emgZ {ZU©¶ H«$‘m§H$ … Aä¶mg 2116 / (à.H«$. 43/16) EgS>r - 4 {XZm§H$ 25.4.2016 AÝd¶o
ñWmnZ H$aʶmV Amboë¶m g‘Ýd¶ g{‘VrÀ¶m {X. 30.1.2020 amoOrÀ¶m ~¡R>H$s‘ܶo ho nmR>çnwñVH$ gZ
2020-21 ¶m e¡j{UH$ dfm©nmgyZ {ZYm©[aV H$aʶmg ‘mݶVm XoʶmV Ambr Amho.
VH©$emñÌ
B¶ËVm ~mamdr
2020
‘hmamîQ´> amÁ¶ nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr d Aä¶mgH«$‘ g§emoYZ ‘§S>i, nwUo
Amnë¶m ñ‘mQ>©’$moZdarb DIKSHA App X²dmao nmR>çnwñVH$mÀ¶m n{hë¶m
n¥îR>mdarb Q.R. Code X²dmao {S>OrQ>b nmR>çnwñVH$ Q.R. Code X²dmao ˶m
nmR>mg§~§{YV Aܶ¶Z-AܶmnZmgmR>r Cn¶w³V ÑH$-lmì¶ gm{h˶ CnbãY hmoB©b.
àW‘md¥ËVr … 2020 © ‘hmamîQ´> amÁ¶ nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr d Aä¶mgH«$‘ g§emoYZ ‘§S>i,
nwUo - 411 004
¶m nwñVH$mMo gd© h³H$ ‘hmamîQ´> amÁ¶ nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr d Aä¶mgH«$‘
g§emoYZ ‘§S>imH$S>o amhVrb. ¶m nwñVH$mVrb H$moUVmhr ^mJ g§MmbH$,
‘hmamîQ´> amÁ¶ nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr d Aä¶mgH«$‘ g§emoYZ ‘§S>i ¶m§À¶m
boIr nadmZJr{edm¶ CX²Y¥V H$aVm ¶oUma Zmhr.
VH©$emñÌ {df¶ g{‘Vr VH©$emñÌ Aä¶mgJQ>
lr‘Vr. S>m°. pñ‘Vm gmdo lr. gwaoe R>m|~ao
lr‘Vr lX²Ym MoVZ n¡
lr‘Vr ‘rVm ho‘§V ’$S>Ho$ lr‘Vr N>m¶m ~r. H$moao
lr‘Vr g§Ü¶m {dídZmW ‘éS>H$a lr. dg§V {dH«$‘Or bmoI§S>o
S>m°. {Xbrn Zm‘Xod ZmJaJmoOo lr‘Vr ’$aOmZm {gamOmoX²XrZ eoI
S>m°. ~mbmOr ‘mamoVamd ZadmS>o lr‘Vr qnH$s {hVoZ Jmbm
S>m°. gXmZ§X E‘. {~iiya lr. YZamO VwH$mam‘ bPS>o
(gXñ¶ - g{Md) g‘Ýd¶H$
S>m°. gXmZ§X E‘. {~iiya
‘wIn¥îR> {deofm{YH$mar, H$ÝZS>
lr. {ddoH$mZ§X nm{Q>b lr. Ama. E‘. JUmMmar
ghm¶H$ {deofm{YH$mar, H$ÝZS>
AjaOwiUr
{Zhma J«m{’$³g, ‘w§~B© {Z{‘©Vr
lr. gpÀMVmZ§X Am’$io
H$mJX ‘w»¶ {Z{‘©Vr A{YH$mar
70 Or.Eg.E‘. {H«$‘dmoìh lr. {bbmYa AmÌm‘
‘wÐUmXoe {Z{‘©Vr A{YH$mar
. àH$meH$
{ddoH$ CËV‘ Jmogmdr
‘wÐH$
{Z¶§ÌH$
. nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr ‘§S>i, à^mXodr,
‘w§~B© - 25
àñVmdZm
‘hmamîQ´> amÁ` nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr d Aä`mgH«$‘ g§emoYZ ‘§S>imbm B`ËVm 12 dr gmR>r "VH©$emñÌ'
`m {df`mÀ`m nmR>çnwñVH$mMm n[aM` H$ê$Z XoVmZm AmZ§X hmoV Amho. VH©$emñÌ ho {dMmamMo emñÌ
Amho. VH©$ewX²Y {dMma H$aUo ho ‘Zwî`mMo ì`dÀN>oXH$ bjU Agbo Var VH©$emñÌr` VËËdo Am{U nX²YVr
{dXçmÏ`mªZm Ë`m§À`m OÝ‘OmV j‘VoMr OmUrd H$ê$Z XoVmV. Á`m`moJo {dXçmWu gamdmX²dmao hr j‘Vm
A{YH$ {dH${gV H$ê$ eH$Vrb.
10 + 2 `m ñVamda {dXçmWu {Okmgy Am{U J«hUj‘ AgVmV. VH©$emñÌmÀ`m Aä`mgm‘wio Ë`m§Mr
~wX²Yr‘ËVm Vrd« hmoÊ`mg, VH©$eŠVrMr j‘Vm d¥X²YrJV hmoÊ`mg, AMwH$ {dMmam§Mr H$m¡eë` {dH${gV
H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am{U g¥OZ{ebVm dmT>{dÊ`mg ‘XV hmoB©b. Oo Ë`m§Zm Ë`m§Mo CX²XrîQ> Am{U AmH$m§jm gmÜ`
H$aÊ`mg ‘XV H$aob.
{Z`mo{OV Aä`mgH«$‘mVrb àH$aUo Ogo - {ZU©` nX²YVr, Z¡J‘{ZH$ nX²YVr, g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘Z
`mVyZ {dXçmWu d¡Y Am{U Ad¡Y `wpŠVdmXmVrb ’$aH$ OmUyZ `wpŠVdmXmMr d¡YVm {gX²Y H$aÊ`mg
{eH$Vrb. `m nmR>çnwñVH$mV {Xboë`m {d{dY H¥$Vtda AmYm[aV àíZ Am{U ñdmÜ`m`m‘wio {dXçmÏ`mªZm
VH©$emñÌmÀ`m ‘yb^yV g§H$ënZm g‘OyZ KoVm `oVrb Am{U Vo VH©$emñÌr` nX²YVrV àm{dÊ` {‘idVrb. `m
nmR>çnwñVH$mÀ`m àW‘ n¥îR>mda Š`w.Ama. H$moS> {Xbm Amho. Á`mX²dmao {Xbobr ‘m{hVr Vwåhm§bm AmdSo>b.
VH©$emñÌ {df` g{‘Vr Am{U Aä`mg JQ>, g‘rjH$, JwUdËVm narjH$ Am{U {MÌH$ma `m§Zr AmñWoZo
Am{U ghH$m`© ^mdZoZo nmR>çnwñVH$ V`ma Ho$bo Amho. `m gdmªMo nmR>çnwñVH$ ‘§S>i Am^mar Amho.
{dXçmWu, {ejH$ d nmbH$ `m nmR>çnwñVH$mMo ñdmJV H$aVrb, Aer Amem Amho.
({ddoH$ Jmogmdr)
g§MmbH$
‘hmamîQ´> amÁ¶ nmR>çnwñVH$ {Z{‘©Vr
d Aä¶mgH«$‘ g§emoYZ ‘§S>i, nwUo 4
nwUo
{XZm§H$ … 21 ’o$~«wdmar 2020
^maVr¶ gm¡a … 2 ’$mëJwZ 1941
{ejH$m§gmR>r
VH©$emñÌ {df` g{‘Vr Am{U Aä`mgJQ> `m§Zm VH©$emñÌmÀ`m nmR>çnwñVH$mMr AmoiI H$ê$Z XoÊ`mg
AmZ§X hmoV Amho.
"g§dmŠ`' `m àH$aUmMr AmoiI `m nmR>çnwñVH$mV H$ê$Z {Xbobr Amho. B`ËVm 12 dr Z§Va
{dXçmÏ`mªZm Ë`m§À`m ì`dgm`m{df`r {ZU©` ¿`mdm bmJVmo. Ë`mgmR>r Ë`m§Zm {d{dY àdoe narjog gm‘moao
Omdo bmJVo. ~hþVoH$ àdoe n[ajm§‘Ü`o VH©$j‘Vm MmMUr H$aÊ`mgmR>r EH$ àíZn{ÌH$m AgVo. g§dmŠ` `m
àH$aUmMr ‘XV {dXçmÏ`mªZm `m àdoe narjoMr V`mar H$aÊ`mgmR>r hmoB©b. {ejH$m§Zr ñnYm©Ë‘H$ narjogmR>r
AgUmao Ë`mMo ‘hËËd bjmV KoD$Z ho àH$aU {eH${dUo Ano{jV Amho.
A°[añQ>m°Q>obr`Z {Zê$nm{YH$ g§dmŠ` Am{U Ý`m`mMo g§dmŠ` `mVrb VwbZm, {dXçmÏ`mªZm VH©$emñÌmMm
{dH$mg ^maVmV J«rH$ {dMmam§À`m à^mdm{edm` H$gm Pmbm `m~X²Xb ‘mhrVr XoB©b. `m‘wio {dXçmÏ`mªÀ`m
‘ZmV `m {df`mV Agboë`m ^maVr` `moJXmZm~X²Xb A{^‘mZmV ^a nSo>b.
`m ñVamda nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmMr XoIrb AmoiI H$ê$Z XoÊ`mV Ambr Amho. Ë`m‘wio {dXçmWu
nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌ Am{U AmYw{ZH$ VH©$emñÌ `m§Mr VwbZm H$aVrb Am{U VH©$emñÌmMm {dH$mg g‘OyZ
KoVrb.
nmR>çnwñVH$mVrb {dYo` VH©$emñÌmMr AmoiI {dXçmÏ`mªZm {dYm{Z` VH©$emñÌ Am{U {dYo`
VH©$emñÌmVrb ’$aH$, {dYm{Z` VH©$emñÌmMr ‘`m©Xm Am{U {dYo` VH©$emñÌmMr JaO g‘OyZ KoÊ`mg ‘XV
hmoB©b.
{ZJ‘ZmMo AmYma Am{U {gX²Ym§V H$ënZm hr àH$aUo emñÌr` g§emoYZmVrb VH©$emñÌmMo ‘hËËd
AmYmoaopIV H$aVmV.
VH©$emñÌ ho A‘wV© g§H$ënZm§Mm Aä`mg H$aVo. Ë`m‘wio VH©$emñÌmVrb ‘hËËdmÀ`m g§H$ënZm hçm
Q>ß`mQ>ßß`mZo gmoß`m ^mfoV CXmhaUo XoD$Z AZoH$ H¥$VtX²dmao g‘OyZ Xçmì`m bmJVmV. Ago Ho$ë`mZo {dXçmWu
`m {df`mMr Ë`mÀ`m OrdZmVrb AZw^dmer gm§JS> Kmby eHo$b. ho bjmV KoD$Z nmR>çnwñVH$ H¥${VàYmZ
~Z{dÊ`mV Ambo Amho. AZoH${dY CXmhaUm§Mm Cn`moJ, e¡j{UH$ gmYZo, dmX{ddmX ñnYm©, Vm{H©$H$ H$moS>r
X¡Z§XrZ OrdZmVrb Mm§Jë`m `wpŠVdmXm§Mr Am{U VH©$Xmofm§Mr CXmhaUo XoD$Z ñnîQ> H$aUo ho {ejH$m§H$Sy>Z
Ano{jV Amho.
Aem àH$mao àñVwV nmR>çnwñVH$mMo AÜ`mnZ Am{U AÜ`m`Z H$aUo ho {dXçmWu Am{U {ejH$m§Zm a§OH$
Am{U AmZ§XXm`r AZw^d XoD$ eHo$b.
B¶ËVm 12 dr VH©$emñÌ
j‘Vm {dYmZo
A. H«$. KQ>H$ j‘Vm
1.
2. {ZU©¶ nX²YVr • bKwg˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
3.
• gd©V… g˶VoMr H$gmoQ>r åhUyZ bKwg˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMo Cn¶moOZ H$aʶmMr j‘Vm
4.
{dH${gV H$aUo.
5.
6. Z¡J‘{ZH$ • gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVrMo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
7.
{gX²YVm • Aà˶j {gX²YVm nX²YVrMo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
• gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVr d Aà˶j nX²YVrX²dmao ¶wp³VdmXmMr ¶w³VVm {gX²Y H$aʶmMr
j‘Vm {dH${gV H$aUo.
{dYo¶ VH©$emñÌ • {dYo¶ VH©$emñÌmMr JaO g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {d{dY àH$maÀ¶m A-{‘l {dYmZm§Mo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
• EH$dmMr d gm‘mݶdmMr {dYmZm§À¶m {MÝhm§H$ZmMm Aä¶mg H$aUo.
• {dYmZr¶ ’$bZm§Mr g§H$ënZm g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {dYmZr¶ nbZmnmgyZ {dYmZo {Zînm{XV H$aʶmÀ¶m nX²YVrMo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
• Z¡J‘{ZH$ g§»¶mnZmMo {Z¶‘ Am{U nX²YVr ¶m§Mo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
• Z¡J‘{ZH$ g§»¶mnZ nX²YVrX²dmao ¶wp³VdmXmMr ¶w³VVm {gX²Y H$aʶmMr j‘Vm {dH${gV
H$aUo..
nma§n[aH$ • {dYmZm§Mo ñdén d dJuH$aU g‘OyZ KoUo.
VH©$emñÌ • A, E, I, O {dYmZm§Vrb nXm§Mr ì¶mßVr OmUyZ KoUo.
• AZw‘mZmMo ì¶d{hV AZw‘mZ d Aì¶d{hV AZw‘mZ ho àH$ma g‘OyZ KoUo.
• ì¶d{hV d Aì¶d{hV AZw‘mZm§À¶m àH$mam§Mo Aܶ¶Z H$aUo.
• {dYmZ à{V¶moJ g‘OyZ KoUo d ˶m§À¶m Cn¶moOZmMr j‘Vm {dH${gV H$aUo.
• n[adV©ZmMm d à{VdV©ZmMm {Z¶‘ OmUyZ ˶m§Mo Cn¶moOZ H$aʶmMr j‘Vm {dH${gV H$aUo.
g§dm³¶ • {Zénm{YH$ g§dm³¶mMo ñdén d aMZm g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {Zénm{YH$ g§dm³¶mMo AmH$ma OmUyZ KoUo.
• {Zénm{YH$ g§dm³¶mMo {Z¶‘ d ˶mVyZ CX²^dUmao VH©$Xmof g‘OyZ KoUo.
• ^maVr¶ VH©$emñÌ Aä¶mgyZ ˶m§À¶m {Zénm{YH$ g§dm³¶m§Mm VwbZmË‘H$ Aä¶mg H$aUo.
{dJ‘ZmMo • {dJ‘ZmMr g‘ñ¶m OmUyZ KoUo.
AmYma • {dJ‘ZmMo dmñV{dH$ (^m¡{VH$) d AmH$m[aH$ (VmpËËdH$) AmYma g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {ZarjU nX²YVr {VMr d¡{eîQ>ço Am{U {ZarjUmMo Xmof g‘OyZ KoUo.
• C{MV {ZarjUmÀ¶m AQ>r g‘OyZ KoUo.
• à¶moJ nX²YVr d {VMr d¡{eîQ>ço Am{U ‘¶m©Xm g‘OyZ KoUo.
{gX²Ym§V H$ënZm • {gX²Ym§V H$ënZoMr ì¶m»¶m Am{U d¡{eîQ>ço g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {gX²Ym§V H$ënZoMm CJ‘ g‘OyZ KoUo.
• C{MV {gX²Ym§V H$ënZoÀ¶m AQ>r g‘OyZ KoUo.
• {gX²Ym§V H$ënZoMo narjU g‘OyZ KoUo.
AZwH«$‘{UH$m
nmR> H«$‘m§H$ àH$aUmMo Zmdo n¥îR> H«$‘m§H$
1.
2. {ZU©` nX²YVr (Decision Procedure) 1
3.
4. Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm (Deductive Proof) 10
5.
6. {dYo` VH©$emñÌ (Predicate Logic) 19
7.
nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌ (Traditional Logic) 38
g§dmŠ` (Syllogism) 57
{dJ‘ZmMo AmYma (Grounds of Induction) 70
{gX²Ym§V H$ënZm (Hypothesis) 81
1 {ZU©` nX²YVr (Decision Procedure)
Vwåhmbm ‘mhrV Amho H$m ...$
l {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr Vo EH$mM AmoirV R>adVm ¶oVo.
l AZoH$ Jw§VmJw§VrÀ`m `wp³VdmXm§Mr d¡YVm bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrZo R>adVm `oD$ eH$Vo.
l ^y{‘Vrà‘mUo VH©$emñÌmVhr, {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… g˶ Amho H$s Zmhr ho ˶mÀ¶m ì¶mKmVmMr Ae³¶Vm XmIdyZ
R>adVm ¶oVo.
1.1 {ZU©` nX²YVr (Decision Procedure) ~ËVrg Amoir hmoVrb Am{U {Xboë`m {dYmZmH$mam‘Ü`o
Ooìhm Mbm§Mr g§»`m dmT>Vo Voìhm gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$m‘Ü`o
Am`. E‘. H$monrZo VH©$emñÌmMr Aer ì`m»`m XoIrb AmoitMr g§»`m dmT>V OmVo. Aem doir gË`Vm
Ho$br Amho H$s, ""VH©$emñÌ åhUOo ¶w³V (`mo½`) H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMm dmna H$aUo AdKS> d {H$MH$Q> hmoVo
AZw‘mZmË‘H$ {dMmambm (VH$m©bm) MwH$sÀ`m Am{U Ë`mMr ‘m§S>Ur H$aUo AS>MUrMo, bm§~bMH$,
A¶w³V (A`mo½`)AZw‘mZmË‘H$ {dMmamnmgyZ doJio H§$Q>midmUo d doi ImD$ R>aVo. gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mMr
H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnamV `oUmè`m nX²YVtMm Am{U ‘m§S>Ur H$aVmZm AmnUmH$Sy>Z MwH$m hmoD$ eH$VmV, åhUyZ
VËËdm§Mm Aä`mg hmo`.'' VH©$emñÌmMr XmoZ ‘w»` H$m¶} `m nX²YVrV Iyn H$miOr KoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. åhUyZ
(1) `wp³VdmX d¡Y Amho qH$dm Ad¡Y Amho ho R>a{dUo. {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… g˶ Amho ho R>adVmZm AmnUmg bKw
(2) {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË`, gd©V… AgË` qH$dm VgoM AMyH$ nX²YVrMr Amdí`H$Vm ^mgVo. åhUyZ bKw
Z¡{‘pËVH$V`m gË`mgË` Amho ho R>a{dUo. ho R>a{dÊ`mÀ`m g˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMr aMZm / ‘m§S>Ur H$aʶmV
nX²YVrbm {ZU©` nX²YVr åhUVmV. n[aUm‘H$maH$ {ZU©` Ambr.
nX²YVr VrZ AQtda> Adb§~yZ Amho. {dídmgmh©Vm,
`m§{ÌH$Vm Am{U ‘`m©XrVVm. bKw gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr hr EH$mM AmoirV
‘m§S>br OmD$ eH$Vo. hmM EH$ {ZU©¶ nX²YVr åhUyZ bKw
1.2 bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMr Amdí`H$Vm … gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMm ‘hËËdmMm ’$m`Xm Amho. bKw
gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr ObX d gmonr Amho. Amnë`mbm
`mnydu AmnU gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ `m n[aUm‘H$maH$ `wp³VdmX d¡Y Amho H$s Zmhr Am{U {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma
{ZU©` nX²YVrMm Aä`mg Ho$bm Amho. VWm{n {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr ho R>a{dÊ`mg ‘XV H$aVo.
gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr Am{U `wp³VdmX d¡Y Amho H$s
Ad¡Y Amho, ho R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ hr EH$ gmYr 1.3 bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrMo ñdê$n
Am{U gmonr nX²YV Amho. na§Vw gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrbm
H$mhr ‘`m©Xm nS>VmV. Ooìhm {dYmZmH$mamV A{YH$ bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr hr EH$ {ZU©` nX²YVr
Mbo g‘m{dîQ> AgVmV, Voìhm gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr Amho. bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr n[aUm‘H$maH$ {ZU©`
J¡agmo`rMr R>aVo. åhUOoM Mma Mbo `oVmV Voìhm gË`Vm nX²YVr Amho. H$maU n[aUm‘H$maH$ {ZU©` nX²YVrÀ`m
H$moîQ>H$mV gmoim Amoir `oVmV, nmM Mbo `oVmV Voìhm AQ>tMr nyV©Vm `m nX²YVr‘Ü`o Ho$br OmVo. `mMmM AW©
hr nX²YVr {dídmgmh©, `m§{ÌH$ Am{U ‘`m©{XV ñdê$nmMr
Amho.
Imbrb H¥$Vr nyU© H$am.
p • q p q pq pq p p
T T F F T F FT T F
1
bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YV {dnarV - `m nX²YVrV nwT>rb nm`è`m§Mm g‘mdoe hmoVmo.
{dn`©`mÀ`m VËËdmda AmYm[aV Amho. {dnarV-
{dn`©`mÀ`m VËËdmZwgma gd© àW‘ Oo {dYmZ {gX²Y (1) {dYmZmH$ma hm gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr
H$amd¶mMo Amho Ë`mÀ`m ì¶mKmVr {dYmZ J¥hrV Yabo OmVo. R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr Ago
Aem àH$maÀ`m J¥hrVH$m‘wio ì`mKmV AWdm {dg§JVr J¥hrV Yamdo.
{Z‘m©U hmoVo. `wp³VdmXmÀ¶m ~m~VrV AmnU `wp³VdmX
Ad¡Y Amho, Ago J¥hrV YéZ gwédmV H$aVmo Am{U (2) {dYmZmH$ma hm gd©V… gË` Zmhr ho J¥hrV YaVmZm
Oa H$m ¶m J¥{hVH$m‘wio ì¶mKmV qH$dm {dg§JVr {Z‘m©U {dYmZmÀ`m à‘wI Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$mÀ`m Imbr
Pmbr Va `wp³VdmX d¡Y R>aVmo. AÝ`Wm Vo Ad¡Y R>a{dbo ‘F’ (False - AgË`) ho gË`Vm‘yë` àXmZ
OmVo. {dYmZmH$mamÀ`m ~m~VrV àW‘ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma H$amdo.
AgË` Amho, Ago J¥hrV Yê$Z Ë`m J¥{hVH$m‘wio {dg§JVr
{Z‘m©U hmoV Agob Va Vmo {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` R>aVmo. (3) à‘wI Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$mImbr ‘F’ ho gË`Vm ‘yë`
AÝ`Wm Vmo gd©V… gË` Zmhr Ago R>a{dbo OmVo. {bhÿZ Pmë`mZ§Va Ë`mbm AZwgê$Z {dYmZmH$mamVrb
BVa KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$m§À`m
`m nX²YVr‘Ü`o `wp³VdmX d¡Y H$s Ad¡Y Amho AmYmao gË`Vm‘yë`o XçmdrV.
qH$dm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho qH$dm Zmhr `mMr
{gX²YVm WoQ>nUo {Xbr OmV Zmhr. åhUyZ `m nX²YVrg (4) {dYmZmH$mamVrb gd© Mam§Zm Am{U g§`moOH$m§Zm
""AàË`j {gX²YVm nX²YVr'' Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. gË`Vm‘yë`o àXmZ H$amdrV Am{U àË`oH$ nm`arbm
H«$‘m§H$ Xçmdm.
