;f]nf/ aQL -Solar lamp_
;fn] f/ 6s' L / ;fn] f/ l:66« aQL -Solar street
light_ df klg kmf]6f]eN6]os ;]nx¿sf] k|of]
u ePsf] x'G5 . ;fn] f/ 6'sLdf yf/] } ljBt' \
wf/fsf] kj| fxaf6 aNg] PnO8L (LED_ aQLsf]
h8fg ul/Psf] xG5 . o;df yf]/} ;ª\Vofdf
kmf]6f]efN] 6]os ;]nx¿sf] ;d"xLs/0f ul/Psf]
xG' 5 . ;uF }sf] lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} ;f]nf/ l:6«6 lrq 9.9 ;fn] f/ aQL
aQLx¿df ;f]nf/ Kofgn, Aof6L« , PnO8L aQL, / sG6f« ]n/ u/L dV' o rf/cf6] f cjojx¿ xG' 5g\ .
sG6f« n] /df hl8t On]lS6f« ]lgs pks/0fn] lbp;fs] f] ;dodf ;f]nf/ Kofngaf6 cfpg] ljB't\af6
Aof6«LnfO{ rfh{ u5{ / ;feF mkbf{ cfk;c] fkm PnO8L aQLnfO{ cg u/L Aof6L« af6 aQLdf ljB't\
k7fpF5 .
;fn] f/ 8«fo/ -Solar dryer_
k/Dk/fut ¿kdf vfBfGg h:t} M cfn,' dn' f,
ufh/, 6df6/, eG6f, sfpnL, aGbf, /fof,] d:of}/f,
u'Gb|'s, cflb ;s' fpg vn' f ¿kn] 3fddf /
flvG5 . o;/L ;'sfpbF f a9L ;do nfUg] u5{ .
;fn] f/ 8f« o/df ;'sfpbF f ;dosf] art x'G5 . o;df
vfg]s'/fx¿nfO{ ;s' fpFbf ltgLx¿ afx\o jftfj/0fdf
;s' fpFbf k|bl" ift xg' ;Sg] ;Defjgfaf6 klg
hf]luG5g\ . ;fn] f/ 8f« o/ agfpgsf nflu tLglt/
af6 sr' fnssf] 3/] f / To;sf] dfly 58s\ ] ;tx
x'g] u/L kf/bz{s j:t' h:t} sfFr /fv/] aS;
agfOG5 . o;sf] leqL efudf tfksf] zfi] fs jf lrq 9.10 ;fn] f/ 8f« o/sf] agf6]
sfnf] /ª nufOG5 . cufl8 k6\l6sf] efuaf6 lr;f] xfjfleq hfgsf nflu Kjfn agfOPsf]
x'G5 . To:t} k5f8Lk6\l6sf] dflyNnf] efudf tftf] xfjf aflx/ hfg] u/L Kjfn agfOPsf]
xG' 5 .
;f]nf/ jf6/ lx6/ -Solar water heater_
;fn] f/ jf6/ lx6/df ;"o{sf ljls/0fx¿ cjzf]lift ug{ OEofSo'P6]8 6\o'ax¿ -evacuated tubes_
nfO{ ;dfgfGt/ /xg] u/L kfgLsf] 6\ofªs\ L;uF hfl] 8Psf] x'G5 . kfgLsf] 6o\ fªs\ Lsf] tNnf] efuaf6
lr;f] kfgLnfO{ kfOkx¿df el/G5 . lbgdf ;o" s{ f] tfkn] 6o\ 'ax¿df kfgL tfTbf 3gTj 365\ /
6\ofª\sLsf] dflyNnf] efudf hDdf x'G5 / a9L 3gTj ePsf] lr;f] kfgL 6o\ 'adf el/G5 . jf6/
lx6/sf] 6\ofª\sLaf6 tfknfO{ aflx/ hfg glbgsf nflu sr' fnssf] ko| f]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . h;n]
ubf{ /ftLsf] ;dodf klg kfgL tftf] /xG5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 147
;f]nf/ s's/ (Solar cooker)
;fn] f/ ss' /df k|ofKt ;f}o{ tfknfO{ vfgf ksfpg ko| f]u xg' ] ef8F f]df ;ªs\ ng ug{ 7'nf] lrNnf]
;tx ePsf] jqmsf/ ;tx h:t} sGse] Pg] fsf] ko| f]u ul/Psf] x'G5 . pSt ;txaf6 tfk
s]lGbt| x'g] :yfgdf ef8F f]nfO{ /fVg ldNg] agfOPsf] x'G5 . tfk a9L dfqfdf cjzf]lift xf];\ eg/]
efF8fs] f aflx/L ;tx sfnf] agfOPsf] x'G5 .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
tkfOF{ sf] jl/kl/ :yfgLo ¿kdf pknAw ;fduL| x¿sf] k|ofu] u/L ;fo} { pmhf{ k|fKt ug{] k|ljlwdf
cfwfl/t pks/0fx¿ h:t} ;f]nf/ lx6/sf] lgdf{0f ugx{ f];\ .
