feed to prepare for the
next hibernation cycle.

Decoupling
Some organisms’ survival could be
threatened by the “decoupling” of
interactions between species. This

We are now sure of what we
only suspected years ago.

Policy needs to catch
up with science.

Camille Parmesan

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 279

Wall butterflies and
climate change

A Great Tit feeds its chicks. If a problem for birds that depend Climate change sometimes
breeding takes place after the peak on peaks in insect abundance. For produces unexpected results.
period for spring caterpillars, there example, Pied Flycatchers and For example, in the UK, the life
will be less food for the young birds, Great Tits feed their chicks on cycle of the wall butterfly has
and fewer will survive to breed. caterpillars that are abundant for a been disrupted by changing
short period in spring. Due to climatic conditions. Previously,
could seriously upset the balance climate change, the caterpillar the butterfly produced two
of ecosystems. If flowers appear peak is now earlier, but the birds generations every summer.
earlier, the bees that pollinate them have not been able to advance The late-summer adults would
can respond in one of two ways: their egg-laying dates enough to mate, the females lay eggs,
they can emerge earlier; or they can take advantage of the glut of food. and the eggs then developed
move to a higher latitude to match Studies show that fewer Pied into caterpillars. In September,
later flower emergence farther from Flycatcher and Great Tit chicks these caterpillars found
the equator. Studies of 10 wild bee are surviving. Pied Flycatcher sufficient food to grow large
species in northeast North America numbers have declined in Dutch and sustain themselves in
have shown that their behavior woodlands, possibly as a result of hibernation through winter.
has changed in line with earlier climate change. In spring, the caterpillars
flowering. However, bumblebees in metamorphosed into pupae,
Colorado have not matched the Taking action and then became adults.
changes and their population has All of this disturbing evidence Warmer weather has allowed
fallen. If pollinators decline, so may has prompted climate scientists a third generation to develop
the plants that they pollinate. worldwide to lobby governments in fall, with adults flying as
and demand policy change. Spring late as mid-October. By
There is evidence that many creep has been used by scientists the time the third generation
primary consumers have adjusted as a definitive piece of proof that caterpillars hatch there is
to changed natural phenomena, but climate change is occurring, and little food, so most starve
species higher in the food chain researchers have called upon policy and die. Scientists call this
seem to find it harder to make the makers to fight global warming to a “developmental trap” and it
change. Although birds are now save the familiar species that find is probably responsible for the
nesting earlier than they once did, their very existence threatened decline in wall butterflies.
the timing of insect emergence has by phenological changes. ■
advanced more rapidly. This is This butterfly I was
studying shifted its
entire range across
half a continent—
I said this is big …
Everything since then
has just confirmed it.
Camille Parmesan

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280

IBOTNHINFOREEDECOIAVTFTEIOSTRHUSTESIOTMDYIAISSIENASES

AMPHIBIAN VIRUSES

IN CONTEXT Since the 1980s, hundreds of The North American bullfrog is
species of amphibians have resistant to the chytrid fungus, but
KEY FIGURE suffered population crashes acts as a deadly carrier of the infection
Malcolm McCallum and localized extinctions—at a rate to other species of amphibians.
(1968–) thought to be more than 200 times
the natural, “background” extinction they are not able to breathe, hydrate,
BEFORE rate unaffected by modern human or regulate their temperature. The
1989 The formerly common activity. This alarming phenomenon exact origin of the fungus is not
golden toad of Costa Rica is first attracted public attention in known, but the global trade in live
declared extinct. Various 1999, when American environmental amphibians for various uses, be it
explanations are proposed. scientist Malcolm McCallum pets, food, fishing bait, or research,
published his findings about the has been a major factor in its spread.
1998 In the US, many poison- dramatic increase in deformities
dart frogs die at the National in frogs. He went on to produce Ranaviruses evolved from a fish
Zoo in Washington DC. The landmark studies on amphibian virus. They infect amphibians and
chytrid fungus is implicated decline and extinction. reptiles, and have caused mass
as a cause. mortality in frogs since the 1980s.
The causes of the problem are The common midwife toad ranavirus
AFTER wide-ranging, and include habitat causes bleeding, skin sores, lethargy,
2009 The Kihansi spray toad destruction and pollution, as well as and emaciation. It is notably virulent
of Tanzania is declared extinct competition from nonnative species. as it has the ability to “jump” from
in the wild as a result of chytrid But one of the most devastating one species to another. ■
infection. causes is undoubtedly disease, with
two particularly lethal culprits.
2013 A second species of
chytrid fungus causes the near- Chytrid and ranavirus
extinction of fire salamanders Chytridiomycosis is a disease
in the Netherlands. caused by the chytrid fungus, and
it has ravaged populations of frogs
2015 The chytrid fungus is and toads in particular. The fungus
detected in amphibians in 52 affects amphibians’ skin, such that
out of 82 countries sampled.
See also: Biomes 206–209 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Endangered habitats 236–239
■ Deforestation 254–259 ■ Overfishing 266–269