1.4 bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr EH$ gd©V…
gË`VoMr H$gmoQ>r … (5) gË`Vm‘yë` àXmZ Ho$ë`mZ§Va {dYmZmH$mamV H$moR>o
{dg§JVr AmT>iVo H$m Vo nmhmdo. {dg§JVr XmoZ
bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr hr gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ àH$maMr Amho.
{‘l {dYmZmÀ`m ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mda AmYm[aV
Amho. (i) ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mÀ`m {Z`‘m§Mo
Cëb§KZ hmoV Agë¶mg
{dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr ho
R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr dmnabr d
OmVo. gd©V… gË`Vm åhUOo Agm gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ (ii) {dYmZ Mbmbm g˶ Am{U Ag˶ hr
{dYmZmH$ma Omo, Ë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZmH$mam§À`m gË`
AgË`VoÀ`m gd© eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o Zoh‘rM gË` AgVmo. XmoZhr gË`Vm‘yë`o Amë¶mg
bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mMr ‘m§S>Ur H$aVmZm {dYmZmH$mamÀ`m
à‘wI Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$mÀ`m Imbr ‘F’ ho gË`Vm‘yë` (6) {dYmZmH$mamV {dg§JVr AmT>ibr Va {Xbobm
{bhÿZ {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr Ago J¥hrV Yabo {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho, Ago {gX²Y hmoB©b.
OmVo. Oa Amnë`mbm {dg§JVr AmT>ibr Va Amnbo Oa Ë`mV {dg§JVr AmT>ibr Zmhr Va {dYmZmH$ma
J¥{hVH$ MwH$sMo Amho Am{U {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gd©V… gË` Zmhr Ago {gX²Y hmoB©b.
gË` Amho. Oa AmnUmg Hw$R>ohr {dg§JVr AmT>ibr
Zmhr Va Vo J¥hrVH$ `mo½` Amho Am{U åhUyZ {Xbobm (7) {dg§JVrImbr “x” hr IyU H$ê$Z {dg§JVr
{dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr. åhUOoM Vo EH$Va gd©V… Xe©dmdr.
AgË` qH$dm Z¡{‘pËVH$V`m gË`mgË` AgVo.
(8) {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr ho
{bhmdo.
Imbrb CXmhaUmÀ`m gmhmæ`mZo bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mMr
aMZm Xe©{dVm `oB©b.
CXmhaU 1 … ( p · p ) p
2
(1) {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr Ago J¥hrV {Z‘m©U Pmbr Amho. Ë`m‘wio J¥hrVH$ MwH$sMo Amho. åhUyZ
Yabo OmVo. `m {dYmZmH$mamVrb à‘wI Vm{H©$H$ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho.
g§`moOH$mÀ`m ‘’ Imbr ‘F’ ho gË`Vm‘yë`
{bhyZ ˶mImbr Mm§XUrMr IyU Ho$br OmVo. CXmhaU 2 : ( p · q) ( q p )
(p·p) p (1) gwédmVrbm darb {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
Ago J¥hrV Yê$Z Ë`mVrb ‘w»` Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$
F ‘’ ({dH$ën) Imbr ‘F’ ho ‘yë` {bhmdo. d
Ë`mÀ`m Imbr ‘*’ Aer IyU H$amdr.
*
( p · q) ( q p )
(2) nwT>rb nm`arV ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mbm AZwgê$Z
gË`Vm ‘yë`o Xe©dm{dV. `m CXmhaUmV ‘’ hm F
‘w»` Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$ Agë`mZo Vmo AgË`
Agë`m‘wio Ë`mÀ`m nydm©Jm§g gË` ‘T’ Am{U *
CËVam§Jmg AgË` ‘F’ Aer ‘yë`o Xe©dmdrV. `m
‘yë`m§Zm H«$‘m§H$ XçmdoV. (2) `mZ§VaÀ`m nm`ar‘Ü`o ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mÀ`m
AmYmao gË`Vm ‘yë`o àXmZ H$amdrV. darb
( p · p ) p CXmhaUmV ‘w»` g§`moOH$ {dH$ën ‘’ ho AgË`
Amho. Ago J¥hrV Yaë`m‘wio Ë`mÀ`m XmoÝhr
T F F KQ>H$m§Zm AgË` ho ‘yë` àXmZ H$amdo.
(1) * (1) ( p · q) ( q p )
(3) nwT>rb nm`ar‘Ü`o nydmªJmVrb KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm F F F
gË`Vm‘yë`o XçmdrV. `oWo nydmªJ ‘p · p’ gË`
Amho. Ooìhm g§Yr {dYmZ g˶ AgVo Voìhm Ë`mMr (1) * (1)
XmoÝhr KQ>H$ {dYmZo gË` AgVmV. Imbrb à‘mUo
gË`Vm ‘yë` àXmZ H$ê$Z Ë`m§Zm H«$‘m§H$ XçmdoV. (3) nwT>rb nm`ar‘Ü`o {dH$ënmÀ`m XmoÝhr KQ>H$
{dYmZm§Zm ‘yë` àXmZ H$amdo Am{U Ë`m§Zm H«$‘m§H$
( p · p) p XoUo. n{hë`m KQ>H$ {dYmZmV “·” g§Yr ho ‘w»`
Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$ Amho Am{U Vmo AgË` Amho.
T T T F F g§Yr VrZ eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o AgË` AgVo. åhUyZ
AmnU Ë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm ‘yë` XoD$ Z`oV.
(2) (1) (2) * (1) Xwgè`m KQ>H$ {dYmZmg åhUOo “q p” Mo
gË`Vm ‘yë` {‘i{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$ê$Z ì`§OZ ho
(4) nwT>rb nm`arV J¥hrVH$m‘wio {dg§JVr {Z‘m©U Pmbr EH$mM eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o AgË` AgVo. åhUOoM Ooìhm
Amho H$m Vo nhmdo. darb {Xboë`m CXmhaUmV “p” nydmªJ gË` Am{U CËVam§J AgË` AgVo. åhUyZ
{dYmZmgmR>r {dg§JV ‘yë`o {‘iVmV. AmnU hr Ë`mà‘mUo Ë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm ‘yë` àXmZ
{dg§JVr ‘x’ `m IyUoZo Imbrbà‘mUo Xe©{dVmo. H$ê$Z Imbr XmIdë`mà‘mUo H«$‘m§H$ XçmdoV.
( p • p) p ( p · q) ( q p)
T T T F F F F T F F
(2) (1) (2) * (1) (1) * (2) (1) (2)
x x x
darb CXmhaUmV H«$‘m§H$ 1 Am{U 2 ‘Ü`o {dg§JVr
3
(4) AmnUmbm ‘p’ Am{U ‘q’ `m XmoÝhrMr gË`Vm ‘’ bm Ag˶ ‘yë¶ {Xë¶mZo g§nyU© g§Yr
‘yë`o ‘m{hV Agë`m‘wio VrM gË`Vm ‘yë`o S>mì`m {dYmZ g˶ AgboM nm{hOo. Ë`mZwgma Imbr
~mOyÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm àXmZ H$amdrV Am{U XmIdë`mà‘mUo Ë`m§À`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm gË`Vm
Ë`m§Zm H«$‘m§H$ XçmdoV. ‘yë`o àXmZ H$amdrV.
(p · q) (q p ) ( p q) ( q • p )
F F F T F T F F T F F T T T
1 * 1 3 2 3
(3) (1) (5) (4) * (2) (1) (2)
(3) AmVm AmnUmg ‘p’ Am{U ‘q’ `m XmoÝhrMr
(5) nwT>rb nm`ar‘Ü`o `m gË`Vm‘yë`m§‘wio H$moUVr gË`Vm ‘yë`o ‘mhrV Agë`m‘wio n{hë`m KQ>H$
{dg§JVr {Z‘m©U hmoVo H$m Vo nmhmdo. darb {dYmZmVrb Mbm§Zm Am{U ‘q’ À¶m {ZfoYmg
CXmhaUmV {dg§JVr Zmhr. J¥hrVH$ `mo½` Amho. Imbr XmIdë`m à‘mUo gË`Vm ‘yë`o XoD$.
åhUyZ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
( p q ) ( q • p )
CXmhaU 3 : (p q) (q • p)
T T F T F F T T T
darb {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr. Ago J¥hrV
Yê$Z Ë`mVrb ‘w»` g§`moOH$ ‘’ (g‘‘yë`) 4 1 6 5 * 1 3 2 3
Imbr ‘F’ ho ‘yë` {bhmdo. g‘‘yë` ho XmoZ
eŠ`Vm‘Ü`o AgË` AgVo. (1) n{hbo KQ>H$ x
{dYmZ gË` Am{U Xwgao AgË` Am{U (2) n{hbo
KQ>H$ {dYmZ AgË` Am{U Xþgao gË`. ¶m XmoÝhr (4) `oWo n{hë`m nm`ar‘Ü`o {dg§JVr Amho. H$maU
eŠ`Vm J¥hrV Yê$Z CXmhaU gmoS>dmdo. ì`O§ZmÀ`m {Z`‘mMo `oWo CëbK§Z Pmbo Amho.
åhUyZ J¥hrVH$ MwH$sMo Amho. åhUyZ n{hë`m
(1) n{hbr eŠ`Vm J¥hrV Yê$Z darb CXmhaUmg eŠ`Vo~m~V {Xbobo {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho.
Imbrbà‘mUo ‘yë`o àXmZ H$amdr.
AmVm AmnU Xþgè`m eŠ`VoMm {dMma H$ê$.
( p q) ( q • p )
Xþgar e³¶Vm
(1) ( p q) ( q • p )
T F F F F T
1 * 1 1 * 1
(2) nwT>rb nm`arV g‘‘yë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm Xþgè`m eŠ`VoMm {dMma H$ê$Z da XmIdë`mà‘mUo
‘yë`o XoD$Z Ë`m§Zm H«$‘m§H$ Xçmdm. n{hë`m gË`Vm ‘yë`o àXmZ H$amdrV. nwT>rb nm`arV
KQ>H$ {dYmZmÀ`m ~m~V “” ho ‘w»` Vm{H©$H$ g‘‘yë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm gË`Vm ‘yë`o
g§`moOH$ Amho. Am{U Vo gË` Amho. ì`§OZ ho VrZ XçmdrV. n{hë`m KQ>H$ {dYmZmÀ`m~m~V ‘’
eŠ`Vm‘Ü`o gË` AgVo. åhUyZ Ë`mÀ`m KQ>H$ AgË` Amho. Ë`mZwgma Imbr XmIdë`mà‘mUo
{dYmZm§Zm ‘yë`o XoD$ Z`oV. AmnU Xþgao KQ>H$ {dYmZ gË`Vm ‘yë` XoÊ`mV `mdrV.
‘ ( q • p )’ ¶mg gË`Vm ‘yë`o XoD$ `m
g‘‘yë¶{dYmZmÀ¶m Xþgè¶m ^mJmV ‘’ hm à‘wI (2) ( p q) ( q • p )
Vm{H©$H$ g§¶moOH$ Amho. ˶m‘wio ˶mÀ¶m Imbr
‘F’ ho ‘yë¶ {b{hbo Amho. ‘’ {ZfoYmÀ`m T F F T F T
Imbr AmnU AmYrM AgË` ‘yë` {Xbo Amho.
2 1 2 3 * 1
‘~ q’ hm AgË` Amho. åhUyZ ‘ q’ gË` Agob.
4
Amnë`mbm ‘p’ Am{U ‘q’ `m XmoÝhrMr gË`Vm n{hbr eŠ`Vm … ( p q ) • ( p q )
‘yë`o ‘mhrV Agë`m‘wio VrM gË`Vm ‘yë` Xwgè`m
KQ>H$ {dYmZmÀ`m Mbm§Zm àXmZ H$amdr. F T T F F T F F F
(3) ( p q) ( q • p ) 4 1 6 5 * 2 3 1 2
T F F T F T T F T `mV {dg§JVr Zmhr. J¥hrVH$ `mo½` Amho. åhUyZ `m
eŠ`VoV {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
2 1 2 3 * 1 5 4 6
x Xþgar eŠ`Vm … ( p q ) • ( p q )
nm`ar H«$‘m§H$ 4 ‘Ü`o {dg§JVr Amho. åhUyZ F F F T F T F T T
J¥hrVH$ MwH$sMo Amho. åhUyZ Xwgè`m eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o XoIrb
{Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho. 2 1 2 3 * 6 4 1 5
darb CXmhaUmV XmoÝhr eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o Amnë`mbm `oWo {dg§JVr Zmhr. J¥hrVH$ `mo½` Amho. åhUyZ `m
{dg§JVr {‘imbr. åhUyZ XmoÝhr eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o Vo gd©V… eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o gwX²Ym {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
gË` Amho. Am{U åhUyZ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË`
Amho. `oWo `mMr Zm|X KoVbr nm{hOo H$s Oa EImXçm {Vgar eŠ`Vm … ( p q ) • ( p q )
eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zgob Va {Xbobm
{dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` ZgVmo, {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` F F F T F T F F T
AgÊ`mgmR>r Vmo àË`oH$ eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o gd©V… gË` Agbm
nm{hOo. 2 1 2 3 * 6 4 1 5
CXmhaU 4 : ( p q ) • ( p q ) x
gwédmVrbm darb {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr `oWo nm`ar H«$‘m§H$ 1 ‘Ü`o {dg§JVr Amho. åhUyZ
Ago J¥hrV Yê$Z Ë`mVrb ‘w»` Vm{H©$H$ g§`moOH$ ‘•’ J¥hrVH$ MwH$sMo Amho åhUyZ `m eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o {Xbobm
Imbr ‘F’ {bhmdo. g§Yr {dYmZ ho AgË` AgÊ`mÀ`m {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho. VrZ eŠ`Vm§n¡H$s XmoZ
VrZ eŠ`Vm AmhoV. eŠ`Vm~m~V {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr. Am{U EH$m
eŠ`Vo‘Ü`o {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho. åhUyZ {Xbobm
(1) n{hbo KQ>H$ {dYmZ gË` Am{U Xþgao KQ>H$ {dYmZ {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Zmhr. Oa n{hë¶mM e³¶Vo‘ܶo
AgË`. {dYmZmH$ma "gd©V… g˶ Zmhr' Ago AmT>ië¶mg nwT>rb
e³¶Vm VnmgʶmMr Amdí¶H$Vm Zmhr.
(2) n{hbo KQ>H$ {dYmZ AgË` Am{U Xþgao KQ>H$
{dYmZ gË`. CXmhaU 5 … ( p • q ) ( p q )
(3) XmoÝhr KQ>H$ {dYmZo AgË`. F F F F F F F
`m VrZhr eŠ`Vm {dMmamV KoD$Z ho CXmhaU 3 1 3 * 2 1 2
gmoS>{dbo Jobo nm{hOo.
`mV {dg§JVr Zmhr. åhUyZ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma
gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
5
CXmhaU 6 … ( p • q ) q CXmhaU 9 … ( p q ) ( q p )
T T T F F F T F F T T F F F F F T
1 7 5 2 6 * 3 1 3 4
3 1 3 4 * 1 2 x x x
x x `mo½` gË`Vm ‘yë`o Xçm.
`mV nm`ar H«$‘m§H$ 2 Am{U 4 ‘Ü`o {dg§JVr (1) ( p q ) [ ( p r ) q ]
Amho. åhUyZ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho.
F
CXmhaU 7 … [ ( p q ) • q ] p *
(2) [( p q ) • ( q • r )]
T T T T T F F T
F
4 3 5 1 3 * 1 2
`mV {dg§JVr Zmhr. åhUyZ {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma
gd©V… gË` Zmhr.
CXmhaU 8 … ( p q ) [ ( p r ) (q r ) ]
T T F F T T F F F F F
6 1 7 * 5 2 4 1 3 2 3
x
`mV nm`ar H«$‘m§H$ 1 ‘Ü`o {dg§JVr Amho. åhUyZ
{Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho.
6
gmam§e
l bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr hr EH$ {ZU©` nX²YVr Amho.
l hr n[aUm‘H$maH$ {ZU©` nX²YVr Amho. H$maU Vr {dídmgmh©, ‘`m©XrV Am{U `m§{ÌH$ Amho.
l hr gmo`rMr nX²YVr Amho.
l {Xbobm {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho H$s Zmhr, ho R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r hr nX²YVr dmnaÊ`mV `oVo.
l hr AàË`j {gX²YVm nX²YVr Amho.
l hr nX²YVr {dnarV {dn`m©`mÀ`m VËËdmda AmYm[aV Amho.
l gË`Vm’$bZmË‘H$ {‘l {dYmZm§À`m ‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$m§da hr nX²YVr AmYmabobr Amho.
‘yb^yV gË`Vm H$moîQ>Ho$
{ZfoY g§Yr {dH$ën ì`O§H$ g‘‘yë`
~ p p • q p q p q p q
F T T T T T T T T T T T T T
T F T F F T T F T F F T F F
F F T F T T F T T F F T
F F F F F F F T F F T F
7
ñdmÜ`m`
à. 1. H§$gmVrb ¶mo½¶ eãX {ZdSy>Z [aH$må`m OmJm (2) Oa g§Yr {dYmZ AgË` Agob Va Ë`mMr XmoÝhr
^am. KQ>H$ {dYmZo AgË` Agbr nm{hOoV.
(1) bKw gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ hr EH$ ........... nX²YVr (3) ‘•’ ho EH$`moÁ` VH©$H$maH$ Amho.
Amho. (àË`j / AàË`j) (4) Ooìhm ‘yb^yV g˶VmH$moîQ>H$m§À¶m {Z`‘m§Mo
(2) ........... nX²YVr {dnarV {dn`©`À`m VËËdmda Cëb§KZ hmoVo Voìhm bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mV {dg§JVr
{Z‘m©U hmoVo.
AmYm[aV Amho. (gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ / bKwgË`Vm
(5) gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrnojm bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$
H$moîQ>H$) nX²YV J¡agmo`rMr Amho.
(3) Oa ì`§OH$ {dYmZmMo nydmªJ Am{U CËVam§J XmoÝhr (6) gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr {dnarV {dn`©`mÀ`m
AgË` AgVrb Va Vo {dYmZ ........... AgVo. VËËdmda AmYm[aV Amho.
(gË` / AgË`)
(7) {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` Amho, H$r Zmhr ho bKw
(4) {Xboë`m {dYmZmH$mamg {AdYgmËZ`mH$mJa ¥h.r.V....Y..ê.$.Z. gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mZo àË`jnUo {gX²Y H$aVm `oV
{dg§JVr {Z‘m©U Pmë`mg Zmhr.
Agë`mMo {gX²Y hmoVo. (gd©V… gË` / gd©V… (8) Z¡{‘pËVH$V`m gË`mgË` Zoh‘rM gË` AgVo.
gË` Zmhr) (9) ì`§OH$ {dYmZmMo CËVam§J gË` Agob Va Vo
{dYmZ gË`M AgVo.
(5) Ooìhm d¡H$pënH$ {dYmZmVrb XmoÝhr KQ>H$ {dYmZo
AgË` AgVmV, Voìhm Ë`m {dYmZmMo gË`Vm ‘yë` (10) gd©V… AgË` {dYmZmH$ma hm Zoh‘rM AgË`
........... AgVo. (gË` / AgË`) AgVmo.
(6) Ooìhm AmnU gd©V… gË` {dYmZm§Mm {ZfoY H$aVmo (11) ‘ p p’ ho gd©V… gË` {dYmZ Amho.
Voìhm ........... {dYmZ {‘iVo. (gd©V… AgË`
/ Z¡{‘pËVH$V`m gË`mgË`) à. 3. OmoS>çm bmdm.
(7) Oa ‘p’ gË` Agob Va ‘p’ ...........AgVo. "A' JQ> "~' JQ>
(gË` / AgË`)
(1) bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ (A) Zoh‘rM gË`
(8) bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ hr ........... Amho. ({ZU©`
nX²YVr / Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVr) (2) gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ (~) Zoh‘rM AgË`
(9) g‘‘yë` {dYmZ ........... AgVo, Voìhm Ë`mMr (3) gd©V… AgË`Vm (H$) àË`j nX²YVr
XmoÝhr KQ>H$ {dYmZo AgË` AgVmV. (gË` /
AgË`) (4) gd©V… gË`Vm (S>) {dnarV {dn`©`
(10) ........... ho {MÝh {ZfoYmË‘H$ {dYmZmgmR>r à. 4. Imbrb {Xboë`m {dYmZm§gmR>r VH©$emñÌr`
dmnabo OmVo. (• / ) g§km gm§Jm.
à. 2. Imbrb {dYmZo gË` H$s$AgË` AmhoV Vo gm§Jm. (1) {dYmZmH$ma Zoh‘rM gË` AgVmo.
(1) Ooìhm {ZfoYH$ {dYmZ AgË` AgVo, Voìhm Ë`mMo (2) {ZU©` nX²YVr hr {dnarV {dn`©`mÀ`m VËËdmda
KQ>H$ {dYmZ gË` AgVo. AmYmarV Amho.
8
(3) Agm {dYmZmH$ma Omo ˶mÀ¶m g˶Vm‘yë¶m§À¶m gd© (9) ( p q ) ( q p )
e³¶Vm§‘ܶo g˶ AgVmo. (10) p ( p q )
(11) ( p q ) ( p q )
(4) Aer {ZU©¶nX²YVr Or AàË`j nX²YVr Amho. (12) ( p • q ) ( q p )
(13) ( p q ) ( p • q )
(5) Ago {dYmZ Á¶mÀ¶m KQ>H$ {dYmZm§Zm nydmªJ Am{U (14) ( p q ) ( p • q )
CËVam§J åhQ>bo OmVo. (15) ( p • q ) ( q p )
(16) ( q p ) • p
(6) Omo {dYmZmH$ma ˶mÀ¶m g˶Vm‘yë¶m§À¶m gd© (17) ( p • q ) ( p q )
eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o Zoh‘rM AgË` AgVmo. (18) ( p q ) • ( q p )
(19) p [ ( r p ) p ]
(7) Omo {dYmZmH$ma ˶mÀ¶m g˶Vm‘yë¶m§À¶m H$mhr (20) p ( p q )
eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o gË` Am{U H$mhr eŠ`Vm§‘Ü`o AgË` (21) ( p p p
AgVmo. (22) ( p q ) ( q • p )
(23) p •( p p )
à. 5. Imbrb {dYmZmH$ma gd©V… gË` AmhoV H$m Vo (24) [ p ( q p ) ]
bKwgË`Vm H$moîQ>H$mÀ¶m AmYmao R>adm. (25) ( p • q ) ( p q)
(1) [ ( p q ) • q ] p vvv
(2) ( p • q ) • ( p q )
(3) ( p q ) ( q p )
(4) ( p • q ) ( q p )
(5) ( p • p ) p
(6) ( q p ) q
(7) ( p q ) • ( p • q )
(8) [ ( p q ) • q ] p
9
2 Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm (Deductive Proof)
Vwåhmbm ‘mhrVr Amho H$m....
l Oa EImXçmZo Vwåhmbm ¶wamon ¶mÌm qH$dm Am{e¶m ¶mÌoMr {V{H$Q>o XoD$ Ho$br Am{U Oa Vwåhr Am{e¶mMr {V{H$Q>o
Z ñdrH$maVm ¶wamonMr {V{H$Q>o ñdrH$mabr Va hm {dMma VH$m©bm AZwgê$Z Amho. EImXçm {ZîH$fm©Mm ZH$ma
Ae³¶ Amho ho XmIdyZ Vwåhr Vmo {ZîH$f© {gX²Y H$é eH$Vm.
l Ooìhm EImXr 춳Vr ‘6 + 4’ ho ‘4 + 6’ gmaIoM Amho Ago åhUV Agob Va Vr 춳Vr VH©$emñÌmMm {Z¶‘
dmnaV AgVo.