hl} js pmhf{ (Bioenergy)
hLjx¿df kf| ª\ufl/s kbfy{ x'G5 . of] ljR5]bg xFb' f tyf hNbf pmhf{ lg:sG5 . jg:kltsf ljleGg
efux¿ tyf hgfj/x¿sf] dnd"q cflbaf6 kf| Kt ul/g] pmhfn{ fO{ h}ljs pmhf{ elgG5, h:t} M
bfp/f, u'O7F f, 5j\ fnL, e;' cflb af6 kf| Kt xg' ] pmhf{ h}ljs phf{ xf] . of] gjLs/0fLo pmhf{ xf] .
hl} js pmhfs{ f] k|of]u oftfoft OGwg, tfk, lah'nL pTkfbg h:tf k|of]hgsf nflu x'G5 .
afofd] f; pmhf{ (Biomass energy)
hLjhGta' f6 kf| Kt ;'Vvf kf| ªu\ fl/s kbfy{ afofd] f; -Biomass_ xf] . pbfx/0fsf nflu
emf/kft, ;'s]sf kftkltªu\ /, wfgsf] e';, sf7sf] wn' f,] sl[ ifhGo cjzi] f, u'O7F f cflb .
k/Dk/fut ¿kdf afofd] f;nfO{ hnfP/ tfk k|fKt ug]{ ul/G5 . gvflF bPsf] vn' f afofd] f;nfO{
e08f/ tyf cf;] f/k;f/ ug{ ;d:of x'G5 . vn' f afof]df;nfO{ hnfpFbf /fd|f];+u gang] / wF'jf
a9L lg:sg] ePsfn] tfk sd pTkGg xG' 5 . t;y{ vn' f afofd] f;nfO{ vfbF /] hnfpbF f dflysf
;d:of ;dfwg ug{ ;lsG5 .
la|s]6 (Briquettes)
v'nf afofd] f;nfO{ vfFb/] afOG8/sf] ko| f]u u/L agfOg] 7f;] OGwg ;f| ]tnfO{ la|s6] elgG5 .
o;nfO{ tfksf nflu 3/ tyf pBfu] x¿df k|of]u ul/G5 . las| ]6 d'Vo b'O{ lsl;dsf xG' 5g\ . hg'
lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
-c_ sfaf{g] fOH8 las| ]6 (carbonized briquette)
sfaf]g{ fOH8 la|s6] cFuf/sf] ;ªs\ l' rt Ans xf] . la|s]6 agfpg bfp/f, emf/kft, e;' cflb
sfa{go'St kbfy{x¿nfO{ Gog" clS;hgdf hnfP/ cuF f/ tof/ kfl/G5 . o;nfO{ rfl/ª (charring)
ljlw elgG5 . pSt cuF f/nfO{ w"nf] agfP/ afOG8/;Fu ld;fP/ d'l5;s]kl5 Pp6f ;fFrf] -moulder_
df /fv]/ rfk lbO{ lglZrt cfsf/sf] las| 6] pTkfbg ul/G5 . la|s6] agfpbF f afOG8/sf ¿kdf
lrD6\ofOnf] df6f,] slgsfsf] lk7fsf] df8, vb' f] cflb klg afOG8/sf ¿kdf k|of]u ul/G5 . o;sf
cltl/St ag:ktLsf] :6fr{ h:t} t?ndf x'g] :6fr{sf] klg k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
148 lj1fg tyf kl| jlw M sIff (
lrq 9.11 sfafg{] fOH8 las| 6] lgdf0{ fsf r/0fx¿
-cf_ sfaf{]hfOH8 gul/Psf las| ]6 (Noncarbonized briquette)
lrq 9.12 sfafg{] fOH8 gul/Psf las| 6]
xfd|f] bz] sf] w]/}h;f] uf| ld0f e]udf ufa] /df e'; ld;fP/ xft] rfk lbO{ lglZrt cfsf/ lbOG5 /
To;nfO{ ;s' fP/ uO' 7F f agfOG5 . uO' F7f lgDg rfkn] tof/ kl/Psf] Ps lsl;dsf] sfafg]{ fOH8
gul/Psf] la|s]6 x'g\ . afof]df; h:t} sf7sf] wn' f], e;' , sfuh cflbnfO{ pRr rfk lbO{ vfbF ]/
sfafg{] fOH8 gul/Psf] las| ]6 agfOG5 . sl[ ifhGo cjzi] fx¿ pvs' f] lrk8f, ;o" d{ v' Lsf 8fF7,
d+u" kmnLsf afq] mf, abfdsf af]qmf, gl/jnsf] afq] mf, cflbnfO{ las| ]6 agfpg k|ofu] ug{ ;lsG5 .