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 281

IBSSMUOTAEIMLGAEDILNOIAENNHGETORKYUYOESIEUNEPRGSWBTRHOIICLEKS

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

IN CONTEXT Adding carbon dioxide (CO2) of CO2 pollution on the oceans.
to the air not only triggers They took samples of seawater
KEY FIGURES climate change but also from around the world, and found
Kenneth Caldeira (1960–), makes the oceans more acidic. So that the acidity had increased
Michael E. Wickett (1971–) far, the oceans have buffered the measurably in the past 200 years
worst effects of global warming, of industrialization. They coined
BEFORE absorbing up to half of the carbon the term “ocean acidification” and
1909 Danish chemist Søren dioxide added to the atmosphere by predicted that this change could
Sørensen develops the pH human activity. However, the gas accelerate over the next 50 years,
scale for measuring acidity. alters the oceans’ chemistry. with damaging results.

1929 American biologists In 2003, American climate Many sea creatures rely on the
Alfred Redfield and Robert scientists Ken Caldeira and Michael natural alkalinity of seawater to
Goodkind discover that excess E. Wickett investigated the effects maintain carbonates for building
carbon dioxide in water their shells and skeletons. Even a
suffocates squid. Most carbon dioxide released slight decrease in alkalinity seriously
into the atmosphere as a result disrupts growth, especially for
1933 German chemist of burning fossil fuels will be sensitive creatures such as corals
Hermann Wattenberg makes and plankton. Acidification might
the first global survey of ocean absorbed by the ocean. wipe out corals within decades; if
acidity, as he analyzes results Ken Caldeira and they go, so do the reef ecosystems.
from the Atlantic expedition Michael Wickett Phytoplankton are the foundation
of the Meteor research vessel. of the ocean food web, and are
vital to maintaining global
AFTER oxygen levels.
2012 In the US, oceanographer
James C. Zachos and his Ocean acidification is far harder
colleagues use fossil evidence to reverse than the atmospheric
from marine sediments to effects of CO2 emissions, and its
show that past acidification devasting impact on biodiversity,
of the ocean has led to mass fisheries, and food security remains
extinctions of sea creatures. a serious concern. ■

See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Endangered habitats
236–239 ■ Acid rain 248–249 ■ Halting climate change 316–321

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282

BDSTEHAPMREIGAAEWNGNOEVLRIORCEFOADNNUNMROBETNANTAL

URBAN SPRAWL

IN CONTEXT S ince the 1950s, the term Modern definitions of urban sprawl
“urban sprawl” has been vary, but it generally has negative
KEY FIGURE widely used to describe the overtones. At its most extreme, it
Robert Bruegmann (1948–) growth of low-density suburbs has created megacities—defined by
beyond high-density city cores. the United Nations as cities of more
BEFORE The term was first used by The than 10 million people. Examples
1928 British architect Clough Times newspaper in the UK in 1955 of such megacities include Tokyo-
Williams-Ellis compares to describe the spread of London’s Yokohama (38 million), Jakarta
London’s growth to an octopus suburbs. At this time, the British (30 million), and Delhi (25 million).
devouring the countryside. planning authorities were
introducing “green belts” around Ecological upset
1950s With postwar prosperity cities, where new building was Some researchers claim urban
and increased car ownership in almost entirely banned. Green sprawl is the most serious threat
the US, the middle classes leave belts were designed to stop cities to biodiversity from any human
cramped city centers and move from spreading and merging with activity. The new suburbs house
to new, low-density areas in other towns. relatively few people, yet require
the suburbs. extensive and disproportionate
The old city is levels of infrastructure, such as
AFTER submerged in a power and water supplies and
2017 A housing crisis in the far-flung, multicentered, transportation networks. As cities
UK prompts calls for the lifting mostly low-density, swell, valuable farmland is covered
of restrictions on new building highly heterogeneous in concrete and natural habitats are
on the greenbelts around major urban region. disrupted or lost entirely. Sprawl can
UK cities. Robert Bruegmann also disturb local fauna and flora
through the introduction of pets
2050 The date by which, and invasive plants that threaten
according to UN estimates indigenous species. Limited public
published in 2014, the urban transportation in low density
population of the world is areas also means that suburban
set to rise to 6.34 billion out populations tend to be multiple car
of a projected total population owners, which adds to the levels
of 9.7 billion. of air pollution in cities—as do the
wood- and coal-burning stoves of
the poor in outlying shanty towns.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 283

See also: Pollution 230–235 ■ Endangered habitats 236–239 ■ Deforestation 254–259 ■ Depletion of natural resources
262–265 ■ Amphibian viruses 280

Toluca was once a picturesque old
town to the west of Mexico City. Now
a city of more than 800,000 people, it is
gradually merging into the sprawl of
Mexico City—at a high ecological cost.