2.1 d¡YVoMr AmH$m[aH$ {gX²YVm… Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVrMo VrZ àH$ma AmhoV.
¶wp³VdmXm§Mr d¡YVm {ZpíMV H$aʶmgmR>r qH$dm (1) à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm
{gX²Y H$aʶmgmR>r VH©$emñÌkm§H$Sy>Z XmoZ àH$maÀ¶m
nX²YVr dmnaë¶m OmVmV. (1) {ZU©¶ nX²YVr Ogo - (2) gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm
g˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr, bKw g˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr,
g˶Vm d¥j nX²YVr (2) Á¶m nX²YVr {ZU©¶ nX²YVr (3) Aà˶j {gX²YVm
ZmhrV, Ogo Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm, gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm,
Aà˶j {gX²YVm. ¶m gd© nX²YVr ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVrV {ZîH$f© hm
{gX²Y H$aʶmgmR>r dmnaë¶m OmVmV. ¶wp³VdmX d¡Y H$s ‘yb^yV ¶w³V ¶wp³VdmXm§À¶m AmYma {dYmZmVyZM WoQ>nUo
Ad¡Y ¶mMm {ZU©¶ XoʶmgmR>r g˶Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVr hr {ZJ‘{ZV Ho$bm OmVmo. ¶mgmR>r dmnaë¶m OmUmè¶m
nyU©nUo ¶m§{ÌH$ nX²YVr Amho. VWmnr Ooìhm ¶wp³VdmXmV àmW{‘H$ ¶w³V ¶wp³VdmXmH$mamZm "AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘'
AZoH$ {^ÝZ g˶Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZo AgVmV. Voìhm hr Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. AmnU ¶m nyduM à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$
nX²YVr gmo¶rMr R>aV Zmhr. Aem pñWVrV ¶wp³VdmXmMr {gX²YVoMo ñdén nm{hbo Amho. Amnë¶mbm ‘m{hV Amho
d¡YVm {gX²Y H$aʶmgmR>r VH©$emñÌmV AmUIr EH$ H$s à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm hr AZw‘mZmMo ZD$ {Z¶‘
nX²YVr Amho. Vr nX²YVr åhUOo "Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm d ñWmZm§VaUmMo {Z¶‘ (Á¶mMo Xhm àH$ma AmhoV.) ¶mda
nX²YVr' hmo¶. AmYm[aV Amho. Vo {Z¶‘ nwT>rbà‘mUo …
AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘ (Rules of Inference) … (2) {ZfoYH$ {dYr Modus Tollens (M.T.)
(1) {dYm¶H$ {dYr Modus Ponens (M.P.) pq
~q
pq
p \~p
\q
(4) d¡H$pënH$ g§dm³¶ Disjunctive syllogism
(3) b{jVVm e¥§Ibm Hypothetical syllogism
(D.S.)
(H.S.) pÚq
pq ~p
qr \q
\pr
10
(5) {dYm¶H$ C^¶mnËVr Constructive Dilemma (6) {ZfoYH$ C^¶mnËVr Destructive Dilemma
(C.D.) (D.D.)
(p q) . (r s) (p q) . (r s)
pÚr ~qÚ~s
\ qÚs \ ~pÚ~r
(7) g§Yr Conjunction (Conj.) (8) gabrH$aU Simplification (Simp.)
p.q
p
\p
q
\p.q
(9) d¥X²{YH$aU Addition (Add.)
p
\pÚq
ñWmZm§VaUmMo {Z¶‘ / à{V{ZdoeZmMo {Z¶‘ (The rule of Replacement) …
(1) X²{ddma {ZfoY Double Negation (D. N.) (2) S>r. ‘m°J©Z De-Morgan’s Law (De. M.)
~ (p . q) º (~ p Ú ~ q)
~~pºp ~ (p Ú q) º (~ p . ~ q)
(3) ghg§~§Y Association (Assoc.) (4) {dVaU Distribution (Dist.)
[(p . q) . r)] º [p . (q . r)] [p . (q Ú r) º [(p . q) Ú (p . r)]
[p Ú (q . r) º [(p Ú q) . (p Ú r)]
[(p Ú q) Ú r)] º [p Ú (q Ú r)]
(5) H«$‘n[adV©Z Commutation (Comm.) (6) 춧OH$ ì¶{VaoH$ Transposition (Trans.)
(p . q) º (q . p)
(p q) º (~ q ~ p)
(p Ú q) º (q Ú p)
(7) dmñV{dH$ 춧OZ ì¶m»¶m Material Implication (8) dmñV{dH$ g‘‘yë¶Vm Material Equivalence
(M. Imp.) (M. Equi)
(p q) º (~ p Ú q) (p º q) º [(p q) . (q p)]
(p º q) º [(p . q) Ú (~ p . ~ q)]
(9) ~{h…gaU Exportation (Export.) (10) nwZé³Vr Tautology (Taut.)
[(p . q) r] º [p (q r)] p º (p . p)
p º (p Ú p)
2.2 gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm … gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVrMm {Z¶‘ H$mhr
¶wp³VdmXm§Mr {gX²YVm WmoS>³¶mV {gX²Y H$aʶmg ‘XV
Ooìhm ¶wp³VdmXmMo {ZîH$f© gmonm{YH$ {dYmZ AgVo, H$aVmo, VgoM ˶mMm dmna H$éZ AmnU Aem ¶wp³VdmXmMr
Voìhm gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVr ¶wp³VdmXmMr ¶w³VVm ¶w³VVm {gX²Y H$é eH$Vmo, Á¶mMr ¶w³VVm AmnU Ho$di
{gX²Y H$aʶmgmR>r dmnabr OmVo. gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm 19 {Z¶‘m§À¶m AmYmao H$é eH$V Zmhr.
nX²YVr gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVoÀ¶m {Z¶‘mda AmYm[aV Amho.
11
gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVoMm {Z¶‘ gmo߶m eãXmV nmMdr nm¶ar g‘m{dîQ> H$éZ {gX²YVm Aer
gm§Jm¶Mm Pmë¶mg, {b{hVm ¶oVo …$
""{ZîH$fm©Vrb nydmªJmg EH$ OmñVrMo AmYma 1. ~ M N / \ ~ N M
{dYmZ åhUyZ J¥{hV Yê$Z CËVam§J {ZîH$f© åhUyZ
{ZJ{‘V H$aVm Ambo, Va ‘yi {ZîH$fm©Mr ¶w³VVm 2. ~ N Assumption (J¥{h)
{gX²Y Pmbr Ago åhUVm ¶oVo.''
3. ~ ~ M 1, 2 M.T. ({Z.{d.)
EImXçm ¶wp³VdmXmMm {ZîH$f© gmonm{YH$ {dYmZmer
g‘‘yë¶ Agob Va Aem ¶wp³VdmXmgmR>r XoIrb gmonm{YH$ 4. M 3 D.N.
{gX²YVm dmnaVm ¶oB©b. Aem ¶wp³VdmXmV àW‘ {Xbobo
{ZîH$f© {dYmZ gmonm{YH$ {dYmZmV énm§VarV H$éZ 5. ~ N M 2 - 4, C.P.
Z§Va gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm dmnamdr. ¶m àH$aUmV AmnU
gmonm{YH$ nX²YVrMm dmna ’$³V Aem ¶wp³VdmXmgmR>r {ZîH$f© åhUyZ H$mT>bobr 5 dr nm¶ar J¥{hVH$mnmgyZ
H$aUma AmhmoV, Á¶m§Mm {ZîH$f© gmonm{YH$ {dYmZ AgVo. {ZJ{‘V Ho$bobr Zmhr. {ZîH$f© hm J¥{hVH$mÀ¶m ì¶mßVr
~mhoa AgVmo Ogo H$s J¥{hVH$mMr ì¶mßVr 4 ϶m nm¶ar
CXmhaUmgmR>r AmnU Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm gmo~V g§nVo. Vo ñnîQ>nUo Xe©{dʶmgmR>r dH«$~mUmMm
XoʶmgmR>r gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVoMr ‘m§S>Ur H$é. ( ) dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. ¶m ~mUmMo Q>moH$ J¥{hVH$mg‘moa
Xe©{dbo OmVo Am{U ~mUmMr aofm {ZJ{‘V Ho$boë¶m
CXmhaU 1 … eodQ>À¶m {dYmZmImbr dH«$ hmoD$Z ~§X hmoVo. eodQ>Mr
nmMdr 5 dr nm¶ar, {OWo {ZîH$f© {b{hbm AgVmo, Vmo
~MN J¥{hVH$mÀ¶m ì¶mßVr ~mhoa AgVmo.
\~NM {gX²YVm AmVm Aer {b{hVm ¶oVo.
¶m§Mr {gX²YVm Imbrbà‘mUo {b{hVm ¶oB©b. 1. ~ M N / \ ~ N M
1. ~ M N / \ ~ N M 2. ~ N
2. ~ N Assumption (J¥{hVH$) 3. ~ ~ M 1, 2. M.T. ({Z. {d.)
3. ~ ~ M 1,2 M.T. ({ZfoYH$ {dYr) 4. M 5 D.N. (X²{d. {ZfoY)
4. M 3 D.N. (X²{d. {ZfoY) 5. ~ N M 2 - 4, C.P. (gmo.{g.)
¶m {R>H$mUr Xþgar nm¶ar {ZîH$fm©Mo nydmªJ Amho. Xþgè¶m nm¶ar g‘moa Xe©{dbobo ~mUmMo Q>moH$
Vo J¥{hVH$ åhUyZ dmnabo OmVo. J¥{hVH$ dH«$ ~mUmZo J¥{hVH$ Agë¶mMo Xe©{dVo. åhUyZ ˶mÀ¶m g‘W©ZmW©
( ) Xe©{dbo OmVo. {ZfoYH$ {dYrMm (M.T.) dmna "J¥{hVH$' Ago {b{hʶmMr Amdí¶H$Vm Zmhr.
H$éZ AmYma {dYmZ H«$‘m§H$ EH$ (1) Am{U J¥{hVH$mÀ¶m
AmYmao {ZîH$f© {ZJ{‘V Ho$bm OmVmo. VWm{n hr {gX²YVm Oa {ZîH$fm©V EH$mnojm A{YH$ KQ>H$ {dYmZo hr
nyU© hmoV Zmhr. {ZîH$fm©àV OmʶmgmR>r EH$ nm¶ar nwT>o 춧OH$ (gmonm{YH$) {dYmZo AgVrb Va à˶oH$ 춧OH$
Omdo bmJVo. Vr nm¶ar åhUOo ¶wp³VdmXmMm {ZîH$f© hmo¶. {dYmZmMo nydmªJ A{V[a³V AmYma {dYmZ åhUyZ J¥{hV
åhUOo darb CXmhaUmV ‘~ N M’. YaVm ¶oVo. Aem àH$maMo EH$ CXmhaU nmhÿ.
12
CXmhaU 2 … Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmVrb nm¶è¶m§Mo g‘W©Z Xçm.
1. (P · Q) S / \ ~ S [P (~ Q Ú T)]
1. (X Ú Y) Z 2. ~ S
3. ~ (P · Q)
2. A (B · C) / \ (X Z) · (A B) 4. ~ P Ú ~ Q
5. P
3. X 6. ~ ~ P
7. ~ Q
4. X Ú Y 3, Add. (dX¥ {² YH$aU) 8. ~ Q Ú T
5. Z 1, 4 M.P. ({d.{d.) 9. P (~ Q Ú T)
10. ~ S [P (~ Q Ú T)]
6. X Z 3 - 5, C.P. (gmo.{g.)
7. A
8. (B · C) 2, 7, M.P. ({d.{d.)
9. B 8, Simp. (gabrH$aU)
10. A B 7 - 9, C.P. (gmo.{g.)
11. (X Z ) · (A B) 6, 10 Conj. (g§Yr)
¶m {R>H$mUr J{¥ hVH$ {Vgè¶m (3) nm¶arMr ì¶mßVr 2.3 Aà˶j {gX²YVm …
hr J{¥ hVH$ gmVì¶m (7) ì¶m nm¶arÀ¶m ì¶mßVr njo m
ñdV̧ Amho åhUZy 7ì¶m nm¶arVrb J{¥ hVH$mMr ì¶mßVr hr à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm Am{U gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm
{Vgè¶m nm¶arVë¶m J{¥ hVH$mÀ¶m ì¶mßVrÀ¶m ~mhao Amh.o ¶m§Mm dmna H$aVmZm ˶m XmoÝhrV EH$ g‘mZVm AmT>iVo
H$s, AmnU AmYma {dYmZm§nmgyZ {ZîH$f© {ZJ{‘V H$aVmo.
na§Vw Imbr {Xboë¶m nwT>rb CXmhaUmV EH$m na§Vw Aà˶j {gX²YVm nX²YVr ¶m Xmohm|nojm nyU©V…
J¥{hVH$mMr ì¶mßVr Xþgè¶m J¥{hVH$mÀ¶m ì¶mßVrV A§V^y©V doJir Amho. "Aà˶j {gX²YVm {dn[aV {dn¶©¶
Amho. ({dg§JVr) VËËdmda AmYm[aV Amho. ¶mV Oo {gX²Y
CXmhaU 3 … H$amd¶mMo Amho ˶mMm {ZfoY J¥{hV Yabm OmVmo
˶m‘wio {dg§JVr {Z‘m©U hmoVo åhUOo hr nX²YVr,
1. (M · N) O / \ ~ O (M ~ N) ""{ZfoY J¥{hV Yaë¶m‘wio {dg§JVr {Z‘m©U hmoVo'',
ho Xe©dyZ {ZîH$f© {gX²Y H$aUmar Amho.'
2. ~ O
¶wp³VdmXmÀ¶m d¡YVoMr Aà˶j {gX²YVm hr
3. ~ (M · N) 1, 2 . M.T. ({Z.{d.) {ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY ho EH$ OmñVrMo AmYma {dYmZ J¥{hV
YéZ Ho$br OmVo. ‘yi AmYma {dYmZm§gmo~VM ¶m
4. ~ M Ú ~ N 3, De.M. (S>r. ‘m°J©Z) A{YH$À¶m AmYma{dYmZmnmgyZ AZw‘mZo H$mT>V Joë¶mg
ì¶mKmV CËnÝZ hmoVmo. ¶oWo ì¶mKmV ¶mMm AW© EH$ KQ>H$
5. M {dYmZ Am{U ˶mMoM {ZfoYH$ {dYmZ ¶m§Mm g§Yr hmo¶.
6. ~ ~ M 5, D.N. (X²{d. {ZfoY) CXm. ‘A · ~ A’ , ‘(A Ú B) · ~ (A Ú B)’, ho ì¶mKmV
AmhoV.
7. ~ N 4, 6. D.S. (d¡.g§)
{ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY J¥hrV Yaë¶mg, ì¶mKmV àmßV
8. M ~ N 5-7, C.P. (gmo.{g.) hmoVmo, hr dñVwpñWVr Ago Xe©{dVo H$s, Amnbo J¥{hVH$
9. ~ O (M ~ N) 2-8, C.P. (gmo.{g.)
darb CXmhaUmV nmMì¶m nm¶arVrb J¥hrVH$ ho
Xþgè¶m nm¶arVrb J¥hrVH$mÀ¶m ì¶mßVrjoÌmV ¶oVo.
13
Ag˶ Amho. J¥{hVH$ åhUOoM {ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY hmo¶. AmUIr H$mhr ¶wp³VdmXm§À¶m d¡YVoÀ¶m Aà˶j
J¥{hVH$ Ag˶ R>aë¶m‘wio, ‘wi {ZîH$fm©Mr {gX²YVm {gX²YVoMr AmnU aMZm H$é.
hmoVo.
CXmhaU … 2
Ooìhm ¶m {gX²YVm nX²YVrMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo, 1. M T
Voìhm ‘yi ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm Aà˶j {gX²YVoÀ¶m
{Z¶‘mZwgma {gX²Y Pmbr Ago ‘mZbo OmVo. Aà˶j 2. G T
{gX²YVm nX²YVrMm dmna, {ZîH$f© {dYmZmV H$moUVmhr
Vm{H©$H$ g§¶moOH$ Agbm Var H$aVm ¶oVmo. 3. M / \ T
Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmgmR>r d¡YVoÀ¶m Aà˶j 4. ~ T I.P. Aà˶j {gX²YVm
{gX²YVoMr AmnU aMZm H$é. 5. ~ M 1, 4. M. T.({Z.{d.)
CXmhaU … 1 6. M · ~ M 3, 5 Conj (g§Yr)
1. ~ M Ú N CXmhaU … 3
2. ~ N 1. (B · D) Ú E
/\~M 2. C ~ E
3. ~ ~ M I.P. Aà˶j {gX²YVm 3. F ~ E
4. N 1, 3 D.S. (d¡.g§) 4. C Ú F / \ B · D
5. N · ~ N 4, 2 Conj. (g§Yr) 5. ~ (B · D) ..... I.P. Aà˶j {gX²YVm
darb {gX²YVoV {Vgè¶m nm¶arVrb ‘I.P’ Mr 6. E 1,5 D.S. (d¡.g§)
A{^춳Vr ho Xe©{dVo H$s Aà˶j {gX²YVoMm {Z¶‘
dmnabm Amho. darb CXmhaUmV AmnU gd©àW‘ 7. (C ~ E) · (F ~ E) 2, 3 Conj(g§Yr)
{ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY J¥hrV YaVmo, ˶mZ§Va AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘
d ñWmZm§VaUmÀ¶m {Z¶‘m§À¶m AmYmao ì¶mKmV qH$dm 8. ~ E Ú ~ E 7,4 C.D. ({d. C)
{dg§JVr {‘idbm OmVmo.
9. ~ E 8, Taut. (nwZ.)
10. E · ~ E 6, 9 Conj. (g§Yr)
{gX²YVoMr eodQ>Mr nm¶ar ì¶mKmV Amho Omo nm¶ar
H«$‘m§H$ VrZ (3) ‘ܶo ~ ~ M J¥{hV YéZ Ho$boë¶m
AVm{H©$H$VoMm {ZXe©H$ Amho. hm ì¶mKmV AmH$m[aH$
ñdénmV eodQ>À¶m nm¶arda Xe©dbm OmVmo Am{U {gX²YVm
nyU© hmoVo.
14
CXmhaU … 4 Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmÀ¶m à˶oH$ nm¶arMo d¡YVoMr
AmH$m[aH$ nX²YVr Aà˶j {gX²YVm nX²YVrZo g‘W©Z
1. (Q Ú ~ P) S / \ Q S H$am.
1. (H Ú K) (N · B)
2. ~ (Q S) ..... I.P. Aà˶j {gX²YVm 2. B ~ C
3. C / \ ~ H
3. ~ (~ Q Ú S) 2, M. Imp.(dm. 춧) 4. ~ ~ H
5. H
4. ~ ~ Q · ~ S 3, De. M (S>r.‘m°J©Z) 6. H Ú K
7. N · B
5. ~ ~ Q 4, Simp. (gabr) 8. B · N
9. B
6. Q 5, D.N. (X²{d.{Z.) 10. ~ C
11. C · ~ C
7. Q Ú ~ P 6, Add. (d¥X²{Y)
8. S 1, 7 M.P. ({d.{d)
9. ~ S · ~ ~ Q 4, Com. (H«$. n.)
10. ~ S 9, Simp. (gabr)
11. S · ~ S 8,10 Conj. (g§Yr)
da {Xboë¶mn¡H$s Mm¡Ï¶m (4) ¶wp³VdmXmVrb
{ZîH$f© gmonm{YH$ {dYmZ Amho. åhUyZ gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm
nX²YVrMm XoIrb dmna H$aVm ¶oD$ eH$Vmo, dmñV{dH$ Vr
{gX²YVm bhmZ AgVo.
gmam§e
Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVoMo VrZ àH$ma AmhoV.
(1) à˶j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm … ¶m nX²YVrV {ZîH$f© WoQ AmYma> {dYmZm§nmgyZ {Zînm{XV Ho$bm OmVmo.
(2) gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm … hr nX²YVr VoìhmM dmnabr OmVo Ooìhm ¶wp³VdmXmMm {ZîH$f© 춧OH$ (gmonm{YH$)
{dYmZ AgVo. ¶m nX²YVrV {ZîH$fm©Mo nydmªJ A{YH$Mo AmYma {dYmZ åhUyZ KoVbo OmVo Am{U Amdí¶H$ Agbobo
AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘ d ñWmZm§VaUmÀ¶m {Z¶‘m§Mm dmna H$éZ {ZîH$fm©Mo CËVam§J {ZJ{‘V Ho$bo OmVo.
(3) Aà˶j {gX²YVm : ¶m nX²YVrV {ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY A{YH$Mo AmYma {dYmZ åhUyZ J¥{hV Yabm OmVmo.
‘yi AmYma {dYmZm§g{hV ¶mMmhr AmYma KoD$Z AmnU ì¶mKmV {‘idVmo. ˶mMmM dmna ¶wp³VdmXmÀ¶m d¡YVoMr
{gX²YVm åhUyZ Ho$bm OmVmo.
15
ñdmÜ`m`
à. 1. H§$gmVrb `mo½` eãX {ZdSy>Z [aH$må¶m OmJm ^am. (11) {dn[aV {dn¶©¶ VËËdmda AmYm[aV nX²YVr åhUOo
(1) [(p q) · p] q hm ......... {Z¶‘ Amho. ............ .
({dYm¶H$ {dYr/ {ZfoYH$ {dYr) (gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm/ Aà˶j {gX²YVm)
(2) ............ {Z¶‘ nydmªJ Am{U CËVam§JmMm {ZfoY à. 2. Imbrb {dYmZo gË` H$s AgË` AmhoV Vo
H$éZ XmoKm§Mohr ñWmZ ~XbVmo. gm§Jm.
(H«$‘n[adV©Z/ 춧OH$ ì¶{VaoH$) (1) d¡H$pënH$ g§dm³¶mMm {Z¶‘ {dYmZmÀ¶m ^mJmbm
bmJy H$aVm ¶oVmo.$
(3) d¥X²{YH$aUmMm {Z¶‘ hm .......... ‘yb^yV g˶Vm
H$moï>H$mda AmYm[aV Amho. (2) ~ ~ p º p hm nwZé³VrMm {Z¶‘ Amho.
(g§Yr/ {dH$ën) (3) Aà˶j {gX²YVm nX²YVr‘ܶo Ooìhm {ZîH$fm©Mm
{ZfoY ì¶mKmV {Z‘m©U H$aVmo Voìhm ¶wp³VdmX d¡Y
(4) .......... Mm dmna {dYmZmÀ¶m EH$m ^mJmbm åhUyZ {gX²Y hmoVmo.
bmJy Ho$bm OmD$ eH$Vmo.
(4) gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm ¶wp³VdmX d¡Y Amho H$s Ad¡Y
(AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘/ ñWmZm§VamMo {Z¶‘) Amho, ¶mMm {ZU©¶ H$aVo.
(5) S>r. ‘m°J©Z {Z¶‘mZwgma ~ (~ p Ú q) º.......... (5) ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm àñWm{nV H$aʶmgmR>r
Aà˶j {gX²YVm nX²YVr {Xbr OmVo.
((p · ~ q) / (~ p · q))
(6) gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm hr ¶m§{ÌH$ à{H«$¶m Amho.
(6) (p q) º (~ p Ú q) hm .......... {Z¶‘ Amho.
(7) (p Ú q) º (q Ú p) hm H«$‘n[adV©ZmMm {Z¶‘
(dmñV{dH$ 춧OZ ì¶m»¶m/dmñV{dH$ g‘‘yë¶Vm) Amho.
(7) .......... nX²YVrMm dmna VoìhmM Ho$bm OmVmo, (8) AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘ Ho$di g§nyU© {dYmZmbmM bmJy
Ooìhm ¶wp³VdmXmMm {ZîH$f© 춧OH$ {dYmZ AgVo. H$aVm ¶oD$ eH$VmV.
(gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm / Aà˶j {gX²YVm) (9) àmW{‘H$ d¡Y ¶wp³VdmXmH$mam§Zm ñWmZm§VaUmMo
{Z¶‘ Ago åhUVmV.
(8) ........... nX²YVrV AmnU {ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY
AmYma {dYmZ åhUyZ J¥{hV YaVmo. à. 3. OmoS>çm bmdm.
(gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm / Aà˶j {gX²YVm) "A' JQ> "~' JQ>
(9) ........ hm {Z¶‘ Agm {ZX}e H$aVmo H$s Oa 1) àmW{‘H$ d¡Y A){ZîH$fm©Vrb nydmªJ
춧OH$ {dYmZ g˶ Agob Am{U ˶mMo CËVam§J
Ag˶ Agob Va ˶mMo nydmªJhr Ag˶M Agbo ¶wp³VdmXmMm AmH$ma J¥{hV Yabo OmVo
nm{hOo.
2) gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm ~) {dn[aV {dn¶©¶
({dYm¶H$ {dYr / {ZfoYH$ {dYr) VËËd
(10) (p · p) º p hm ............ {Z¶‘ Amho. 3) Aà˶j {gX²YVm H$) ñWmZm§VamÀ¶m
{Z¶‘mda
(gabrH$aU / nwZé³Vr) AmYm[aV {Z¶‘
4) S>r. ‘m°J©ZMm {Z¶‘ S>) AZw‘mZmMo {Z¶‘
16
à. 4. Imbrb {Xboë¶m {dYmZmg§ mR>r VH$© emñÌr¶ gk§ m (9) 1. R (Q P)
gm§Jm.
2. S R
(1) Ago {Z¶‘ Oo ’$³V g§nyU© {dYmZmgmR>r bmJy
hmoVmV. 3. T Q
(2) àmW{‘H$ d¡Y ¶wp³VdmXmH$ma. 4. ~ P / \ S ~ T
(3) {ZîH$fm©Mm {ZfoY J¥{hV YéZ ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm (10) 1. (A Ú B)
àñWm{nV H$aʶmMr nX²YVr.
2. ( C Ú D ) E
(4) [dnarV {dn¶©¶ VËËdmda AmYm[aV Z¡J‘{ZH$
{gX²YVm. / \ [~A (B Ú F)] · (D E)
(5) {ZîH$f© Oa 춧OH$ {dYmZ Agob Va Ho$di AemM (11) 1. (G H) J
doir ¶wp³VdmXmMr d¡YVm àñWm{nV H$aʶmgmR>r
dmnabr OmUmar nX²YVr. 2. ~ J /\ G
(12) 1. L (M Ú N)
2. T Ú L / \ ~ M (~ T N)
à. 5. Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXm§gmR>r d¡YVoÀ¶m gmonm{YH$ (13) 1. A B
{gX²YVm qH$dm Aà˶j {gX²YVoMr ‘m§S>Ur
H$am. 2. C D / \ (A · C) (B · D)
(1) 1. ~ A / \ A B (14) 1. K Ú (T · ~ W)
2. W Ú S / \ K Ú S
(2) 1. (L Ú M) (P · Q) (15) 1. A Ú (B C)
2. ~ P /\ ~L 2. C D
(3) 1. (S · A) R 3. ~ D
2. ~ R 4. B Ú E /\ ~AE
3. A / \ ~ S (16) 1. P (Q R)
(4) 1. Q Ú (P Ú R) / \ ~ Q [~ R (P ÚS)] 2. (Q · S) Ú W / \ ~ R (P W)
(5) 1. A Ú (B D) (17) 1. (A · B) Ú C
2. A C 2. (C Ú D) E / \ ~ A E
3. B /\~CD (18) 1. ~ K Ú G
(6) 1. D E 2. G I
2. D Ú G / \ E Ú G 3. ~ I /\~K
(7) 1. W L (19) 1. D E / \ D (D · E)
2. T (~ P · L) (20) 1. F (G H)
3. W Ú T / \ L 2. G (H J) / \ F (G J)
(8) 1. T Ú B (21) 1. R (S · T)
2. (T Ú N) (L · S) 2. (S Ú U) W
3. ~ S / \ B 3. U Ú R / \ W
17
(22) 1. (P Ú Q) [(R Ú S) T] (32) 1. ~ (P Q) ~ R
/ \ P [(R · U) T] 2. S Ú R / \ ~ S (~P Ú Q)
(23) 1. (A B) · (C D) (33) 1. J K
2. ~ B / \ (A Ú C) D 2. ~ (K · L)
(24) 1. (K Ú G) (H · I) 3. L /\~J
2. (I Ú M) O / \ K O (34) 1. (P Ú Q) R
(25) 1. (R · R) Q 2. ~ R Ú S
2. Q ~ R / \ ~ R 3. ~ P T
(26) 1. ~ P S 4. ~ S /\T
2. ~ Q P (35) 1. C Ú (W · S)
3. ~ Q Ú ~ S / \ P 2. C S / \ ~ W S
(27) 1. (~ P Ú Q) S / \ ~ S ~ Q (36) 1. (A Ú B) C
(28) 1. ~ F (G ~ H) 2. (B Ú C) (A E)
2. L Ú ~ F 3. D A /\DE
3. H Ú ~ M / \ ~ L (G ~ M) (37) 1. R (~ P Ú ~ Q)
(29) 1. B C 2. S T
2. D E 3. T Q
3. (C · E) G / \ (B · D) G 4. P /\S~R
(30) 1. U (W Ú X) (38) 1. A (B C)
2. ~ ~ U · ~ X 2. B
3. (Y Ú W) Z / \ Z 3. (E T) K
(31) 1. D G / \ ( A C) · ( T K)
2. D Ú H / \G Ú H vvv
18
3 {dYo¶ VH©$emñÌ (Predicate Logic)
Frege’s... discovery of qualification, the deepest single technical advance ever made in logic.
l Imbrb `wpŠVdmX dmMm.
gd© d¡km{ZH$ hþema AmhoV.
gd© hþema ì`ŠVr gO©Zerb AmhoV.
åhUyZ gd© d¡km{ZH$ gO©Zerb AmhoV.
l hm `wpŠVdmX `wŠV Amho H$m?.......
l gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$, bKw gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$, àË`j Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm, gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm Am{U AàË`j {gX²YVm
nX²YVr dmnê$Z `m `wpŠVdmXmMr {gX²YVm VnmgyZ ¿`m.
l Vwåhmbm H$m` CËVa {‘iVo?
3.1 {dYo` VH©$emñÌmMr JaO darb `wpŠVdmXmMo {MÝhm§H$Z {dYmZr¶
VH©$emñÌmZwgma {dYmZ AMao dmnê$Z Imbrb à‘mUo
AmVmn`ªV AmnU Á`m VH©$emñÌmMm Aä`mg hmoD$ eH$Vo.
Ho$bm Amho Ë`mg {dYmZr` VH©$emñÌ g§~moYbo OmVo.
{dYmZ VH©$emñÌmV AmnU Á`m nX²YVr Aä`mgë`m Ogo S
gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$, bKw gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$, Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVm
nX²YVr, gmonm{YH$ {gX²YVm nX²YVr d AàË`j {gX²YVm M C
nX²YVr. `m nX²YVrÀ¶m ghmæ¶mZo gd© `wŠVrdmXm§Mr
`wŠVVm {gX²Y H$aVm `oV Zmhr dm R>ady eH$V Zmhr. `m hm `wpŠVdmX `wŠV Amho. ho CKS> Amho. na§Vw
nX²YVr ’$ŠV AemM `wpŠVdmXm§Zm bmJy H$aVm `oVmV, {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmÀ`m nX²YVrZo Ë`mMr `wŠVVm {gX²Y
Á`m§Mr `wŠVVm gab {dYmZo Á`m VèhoZo EH$‘oH$m§er H$aVm `oV Zmhr. `mCbQ> gË`Vm H$moîQ>H$ nX²YVrZwgma hm
OmoSy>Z gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {‘l {dYmZo ~ZVmV Ë`mda `wpŠVdmX A`wŠV R>aVmo. `wpŠVdmXmVrb gd©hr VrZ {dYmZo
Adb§~yZ AgVo. Aem VèhoÀ`m `wŠVrdmXm§er g§~§{YV A-{‘l {dYmZo AmhoV. Aem àH$maÀ`m `wpŠVdmXmMr
VH©$emñÌmÀ`m emIobm {dYo` VH©$emñÌ åhUVmV. `wŠVVm R>adVmZm {dYmZm§Mr A§VJ©V Vm{H©$H$ aMZm Am{U
nXm§‘Yrb g§~§Y ‘hÎdmMo AmhoV. darb `wpŠVdmXmV
{dYmZ-VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZ ho EH$ KQ>H$ åhUyZ Jm`H$mMm dJ© Am{U gO©Zerb ì`ŠVtMm dJ© `mVrb
bjmV KoVbo OmVo. Ë`mV {dYmZmMo {díbofU Ho$bo OmV g§~§Y n{hë`m AmYma {dYmZmV gm§{JVbm Amho. Jm`H$m§Mm
Zmhr. ˶mV {dYmZm§Vrb nXm§Mm g§~§Y {dMmamV KoVbm dJ© gO©Zerb ì`ŠVtÀ`m dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> Amho Ago
OmV Zmhr. VWm{n H$mhr àH$maÀ`m `wpŠVdmXm§Mr `wŠVVm, n{hbo {dYmZ gm§JVo åhUOoM Omo H$moUr Jm`H$ Amho,
Ë`mVrb A-{‘l {dYmZm§À`m Am§V[aH$ Vm{H©$H$ aMZoda Vmo gO©Zerb nU Amho. Xþgao {dYmZ gm§JVo ‘hoe hr
Adb§~yZ AgVo. Aem àH$maÀ`m `wpŠVdmXmMr `wŠVVm ì`ŠVr Jm`H$ dJm©Mr gXñ` Amho. åhUyZ {ZîH$fm©V Ago
VnmgÊ`mgmR>r {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmMr nX²YVr nwaoer AZw‘mZ Ho$bo Amho, H$s ‘hoe gO©Zerb dJm©V ‘moS>Vmo.
Zmhr. Mbm EH$ CXmhaU nmhÿ - `wpŠVdmX Ooìhm {dYmZr` VH©$emñÌmV {MÝhm§{H$V Ho$bm
OmVmo Voìhm da åhQ>ë`mà‘mUo {dYmZm§Mr A§VJ©V Vm{H©$H$
gd© Jm`H$ gO©Zerb AgVmV. aMZm Am{U Ë`mVrb nXmVrb g§~§Y ñnîQ> hmoV Zmhr.
åhUyZ `wpŠVdmXmMo {MÝhm§H$Z Aem VèhoZo H$aÊ`mMr JaO
‘hoe Jm`H$ Amho. Amho H$s Á¶m‘YyZ {dYmZm§Mr A§VJ©V Vm{H©$H$ aMZm ñnîQ>
åhUyZ ‘hoe gO©Zerb Amho.
19
hmoB©b Am{U Aem `wpŠVdmXm§Mr `wŠVVm {gX²Y H$aVm 3.2 {dYmZm§Mo àH$ma
`oB©b. Aem VèhoÀ`m `wŠVrdmXm§er g§~§{YV VH©$emñÌmÀ`m
emIobm {dYo` VH©$emñÌ qH$dm {dYo`H$bZ åhUVmV. A{‘l {dYmZo, Á`m§Mr A§VJ©V Vm{H©$H$ aMZm
{dYo` VH©$emñÌmV `wŠVrdmXm§À`m `wŠVVoMo n[ajU
{dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmà‘mUo {dYo` VH©$emñÌmV H$aÊ`mgmR>r ‘hÎdmMr AgVo, Vr XmoZ àH$maMr AgVmV.
{dYmZ ho EH$ KQ>H$ åhUyZ bjmV KoVbo OmV Zmhr. (1) EH$dmMr {dYmZo Am{U (2) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo.
{dYmZmVrb nXo EH$‘oH$m§er H$er g§~§{YV AmhoV ho
Xe©{dÊ`mH$[aVm {dYmZmMo {díbofU Am{U {MÝhm§H$Z Ho$bo EH$dmMr {dYmZ :
OmVo. VWm{n {dYo` VH©$emñÌ {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmhÿZ nyU©
doJio Zmhr. {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmVrb nX²YVr d {MÝho EH$dmMr {dYmZ {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr~X²Xb à{VnmXZ
Vmon`ªV {dYo` VH©$emñÌmV dmnabr OmVmV, Omon`ªV Vr H$aVo. EH$dmMr {dYmZ EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ> JwUY‘©`wŠV
A{‘l {dYmZm§Zm bmJy nS>VmV. Oa EImXo gyÌ {dYmZr¶ Amho qH$dm Zmhr ho gm§JVo. Ë`mZwgma Amnë`mbm EH$dmMr
VH©$emñÌmV `wŠV Agob Va Ë`mÀ`mer {‘iVo OwiVo {dYmZmMo XmoZ àH$ma {‘iVmV. hmoH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr
{dYo` VH©$emñÌmVrb gyÌhr `wŠV AgVo. Oar {dYo` {dYmZ Am{U ZH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZ. hmoH$mamË‘H$
VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌ g‘m{dï> Agbo d Ë`mda EH$dmMr {dYmZ EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ> JwUY‘©`wŠV
AmYmabobo Agbo Var {dYo` VH©$emñÌ Ë`mÀ`m nbrH$So> Amho ho gm§JVo. CXm. gw{ZVm ZV©H$s Amho. BWo, "gw{ZVm'
OmVo H$maU Vo {dYmZm§Mr A§VJ©V Vm{H©$H$ aMZm ñnîQ> ho CX²Xoe nX Amho Am{U "ZV©H$s' ho {dYo` nX Amho.
H$aVo Am{U {dYmZmÀ`m {d{dY nXmVrb g§~§Y gm§JVo. ZH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZ {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ>
JwUY‘©`wŠV Zmhr Ago gm§JVo. CXmhaUmW© … b§S>Z ho
Imbr {Xbobr A{‘l {dYmZo EH$‘oH$m§nmgyZ A‘o[aH$Z eha Zmhr.
H$er {^Þ AmhoV Vo AmoiIy eH$Vm H$m?
`oWo "ì`ŠVr' hm eãX ’$ŠV ‘mZdr ì`ŠVrgmR>r
gm§Jm nmhÿ AmnU Ë`m§Mo dJuH$aU H$go H$ê$ dmnabm ZgyZ eha, Xoe, àmUr qH$dm H$mhrhr Á`m{df`r
eH$Vmo? AW©nyU© VèhoZo JwUY‘m©Mo à{VnmXZ H$aVm `oVo, Vr JmoîQ>
Agm AW© hmoVmo Am{U JwUY‘© ho {deofU, Zm‘ qH$dm
àË`oH$ Jmoï> gw§Xa Amho. {H«$`mnX Agy eH$Vo.
Am{ef hþema Amho. Imbrb H$mhr {dYmZo EH$dmMr {dYmZmMr CXmhaUo
AmhoV.
gd© nú`m§Zm n§I AgVmV.
(1) gm{hb CËV‘ boIH$ Amho.
H$mhr {dX²`mWu VëbI AmhoV.
(2) hm Hw$Ìm dݶ àmUr Zmhr.
{Zboe C§M Zmhr.
(3) AemoH$ amOH$maUr Zmhr.
EH$hr eoVH$ar Amier Zmhr.
(4) Woåg ^maVr` ZXr Zmhr.
H$mhrhr emídV Zmhr.
(5) {Z{H$Vm YmdnQy> Amho.
H$mhr Jmoï>r ~XbVmV.
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ :
H$mhr ‘mo~mB©b ’$moZ ‘hmJ ZgVmV.
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ dJ© qH$dm dJmª{df`r à{VnmXZ
H$mhr Jmoï>r AmH$f©H$ ZgVmV. H$aVo. gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmMo dJuH$aU gm‘mݶV… XmoZ
20
àH$mamV Ho$bo OmVo. - (1) EH$m dJm©{df¶r à{VnmXZ gmd©{ÌH$/gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`dmMr {dYmZ, dJm©À`m
H$aUmar gm‘mݶ {dYmZo. (2) XmoZ dJmª{df¶r qH$dm gd© gXñ`m§{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aVo, Va {d{eîQ> gm‘mÝ`
XmoZ dJm©Vrb g§~§Y à{VnmXZ H$aUmar gm‘mݶ {dYmZo. {dYmZ dJm©À`m H$mhr gXñ`m§{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aVo.
`m àË`oH$ àH$mamMo gmd©{ÌH$/gm{d©H$ Am{U {d{eîQ> gmd©{ÌH$/gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`dmMr {dYmZ hmoH$mamË‘H$ qH$dm
(ApñVËdXe©H$) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmV dJuH$aU hmoVo. ZH$mamË‘H$ AgVo. ¶m à‘mUoM {d{eîQ> (ApñVËdXe©H$)
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ Xo{Ib hmoH$mamË‘H$ qH$dm ZH$mamË‘H$
AgVo. `mZwgma Amnë`mbm Imbrbà‘mUo AmR> àH$mao
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo {‘iVmV.
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo
EH$ dJu¶ X²{ddJu¶
(1) gd© ApñVdmMr (1) gd© ApñVdmMr
CXm. àË`oH$ JmoîQ> ‘Zmoa§OH$ Amho. CXm. gd© ’$io JmoS> AmhoV. A {dYmZ
(2) gd© ZmpñVdmMr (2) gd© ZmpñVdmMr
CXm. H$mhrhr {ZaW©H$ Zmhr. CXm. EH$hr gOrd A‘a Zmhr. E {dYmZ
(3) ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr / hmoH$mamË‘H$ (3) AmpñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr / hmoH$mamË‘H$
CXm. H$mhrVar gw§Xa Amho. CXm. H$mhr ‘wbo gO©Zerb AgVmV. I {dYmZ
(4) ApñVËddmMr ZmpñVdmMr / ZH$mamË‘H$ (4) ApñVËddmMr ZmpñVdmMr / ZH$mamË‘H$
CXm. H$mhrVar ñdÀN> Zmhr. CXm. H$mhr ehao {Z¶mo{OV ZgVmV. O {dYmZ
3.3 EH$dmMr Am{U gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z {MÝhm§H$Z ‘Ws’ Ago Ho$bo OmB©b. BWo ‘W’ ho "{dZmoXr'
`m JwUY‘m©gmR>r Am{U ‘s’ ho gyaO `m Zm‘mgmR>r
EH$dmMr {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aUo. dmnabo Amho. ZH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z
{dYmZmÀ`m AmYr ‘’ R>odyZ Ho$bo OmVo. CXm. ‘H$a§X hm
H$moUË`mhr EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo XmoZ ‘hËËdmMo b~mS> Zmhr. ho {dYmZ ‘ Cm’ Ago {MÝhm§{H$V Ho$bo
KQ>H$ AgVmV. - (1) ì`ŠVrMo Zmd (2) JwUY‘© `m OmVo.
KQ>H$m§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r XmoZ doJir {MÝho dmnamdr
bmJVmV. Vr åhUOo ì`ŠVr AMb Am{U {dYo` AMb. {dYmZr¶ VH©$emñÌmVrb {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aV
ì`ŠVrÀ`m Zm‘mgmR>r dmnabo OmUmao {MÝh åhUOo AgVmZm AmnU Á`m XmoZ AQ>r nmiVmo, Ë`m XmoZ AQ>tMo
ì`ŠVrAMb. B§J«Or {bnrVrb bKw Ajao ‘a ......... nmbZ ¶oWo hr Amdí`H$ Amho. -
w’ hr ì`pŠVAMbo åhUyZ dmnabr OmVmV. {dYo`
AMb åhUOo {d{eîQ> JwUY‘m©gmR>r dmnabo OmUmao (1) ì`ŠVrÀ`m Zm‘mMo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r EH$M
{MÝh. B§J«Or {bnrVrb ‘A..........Z’ hr ~¥hV Ajao ì`ŠVrAMb dmnam`bm hdo, Oar Vo Zm‘ Ë`mM
{dYo` AMbm§gmR>r dmnabr OmVmV. EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo `wpŠVdmXmV qH$dm {dYmZmV naV AmT>ibo Var
{MÝhm§H$Z H$aVmZm JwUY‘m©gmR>rMo {MÝh ì`ŠVrÀ`m VgoM JwUY‘m©Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r EH$M
Zm‘mgmR>r dmnaboë`m {MÝhmÀ`m S>mdrH$So> {b{hbo {dYo` AMb dmnam`bm hdo, Oar Vo {dYo` Ë`mM
OmVo. CXm. gyaO ehmUm Amho. `m EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo `wpŠVdmXmV qH$dm {dYmZmV naV AmT>ibo Var.
21
(2) EH$mM `wpŠVdmXmV qH$dm {dYmZmV {^ÝZ {^ÝZ Imbr {Xboë`m EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z
ì`ŠVrZm‘mgmR>r Am{U JwUY‘m©gmR>r AZwH«$‘o H$am.
{^ÝZ ì`ŠVr AMbo Am{U {dYo` AMbo dmnabr (1) {Zboe Jm`H$ Amho.
nm{hOoV. (2) Om°Z A{^¶§Vm Amho.