The area of the world currently blocks, pushing the city limits— million and that of Beijing to 23
covered in urban development and the urban poor—far from city million by restricting land available
is one-and-a-half times the size centers. The reliance on cars in the for building and controlling the
of France. Mexico City has expanded new neighborhoods, and the lack of inflow of people, forcing out
more than any other city in the West. central hubs, means there is little low-skilled workers. China is
Spreading far beyond its official opportunity for community life. also building higher-density
boundaries to become the home neighborhoods with narrower
of more than 21 million people, it Aware of the problems caused streets, more intersections, and
has also grown disproportionately: by urbanization, the Chinese more public transport that will help
in 1970–2000, the surface area of the government is now trying to limit the formation of communities. ■
city grew 1.5 times faster than its the population of Shanghai to 25
population. While 59 percent of the
city’s territory is conservation land,
illegal logging and urban sprawl
continue to degrade urban forest,
grassland, and water supplies.

It is estimated that 37 percent
of all urban growth by 2050 will
occur in China, India, and Nigeria
alone. In Beijing and other cities in
China, densely populated hutongs
(alleyways), where the urban poor
used to live, are being demolished
to make way for low-density luxury

The endangered axolotl One of the victims of the urban Historically, the wild axolotl
sprawl of Mexico City has been lived in the urban canals created
the tiny axolotl, a pale-colored by the Aztecs as they built their
salamander that looks like a fish capital city in the 13th century,
but is actually an amphibian, and in the network of lakes
and is sometimes known as the around the city that fed these
Mexican walking fish. Capable of canals. As Mexico City has
growing up to 1 ft (30 cm) long, the expanded, these canals have
axolotl feeds on aquatic insects, been lost, and the wild axolotl
small fish, and crustaceans, and has declined. In 2006, it was
has the ability to regenerate added to the list of critically
severed limbs—a quality that endangered species and by
has made captive specimens an 2015 it was thought that the
important subject of scientific creature may have been extinct.
research. The captive version is However, specimens have since
also a familiar pet in aquariums been found in Lake Xochimilco
around the world. in southern Mexico City.

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284

POTLUUARRSNOTINCICGEASINNOSTUOPARAE

A PLASTIC WASTELAND

IN CONTEXT W hen plastics were first Charles Moore, who highlighted it in
mass produced in the his 2011 book Plastic Ocean. Sailing
KEY FIGURE early 20th century, the home from a yachting competition,
Charles J. Moore (1947–) world marveled at the versatility and Moore came across a vast patch of
durability of a material that could be plastic debris in the Pacific Ocean.
BEFORE molded into any shape, used, and Now known to have a bigger surface
1970s Scientists begin to then thrown away. The problem with area than France, Germany, and
research plastic litter at sea plastic, however, is that most of Spain combined, the Great Pacific
after reports in the journal it never goes away. According to Ocean Garbage Patch (GPOGP)
Science describe large the British business publication comprises 79,000 tons of
numbers of plastic pellets The Economist, only 20 percent microplastics amassed by the
in the North Atlantic. of the 6.3 billion tons of plastic swirling current known as the
produced in the world since the North Pacific Gyre.
1984 The first International 1950s has been burned or recycled.
Marine Debris Conference, This means that 80 percent— The GPOGP is one of several
held in Hawaii, raises 5 billion tons—is in landfills or oceanic garbage patches—there
awareness of the growing elsewhere in the environment. are others in the Atlantic and
problem of litter in the oceans.
Polluting the oceans
AFTER Microplastics—tiny fragments of
2016 The documentary A plastic less than 1⁄4 inch (5 mm)
Plastic Ocean, directed by across—are even harder to clean
Australian journalist Craig up than other plastics. Comprising
Leeson, highlights the global 90 percent of the plastics in the
effects of plastic pollution. oceans, they surge through currents
like a murky soup. The problem
2018 The Earth Day Network, was first identified in 1997 by the
an organization committed to American oceanographer Captain
spreading the environmental
movement worldwide, makes A “seabin” is emptied in Sydney
End Plastic Pollution the theme harbor. The Seabin Project, introduced
of Earth Day, on April 22, 2018. in Australia in 2015, helps counteract
plastic pollution by filtering surface
water in ports and harbors.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 285

See also: The food chain 132–133 ■ Humankind’s dominance over nature 296 Effects on wildlife
■ Human devastation of Earth 299 ■ Man and the Biosphere programme 310–311
Plastics pose a danger to
Plastic is recycled, burned, put into wildlife in many ways. Larger
landfill, or dumped in the ocean. items such as plastic shopping
bags can choke or strangle
It takes thousands of years to decompose. birds and marine animals; if
ingested, they can damage
Wave action and UV sunlight breaks their digestive tracts or cause
plastic in the ocean into tiny fragments, which spread starvation by obstructing the
stomach. If microplastics are
through the water. ingested, toxins can pass
into an animal’s fatty tissues,
Our oceans are a process that then passes up
turning into a plastic soup. the foodchain.

Indian Ocean as well as in smaller and many countries, following the According to Greenpeace,
bodies of water such as the North lead of Bangladesh in 2002, are nine out of ten seabirds, one
Sea. Plastic microbeads, introduced banning the provision of single-use in three sea turtles, and more
by cosmetic companies in the plastic bags. Other measures than half the population of
1990s, add to the problem. Used include banning plastic straws whales and dolphins have
in personal care products such and promoting the use of reusable eaten plastic. Even some of
as soaps, facial scrubs, and water bottles and recyclable or the crustaceans living in the
toothpastes, the beads travel from compostable packaging. ■ western Pacific’s Mariana
wastewater systems into rivers and Trench, the deepest point in
oceans, where they are consumed the world’s oceans, are known
by fish and other animals, with to have ingested plastic.
the same damaging effects as
microplastics (see panel, far right). Companies are starting
to take the need to reduce
plastic use seriously. A brewer
in Florida, for instance, has
found a way to make six-pack
rings from by-products of the
brewing process, so that
seabirds can chew them off
if they become caught in them.

Steps to limit plastic The throwaway society A Northern Gannet is entangled
Cleaning up plastic pollution is a cannot be contained—it in the plastic rings of a six-pack.
gargantuan task. Breaking plastics has gone global. We cannot Birds that scavenge along the shore
down into their constituent such as seagulls are especially prone
chemicals requires huge amounts store and maintain or to being caught in such debris.
of energy, which also damages the recycle all our stuff.
environment. The best solution is Charles J. Moore
to learn to live without plastic.
Most countries have banned or are
working toward phasing out the use
of microbeads in beauty products,

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WATER

IS A PUBLIC

HTRUUMSATN, RAINGDHTA

THE WATER CRISIS

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288 THE WATER CRISIS

IN CONTEXT In 2008, Canadian activist Indians line up for water in a slum
Maude Barlow argued that area of Hyderabad in 2007. India
KEY FIGURE water shortage had become the suffered a severe water crisis in 2018,
Maude Barlow (1947–) most pressing ecological and human and demand is projected to be twice
crisis of the 21st century. Stressing the available supply by 2030.
BEFORE that water is a “Commons” (a shared
1983–5 Droughts in Ethiopia, resource) and that access to water is percent of the planet’s water is both
Eritrea, and Sudan cause a fundamental human right, she set fresh and easily accessible. It is
450,000 deaths. out how wastage, pollution, and obtained mostly from rivers, lakes,
1990 The desiccation of the overconsumption meant that the and underground aquifers (rock
Aral Sea is declared the world’s water cycle—the constant exchange containing groundwater). People
worst ecological disaster of of water between Earth’s surface use water to drink, wash, irrigate
the 20th century by the UN and the atmosphere—could not crops, and run industry, and since
Environment Programme. be relied upon to provide water for all plants and terrestrial animals
2008 The United Nations evermore. She said that shortage require freshwater to live, all are
estimates that around 42,000 of water was already a crisis in the affected by the water crisis.
people die every week from developing world, where the burden
diseases related to bad water is borne particularly by women and Wasted water
and poor sanitation. children who collect water—and A larger human population uses
unless drastic action is taken, the more water, and a large proportion
AFTER rest of the world will be affected too. of that is wasted, especially in
2011–17 California suffers one developed countries, where people
of its worst droughts on record. About 1.1 billion people lack on average use about 10 times more
It impacts on agriculture, easy access to water, and 2.7 billion than those in the developing world.
nature, and daily life. find water scarce for at least one Sources of freshwater have dried up
2017 Water campaigner month of the year. Although 70 (for example, much of the Rio
Maude Barlow reveals that percent of Earth’s surface is Grande between Mexico and the
half of China’s rivers have covered by water, almost all of it is US) or are becoming too polluted to
disappeared since 1990. saline ocean water. Only 0.014

Life requires access to
clean water; to deny the
right to water is to deny
the right to life. The fight
for the right to water is an
idea whose time has come.