(3) a‘oe hm {dkmZmMm {dX²`mWu Zmhr.
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$am`bm {eH$Ê`mnydu (4) ho‘m§Jr hþema Amho Am{U ho‘m§Jr gO©Zerb
{dYo` VH©$emñÌmVrb XmoZ ‘hËËdmÀ`m {MÝhm§Mm Aä`mg Amho.
H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. Vo åhUOo ì`ŠVrMb Am{U {dYo` (5) P[aZ gw§Xa Amho.
Mb. ì`ŠVrMb åhUOo H$moUË`mhr ì`ŠVrgmR>r dmnabo (6) A{‘V A{^ZoVm Amho na§Vw A{‘V ZV©H$ Zmhr.
OmUmao {MÝh hmo`. ì`ŠVrMb H$moUË`mhr {d{eîQ> (7) ZrZm ^maVr` Amho qH$dm ZrZm A‘o[aH$Z Amho.
ì`ŠVrMo à{V{Z{YËd H$arV Zmhr. Vo Ho$di ì`ŠVrMo (8) Ý`y`m°H©$ ho Am°ñQ´>o{b`Z eha Zmhr.
ñWmZ XmIdyZ XoUmao ñWmZ {ZpíMVr {MÝh Amho. Ë`mÀ`m
OmJr ì`ŠVrMo Zm‘ qH$dm ì`ŠVr AMb n`m©` åhUyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aUo :
R>odVm `oVo. B§J«Or {bnrVrb ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’ hr bKw Ajao
ì`ŠVrMb åhUyZ dmnabr OmVmV. CXm. "‘mo{hZr gw§Xa AmYr gm§{JVë`mà‘mUo gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmMo
Amho.' ho {dYmZ {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr{df`r Amho. nU AmnU dJuH$aU {dñV¥VnUo XmoZ àH$mamV Ho$bo OmVo. -
Oa "‘mo{hZr' `m {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVrÀ`m OmJr [aH$m‘r (1) EH$m dJm©{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aUmar gm‘mݶ {dYmZo
OmJm R>odbr Va BVa {dYmZ VgoM R>odyZ Amnë`mbm Am{U (2) XmoZ dJm©{df`r qH$dm XmoZ dJm©Vrb g§~§Ym~m~V
‘............’ gw§Xa Amho. Aer A{^ì`ŠVr {‘iob. hr à{VnmXZ H$aUmar gm‘mݶ {dYmZo. àW‘ AmnU gm‘mÝ`
[aH$m‘r OmJm Ho$di ì`ŠVrMr ñWmZ{ZpíMVr H$aUmar {dYmZ EH$ dJm©{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aUmè¶m gm‘mݶ
Amho. åhUyZ `m [aH$må`m OmJr AmnU ‘x’ ho ì`ŠVrMb {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z {eHy$`m.
dmnê$ eH$Vmo Am{U `m‘wio Amnë`mbm ‘x gw§Xa Amho,'
hr A{^ì`ŠVr {‘iVo. Á`mMo {MÝhm§H$Z ‘Bx’ Ago (1) EH$ dJ© A§V^y©V Agboë`m gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmMo
H$aVm `oVo. `mà‘mUoM {dYo` Mb ho {MÝh H$moUË`mhr {MÝhm§H$Z H$aUo :
JwUY‘m©gmR>r dmnabo OmVo. Ë`mÀ`m OmJr JwUY‘m©Mo
Zm‘ qH$dm {dYo` AMb R>odVm `oVo. (’$m`) d gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ EH$Va gmd©{ÌH$/gm{d©H$ qH$dm
(gm`) hr J«rH$ Ajao {dYo`Mbo åhUyZ dmnabr OmVmV. (ApñVËdXe©H$) Agy eH$Vo. `mnwT>o `m XmoZ àH$mamMo
CXm. gwaoIm hr . `m A{^ì`ŠVrVrb [aH$m‘r OmJm hmoH$mamË‘H$ Am{U ZH$mamË‘H$ Ago dJuH$aU hmoVo.
H$moUË`mhr JwUY‘m©Mr OmJm Xe©{dVo, {OWo AmnU ho åhUyZ Amnë`mbm EH$ dJ© g‘m{dîQ> Agboë¶m gm‘mÝ`
{dYo`Mb dmnê$ eH$Vmo d `m‘wio Amnë`mbm "gwaoIm {dYmZmMo Mma àH$ma {‘iVmV, Á`mV EH$m dJm©Mm
Amho' hr A{^ì`ŠVr {‘iVo. Á`mMo {MÝhm§H$Z ‘s’Ago g‘mdoe AgVmo. Am{U Ë`m§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo
hmoVo. {dYo` VH©$emñÌmV Aem A{^ì`ŠVrZm {dYmZr` Ho$bo OmVo.
’$bZ åhUVmV. AmnU Z§Va `m nmR>mV {dYmZr` ’$bZ
`m g§H$ënZoMm g{dñVa Aä`mg H$ê$. (1) gd© ApñVdmMr {dYmZ :
CXm. "àË`oH$ JmoîQ> Zmed§V Amho.' ho {dYmZ `m
àH$maMo Amho. `m {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r àW‘
`mMo Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV énm§Va H$ê$. ho {dYmZ àË`oH$
22
JmoîQ>r~m~V "Zmed§V' `m {deofUmMr nwîQ>r H$aVo. Vm{H©$H$ (3) ApñVñVdmMr ApñVdmMr / hmoH$mamË‘H$
n[a^mfoV ho nwT>rbà‘mUo ì`ŠV H$aVm `oB©b. {dYmZ :
H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo, Vr Zmed§V Amho. Imbr {Xbobr {dYmZo `m àH$maMr AmhoV.
"H$mhrhr/H$moUVmhr' d "Vo/Vr' ho eãX H$moUË`mhr (1) H$mhrVar gw§Xa Amho.
ì`ŠVrMo à{V{Z{YËd H$aVmV åhUyZ `m eãXm§EodOr
AmnU ì`pŠVMb dmnê$, Oo Imbrbà‘mUo - (2) Hw$Ìo ApñVËdmV AgVmV.
H$moUVmhr x Agmo, x Zmed§V Amho. n{hbo {dYmZ H$mhr JmoîQ>tZm "gw§Xa' ho {deofU
bmJy hmoVo Ago gm§JVo. VH©$emñÌmV "H$mhr' `m eãXmMm
VH©$emñÌmV, "H$moUVmhr x Agmo' hr A{^춳Vr AW© "{ZXmZ EH$' nU gd© Zmhr Agm hmoVmo. ho {dYmZ
‘(x)’ `m {MÝhmZo {MÝhm§{H$V Ho$br OmVo. (x) ¶m {MÝhmbm Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV Imbrbà‘mUo ‘m§S>Vm `oVo.
gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnH$ Ago åhUVmV. {dYo` AMb ‘P’
dmnê$Z x Zmed§V Amho `mMo {MÝhm§H$Z ‘Px’ Ago Ho$bo {ZXmZ EH$ JmoîQ> Aer Amho, H$s Or gw§Xa Amho.
OmVo. `mZwgma g§nyU© {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z (x) Px Ago
Ho$bo OmVo. ì`ŠVrMbmMm dmna H$ê$Z ho {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo
nwÝhm {b{hVm `oVo. -
ho {dYmZ Ago dmMbo OmVo - "H$moUVmhr x Agmo,
x Zmed§V Amho.' Oa AmnU {dYo` AMb P À`m OmJr {ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, H$s x gw§Xa Amho.
{dYo`Mb KmVbo, Va Amnë`mbm ¶m àH$maÀ¶m {dYmZmMm
Imbrbà‘mUo AmH$ma {‘iVmo. "{ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho' `m A{^ì`ŠVrgmR>r
‘(x)’ ho {MÝh dmnabo OmVo. `m {MÝhmbm ApñVËdXe©H$
(x) x g§»`mnH$ åhUVmV. ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ Am{U
"gw§Xa'`m {deofUmgmR>r {dYo` AMb ‘B’ dmnê$Z AmnU
(2) gd© ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ : g§nyU© {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo H$ê$. -
"H$mhrhr {Ma§VZ Zmhr.' ho {dYmZ `m àH$mamMo (x) Bx
Amho. Á`mV {Ma§VZ hm JwUY‘© gd© ~m~VrV ZmH$mabm
Amho. Vm{H©$H$ ^mfoV ho {dYmZ Imbrb à‘mUo ì`ŠV ho Ago dmMbo OmVo - "{ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho,
H$aVm `oVo. H$s x gw§Xa Amho.' Aem {dYmZm§Mm AmH$ma (x) x
Agm Amho.
H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo, Vr {Ma§VZ Zmhr.
Xþgao {dYmZ "Hw$Ìo ApñVËdmV AgVmV.' ho {ZXmZ
"H$moUVrhr JmoîQ' Am{U "Vr' `m eãXm§EodOr EH$ Var Hw$Ìm ApñVËdmV Amho `mMr nwîQ>r XoVo. Vm{H©$H$
ì`ŠVr Mb dmnê$Z ho {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo ì`ŠV H$aVm n[a^mfoV ho {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo ‘m§S>Vm `oVo.
`oVo.
{ZXmZ EH$ JmoîQ> Aer Amho, Omo Hw$Ìm Amho.
H$moUVmhr x Agmo, x {Ma§VZ Zmhr.
ì`ŠVrMa dmnê$Z ho {dYmZ Ago {b{hVm `oVo -
gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnH$, {dYo` AMb ‘E’ d
{ZfoY {MÝh dmnê$Z AmnU g§nyU© {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z {ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, x Hw$Ìm Amho.
Imbrbà‘mUo H$ê$.
ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ Am{U {dYo` AMb ‘D’
(x) Ex dmnê$Z AmnU nyU© {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo
H$aVmo -
Aem {dYmZmMm AmH$ma (x) x Amho.
(x) Dx
23
ho Ago dmMbo OmVo - {ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, (x) Gx
H$s x Hw$Ìm Amho. Aem {dYmZmMm AmH$ma Imbrbà‘mUo
Amho. ho Ago dmMbo OmVo - "Ago Zmhr H$s, {ZXmZ
EH$ x Agm Amho, H$s x amjg Amho.' Aem {dYmZmMm
(x) x AmH$ma (x) x hm Amho.
(4) ApñVËddmMr ZmpñVdmMr / ZH$mamË‘H$ {dYmZ : (II) XmoZ dJ© Agboë`m gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z :
Imbr {Xbobr {dYmZo `m àH$maMr AmhoV - XmoZ dJ© Agboë`m gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmMo Mma àH$ma
AmhoV Vo Ago -
(1) H$mhrVar Mm§Jbo Zmhr.
(2) amjg ApñVËdmV ZmhrV. (1) gd© ApñVdmMr qH$dm ‘A’ {dYmZ
n{hbo {dYmZ "Mm§Jbo' ho {deofU H$mhr (2) gd© ZmpñVdmMr qH$dm ‘E’ {dYmZ
JmoîQ>t~m~V ZmH$maVo. Vo Ago gm§JVo H$s {ZXmZ EH$ JmoîQ>
Aer Amho Or Mm§Jbr Zmhr. ho {dYmZ Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV (3) ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr qH$dm ‘I’ {dYmZ
Imbrbà‘mUo ì`ŠV H$aVm `oVo.
(4) ApñVËddmMr ZmpñVdmMr qH$dm ‘O’ {dYmZ.
{ZXmZ EH$ JmoîQ> Aer Amho H$s Or Mm§Jbr Zmhr.
Aem àH$maÀ`m {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aʶmMr
ì`ŠVrMb dmnê$Z ho {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo nwÝhm nX²YVr.
{b{hVm `oVo. -
(1) gd© ApñVdmMr qH$dm ‘A’ {dYmZ :
{ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, H$s x Mm§Jbm Zmhr.
"gd© ’w$bnmIao AmH$f©H$ AgVmV.' ho {dYmZ `m
ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ Am{U "Mm§Jbm' `m àH$maMo Amho. ho {dYmZ XmoZ dJm©Vrb g§~§Y gm§JVo -
JwUY‘m©gmR>r {dYo`AMb ‘G’ dmnê$Z g§nyU© {dYmZ ’w$bnmIao `m§Mm dJ© Am{U AmH$f©H$VoMm dJ©. ho gd©
Imbrbà‘mUo {MÝhm§H$sV H$aVm `oVo. ApñVdmMr {dYmZ Amho H$maU `mV AmH$f©H$VoMm JwUY‘©
gd© ’w$bnmIao `m§Zm ~hmb Ho$bm Amho. ho {dYmZ Vm{H©$H$
(x) Gx ho Ago dmMbo OmVo - "{ZXmZ EH$ ^mfoV Imbrbà‘mUo ì`ŠV H$aVm `oVo.
x Agm Amho, {H$ x Mm§Jbo Zmhr.' Aem àH$maÀ`m
{dYmZm§Mm AmH$ma (x) x Agm Amho. H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo, Oa Vr ’w$bnmIê$ Agob Va
Vr AmH$f©H$ Amho. "JmoîQ'Am{U "Vr' `m g§km H$moUVrhr
Xwgao {dYmZ "amjg ApñVËdmV ZmhrV' ho amjgm§Mo ì`ŠVr gyMrV H$aVmV. åhUyZ Ë`m§À`m OmJr AmnU ‘x’ ho
ApñVËd ZmH$maVo. "ApñVËd' hm JwUY‘© Zmhr. ˶m‘wio ì`ŠVrMb R>ody eH$Vmo. `mZwgma ho {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo
ho {dYmZ n{hë`m {dYmZmà‘mUo Vm{H©$H$ ^mfoV {MÝhm§{H$V {b{hVm `oVo. -
H$aVm `oV Zmhr. ho {dYmZ gm§JVo H$s, EH$ gwX²Ym amjg
ApñVËdmV Zmhr. ho {dYmZ Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV nwT>rbà‘mUo H$moUVmhr x Agmo Oa x ’w$bnmIê$ Agob, Va x
‘m§S>bo OmVo. AmH$f©H$ Amho.
"Ago Zmhr H$s {ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho {H$ x "H$moUVmhr x Agmo' `m A{^ì`ŠVrgmR>r gmd©{ÌH$
amjg Amho.' ¶mVyZ {dYmZmMm ¶mo½¶ AW© ñnîQ> hmoVmo H$s g§»`mnH$, ‘W’ ho {dYo` AMb ’w$bnmIê$ gmR>r, d
EH$hr amjg ApñVËdmV Zmhr. ‘A’ AmH$f©H$ gmR>r d ‘’ ho g§`moOH$ dmnê$Z AmnU
g§nyU© {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo {MÝhm§H$rV H$aVmo.
{ZfoY {MÝh, ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ Am{U
{dYo` AMa ‘G’ hr {MÝho dmnê$Z g§nyU© {dYmZmMo (x) ( WxAx )
{MÝhm§H$Z Ago hmoVo.
24
{dYo` AMbmÀ`m OmJr {dYo` Mb R>odbo Va Amnë`mbm ho {dYmZ 춳VrMb dmnê$Z Imbrbà‘mUo ‘m§S>Vm
‘A’ {dYmZm§Mm Imbrbà‘mUo AmH$ma {‘iVmo. `oB©b -
(x) ( x x) {ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, H$s x ‘mUyg Amho
Am{U x lrԤV Amho.
(2) gd© ZmñVrdmMr qH$dm ‘E’ {dYmZ :
g§nyU© {dYmZ ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$, {dYo`
"EH$hr ‘yb XþîQ> Zmhr.' ho gd© ZmpñVdmMr qH$dm AMb Am{U "Am{U' `m g§`moOH$mMo {MÝh dmnê$Z
E {dYmZmMo CXmhaU Amho. ho {dYmZ XmoZ dJm©Vrb Imbrb à‘mUo {MÝhm§{H$V H$aVm `oVo.
g§~§Y gm§JVo. - ‘wbm§Mm dJ© Am{U XwîQ>m§Mm dJ©. ho gd©
ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ Amho H$maU BWo XþîQ> hm JwUY‘© gd© (x) (Mx Rx)
‘wbm§Zm ZmH$mabm Amho. Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV ho {dYmZ
Imbrbà‘mUo ì`ŠV hmoVo. ‘I’ {dYmZmMm AmH$ma (x) (x x) Agm
Amho.
H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo, Oa Vo ‘yb Agob Va Vo
XþîQ> ZgVo. (4) {deof ZmpñVdmMr qH$dm ‘O’ {dYmZ :
ì`ŠVrMa dmnê$Z ho {dYmZ Ago ì`ŠV hmoVo. - "H$mhr àmUr dÝ`Ord ZgVmV.' ho {dYmZ ‘O’
{dYmZmMo CXmhaU Amho. `m {dYmZmV XmoZ dJm©Vrb g§~§Y
H$moUVmhr x Agmo Oa x ‘yb Agob Va x XþîQ> gm§{JVbm Amho. àmÊ`mMm dJ© Am{U dÝ`Ordm§Mm dJ©.
Zmhr. ho {deof ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ Agë`mH$maUmZo "dÝ`Ord'
hm JwUY‘© àmUr dJm©À`m H$mhr gXñ`m§Zm ZmH$mabobm
gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnH$, {dYo` AMb Am{U ‘’ ho Amho. ho {dYmZ ì`ŠVrMbo dmnê$Z Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV
g§`moOH$ dmnê$Z Amnë`mbm g§nyU© {dYmZ Imbrbà‘mUo Imbrbà‘mUo ì`ŠV H$aVm `oVo.
{MÝhm§{H$V H$aVm `oVo.
{ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho H$s x àmUr Amho Am{U
(x) ( Cx Wx ) x dÝ`Ord Zmhr.
‘E’ {dYmZmMm AmH$ma (x) (x x ) hm ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$, {dYo` AMbo Am{U
Amho. "Am{U' d "Zmhr' `m g§`moOH$m§Mr {MÝho dmnê$Z g§nyU©
{dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo hmoVo.
(3) ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr qH$dm ‘I’ {dYmZ :
(x) ( Ax Wx )
ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr qH$dm ‘I’ {dYmZmV EH$m
dJm©À`m H$mhr gXñ`m§Zm JwU ~hmb Ho$bobm AgVmo. CXm. ‘O’ {dYmZmMm AmH$ma (x) (x x ) Agm
"H$mhr ‘mUgo lr‘§V AmhoV.' ho ApñVËddmMr AñVrdmMr Amho.
qH$dm ‘I’ {dYmZ Amho. ho {dYmZ XmoZ dJm©Vrb g§~§Y
gm§JVo Vmo åhUOo ‘mUgmMm dJ© Am{U lr‘§Vm§Mm dJ©. ho gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo Zoh‘rM "gd©', "Zmhr', "H$mhr' ho
ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr {dYmZ Agë`mZo "lr‘§V' hm eãX dmnaV ZmhrV. `m eãXm§{edm` ‘amR>r ^mfoV AZoH$
JwUY‘© "‘mUyg' `m dJm©À`m H$mhr gXñ`m§Zm ~hmb Ho$bm eãX AmhoV Oo hr {dYmZo ì`ŠV H$aVmV. ‘amR>r ^mfoVrb
Amho. ho {dYmZ Vm{H©$H$ n[a^mfoV Imbrbà‘mUo ‘m§S>Vm H$mhr Zoh‘rMo eãX hr {dYmZo ì`ŠV H$aVmV Vo Imbrb
`oVo. VŠË`mV {Xbo AmhoV.
{ZXmZ EH$ JmoîQ> Aer Amho, H$s Omo ‘mUyg Amho
Am{U Omo lrԤV Amho.
25
‘A’ {dYmZ - gd©, àË`oH$, Hw$Urhr, Zoh‘r, H$mhrhr, An[ahm`©nUo, {ZpíMVnUo, nyU©V… `m eãXm§g{hV hmoH$mamË‘H$
{dYmZo.
‘E’ {dYmZ - Zmhr, H$Yrhr Zmhr, A{O~mV Zmhr, EH$hr Zmhr, EH$gwX²Ym Zmhr, H$moUrM Zmhr `m eãXm§g{hV
{dYmZo.
‘I’ {dYmZ - gdm©{YH$, AZoH$, H$mhr, {ZpíMV, OdiOdi gd©, ~hþVoH$, gm‘mÝ`V…, dma§dma, AZoH$Xm,
H$Xm{MV, OdiOdi Zoh‘rM, H$mhr doim, àmg§{JH$, `m eãXm§g{hV hmoH$mamË‘H$ {dYmZo.
WmoSo>, Šd{MVM, OdiOdi ZmhrM, `m eãXm§g{hV ZH$mamË‘H$ {dYmZo.
‘O’ {dYmZ - Ooìhm ‘I’ {dYmZ gy{MV H$aUmè`m eãXm§g{hVMr hmoH$mamË‘H$ {dYmZo ZmH$mabr OmVmV Voìhm ‘O’
{dYmZ {‘iVo.
Ooìhm ‘A’ {dYmZ ZmH$mabo OmVo Voìhm ‘O’ {dYmZ {‘iVo.
hmoH$mamË‘H$ Am{U ZH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZm§Mr CXmhaUo XoD$Z {MÝhm§H$Z H$am.
gd© AmR> àH$maÀ`m gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mr CXmhaUo XoD$Z {MÝhm§H$Z H$am.
{dYmZr` ’$bZ ‘(y) (Dx)’, hr A{^ì`ŠVr {dYmZr` ’$bZ Amho H$maU
Oar ‘(y)’ g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ Agbm Var Vmo ~X²YMb
{dYmZr` ’$bZ hr {dYo` VH©$emñÌmVrb EH$ Amho. ¶mV ‘x’ hm ‘wŠVMb Amho. H$maU EH$Va Vmo
‘hËËdmMr g§H$ënZm Amho. CXm. "Xrnm H$bmH$ma Amho' g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ Zmhr qH$dm H$moUVohr `mo½` g§»`mnH$
Am{U "gwaoe IoimSy> Amho.' hr {dYmZo AmhoV. Vr EH$Va Ë`mÀ`m nydu `oV Zmhr. Ë`mMàH$mao Imbr {Xboë`m
gË` qH$dm AgË` AmhoV. na§Vw x H$bmH$ma Amho. A{^ì`ŠVr {dYmZr` ’$bZ AmhoV. - ‘Bx’, Mx,
qH$dm ‘Ax’ Am{U "gwaoe Amho' qH$dm ‘s’ hr x qH$dm ‘x’ BWo XmoÝhr Mb ‘x’ Am{U ‘’ ‘wŠVMa
{dYmZo ZmhrV. H$maU Vr gË` qH$dm AgË` ZmhrV. `m AmhoV.
A{^ì`ŠVtZm {dYmZr` ’$bZ åhUVmV.
{dYmZr` ’$bZ åhUOo Aer A{^ì`ŠVr Á`mV {dYmZr` ’$bZ EH$Va gab qH$dm {‘l AgVo.
{H$‘mZ EH$ ‘wŠVMb AgVo Am{U MbmÀ`m OmJr gab {dYmZr` ’$bZ åhUOo Á`mV {dYmZ g§`moOH$
ì`ŠVr AMb R>odë`mda {dYmZ {‘iVo. ZgVo. CXm. -
‘wŠVMb åhUOo Agm Mb Omo g§»`mnH$mÀ`m (1) x ‘moR>m Amho. (Bx)
ì`mßVrjoÌmÀ`m ~mhoa AgVmo. Vmo g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ
ZgVmo Am{U g§»`mnH$ Ë`mÀ`m nydu `oV Zmhr. (2) y MbmI Amho. (Sy)
~X²YMb åhUOo Agm Mb Oo g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ
AgVmo qH$dm `mo½` g§»`mnH$ Ë`mÀ`m nydu `oVmo. (3) ‘wHw§$X Amho. m)
CXm. "àË`oH$ JmoîQ> ‘hmJ Amho.' `m {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z
Á`m {dYmZr` ’$bZmV {dYmZ g§`moOHo$ AgVmV,
Ë`m§Zm g§{‘l {dYmZr` ’$bZ åhUVmV. CXm.
(x) (Ex) Ago hmoVo. ho {dYmZ Amho na§Vw {dYmZr` ’$bZ (1) x VËËdkmZr Zmhr. ( Px)
Zmhr. ¶m {dYmZmVrb Ex ‘Yrb x hm ‘wŠV ZgyZ ~X²Y
Amho. ‘(x)’ ‘Ü`o ‘x’ hm Mb g§»`mnmH$mMm ^mJ Amho (2) x d¡Xç Amho Am{U x gm‘m{OH$ H$m`©H$Vm© Amho.
d ‘Ex’ ‘Ü`o x À`m nydu `mo½` g§»`mnH$ `oVmo. ‘mÌ
(Dx Sx)
26
(3) EH$Va x A{^ZoVm Amho qH$dm x ZV©H$ Amho. (4) Oa x ‘mUyg Amho Va x ~wX²{Y‘mZ Amho.
(Ax Dx) (Mx Rx)
{dYmZ Am{U {dYmZr` ’$bZ `mVrb ’$aH$ - {dYmZr` ’$bZ
{dYmZ
(1) {dYmZr` ’$bZmV {ZXmZ EH$ Var Mb ‘w³V
(1) {dYmZmV EH$hr Mb ‘w³V ZgVmo. AgVmo.
(2) {dYmZmbm {ZpíMV gË`Vm ‘yë` AgVo Vo gË`
(2) {dYmZr` ’$bZ g˶hr ZgVo Am{U Ag˶hr
qH$dm AgË` AgVo. ZgVo.
(3) {dYmZmMm AW© bmdVm `oVmo.
(4) CXm. AmH$me XoIUm Amho. Ha (3) {dYmZr` ’$bZmMm AW© bmdVm `oV Zmhr.
(4) CXm. x XoIUm Amho. Hx
Imbrbn¡H$s H$moUË`m A{^ì`ŠVr {dYmZo AmhoV Am{U H$moUË`m {dYmZr` ’$bZ AmhoV? AmoiIm nmhÿ.
(1) Cx (7) Ta Fa
(2) Ma Sa (8) s
(3) (x) (Fx Ny) (9) (x) (GxKx)
(4) (z) (Az Tz) (10) (x) (Rx Px)
(5) (x) (Ay Wx) (11) Rx Px
(6) By Hx (12) MsKd
3.4 {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ {dYmZo {‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m (1) CXmhaUrH$aU -
nX²YVr -
{dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ MbmÀ`m OmJr AMb R>oD$Z
‘mJÀ`m {d^mJmV AmnU {dYmZr` ’$bZ åhUOo, EH$dmMr {dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$`obm CXmhaUrH$aU
Á`mV {ZXmZ EH$ ‘wŠVMb Agbobr A{^ì`ŠVr hmo¶ åhUVmV. CXm. x VH©$emñÌk Amho./Lx. ho {dYmZr`
Am{U Ooìhm MamÀ`m OmJr `mo½` AMb R>odbo OmVo ’$bZ Amho. CXmhaUmW© A°[añQ>m°Q>b ho ì`ŠVrMo Zm‘
Voìhm Vo {dYmZ ~ZVo, ho {eH$bmo. Aem arVrZo {dYmZr` qH$dm ì`ŠVr AMb ‘a’, ‘x’ `m MbmÀ`m OmJr R>odyZ
’$bZmnmgyZ MbmÀ`m OmJr `mo½` AMb R>odyZ {dYmZ Amnë`mbm Imbrbà‘mUo Lx ¶m {dYmZr¶ ’$bZmnmgyZ
{‘i{dVm `oVo. {dYmZo EH$dmMr d gm‘mÝ`dmMr Aer EH$dmMr {dYmZo {‘iVo. - "A°[añQ>m°Q>b VH©$emñÌk
XmoZ àH$maMr Agë`mZo {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ {dYmZo Amho.' ‘La’
{‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m XmoZ arVr AmhoV. (1) CXmhaUrH$aU
Am{U (2) g§»`mnZ /gm‘mÝ`rH$aU ‘x’ `m ì`ŠVrMbmÀ`m OmJr H$moUË`mhr ì`ŠVrMo
Zm‘ qH$dm ì`ŠVr AMb R>odVm `oVo. ‘x’ À`m OmJr
Ý`yQ>Z/ ‘n’ R>odyZ Amnë`mbm "Ý`yQ>Z hm VH©$emñÌk
Amho,' Ago EH$dmMr {dYmZ {‘iVo. Aem àH$mao
{dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ {‘i{dbobo àË`oH$ EH$dmMr
{dYmZ ho Ë`m {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo "{Zdo{eV CXmhaU'
27
qH$dm "AmXoeZ‘ybH$ CXmhaU' AgVo. {dYmZr` ’$bZ Aem VèhoZo {‘i{dbobo gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ
gË` hr ZgVo Am{U AgË`hr ZgVo, na§Vw Ë`mMo {Zdo{eV gË` qH$dm AgË` Agob. {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo gmd©{ÌH$
CXmhaU ‘mÌ gË` qH$dm AgË` AgVo. "A°[añQ>m°Q>b g§»`mnZ VoìhmM gË` AgVo, Ooìhm Ë`mMr gd© {Zdo{eV
VH©$emñÌk Amho.' ho n{hbo EH$dmMr {dYmZ gË` Amho CXmhaUo gË` AgVmV.
Va "Ý`yQ>Z hm VH©$emñÌk Amho.' ho {dYmZ AgË` Amho.
ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnZ/ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU
{dYmZr` ’$bZ gab qH$dm {‘l AgVo.
{‘l {dYmZr` ’$bZm~m~V {Zdo{eV CXmhaUo ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnZ à{H«$`oV {dYmZr`
EH$dmMr {dYmZmMr gË`Vm ’$bZo AgVmV. ’$bZmnydu ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ R>oD$Z ApñVËd
CXm. ‘x’ ZV©H$ Amho Am{U x A{^`§Vm Amho. Xe©H$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ {‘i{dbo OmVo. CXm. x Wmoa
(Dx Ex ) ho {‘l {dYmZr` ’$bZ Amho. AmnU ‘x’ Amho. qH$dm ‘Nx’ Wmoa hm JwUY‘© x `m ì`ŠVr Mbmbm
À`m OmJr Ho$VZ qH$dm ‘k’ ho ì`ŠVrAMb R>odbo, ~hmb Ho$bobm Amho. H$mhr x Zm Wmoa hm JwUY‘© ~hmb
Va Amnë`mbm {Zdo{eV CXmhaU åhUOoM EH$dmMr H$ê$Z, AmnU Imbrb à‘mUo ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`
{dYmZmMo gË`Vm’$bZ {‘iVo. "Ho$VZ ZV©H$ Amho Am{U {dYmZ {‘idy eH$Vmo.
Ho$VZ A{^`§Vm Amho.' ( Dk Ek )
{ZXmZ EH$ x Agm Amho, H$s Omo Wmoa Amho.
(2) g§»`mnZ qH$dm gm‘mÝ`rH$aU
(x) Nx
{dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ
{‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$`obm g§»`mnZ qH$dm gm‘mÝ`rH$aU ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnZmX²dmao Or ApñVËdXe©H$
åhUVmV. {dYmZr¶ ’$bZmÀ¶m AmYr gdm©{ÌH$ qH$dm gm‘mݶ {dYmZo {‘iVmV, Vr gË` qH$dm AgË` AgVmV.
ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»¶mnH$ R>oD$Z {dYmZr¶ ’$bZmnmgyZ {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnZ$ VoìhmM g˶
gm‘mݶ {dYmZ àmßV H$aʶmMr à{H«$¶m åhUOo AgVo Ooìhm ˶mMo {ZXmZ EH$ {Zdo{eV CXmhaU gË`
gm‘mݶrH$aU qH$dm g§»¶mnZ. gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo XmoZ AgVo.
àH$maMr Agë`mZo g§»`mnZ XmoZ àH$maMo AgVo.
(1) gm{d©H$ g§»`mnZ/gm‘mÝ`rH$aU, (2) ApñVËdXe©H$ 3.5 g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘Z / g§»`mnH$s`
/ ApñVËddmMr g§»`mnZ /gm‘mÝ`rH$aU. Z¡J‘{ZH$ nX²YVr
gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aUmMr à{H«$`m {dYmZr` A{‘l {dYmZm§Mo åhUOoM EH$dmMr Am{U gm‘mÝ`
’$bZmnmgyZ gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mgmR>r {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$am`bm {eH$ë`m‘wio, AmnU A{‘l
Ho$br OmVo, Va ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU à{H«$`onmgyZ {dYmZ Agbobo `wpŠVdmX {MÝhm§{H$V H$ê$ eH$Vmo Am{U
ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo àmßV Ho$br OmVmV. Ë`m§Mr `wŠVVm {gX²Y H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Aem `wpŠVdmXm§Mr
`wŠVVm {gX²Y H$aÊ`mÀ`m nX²YVrbm g§»`mnH$s¶ {ZJ‘Z$
gm{d©H$ g§»`mnZ/gm‘mÝ`rH$aU åhUVmV.
gm{d©H$ g§»`mnZ à{H«$`oV {dYmZr` Z¡J‘{ZH$ {gX²YVoà‘mUoM g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmV
’$bZmnydu gm{d©H$ g§»`mnH$ R>oD$Z gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ` `wpŠVdmXmMo {ZîH$f© {dYmZ Ë`mÀ`m AmYma-
{dYmZ {‘i{dbo OmVo. CXm. ‘x gw§Xa Amho' qH$dm {dYmZm§nmgyZ {d{eîQ> {Z`‘m§À`m AmYmao {ZJ‘ZrV
‘Gx’ ho {dYmZr` ’$bZ Amho. ‘x’ `m ì`ŠVrMbmbm Ho$bo OmVo. g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmV 19 AZw‘mZmÀ¶m d
gw§Xa hm JwUY‘© ~hmb Ho$bm Amho. Oa AmnU hm JwUY‘© ñWmZm§VaUmÀ`m {Z`‘m§~amo~aM Amnë`mbm g§»`mnH$s`
gd© x Zm ~hmb Ho$bm Va Amnë`mbm Imbrbà‘mUo {ZJ‘ZmÀ¶m Mma {Z`‘m§Mr JaO AgVo. ¶mMo H$maU Ago
gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ {‘iob. H$s A{‘l {dYmZo Agboë`m `wpŠVdmXm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z
H$aVmZm Ho$boë`m {dYmZr` ’$bZ Am{U g§»`mnH$mMm
"H$moUVmhr x Agmo, x gw§Xa Amho.' dmna Ho$ë¶m‘wio Ë`m§Mr `wŠVVm Ho$di AZw‘mZmMo 19
{Z`‘ dmnê$Z {gX²Y H$aVm `oV Zmhr.
28
g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmMo Mma {Z`‘ Imbrbà‘mUo … dJm©À`m gd© gXñ`m§~m~V Oo gË` Amho, Vo Ë`m dJm©À`m
àË`oH$ gXñ`m~m~V g˶ Amho. `m gË`mÀ`m AmYmao
(1) gm{d©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (UI) ho {ZînÝZ hmoVo H$s EH$Va hm gXñ` {d{eîQ> gXñ`
Amho qH$dm `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobm. CXm. "àË`oH$ JmoîQ>
(2) gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (UG) gw§Xa Amho' `m gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmnmgyZ "[aQ>m
gw§Xa Amho.' ho {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr{df`rMo {dYmZ AZw‘m{ZV
(3) ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (EG) H$aVm `oVo. qH$dm `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr gw§Xa Amho.
Agohr AZw‘m{ZV H$aVm `oVo. ‘y’ ho {MÝh `ÑÀN>`m
(4) ApñVËdXe©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (EI) {ZdS>boë`m ì`ŠVrgmR>r dmnabo OmVo Am{U {d{eîQ>
ì`ŠVr ì`ŠVrAMbmÀ`m gmhmæ`mZo {MÝhm§{H$V Ho$br
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§Mo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aVmZm Ho$boë`m OmVo. `m XmoÝhr `wpŠVdmXm§Mo {MÝhm§{H$V ê$n -
g§»`mnH$mÀ`m dmnam‘wio ho {Z`‘ Amdí`H$ R>aVmV. UI
d EI ho {Z`‘ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§nmgyZ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ (1) (x) (x) (2) (x) (x)
{dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabo OmVmV. EH$Xm Vo
gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZmV énm§VarV Pmbo H$s AZw‘mZmMo Br By
d ñWmZm§VaUmMo 19 {Z`‘ {ZîH$f© {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r
dmnabo OmVmV. UG d EG ho {Z`‘ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ UI À`m {Z`‘mMm dmna Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmMr
{dYmZm§nmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabo d¡YVm {gX²Y H$aʶmgmR>r H$aVm ¶oB©b.
OmVmV.
gd© Jm`H$ gO©Zerb AgVmV.
g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmMo {Z`‘ (àmW{‘H$ Amd¥ËVr)
‘hoe Jm`H$ Amho.
(1) gm{d©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (UI)
åhUyZ, ‘hoe gO©Zerb Amho.
gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§nmgyZ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$
{dYmZo {‘i{dÊ`mgmR>r gm{d©H$ CXmhaUrH$aUmMm {Z`‘ `wpŠVdmXmMo {MÝhm§H$Z nwT>rbà‘mUo -
dmnabm OmVmo. hm {Z`‘ gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§À`m
ñdê$nmda AmYm[aV Amho. {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo gmd©{ÌH$ (1) (x) (Sx Cx)
g§»`mnZ VoìhmM gË` AgVo Ooìhm Ë`mMr gd© {Zdo{eV
CXmhaUo gË` AgVmV. UI Mm {Z`‘ gm§JVmo H$s {dYmZr` (2) Sm / Cm
’$bZmMo H$moUVohr {Zdo{eV CXmhaU Ë`mÀ`m gmd©{ÌH$
g§»`mnZmnmgyZ `wŠVnUo {ZJ{‘V H$aVm `oVo. gmÜ`m eãXmV AmVm AmnU UI Mm {Z`‘ n{hë`m AmYma
gm§Jm`Mo åhUOo EImX²`m dJm©À`m gd© gXñ`m§~m~V Oo {dYmZmg bmJy H$ê$`m
gË` Amho, Vo Ë`m dJm©À`m àË`oH$ gXñ`m§~m~V gË`
AgVo. {Z`‘mMo {MÝhmË‘H$ àm{V{Z{YH$ ê$n Ago. (1) (x) (Sx Cx)
(x) (x) (2) Sm / Cm
(3) Sm Cm 1, U I
(BWo ‘’ ho ì`ŠVr{MÝh Amho.) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmnmgyZ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZ
AZw‘m{ZV Ho$ë`mZ§Va, UI Mm {Z`‘ Am{U AZw‘mZmMo
UI Mm {Z`‘ Amnë`mbm XmoZ àH$maMo `wpŠVdmX {Z`‘ dmnamdoV. {dYmZ H«$. (3) d (2) bm {dYm`H$
{ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mMr ‘w^m XoVmo. ‘’ (nu ݶy) ho J«rH$ Aja {dYr (M.P.) Mm {Z`‘ dmnê$Z, AmnU {ZîH$f©
ho {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVrgmR>r (ì`pŠVAMb) qH$dm `ÑÀN>`m AZw‘m{ZV H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Aem àH$mao `wpŠVdmXmMr `wŠVVm
{ZdS>boë`m ì`ŠVrgmR>r Amho. {gX²Y H$aVm `oVo.
29
(1) (x) (Sx Cx) `wŠVnUo {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oVmo. `m {Z`‘mMo {MÝhmVrb
àm{V{Z{YH$ ê$n Ago -
(2) Sm / Cm
y
(3) Sm Cm 1, U I
(x) (x)
(4) Cm 3,2 M.P. (`oWo ‘y’ `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr Amho)
UI `m {Z`‘mMm dmna H$aVmZm Amnë`mbm CXmhaUmW© UI Am{U UG Mm dmna H$ê$Z
ì`ŠVrAMb qH$dm `ÑÀN>m {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr ‘y’ Imbrb `wpŠVdmXmMr AmH$m[aH$ {gX²YVm Imbrbà‘mUo
KoÊ`mMm n`m©` Amho. ì`ŠVr AMb qH$dm ‘y’ KoÊ`mMm XoVm ¶oVo
{ZU©`, AmYma {dYmZo Am{U {ZîH$f© `mÀ`m AmYmao KoVm
`oVmo. darb CXmhaUmV Xwgao {dYmZ Am{U {ZîH$f© ho gd© ‘mUgo àm‘m{UH$ AgVmV.
‘hoe `m {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr{df`r AmhoV. åhUyZ EH$M
ì`ŠVrAMb m KoVbo Amho, Á`m‘wio M.P. Mm {Z`‘ gd© à‘m{UH$ ì`ŠVr Mm§Jë¶m AgVmV.
dmnê$Z {ZîH$f© AZw‘m{ZV H$aUo eŠ` Pmbo. Oo ‘y’
qH$dm ‘m’ ì`{V[aŠV BVa H$moUVohr AMa dmnê$Z eŠ` åhUyZ gd© ‘mUgo Mm§Jbr AgVmV.
Pmbo ZgVo.
`wpŠVdmXmMo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo -
(2) gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (UG) (1) (x) (Mx Hx)
gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU Mm {Z`‘ dmnê$Z Amnë`mbm (2) (x) (Hx Gx) / (x) (Mx Gx)
gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZm§nmgyZ gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ`
{dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aVm ¶oVmV. dJm©À`m gd© gXñ`m§~m~V nwT>À`m nm`arV UI Mm {Z`‘ n{hë`m d
Oo gË` Amho, Vo Ë`m dJm©À`m àË`oH$ gXñ`m~m~V gË`
Amho. Ago AmnU `wŠVnUo {ZînÝZ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. nU Xþgè`m AmYma {dYmZmg bmJy H$ê$`m, Z§Va H.S. Mm
Oo EH$m dJm©À`m EImX²`m {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr{df`r gË`
Amho Vo Ë`m dJm©À`m gd© gXñ`m§{df`r gË` Amho, {Z`‘ dmnê$Z {ZîH$f© {Zînm{XV H$ê$ Am{U Imbr
Ago {ZînÝZ H$ê$ eH$V Zmhr. CXm. "Aaq~Xmo VËdk
Amho.' åhUyZ gd© ‘mZd VËdk AmhoV, Ago AmnU åhUy XmI{dë`mà‘mUo nm`ar H«$. 5 bm UG Mm {Z`‘ dmnê$Z
eH$V Zmhr. na§Vw AmnU Ago åhUy eH$Vmo, gm‘mÝ`V…
Oo EH$m ‘mUgmÀ`m ~m~VrV gË` Amho. (H$moUË`mhr {ZîH$f© H$mTy>. UI Mm {Z`‘ dmnaVmZm x À¶m OmJr y KoUo
{d{eîQ> JwUdËVoMm {dMma Z H$aVm) Vo gd© ‘mUgmÀ`m Amdí`H$ Amho H$maU {ZîH$f© gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ
~m~VrV gË` Amho. CXm. ‘mZd {ddoH$erb Amho. Amho Am{U eodQ>r {ZîH$f© H$mT>Ê`mgmR>r UG Mm {Z`‘
åhUyZ gd© ‘mZd {ddoH$erb AmhoV. Ago `wŠV AZw‘mZ dmnamdm bmJob, Oo VoìhmM eŠ` hmoB©b Ooìhm AmnU
H$mTy> eH$Vmo. `mdê$Z Ago AZw‘m{ZV hmoVo H$s, gË`Vm ‘y’ KoD$.
’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZ Or `ÑÀN>çm {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr Amho,
`mnmgyZ gmd©{ÌH$ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ `wŠVnUo {ZînÝZ H$aVm (1) (x) (Mx Hx)
`oVo. åhUyZ UG Mm {Z`‘ Imbrbà‘mUo gm§JVm `oVmo.
{dYmZr` ’$bZmMo gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnZ Ë`mÀ`m `ÑÀN>`m (2) (x) (Hx Gx) / (x) (Mx Gx)
{ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr Agboë`m {Zdo{eV CXmhaUmnmgyZ
(3) My Hy 1, UI
(4) Hy Gy 2, UI
(5) My Gy 3, 4, H.S
(6) (x) (Mx Gx) 5, UG
30
(3) ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (EG) : AmnU ‘y’ EodOr ‘a’ dmnê$Z XoIrb `m
`wpŠVdmXmgmR>r AmH$m[aH$ {gX²YVm XoVm `oD$ eH$Vo.
g˶Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZmnmgyZ ApñVËddmMr
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ àmßV H$aÊ`mgmR>r ApñVËdXe©H$ (1) (x) (Dx Ax)
gm‘mÝ`rH$aUmMm {Z`‘ EG dmnabm OmVmo. ApñVËddmMr
gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ, ho EImX²`m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ`m§~m~V (2) (x) (Dx) / (x) (x)
AgVo. VH©$emñÌmV "H$mhr' `m nXmMm AW© "{H$‘mZ EH$
(H$‘rV H$‘r EH$)' na§Vw gd© Zmhr Agm hmoVmo. Ë`m‘wio (3) Dy Ay 1, UI
EImXçm dJm©Vrb {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr~m~V Oo gË` AgVo, Vo
Ë`m dJm©Vrb H$mhr ì`ŠVr~m~V gË` AgVo Ago d¡YnUo (4) Dy 2, UI
{ZJ{‘V H$aVm `oVo. gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aUm~m~V UG
‘mÌ Vgo ZgVo. `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr Agboë`m (5) Ay 3, 4, M.P.
gË`Vm’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZmnmgyZhr ApñVËddmMr gm‘mÝ`
{dYmZ {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oVo. EG Mm {Z`‘ Imbrbà‘mUo (6) (x) (x) 5, EG
gm§JVm `oVmo. - {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo ApñVËddmMr
g§»`mnZ Ë`mÀ`m H$moUË`mhr {Zdo{eV CXmhaUmnmgyZ (4) ApñVËdXe©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (EI)
`wŠVnUo {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oVo. `m {Z`‘mMo {MÝhmVrb
àm{V{Z{YH$ ê$n Ago- ApñVËdXe©H$ CXmhaUrH$aUmMm EI {Z`‘
Ago gm§JVmo, H$s {dYmZr` ’$bZmÀ`m ApñVËdXe©H$
g§»`mnZmnmgyZ AmnU Ë`mÀ`m {Zdo{eV CXmhaUmMo
gË` {ZînZ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`
(x) (x) {dYmZmnmgyZ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mgmR>r
(`oWo ‘’ ho ì`ŠVr{MÝh Amho.) hm {Z`‘ dmnabm OmVmo.