Maude Barlow

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 289

See also: The ecosystem 134–137 ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Acid rain 248–249 ■ Overpopulation 250–251
■ Depletion of natural resources 262–265

Distribution of the world’s water

Easily accessible 8% Atmospheric 1% Rivers
freshwater is a very water vapor 1% Water within
fragile resource. Only living organisms
a tiny fraction of the
total amount of water 38% Soil
available on our planet moisture
is immediately fit for
human consumption. 2.5% Freshwater 1% Easily accessible
97.5% surface water
Oceans 20% 52% Lakes
All water
Groundwater

79%
Ice caps and

glaciers

Freshwater Easily accessible
surface water

use. The Ganges in India and the (64 billion cubic meters)—due in In the last century, half of Earth’s
Citarum in Indonesia are two of the part to the population growing by wetlands have disappeared to make
most polluted rivers in the world. 80 million people each year. The rise way for farmland or development,
At the current rate of consumption in demand has also been driven by or because groundwater has been
this situation will deteriorate further. changing lifestyles and eating removed from aquifers faster than
By 2030, two-thirds of the world’s habits that require more water it has been replaced. A reduction in
population may face shortages. per person. The production of wetlands means plants and animals
Ecosystems will also suffer. biofuels has also risen sharply, with dependent on them are also gone.
significant impact on water Nearly half of all drinking water
Increased demand demand. Between 260 and 1,060 comes from aquifers. About 240
Human use of freshwater has tripled gallons (1,000– 4,000 liters) of water cubic miles (1,000 cubic km) is
since about 1970, and demand is are needed to make about taken every year. Two-thirds is used
increasing by 2,260 billion cubic feet ¼ gallon (1 liter) of biofuel. for irrigation, 22 percent for ❯❯

Maude Barlow Born in Toronto, Canada, in 1947, Peace” nominated for the 2005
Maude Barlow is an activist and Nobel Peace Prize. In 2008, she
water policy critic. She is the received the Citation of Lifetime
author or coauthor of 18 books, Achievement, Canada’s highest
including the bestseller Blue Gold: honor for environmentalism.

The Fight to Stop the Corporate Key works
Theft of the World’s Water. Barlow
formerly served as an adviser 2002 Blue Gold: The Fight to
on water to the United Nations, Stop the Corporate Theft of the
and led moves to have water World’s Water
recognized as a basic human 2007 Blue Covenant: The Global
right. In 2012, she helped found Water Crisis and the Coming
the Blue Planet Project, which Battle for the Right to Water
campaigns for the right to water. 2014 Blue Future: Protecting
Barlow chairs the Council of Water for People and the
Canadians social action group, and Planet Forever
was one of the “1000 Women for

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290 THE WATER CRISIS

The desiccation of the Aral Sea

A stranded ship on the dried-up The disappearance of most of the smaller lakes, and contained only
bed of the Aral Sea. The loss of such Aral Sea, once the world’s fourth- one-tenth of its 1960 volume of
a large body of water has had a largest lake, in Kazahkstan has water. Large areas are now
devastating effect on agriculture, been a huge ecological disaster. desert. Most of the lake’s fish
climate, and the local fishing industry. In the early 1960s, the two main and other aquatic life disappeared
rivers that fed the lake were with its water. Once fishermen
diverted to irrigate millions of here could catch Syr Darya
cotton plants across central Asia. sturgeon, but its numbers
In June 2004, the UN warned that declined sharply when the lake
the lake could dry up completely shrank and became more saline.
unless measures were taken to Efforts to replenish the waters
save it. It was then receiving only have achieved an increase in
10 percent of the water that it surface area and depth, and fish
once did, had divided into several populations are now increasing.

domestic use, and 11 percent for Ogallala aquifer is being depleted. not have plentiful water, such as
industry. However, most aquifers There are even water supply North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula,
replenish much more slowly than problems in Brazil, which is the large areas of central and south
they can be emptied, so water most water-rich nation on Earth. As Asia, northern China, and the
yields reduce with use. If the water the situation worsens, it becomes southwest United States. In contrast,
table falls, some lakes and rivers dry a growing source of conflict. economic water scarcity occurs
up. About half the total length of when water is available but the
China’s rivers has been lost since Water scarcity infrastructure does not exist to
1990. In North America, the Great There are two types of water utilize it. This is the situation in
Lakes are shrinking, Lake Winnipeg scarcity. Physical water scarcity much of sub-Saharan Africa and
is threatened, and the massive affects regions that naturally do parts of Central America. People

Water stress around the world

KEY London
None
1–9 months New York Istanbul Beijing Tokyo
10–12 months Mexico City Delhi Osaka
Major cities Los Angeles Cairo Shanghai
experiencing
water scarcity

Mumbai

This map illustrates the Rio de Janeiro
average exposure of water users Sao Paulo
to water stress—the ratio of
total withdrawals to total
renewable supply in a given
area. A higher proportion of
withdrawals means that more
water users are competing for
limited supplies.