CXm. "H$mhr nwéf XoIUo AmhoV.' ho {dYmZ "A{Zb {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnZ VoìhmM
XoIUm Amho' Oo {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr "A{Zb' ~X²XbMo {dYmZ gË` AgVo Ooìhm Ë`mMo {ZXmZ EH$ Var {Zdo{eV CXmhaU
Amho `m {dYmZmnmgyZ qH$dm ‘y’ hr `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobr gË` AgVo. dJm©À`m H$mhr gXñ`m§~m~V Oo gË` AgVo,
ì`ŠVr Agboë`m {dYmZmnmgyZhr {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oVo. Vo Ë`m dJm©À`m `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>boë`m ì`ŠVr~m~V gË`
`m§Mo {MÝhm§{H$V ê$n Ago hmoB©b - ZgVo. {Zdo{eV CXmhaU `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobr ì`ŠVr
ZgVo. "H$mhr ‘mUgo X`miy AgVmV.' `m {dYmZmnmgyZ
(1) Ha (2) Hy `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>bobm H$moUrhr ‘mUyg X`miy AgVmo,
Agm {ZîH$f© H$mT>Vm `oV Zmhr. AmnU {ZînÝZ Ho$bobo
(x) (x) (x) (x) gË`Vm’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZ {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVr{df`r Agob,
nU Amnë`mbm Ë`m ì`ŠVr~X²Xb H$mhr ‘m{hV Zgob.
`wpŠVdmXmÀ`m `wŠVVoMr/d¡YVoMr AmH$m[aH$ åhUyZ EI Mm {Z`‘ dmnaVmZm ì`ŠVrAMbmMr {ZdS>
{gX²YVm nwT>rbà‘mUo XoVm `oB©b. H$aVmZm, Vmo Ë`m g§X^m©V AmYr AmT>ibobm AgVm
H$m‘m Z`o. `m {Z`‘mMo {MÝhm§H$Z Imbrbà‘mUo -
(1) (x) (Dx Ax)
(x) (x)
(2) (x) (Dx) / (x) (x)
(3) Da Aa 1, UI
(4) Da 2, UI (`o ‘’ ho ì`ŠVrAMb ‘y’ {edm` {^ÝZ AgyZ,
Vo `m g§X^m©V AmYr AmT>ibobo Zmhr.)
(5) Aa 3, 4, M.P.
(6) (x) (x) 5, EG
31
CXmhaUmW© (II) (1) (x) (Bx Px)
(2) (x) (Bx Tx)
(1) (x) (Bx Px) (3) Bd / (x) (Px x)
(2) (x) (Px Tx) / (x) (x)
(3) Pa Ta 2, EI (4) Ba Ta 2, EI
(4) Ba Pa 1, UI (5) Ba Pa 1, UI
(5) Pa 3, Simp. (6) Ba 4, Simp.
(6) Pa 5, D.N. (7) Pa 5, 6, M.P.
(7) Ba 4, 6, M.T. (8) Ta Ba 4, Com.
(8) (x) ( Bx) 7, EG (9) Ta 8, Simp.
BWo bjmV R>odÊ`mMm ‘hËdmMm ‘wX²Xm Agm H$s (10) Pa Ta 7, 9, Conj.
`wpŠVdmXmV Ooìhm UI d EI ho XmoÝhr {Z`‘ dmnam`Mo
AgVmV Voìhm EI Mm {Z`‘ AmYr dmnamdm bmJVmo. `mMo (11) (x) (Px Tx) 10, EG
H$maU åhUOo, EI da {Z~ªY Amho, H$s Ë`m g§X^m©V nydu
(III) (1) (x) (Tx Nx)
Z AmT>ibobo ì`ŠVrAMb dmnam`Mo. darb `wpŠVdmXmV
(2) (x) (Nx Bx)
Oa UI Mm {Z`‘ AmYr dmnabm AgVm Va EI dmnaVmZm
(3) (x) (Bx Ax)
VoM ì`ŠVrAMb KoVm `oV Zmhr Am{U Xwgao ì`ŠVrAMb
(4) (x) (Px x) / (x) (Px x)
dmnabo, Va {ZîH$f© {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oV Zmhr.
AOyZ H$mhr CXmhaUo KoD$ - (5) Pa Ta 4, EI
(I) (1) (x) (Mx Px) (6) Ta Na 1,UI
(2) (x) (Px Tx) (7) Na Ba 2,UI
(3) Md / (x) (x) (8) Ba Aa 3, UI
(4) Md Pd 1, UI (9) Ta Ba 6, 7 H.S.
(5) Pd Td 2,UI (10) Ta Aa 9, 8, H.S.
(6) Md Td 4,5, H.S. (11) Pa 5, Simp.
(7) Td 6,3, M.P. (12) Ta Pa 5, Com.
(8) (x) (x) 7, EG (13) Ta 12, Simp.
(14) Aa 10, 13, M.P.
(15) Pa Aa 11, 14, Conj.
(16) (x) (Px Ax) 15, EG
32
gmam§e
• {dYmZr¶ - VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZ ho EH$ KQ>H$ åhUyZ bjmV KoVbo OmVo. Ë`mV {dYmZmMo {díbofU Ho$bo OmV
Zmhr.
• {dYo` VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZmMo {díbofU Ho$bo OmVo. Vo Aem {d{eîQ> àH$maÀ`m `wpŠVdmXmer g§~§{YV AgVo,
Á`m§Mr ¶w³VVm Ë`mVrb A{‘l {dYmZm§À`m Vm{H©$H$ aMZoda Adb§~yZ AgVo.
• {dYo` VH©$emñÌmV XmoZ àH$maMr A{‘l {dYmZo AmhoV. EH$dmMr {dYmZo Am{U gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo.
• EH$dmMr {dYmZ EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ> JwUY‘©`wŠV Amho qH$dm Zmhr ho gm§JVo.
• EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo XmoZ àH$ma - hmoH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZ Am{U ZH$mamË‘H$ EH$dmMr {dYmZ
• gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ ho dJm©{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aVo.
• gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmMo dJuH$aU XmoZ àH$mamV Ho$bo OmVo.
(1) EH$ dJu¶ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ (2) X²{ddJu¶ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ
• àË`oH$ àH$mamMo nwT>rbà‘mUo dJuH$aU hmoVo. gd© ApñVdmMr, gd© ZmpñVdmMr, ApñVËddmMr ApñVdmMr,
ApñVËddmMr ZmpñVdmMr.
• {dYmZr` ’$bZm§Mr ì`m»`m Aer Ho$br OmVo H$s hr EH$ Aer A{^ì`ŠVr Amho Á¶mV {H$‘mZ EH$ ‘wŠVMb
AgVmo Am{U MbmÀ`m OmJr ì`ŠVrAMb R>odë`mda {dYmZ {‘iVo.
• {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ MbmÀ`m OmJr AMb R>odyZ EH$dmMr {dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$`og CXmhaUrH$aU
åhUVmV.
• {dYmZr` ’$bZmnydu gm{d©H$ qH$dm ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ R>odyZ {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ
{‘i{dÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$`obm g§»`mnZ qH$dm gm‘mÝ`rH$aU åhUVmV.
• gm‘mÝ`rH$aU XmoZ àH$maMo AgVmV. (1) gmd©{ÌH$ (gm{d©H$) g§»`mnZ /gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (2) ApñVËdXe©H$
g§»`mnZ/gm‘mÝ`rH$aU
• g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmV `wpŠVdmXmMo {ZîH$f© {dYmZ Ë`mÀ`m AmYma {dYmZmnmgyZ {d{eîQ> {Z`‘mÀ`m AmYmao
{ZJ‘ZrV Ho$bo OmVo.
• g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmMo {Z`‘ - (1) gm{d©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (U I) (2) gm{d©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (U G)
(3) ApñVËdXe©H$ gm‘mÝ`rH$aU (E G) (4) ApñVËdXe©H$ CXmhaUrH$aU (E I)
• UI Am{U EI ho {Z`‘ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZm§nmgyZ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabo OmVmV.
• UG Am{U EG ho {Z`‘ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$ {dYmZm§nmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabo OmVo.
33
ñdmÜ`m`
à. 1. H§$gmVrb `mo½` eãX {ZdSy>Z [aH$må¶m OmJm ^am. à. 2. Imbrb {dYmZo gË` AmhoV H$s AgË` Vo gm§Jm.
(1) ........... ì`ŠVrMb Amho. (, x)
(2) ........... {dYo`Mb Amho. (A, ) (1) "H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo' ho gyÌ (A{^ì`ŠVr)
(3) ì`ŠVr ........... ho {d{eîQ> ì`ŠVtgmR>r ApñVËdXe©H$ g§»`mnH$ Amho.
dmnaVmV. (AMb/Mb) (2) CXmhaUrH$aUmÀ`m à{H«$`oX²dmao {dYmZ’$bZmnmgyZ
(4) ........... Mr à{H«$`m EH$dmMr {dYmZ AZw‘m{ZV EH$dmMr {dYmZ àmßV Ho$bo OmD$ eH$Vo.
H$aÊ`mgmR>r Cn`moJr nS>Vo. (g§»`mnZ / (3) g§»`mnH$sH$aUÀ`m à{H«$`oX²dmao {dYmZ’$bZmnmgyZ
CXmhaUrH$aU) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ àmßV Ho$bo OmD$ eH$Vo.
(5) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo ........... `m à{H«$`oVyZ {‘iVmV.
(CXmhaUrH$aU / gm‘mÝ`rH$aU) (4) UG À`m {Z`‘mZwgma g§nyU© dJm©{df`r Oo gË`
(6) ........... gË` qH$dm AgË` ZgVo. ({dYmZr` AgVo Vo Ë`m dJm©Vrb àË`oH$ gXñ`mgmR>r gË`
’$bZ / {dYmZ) AgVo.
(7) {dYo` AMb ........... {deofUmgmR>r dmnaVmV.
(H$moUË`mhr / {d{eîQ>) (5) EG À`m {Z`‘mZwgma `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>boë`m
(8) ì`ŠVr Mb ........... ì`ŠVrgmR>r dmnabo OmVo. dñVy{df`r Oo gË` AgVo Vo dJm©Vrb gd©
({d{eîQ> / H$moUË`mhr) gXñ`m§À`m ~m~VrV gË` AgVo.
(9) ........... ho gd© ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ Amho.
(E, O) (6) EG À`m {Z`‘mZwgma {dYmZr` ’$bZmMo
(10) ........... hm gm{d©H$ g§»`mnH$ Amho. ApñVËddmMr g§»`mnZ Ë`mÀ`m H$moUË`mhr
{Zdo{eV CXmhaUmnmgyZ `wŠVnUo AZw‘m{ZV H$aVm
((x), (x) ) `oVo.
(11) ........... gË` qH$dm AgË` AgVo. ({dYmZ /
(7) () hm gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnH$ Amho.
{dYmZr` ’$bZ)
(12) "H$moUVrhr JmoîQ> Agmo' ho ........... g§»`mnH$ (8) g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmÀ`m AmH$m[aH$ {gX²YVoV UI
Am{U EI ho XmoÝhr {Z`‘ dmnam`Mo AgVrb Va
Amho. (ApñVËdXe©H$ / gm{d©H$) E.I. Mm {Z`‘ AmYr dmnamdm.
(13) ........... VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZ EH$ KQ>H$ åhUyZ
(9) UI Am{U EI Mo {Z`‘ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmVyZ
bjmV KoVbo OmVo. ({dYmZr` / {dYmZ) g§»`mnH$ H$mT>Ê`mgmR>r dmnaVmV.
(14) {dYmZmMo {díbofU ........... VH©$emñÌmV Ho$bo
(10) UG Am{U EG Mo {Z`‘ gË`Vm ’$bZmË‘H$
OmVo. ({dYmZr` / {dYmZ) {dYmZm§nmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZo {ZînÝZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r
(15) ........... {dYmZ EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ> dmnabo OmVmV.
JwUY‘©`wŠV Amho qH$dm Zmhr ho gm§JVo. (11) {dYmZr` VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZ EH$ KQ>H$ åhUyZ
bjmV KoVbo OmVo.
(EH$dmMr / gm‘mÝ`)
(12) EH$dmMr {dYmZ dJm©{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aVmo.
(13) {dYmZr` ’$bZmV EH$Var ~X²Y Mb AgVmo.
(14) EH$dmMr {dYmZ EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ>
JwUY‘©`wŠV Amho qH$dm Zmhr ho gm§JVo.
34
§à. 3. OmoS>çm bmdm. (13) Agm Mb Omo g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ AgVmo qH$dm
g§»`mnH$ Ë`mÀ`m nydu `oVmo.
(A) (~)
à. 5. H$maUo X²`m :
(1) {dYmZ (A) a
(1) Ooìhm {gX²YVo‘Ü`o U.I. Am{U E.I. XmoÝhrMm
(2) {dYmZr` ’$bZ (~) (x) Sx Cn`moJ hmoVmo Voìhm E.I. Mm {Z`‘ AmYr dmnamdm
bmJVmo.
(3) ì`ŠVr Mb (H$) B
(2) U.G. Mm {Z`‘ Amnë`mbm ’$ŠV `ÑÀN>`m
(4) {dYo` AMb (S>) x {ZdS>boë`m ì`ŠVrnmgyZ gm‘mÝ` {dYmZ {ZînÝZ
H$aÊ`mMr nadmZJr XoVmo.
(5) gmd©{ÌH$ g§»`mnH$ (B) Hx
(3) E.I. Mm {Z`‘ dmnaV AgVmZm ApñVËddmMr
(6) ì`ŠVr AMb (’$) (x) gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmnmgyZ `ÑÀN>`m {ZdS>boë`m
ì`ŠVr{df`rMo {dYmZ {ZînÝZ H$aVm `oV Zmhr.
à. 4. Imbrb {Xboë¶m {dYmZm§gmR>r VH©$emñÌr` g§km
gm§Jm. (4) AZw‘mZmMo d à{V{ZdoeZmMo {Z`‘ VgoM gmonm{YH$
{gX²YVm nX²YVr d AàË`j {gX²YVm nX²YVr,
(1) VH©$emñÌmMr Aer emIm Á`mV {dYmZ EH$ KQ>H$ gd© `wpŠVdmXmMr `wŠVVm {gX²Y H$aÊ`mgmR>r nwaogo
åhUyZ bjmV KoVbo OmVo. ZmhrV.
(2) VH©$emñÌmMr Aer emIm Á`mV {dYmZmMo (5) {dYmZr` ’$bZ gË`hr ZgVo Am{U AgË`hr
{díbofU A§V^y©V Amho. ZgVo.
(3) Ago {dYmZ Oo EImXr ì`ŠVr {d{eîQ> JwUY‘©`wŠV (6) EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo {MÝhm§H$Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r
Amho qH$dm Zmhr ho gm§JVo. g§»`mnH$mMm dmna Ho$bm OmV Zmhr.
(4) Ago {dYmZ Oo dJm©{df`r à{VnmXZ H$aVo. à. 6. ñnîQ> H$am.
(5) Aer A{^ì`ŠVr Á`mV {H$‘mZ EH$ ‘wŠVMb (1) UI. Mm {Z`‘
AgVmo Am{U MbmÀ`m OmJr ì`ŠVrAMb
R>odë`mg {dYmZ {‘iVo. (2) UG. Mm {Z`‘
(6) {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ MbmÀ`m OmJr AMb R>odyZ (3) EG. Mm {Z`‘
EH$dmMr {dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mMr à{H«$`m.
(4) EI. Mm {Z`‘
(7) {dYmZr` ’$bZmnydu gmd©{ÌH$ qH$dm ApñVËdXe©H$
g§»`mnH$ R>odyZ {dYmZr` ’$bZmnmgyZ gm‘mÝ` (5) CXmhaUrH$aU
{dYmZ {‘i{dÊ`mMr à{H«$`m.
(6) g§»`mnZ
(8) Ago {MÝh Oo ì`ŠVrÀ`m Zm‘mgmR>r dmnabo OmVo.
(7) {dYmZ VH©$emñÌ Am{U {dYo` VH©$emñÌmVrb
(9) Ago {MÝh Oo {d{eîQ> JwUY‘m©gmR>r dmnabo OmVo. ’$aH$
(10) Ago {MÝh Oo H$moUË`mhr ì`ŠVrgmR>r dmnabo (8) EH$dmMr {dYmZ Am{U gm‘mÝ` {dYmZmVrb ’$aH$
OmVo.
(9) {dYmZ Am{U {dYmZr` ’$bZmVrb ’$aH$
(11) Ago {MÝh Oo H$moUË`mhr JwUY‘m©À`m Zm‘mgmR>r
dmnabo OmVo. (10) g§»`mnH$s` {ZJ‘ZmMo ñdén
(12) Agm Ma Omo g§»`mnH$mMm ^mJ ZgVmo qH$dm
g§»`mnH$ Ë`mÀ`m nydu `oV Zmhr.
35
(11) EH$dmMr {dYmZ (24) H$mhr eoAg© ho g‘^mJ ZmhrV.
(12) {dYmZr¶ ’$bZ
à. 6. Imbrb {dYmZmMo `mo½` Vmo g§»`mnH$ Am{U (25) hdmB© {V{H$Q>o Zoh‘rM ‘hmJ AgVmV.
{dYmZ’$bZ dmnê$Z {MÝhm§H$Z H$am. (26) b~mS> ‘mUgo H$miOrdmhÿ ZgVmV.
(1) EH$hr gñVZ àmUr A§S>r KmbV Zmhr.
(2) gd© H$mhr ‘m¡ë`dmZ AgVo. (27) AZoH$ ~±H$m amîQ´>r`H¥$V AmhoV.
(3) H$mhr XwH$mZXma gai ZgVmV.
(4) H$mhr Kao gw§Xa AgVmV. (28) ‘wbo Šd{MVM Aä`mgmV ag KoVmV.
(5) ehamVrb H$moUVrhr H§$nZr Šd{MVM {XdmiImoa
(29) Oo H$mhr {Q>H$mD$ AgVo Vo IaoXrg `mo½` AgVo.
Amho.
(6) VoWo hËVr AmhoV. (30) EH$hr {eS>r bm§~ Zmhr.
(7) EH$e¥§Jr KmoSo> ApñVËdmV ZgVmV.
(8) H$mhr àemgH$ àm‘m{UH$ AgVmV. à. 7. Imbrb ¶wp³VdmXmMr AmH$m[aH$ {gX²YVm Xçm.
(9) H$mhr `wdH$m§Zm nmohm`bm AmdS>Vo.
(10) dJm©Vrb EH$hr {dXçmWu MmMUr narjoV nmg (1) (1) (x) (Ax Px)
Pmbm Zmhr. (2) (x) (Ox Px) /(x)(Ox Ax)
(11) gd© Jm`H$ lr‘§V ZgVmV.
(12) àË`oH$ ‘yb {Zînmn AgVo. (2) (1) (x) (Cx Kx)
(13) H$mhr ‘mUgo ~bdmZ (gm‘Ï`©dmZ) ZgVmV.
(14) CS>mU{dahrV njr ApñVËdmV ZgVmV. (2) (x) ( Yx Ax)
(15) H$mhrhr emídV Zmhr.
(16) H$mhr JmoîQ>r ‘mohH$ AmhoV. (3) (x) ( Kx Yx) /(x)(Cx Ax)
(17) gd© ‘mUgo g‘§Og AgVmV.
(18) gd© H$bmH$ma Mm§Jbo ZV©H$ ZgVmV. (3) (1) (x) (Ax Sx)
(19) ì`mdgm{`H$ (ì`mnmar) Šd{MVM emñÌk
(2) (x) (Jx Ax)
AgVmV.
(20) nwñVH$mVrb EH$hr JmoîQ> ‘Zmoa§OH$ Zmhr. (3) Ja / Sa
(21) gd© dmK ‘m§gmhmar àmUr AgVmV.
(22) EH$hr nwñVH$mbm doîQ>Z Zmhr. (4) (1) (x) (Dx Sx)
(23) H$mhr XþH$mZo Iwbr AmhoV.
(2) Dc
(3) Wc / Sc Wc
(5) (1) (x) (Tx Ax)
(2) (x) (Mx)
(3) (x) (Ax Mx)
/ (x) ( Ax Tx)
(6) (1) (x) (Mx Sx)
(2) (x) (Nx Lx)
(3) Sa Na / Ma La
(7) (1) (x) (Px Sx)
(2) (x) (Px Lx)
(3) Pa / (x) (Sx Lx)
(8) (1) (x) (Tx Nx)
(2) (x) (Nx Mx)
(3) Td / Ad Md
36
(9) (1) (x) (Tx Rx) (19) (1) (x) [Ax (Bx Fx)]
(2) (x) (Tx Nx) (2) (x) (Ax Bx) / (x) Fx
(3) (x) (Rx Kx) / (x) (Rx Kx) (20) (1) (x) (Dx Gx)
(10) (1) (x) (Nx Hx) (2) Db
(2) Hm Cm / (x) (Cx Nx) (3) (x) [Dx (Gx Kx)] / (x) Kx
(11) (1) (x) [(Qx Rx) Tx] (21) (1) (x) (Fx Gx)
(2) (x) Qx / (x) Tx (2) (x) (Gx Hx) / (x) (Fx Hx)
(12) (1) (x) [(Jx Kx) Lx] (22) (1) (x) (Ax Bx)
(2) Ka (2) Bx / (x) Ax
(3) (x) ~ Lx / (x) Jx (23) (1) (x) (Hx Px)
(13) (1) (x) [Dx (Hx Kx)] (2) (x) (Px x) / Hy Ty
(2) (x) (Hx Px) (24) (1) (x) (Bx Kx)
(3) Dg / (x) (Px Kx) (2) (x) Kx / Bt
(14) (1) (x) (Hx Gx) (25) (1) (x) (Nx Rx)
(2) (x) (Hx Lx) / (x) (Lx Gx) (2) (x) (Qx Rx) / (x) (Qx Nx)
(15) (1) (x) (Ux Wx) (26) (1) (x) [Fx (Lx Ox)]
(2) (x) Ux (2) (x) Fx / (x) Ox
(3) (x) Zx / (x) (Wx Zx) (27) (1) (x) (Mx Nx)
(16) (1) (x) [Px (Qx Rx)] (2) (x) (Nx Rx) / (x) (Mx Rx)
(2) (x) (Rx Tx) (28) (1) (x) (Ax Bx)
(3) (x) Px / (x) (Qx Tx) (2) (x) (Bx Cx)
(17) (1) (x) [Ix (Px Lx)] (3) (x) (Cx Dx) / (x) (Ax Dx)
(2) (x) (Px Qx) (29) (1) (x) [Cx (Fx Gx)]
(3) Pd (2) Cp / Gp Fp
(4) (x)Ix / (x) (Qx Lx) (30) (1) (x) (Dx Gx)
(18) (1) (x) [Ax (Rx Tx)] (2) (x) [(Dx (Gx Kx)] / (x) Kx
(2) (x) Ax
(3) (x) (Sx Tx) / (x) (Sx Rx) vvv
37
4 nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌ (Traditional Logic)
4.1 nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmVrb {dYmZmMo ñdén… n{hë¶m {dYmZmV "Jm¶r' ho CX²Xoí¶ nX Am{U
"àmUr' ho {dYo¶ nX Amho. Xþgè¶m {dYmZmV "{dXçmWu'
J«rH$ VËËdk A°[añQ>m°Q>b hm nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmMm ho CX²Xoí¶ nX Va "¶eñdr' ho {dYo¶ nX Amho.