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THE HUMAN FACTOR 291

The world has not really worse. For example, a sewage Salisbury Water
woken up to the reality of treatment plant run on “clean”
what we are going to face in energy can provide the wastewater In Adelaide, South Australia,
terms of the crises as far needed to fertilize biofuel crops, an innovative water recycling
which in turn can be used to purify system in use in the suburb
as water is concerned. the water—without emitting of Salisbury has reduced
Rajendra Pachauri greenhouse gases. extraction from the Murray
River and aquifers by about
IPCC Chair Drinkable waste water a half. Wastewater from the
New technologies can also convert local sewage treatment works
living in these areas may have to wastewater directly into drinkable and rainwater from drains
spend hours each day walking to water—a process that has been are treated, and then directed
the nearest supply of water. Many energy-hungry in the past. The into a series of 50 wetlands.
children miss out on an education Intergovernmental Panel on Climate These contain reedbeds
because they are collecting water. Change (IPCC) stresses that water and other aquatic vegetation
management policies can lead to that further clean the water.
Wildlife concerns higher greenhouse gas emissions. The recycled, nonsdrinking
The water crisis is bad for humans However, that is not the case if the water from the wetlands is
and can mean extinction for some conversion is fueled using solar then piped to the inhabitants
animals and reduction in numbers energy, which is starting to take of Salisbury to use for flushing
for others. Populations of the over from oil to power desalination toilets, watering gardens,
Amazon river dolphin, which lives plants in the Middle East. In parts washing cars, and filling
in the Amazon and Orinoco river of the world, there is seasonal heavy ornamental ponds.
basins in South America, for rain—for example, in countries
example, have been much reduced, with a monsoon—but it runs off In addition to providing
partly by the increase of heavy into polluted rivers and cannot be a more sustainable source of
metal pollution from mining but used. Rainwater catchment and water, the system has boosted
also by the construction of dams, storage schemes would help. biodiversity within the newly
which restrict the migration of established wetlands. Among
fish, the dolphins’ food, to their Other helpful initiatives include the birds that are currently
spawning grounds. Elsewhere, reducing pollution, cutting irrigation resident or visitors are ducks,
in China, the world’s largest and industrial wastage, providing spoonbills, herons, pelicans,
amphibian, the Chinese giant new technological solutions for cormorants, and migratory
salamander, has also become developing countries, and reaching waders, along with species
critically endangered by dams international agreements—after all, of amphibians and fish, and
being built for water storage and water catchments do not stick many aquatic invertebrates.
hydroelectric power. Such to national boundaries. ■
engineering works change the Salisbury’s recycled water has
natural flow of rivers, upsetting There is no water-rich environmental benefits including
the creature’s habitat. country in the world that reduced demand on existing water
is not facing problems. resources and improved biodiversity
A holistic view of ecosystem through the newly created wetlands.
management is crucial to prevent Maude Barlow
the water crisis from getting much

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ENVIRONM

AND CONS

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ENTALISM

ERVATION

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294 INTRODUCTION

Francis Bacon’s work Written in a cabin The first working UNESCO launch their
espouses the idea that in the woods, Henry photovoltaic solar Man and the Biosphere
David Thoreau’s book cell panel is built by Programme to encourage
man has dominion Walden presents a inventor Charles
over nature—a view romanticized view Fritts in the US. economic development
of the natural world. that is sustainable
that is later termed and eco-friendly.
“imperial ecology.”

C.1620 1854 1883 1971

1789 1864 1966

Gilbert White’s Natural George Perkins Marsh Lynn White argues that
History and Antiquities of warns of the Western—largely Christian –
Selborne records in great anthropocentric worldviews
detail the wildlife around destructive impact have placed humankind in an
that human action is
his rural home. environmental crisis.
having on nature.

E arly in the 17th century, out that resource scarcity was potential for producing limitless
English philosopher and generally the result of human energy, but it took a century for
scientist Francis Bacon actions rather than natural causes. solar power to be widely adopted.
wrote of the need to control and “Clean” hydroelectric power was
manage nature. By the end of the Renewable and clean the first sustainable source capable
18th century, in contrast, English Before the Industrial Revolution, of generating electricity on a large
vicar Gilbert White was writing most energy had been renewable— scale—joined in the late 20th
in favor of a peaceful coexistence the energy of human and animal century by modern wind power, and
between people and the natural labor, wind- and watermills, and tidal, wave, and geothermal energy.
world. Yet in his lifetime, powerful sustainable wood. From the mid-
new steam engines unleashed the 18th century there was a dramatic An environmental ethic
ravages of industrialization—the shift to coal. The most efficient fuel In 1937, following the devastating
reaction against which would later for firing furnaces and factories, it “Dust Bowl” caused by intensive
provide a major impetus for the came at a price—choking pollution farming in the US, President
environmental movement. and the then-unknown rise in Franklin D Roosevelt wrote,
atmospheric greenhouse gases. “A nation that destroys its soils
Possibly the first systematic destroys itself.” In 1949, American
analysis of humanity’s destructive In the 1880s, however, the key ecologist and forester Leopold
impact was American diplomat to a new form of renewable energy Aldo articulated a recurring theme
George Perkins Marsh’s 1864 was provided by American inventor in environmental thought, by
book, Man and Nature. Marsh Charles Fritts—a photovoltaic cell, advocating a “land ethic,” a
warned, among other things, which could convert solar power responsible relationship between
that deforestation could lead to the to electricity. German industrialist people and their local environment.
creation of deserts, and he pointed Werner von Siemens soon saw its

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 295

The Indian NGO The Sustainable Gretchen Daily’s
Navdanya (“Nine Biosphere Initiative Ecosystem Services
seeds”) is founded, to (SBI) report, published
preserve seed diversity, in the US, argues for shows how humans
promote fair trade, and increased funding for can derive benefits
ecological research. from preserving the
protect farmers. natural environment.

1987 1991 1997
1981 1988 1992 2015

Mark Schafer pioneers The Intergovernmental The UN’s Rio Earth The Paris
Population Viability Panel on Climate Summit sets global Agreement on
Analysis (PVA) as a method targets for cutting Climate Change
for estimating the likelihood Change is established is signed by 195
of a species’ extinction. in Geneva, Switzerland. greenhouse gas UN countries.
emissions.

The post-war period saw many 1969 massive oil spill in Santa assets which, when properly
governments legislating to ensure Barbara, California, US senator managed, provide a flow of vital
the quality of air and drinking water Gaylord Nelson proposed the idea goods and services.
and establish national parks and of a national event to highlight the
other protected areas. In 1968, the varied threats to the environment. International cooperation
world first found its collective voice, On the first Earth Day, which took Two UN agencies—the World
when UNESCO (the United Nations place on April 22, 1970, millions Meteorological Organization and
Educational, Scientific and Cultural turned out on marches across the the UN Environment Programme—
Organization) held the Paris US. The scale of the event helped established the Intergovernmental
Biosphere Conference. This resulted, the passage of the Clean Air, Clean Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in
three years later, in the creation of Water, and Endangered Species 1988 to assess the risk of human-
the Man and Biosphere Programme. Acts and led to the creation of the induced climate change.
United States Environmental
Growing awareness Protection Agency (EPA). The IPCC continues to monitor
Public concern for the environment climate change. In 1992, the Rio
was marked by the establishment In 1973, German economist Earth Summit, a UN initiative, was
of major conservation organizations. Ernst Schumacher used the term unprecedented in both its size and
The International Union for the “natural capital” in his best-seller the scope of its concerns. It was the
Conservation of Nature had been Small is Beautiful to describe how first of a number of international
established in 1948, and it was ecosystems provide us with gatherings seeking, with much
followed by the World Wildlife Fund complex services. The concept success, to get global agreement on
(1961), Friends of the Earth (1969), inspired American environmentalist greenhouse emissions. International
and Greenpeace (1971). After the Gretchen Daily and others, who cooperation is now seen as key
argued that ecosystems are capital to saving Earth’s environment. ■

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296

RKMTHENASEONTWDOSOLVOMEENDRINLGNYIEOAONTNUORFE

HUMANKIND’S DOMINANCE OVER NATURE

IN CONTEXT T he Renaissance (“rebirth”) Many scientists of the era believed
between the 14th and 17th that humans had a privileged place
KEY FIGURE centuries is primarily in a universe created by God for
Francis Bacon (1561–1626) associated with the arts and humanity to inhabit. English
culture that flourished across philosopher and scientist Francis
BEFORE Europe as the Catholic Church’s Bacon (1561–1626), a pioneer in the
c.9500 bce The first authority began to be challenged. It development of scientific method,
agricultural crops are was also a time of extraordinary reinforced this idea; the natural
cultivated in the Middle East. scientific advances, which some world, in his view, existed to
saw as the beginnings of a provide for humans, and should be
340s bce The Greek “scientific revolution.” Discoveries conquered and exploited.
philosopher Aristotle devises a in astronomy, physics, and medicine
“ladder of being” with man at gave rise to the idea that science Bacon’s view later became
the top. could tell humans everything about known as “Imperial Ecology”—the
the universe, and that knowledge idea that humanity’s knowledge of
15th century The “Age of would make humans its masters. science and technology should be
Discovery” begins: Europeans used to gain dominance over the
set out to explore the world in natural world. Imperial ecology
search of new resources. became the predominant ideology
throughout the Renaissance, the
AFTER Enlightenment—an 18th century
c.1750 New technology such movement dedicated to the pursuit
as the steam engine launches of knowledge—and later the
the Industrial Revolution, Industrial Revolution of the 18th
which begins in Britain. and 19th centuries. ■

1866 Gregor Mendel pioneers Sir Francis Bacon sits for a portrait
the science of genetics, in parliamentary robes. Bacon had
breeding 22 varieties of peas. an illustrious political career; knighted
in 1603, he served as Lord Chancellor
1970s The first experiments of England from 1618 to 1621.
in genetic engineering—the See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ A holistic view of the earth 210–211
direct manipulation of DNA by ■ Pollution 230–235 ■ Environmental ethics 306–307
humans—take place.