OZH$ Amho. A°[añQ>m°Q>bÀ¶m ‘Vo, {dYmZmV nXo g‘m{dîQ>
AgVmV. ""Vm{H©$H$ {dYmZmVrb "CX²Xoí¶' qH$dm "{dYo¶' n{hë¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ Amho H$s "gd©
¶mgmR>r Omo eãX qH$dm eãXg‘yh dmnabm OmVmo. ˶mg Jm¶r àmUr AmhoV.' na§Vw Xþgè¶m {dYmZmV ‘mÌ H$mhr
"nX' Ago åhUVmV.'' {dXçmWu ¶eñdr AmhoV ho ZmH$mabo Amho.
CXmhaUmW© … nXo hr {dYmZm§Mo KQ>H$ AmhoV. {dYmZmVrb CX²Xoe
Am{U {dYo¶ hr XmoÝhr nXo g§¶moOH$mZo OmoS>bobr AgVmV.
(1) ~wX²{Y‘mZ 춳Vr g¥OZerb AgVmV. åhUyZ {dYmZmV VrZ ‘yb^yV KQ>H$ AgVmV - CX²Xoí¶,
{dYo¶ Am{U g§¶moOH$.
(2) ^y{‘H$m hr dJm©Vrb gdmªV C§M ‘wbJr Amho.
CXm. gd© g’$aM§X bmb AmhoV.
(3) VoOg hþema Amho.
darb CXmhaUmV "g’$aM§X' ho CX²Xoí¶ nX "bmb'
n{hë¶m {dYmZmVrb CX²Xoí¶nX "~wX²{Y‘mZ 춳Vr' ho {dYo¶ nX Am{U "AmhoV' ho g§¶moOH$ Amho.
hm eãXg‘yh Amho.
4.2 {dYmZm§Mo nma§n[aH$ dJuH$aU …
Xþgè¶m {dYmZmVrb {dYo¶nX "C§M ‘wbJr' hm
eãXg‘yh Amho Am{U {Vgè¶m {dYmZmVrb CX²Xoí¶nX nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmV {dYmZm§Mo XmoZ àH$mamV
"VoOg' Am{U {dYo¶nX "hþema' ho XmoÝhr EH$b eãX dJuH$aU Ho$bo OmVo.
AmhoV.
(1) gmonm{YH$
nX ho H$emMo Var à{V{Z{YËd H$aUmè¶m H$WZmMm
^mJ AgVo. na§Vw Vo g˶ qH$dm Ag˶ ZgVo. CXm. (2) {Zénm{YH$
‘mUyg, àmUr, ‘˶©Ëd B. Var nU nXo Á¶m {dYmZmV
AZwñ¶yV AgVmV Vr {dYmZo ‘mÌ g˶ qH$dm Ag˶ 4.2.1 gmonm{YH$ …
AgVmV. nXm§‘Yrb {dXç‘mZ g§~§Ymdê$Z AZw‘mZ
{Zînm{XV Ho$bo OmD$ eH$Vo. Am°[añQ>m°Q>bÀ¶m ‘Vo à˶oH$ gmonm{YH$ {dYmZ åhUOo Ago EH$ {d{eîQ> {dYmZ
{dYmZ H$mhr Var à{VnmXZ H$aVo qH$dm Vo ZmH$maV AgVo. Á¶mV EImXr AQ> 춳V Ho$bobr AgVo. CXm. "Oa
Á¶mÀ¶m {df¶r H$mhr Var à{VnmXZ Ho$bo OmVo qH$dm {S>Pob Vob A½ZrOdi Zobo Va ñ’$moQ> hmoB©b'. àñVwV
ZmH$mabo OmVo. ˶mg "CX²Xoí¶ nX' Va CX²Xoí¶mg§~§Yr CXmhaUmV ñ’$moQ>mMr KQ>Zm hr {S>Pob Vob Ap½ZOdi
Oo H$mhr à{VnmXZ Ho$bo OmVo qH$dm ZmH$mabo OmVo ˶mg Zobo ¶m CnmYrda Adb§~yZ Amho. gmonm{YH$ {dYmZo XmoZ
"{dYo¶nX' Ago åhUVmV. nX g§nyU© dJm©Mm qH$dm ˶m àH$maMr AgVmV.
dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶m§Mm {ZX}e H$aVmV.
(1) gmnoj {dYmZ
CXmhaUmW© …
(2) d¡H$pënH$ {dYmZ
(1) gd© Jm¶r àmUr AmhoV.
(2) H$mhr {dXçmWu ¶eñdr ZmhrV.
38
(1) gmnoj {dYmZ {dYmZmVrb {dYo¶ nX H$moU˶mhr AQ>r{edm¶ CX²Xoí¶
nXm{df¶r ñnîQ> hmoH$ma qH$dm ZH$ma à{VnmXZ H$aVo.
"gmnoj {dYmZ ho Ago {dYmZ AgVo H$s Oo Aem
CnmYrMm {ZX}e H$aVo H$s {OÀ¶mnmgyZ H$mhr n[aUm‘ CXm. "gd© {‘aÀ¶m {VIQ> AgVmV.' {‘aÀ¶m§Mm
(H$m¶©) KSy>Z ¶oVo.' gmnoj {dYmZmV XmoZ {dYmZo AgVmV. {VIQ>nUm H$moU˶mhr CnmYrZo R>aV ZgVmo.
EH$ {dYmZ CnmYrMo à{VnmXZ H$aVo Va Xþgao {dYmZ
n[aUm‘m§Mo à{VnmXZ H$aVo. Oo {dYmZ CnmYrMo à{VnmXZ à˶oH$ {Zê$nm{YH$ {dYmZmg JwU Am{U n[a‘mU
H$aVo ˶mg nydmªJ Ago åhUVmV Va Oo {dYmZ n[aUm‘mMo AgVo. {Zê$nm{YH$ {dYmZmMm JwU ¶mMm AW© EH$Va
à{VnmXZ H$aVo ˶mg CËVam§J Ago åhUVmV. Vo H$mhr ñdrH$maVo qH$dm ZmH$maVo, EH$Va Vo hmoH$mamWu
AgVo qH$dm ZH$mamWu {dYmZ AgVo. Ooìhm {dYo¶nX
CXmhaUmW© … "Oa YmVyg CîUVm {Xbr Va Vmo àgaU CX²Xoí¶nXmMr nwîQ>r H$aVo Voìhm Vo {dYmZ hmoH$mamWu
nmdVmo. àñVwV CXmhaU, "Oa YmVybm CîUVm {Xbr Va AgVo. Ooìhm {dYo¶nX CX²Xoí¶nXm{df¶r ZH$ma Xe©dVo
Vmo àgaU nmdVmo.' dñVwpñWVrMm {ZX}e H$aV Zmhr, Va Voìhm Vo {dYmZ ZH$mamWu AgVo.
Vo Ho$di ¶m CnmYrMo à[VnmXZ H$aVo H$s CnmYrMr nyV©Vm
Pmbr Va n[aUm‘ KSy>Z ¶oVmVM. CXmhaUmW© …
(2) d¡H$pënH$ {dYmZ … (1) H$mhr 춳Vr àm‘m{UH$ AgVmV.
d¡H$pënH$ {dYmZ n¶m©¶ gyMH$ AgVo. àñVwV (2) H$moUVmhr hËVr ‘m§gmhmar àmUr ZgVmo.
{dYmZ Ago à{VnmXZ H$aVo H$s {Xbobo {dH$ën nañna
ì¶mdV©H$ qH$dm g‘mdoeH$ AgVmV. n{hbo {dYmZ hmoH$mamWu Amho. "춳Vr' ¶m
CX²Xoí¶nXmbm "àm‘m{UH$' ho {dYo¶nX nwîQ>r XoVo. Xþgao
CXmhaUmW© … {dYmZ ZH$mamWu Amho. H$maU ¶m {dYmZmVrb {dYo¶nX
"‘m§gmhmar àmUr' ho "hËVr' ¶m CX²Xoí¶nXmMm {ZfoY H$aVo.
(1) aof gai qH$dm dH«$mH$ma AgVo.
à˶oH$ {Zénm{YH$ {dYmZmbm n[a‘mU AgVo.
(2) JUoe Jm¶Z H$aob qH$dm Z¥Ë¶ H$aob. à˶oH$ {Zénm{YH$ {dYmZ {dYo¶mMo à{VnmXZ H$aVo qH$dm
{dYo¶ nXmbm ZmH$maVo. ho à{VnmXZ qH$dm ZH$ma hm ˶m
n{hë¶m CXmhaUmVrb {dH$ën nañna ì¶mdV©H$ g§nyU© dJm©Mm qH$dm ˶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶m§Mm Agy
AmhoV, Ooìhm AmnU åhUVmo H$s, "aofm gai Amho' Voìhm eH$Vmo.
AmnU Vr dH«$ Agë¶mMo ZmH$maVmo. hoM Xþgè¶m ~mOyZo
hr åhUVm ¶oVo. na§Vw Xþgè¶m CXmhaUmVrb {dH$ën nañna {Zénm{YH$ {dYmZ EH$ Va gm‘mݶdmMr AgVo
ì¶mdV©H$ ZgyZ nañna g‘mdoeH$ AmhoV. Ooìhm AmnU qH$dm {deofdmMr AgVo. Ooìhm Vo CX²Xoí¶nXmÀ¶m dJm©Vrb
"JUoe Jm¶Z H$aob' hm n¶m©¶ ñdrH$maVmo Voìhm "JUoe gd© gXñ¶m§Mm {ZX}e H$aVo Voìhm Vo gm‘mݶdmMr AgVo
Z¥Ë¶ H$aob' hm {dH$ën ZmH$maV Zmhr. Va Ooìhm Vo CX²Xoí¶nXmÀ¶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶m§Mm
{ZX}e H$aVo, Voìhm Vo {deofdmMr AgVo.
4.2.2 {Zê$nm{YH$ {dYmZ …
CXmhaUmW© …
{Zê$nm{YH$ {dYmZ ho Ago {dYmZ AgVo H$s Oo
CX²Xoí¶ nXmMm dJ© Am{U {dYo¶ nXmMm dJ© ¶mVrb (1) gd© ~wX²{Y~inQy> Vm{H©$H$ AgVmV.
ghg§~§YmMm {ZX}e H$aVo. A°[añQ>m°Q>bÀ¶m ‘Vo dJ© åhUOo
gd© 춳Vr qH$dm dñVw§Mm Agm g§J«h H$s Á¶m§À¶mV H$mhr (2) H$mhr ^mfm AdKS> AgVmV.
{d{eîQ> d¡{eîQ>ço gm‘mB©H$nUo AmT>iVmV. {Zê$nm{YH$
n{hbo {dYmZ gm‘mݶdmMr Amho. H$maU ¶m
{dYmZmVrb CX²Xoí¶nX Ogo H$s, ~wX²{Y~inQw>§Mm dJ© -
39
ho g§nyU© dJm©gmR>r bmJy hmoVo. Xþgao {dYmZ {d{eîQ>dmMr (2) gd© ZmpñVdmMr (‘E’ {dYmZ)
Amho H$maU ¶m {dYmZmVrb CX²Xoí¶nX Ogo H$s, ^mfm§Mm
dJ© - hm ^mfoÀ¶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶m§ZmM bmJy hmoVo. Ooìhm {dYmZ n[a‘mUmZwgma gd©dmMr Am{U
JwUmZwgma ZmpñVdmMr AgVo Voìhm ˶mg gd© ZmpñVdmMr
{Zénm{YH$ ({Zanoj) {dYmZm§Mo dJuH$aU … {dYmZ Ago åhUVmV. ¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ Ho$bo
OmVo H$s CX²Xoí¶ nXmMm g§nyU© dJ© hm {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m
JwUm§Zwgma {dYmZm§Mo dJuH$aU hmoH$mamWu d dJm©VyZ dJibobm Amho. CXm. EH$hr qgh dmK Zmhr. ¶m
ZH$mamWu Ago Ho$bo OmVo Am{U n[a‘mUmZwgma gm‘mݶdmMr {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ AgVo, H$s "qgh' ¶m dJm©Vrb
d {deofdmMr Ago dJuH$aU Ho$bo OmVo. åhUyZ JwU Am{U EH$hr gXñ¶ "dmK' ¶m dJm©Mm gXñ¶ Zmhr. H$moUVohr
n[a‘mU ¶m XmoZ VËËdm§À¶m AmYmao {dYmZm§Mo Mma àH$ma gd© ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ nwT>rb à‘mUo {b{hbo OmVo.
hmoVmV. ¶mbm {dYmZm§Mr "nma§n[aH$ aMZm' Ago åhUVmV. EH$hr "C' ho "{d' Zmhr. ¶m {R>H$mUr "C' Am{U "{d' hr
˶mbm "{dYmZm§Mo MVw©{dY dJuH$aU' Agohr åhUVmV. Ajao AZwH«$‘o CX²Xoí¶ Am{U {dYo¶mMm {ZX}e H$aVmV. ¶m
nma§nm[aH$ dJuH$aUmV g‘m{dîQ> Agbobo {dYmZm§Mo Mma {dYmZmg ‘E’ {dYmZ Agohr åhUVmV. ho XmoZ dJm©Vrb
àH$ma nwT>rbà‘mUo AmhoV. g‘mdoeZmÀ¶m g§~§YmMm ZH$ma Xe©{dVo. CX²Xoí¶ dJm©Mm
H$moUVmhr gXñ¶ {dYo¶ dJm©Mm gXñ¶ Zmhr. ¶m {dYmZmV
(1) gd© ApñVdmMr ( ‘A’ {dYmZ) "C' nXmMm dJ© "{d' nXmÀ¶m dJm©nmgyZ g§nyU© dOuV
AgVmo.
Ooìhm {dYmZ ho n[a‘mUmZwgma gd©dmMr Am{U
JwUm§Zwgma ApñVdmMr (hmoH$mamWu) AgVo. Voìhm ˶mbm (3) {deof ApñVdmMr (‘I’ {dYmZ)
gd© ApñVdmMr {dYmZ Ago åhUVmV. ¶m {dYmZmVrb
{dYo¶ CX²Xoí¶mÀ¶m gd© gXñ¶m§~X²Xb à{VnmXZ H$aVo. Ooìhm {dYmZ n[a‘mUmZwgma {deofdmMr Am{U
¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ AgVo H$s CX²Xoí¶ nXmÀ¶m JwUmZwgma ApñVdmMr AgVo Voìhm ˶mg {deof ApñVdmMr
dJm©Vrb à˶oH$ gXñ¶ hm {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©V g‘m{dîQ {dYmZ Ago åhUVmV. ¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ AgVo
AgVmo. H$s CX²Xoí¶mÀ¶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶ ho {dYo¶mÀ¶m
dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> AgVmV. CXm. H$mhr nwñVHo$ ‘Zmoa§OH$
CXm. gd© {ejH$ nmÌVmYmaH$ AmhoV. ¶m {dYmZmV AgVmV. ¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ AgVo H$s "nwñVH$'
Ago à{VnmXZ AgVo H$s "{ejH$' ¶m dJm©Vrb à˶oH$ ¶m CX²Xoí¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶ "‘Zmoa§OH$'
gXñ¶ hm "nmÌVmYmaH$' ¶m dJm©Mmhr gXñ¶ Amho. ¶m {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> AgVmV. {deof
H$moUVohr gd© ApñVdmMr {dYmZ nwT>rb à‘mUo {b{hbo ApñVdmMr {dYmZ nwT>rbà‘mUo {b{hbo OmVo. H$mhr "C'
OmD$ eH$Vo. "{d' AgVmV. hm {deof A{ñVdmMr {dYmZmMm Vm{H©$H$
AmH$ma Amho. Á¶mMm AW© CX²Xoí¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Mm (C)
"gd© "C.' ho "{d.' Amho.' hm gd© ApñVdmMr {H$‘mZ EH$ gXñ¶ {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Mm ({d.) gXñ¶
{dYmZmMm Vm{H©$H$ AmH$ma Amho. "C' Am{U "{d' hr Ajao Amho. ¶m {dYmZmg ‘I’ {dYmZ Agohr åhUVmV. ho XmoZ
CX²Xoí¶ nXmMo Am{U {dYo¶ nXmMo à{V{Z{YËd H$aVo. ¶m dJm©Vrb A§eV… g‘mdoeZmÀ¶m g§~§Ymg nwîQ>r XoVo. ¶m
{dYmZmg ‘A’ {dYmZ Agohr åhUVmV. ho Ago à{VnmXZ {dYmZmV CX²Xoí¶ nXmMm dJ© hm A§eV… {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m
H$aVo H$s g‘mdoeZmMm g§~§Y XmoZ dJm©‘ܶo Amho Am{U dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> AgVmo.
ho g‘mdoeZ g§nyU© Amho. (Ogo H$s - gm‘mݶ) "CX²Xoí¶'
dJm©Vrb gd© gXñ¶ "{dYo¶' dJm©Mo XoIrb gXñ¶ AmhoV. (4) {deof ZmpñVdmMr (‘O’ {dYmZ)
Xþgè¶m eãXmV gm§Jmd¶mMo Pmë¶mg "C.'dJ© hm g§nyU©nUo
"{d.' dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> Amho. Ooìhm {dYmZ n[a‘mUmZwgma {deofdmMr Am{U
JwUmZwgma ZmpñVdmMr AgVo Voìhm ˶mg {deof ZmpñVdmMr
40
{dYmZ Ago åhUVmV. ¶m {dYmZmV Ago à{VnmXZ Ho$bo ‘A’ {dYmZ. EH$dmMr ZH$mamWu (ZmpñVdmMr) {dYmZ ho
Amho H$s CX²Xoí¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Vrb H$mhr gXñ¶ {dYo¶ gd©dmMr ZH$mamWu (ZmpñVdmMr) {dYmZ g‘Obo OmVo,
nXmÀ¶m dJm©VyZ dJibo AmhoV. CXm. H$mhr àmUr qhò åhUOo ‘E’ {dYmZ.
ZgVmV. ¶m {dYmZmV "àmUr' ¶m CX²Xoí¶ dJm©Vrb H$mhr
gXñ¶ "{hò' ¶m {dYo¶ dJm©V g‘m{dîQ> ZgVmV. H$moUVohr CXmhaUmW© …
ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZ nwT>rbà‘mUo {b{hbo OmVo. H$mhr "C'
"{d' ZmhrV. Á¶mMm AW© CX²Xoí¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Mm (C) (1) ñ‘¥Vr hþema Amho.
{H$‘mZ EH$ gXñ¶ {dYo¶ nXmÀ¶m dJm©Mm ({d) gXñ¶
Zmhr. ¶m {dYmZmg ‘O’ {dYmZ Agohr åhUVmV. ho XmoZ (2) ¶moJoe {^Ìm Zmhr.
dJm©Vrb A§eV… g‘mdoeZmÀ¶m g§~§Ymg ZH$ma XoVo. Vo
Ago à{VnmXZ H$aVo H$s "C' nXmMm dJ© "{d' nXmÀ¶m n{hbo CXmhaU EH$dmMr ApñVdmMr {dYmZmMo
dJm©VyZ dJibm OmVmo. Amho ‘mÌ Vo nma§nm[aH$ VH©$emñÌmV ‘A’ {dYmZ g‘Obo
OmVo Am{U Xþgao CXmhaU EH$dmMr ZmpñVdmMr {dYmZmMo
EH$dmMr {dYmZ … Amho. ‘mÌ Vo nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmV ‘E’ {dYmZ g‘Obo
OmVo.
n[a‘mUmÀ¶m AmYmao {dYmZmMm AmUIr EH$
CndJ© gm§{JVbm OmVmo. ˶mg EH$dmMr {dYmZ Ago gd© gm‘mݶ ^mfoVrb {dYmZo …
åhUVmV. EH$dmMr {dYmZ ho Ago {dYmZ AgVo H$s,
Á¶mVrb {dYo¶ ˶m {dYmZmVrb EH$b {ZpíMV 춳Vr AmnUmg ho kmV Amho H$s "gd©' Am{U "H$mhr'
/ dñVw{df¶r hmoH$ma qH$dm ZH$ma Xe©dVo. ¶mMm AW© Aem eãXm§Mm dmna H$aUmar R>am{dH$ {Zénm{YH$ {dYmZo
Agm H$s EH$dmMr {dYmZmMo CX²Xoí¶nX ho EH$dmMr nX CX²Xoí¶mÀ¶m n[a‘mUmMm {ZX}e H$aVmV. na§Vw X¡Z§{XZ
AgVo. nma§n[aH$ VH©$emñÌmV EH$dmMr {dYmZmg gd©dmMr OrdZmV AmnU Zoh‘rM Aem eãXm§Mm dmna H$aV Zmhr.
{dYmZ åhUyZ g§~moYbo OmVo. H$maU EH$dmMr {dYmZmVrb gd©gm‘mݶ ^mfoV n[a‘mUm§Mm {ZX}e H$aUmao {d{dY eãX
hmoH$ma qH$dm ZH$ma hm g§nyU© CX²Xoí¶nXm{df¶r AgVmo. AmhoV.
EH$dmMr hmoH$mamWu (ApñVdmMr){dYmZ ho gd©dmMr
hmoH$mamWu (ApñVdmMr) {dYmZ g‘Obo OmVo, åhUOo CXmhaUmW© …
(1) nmbH$ Zoh‘r H$miOr KoUmao AgVmV.
(2) H$mhr ‘VXma Xoe^³V AgVmV.
‘A’, ‘E’, ‘I’, ‘O’ {dYmZm§Mm {ZX}e H$aUmao {d{dY eãX Imbrb EH$m$ V³Ë¶mV Xe©dbo AmhoV.
A gd© à˶oH$, H$moUVohr, Zoh‘r, nyU©nUo, Amdí¶H$, H$moUrhr, H$mhrhr B.
E EH$hr Zmhr, H$Yrhr Zmhr, EH$M Zmhr, EH$ XoIrb Zmhr B.
I H$mhr, nwîH$i, ~hþVoH$, ~aoM, AZoH$Xm, ~hþXm, dma§dma, H$YrH$Yr, àg§JmZwgma B.
O ³d{MV, Xþ{‘©inUo, ‘moR>çm H$îQ>mZo, WmoS>§, Odi Odi gd© B.
Ooìhm ‘A’ {dYmZ ZmH$mabo OmVo Voìhm ‘O’ {dYmZ {‘iVo.
Ooìhm ‘I’ {dYmZ ZmH$mabo OmVo Voìhm ‘O’ {dYmZ {‘iVo.
Ooìhm ‘O’ {dYmZ ZmH$mabo OmVo Voìhm ‘I’ {dYmZ {‘iVo.
41
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
Tarkshashtra
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search