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ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 297

ENCATOUNROEMIISSTA GREAT

THE PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE
OF HUMANKIND AND NATURE

IN CONTEXT I n the late 18th century, rapid From reading White’s Selborne
advances in science and I took much pleasure in
KEY FIGURE technology—particularly
Gilbert White (1720–93) in Britain—led to widespread watching the habits of birds,
industrialization and urbanization and even made notes.
BEFORE as people sought to control and Charles Darwin
4th century bce Diogenes, a exploit the natural world. There
Greek philosopher, advocates were, however, many in Britain onward. The book was compiled
forgoing the comforts of who still lived and worked on the from his correspondence about his
civilization in favor of a life land. Among the educated rural findings with several like-minded
“in accord with nature.” class, some had a fascination for naturalists, but it was more than
both science and nature. From simply a collection of data. White’s
1773 American naturalist this group, a new generation of engaging and often poetic style
William Bartram starts his field naturalists emerged, suggesting sent a persuasive message; his
studies of the wildlife of the that humans should learn from their work rejected the “imperial” idea
southeast US, documented in scientific studies to live in harmony of conquering nature, and instead
his 1791 book, Travels. with the natural world rather than encouraged a balance between
attempt to dominate it. humans and the natural world—
AFTER like that of the Ancient Greeks’
1949 American ecologist Aldo Arcadian ideology mythical idyll of Arcadia, for which
Leopold publishes A Sand In 1789, rural parson and naturalist White’s approach was named. ■
County Almanac, exploring the Gilbert White published his Natural
idea of humans’ “land ethic,” or History and Antiquities of Selborne,
responsibilities toward nature. which became a seminal work in
what was later called “Arcadian
1969 Friends of the Earth Ecology”. Educated at Oxford and a
is founded in the US—initially keen gardener and ornithologist,
as an antinuclear group— White closely observed the wildlife
marking the beginning of the around his Hampshire village, and
modern Green movement. made meticulous notes from 1751

See also: Romanticism, conservation, and ecology 298 ■ Environmental ethics
306–307 ■ The Green Movement 308–309 ■ Halting climate change 316–321

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298

IOTNHFWETHPILREDEWNSEOESRRSVLADISTION

ROMANTICISM, CONSERVATION, AND ECOLOGY

IN CONTEXT I n many ways, Romanticism— affected scientific attitudes to
a new cultural movement that nature by inspiring interest in the
KEY FIGURE emerged towards the end of nascent field of ecology and the
Henry David Thoreau the 18th century—was a reaction environmental movement.
(1817–62) to the scientific rationalism of the
Enlightenment. As industrialization The wild world
BEFORE took hold in urban areas, writers, A key figure in the Romanticization
1662 English diarist John artists, and composers began of nature was Henry David Thoreau,
Evelyn’s work Sylva, advocating increasingly to glorify the natural an American writer from Concord,
forest conservation, is world. The now prosperous middle Massachusetts. His book Walden
presented to the Royal Society. classes were particularly inspired (1854) described his time living in
by Romantic portrayals of nature, a cabin in the woods by Walden
1789 Gilbert White publishes and took up leisure pursuits such Pond. Thoreau advocated
his Natural History of Selborne, as hiking and mountaineering. preserving nature not for its own
inspiring a reaction against The Romantic movement even sake, but as a necessary resource
“imperial ecology.” in sustaining human life and a
kind of spiritual enrichment. While
AFTER Thoreau’s “wilderness” was not far
1872 A bill creating the first removed from modern life, his
US national park, Yellowstone, Romantic portrayal of the natural
is signed into law by President world significantly influenced the
Ulysses S. Grant. conservation movement in the
US and helped inspire the National
1892 In San Francisco, Parks system. ■
Scottish–American
conservationist John Muir Thoreau’s simple hut at Walden
founds The Sierra Club. Pond appeared on the title page of
this 1875 edition of Walden. Thoreau
1971 The UNESCO “Man claimed he went to the wilderness
and the Biosphere” project to be free of the obligations of city life.
is launched. See also: Global warming 202–203 ■ A holistic view of Earth 210–211
■ Urban sprawl 282–283 ■ The Green Movement 308–309