sfaf]{gfOH8 gul/Psf] las| ]6 agfpbF f pRr rfkn] vfbF \g d]l;gsf] k|ofu] ul/G5 . pRr rfksf]
cltl/St cjZostfcg;' f/ tfk / afOG8/ k|of]u ul/G5 . sfaf{g] fOH8 gul/Psf] la|s]6 agfpg
lk:6g k]|;, :jm|' k;|] / /f]n/ k];| kl| jlwsf] k|ofu] ul/G5 .
hfgsf/Lsf nflu
;g\ !(*^ df vd' n6f/ s[lif sDKn]S;df hfkfgL lghL sDkgLn] :j|'m k|]; kl| jlwaf6
e';sf] las| ]6 tof/ kf/s] f] lyof] .
la=;=@)&* ;fnaf6 gk] fn /fi6« aª}F s\ n] k'/fg em' qf gf6] x¿nfO{ hnfpg'sf] ;f6f]
ltgaf6 la|s]6 agfpg dl] ;g leq\ofPsf] xf]
las| ]6sf] k|of]u
-c_ hf8fo] fddf sf]7f ttfpg
-cf_ vfgf ksfpg tyf kfgL ttfpg
-O_ ;'Ts/] L dlxnfnfO{ cfuf] tfKg / aRrf ;S] g
-O_{ cf}wfl] us ¿kdf ljleGg a:t' h:t} M t/sf/L, Rofp, pg cflb ;s' fpg
-p_ sv' /' f kmd{df rNnfnfO{ tfk lbg
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 149
las| ]6 ko| f]u ubf{ xg' ] kmfObfx¿
la|s6] gjLs/0fLo pmhfs{ f] ;|f]t xf] . o;sf] k|ofu] sf kmfObfx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-c_ o;nfO{ afNbf wF'jf sd cfpg] ePsfn] jfo' k|b"if0fdf sdL cfpF5 .
-cf_ ljleGg s[lifhGo cjz]ifx¿nfO{ la|s]6 agfP/ ;b'kof]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
-O_ tfksf nflu bfp/fsf] k|ofu] 36g\ uO{ jghªu\ n ;+/If0fdf ;xofu] kU' 5 .
-O_{ la|s6] sf] Aofj;flos pTkfbg u/]/ lajm| Laf6 cfDbfgL ug{ ;lsG5 .
-p_ las| ]6sf] cf;] f/ k;f/ / ko| fu] ;xh xg' ] tyf pRr tfk kb| fg ug]{ ePsfn] ;dosf] art
x'G5 .
la|s]6 ko| f]usf ljleGg kmfObf /x] tfklg o;nfO{ Aofj;flos ¿kdf pTkfbg ug{ vlr{nf]
xG' 5 . o;nfO{ jiff{ ofddf ;V' vf /xg] u/L e08f/ ug{ g;Sbf laluG| 5 . la|s]6sf] k|of]u ubf{
ckgfpgk' g{] ;fjwfgLx¿ lgDgfg;' f/ 5g\ M
-c_ ‰ofn9fs] f aGb u/]/ las| 6] afNg' xbF' g} .
-cf_ an]sf] la|s6] nfO{ afnaflnsfsf] kx'rF af6 6f9f /fVg'k5{ .
-O{_ las| ]6nfO{ eO'F df /fv/] gafnL 9'ª\uf, OF6f cflb dfly s'g} efF8f] dfly /fv/] hnfpg'k5{ .
afofU] of;“ (Biogas)
afof]UofF; h}ljs kbfy{nfO{ clS;hg /lxt jftfj/0fdf ljR5b] g u/L ;ªs\ ng ul/Psf] Uof;F
xf] . u|fdL0f eu] df ljzi] f u/L hgfj/x¿sf] ufa] /af6 afofU] of;F ;ª\sng ul/G5 . To;n} ] o;nfO{
uf]a/ UofF; klg elgG5 . afof]UofF;df ldy]g UofF;sf] ;fy;fy} sfa{g 8fOcS;fO8, xfO8f« ]hg,
gfO6f« h] g, kfgLsf] afkm / xfO8«f]hg ;NkmfO8 klg /x]sf xG' 5g\ .
afof]Uof;“ KnfG6sf] lgdf0{ f (Construction of biogas plant)
afof]UofF; KnfG6 lgdf{0f ubf{ ldlS;ª 6o\ fª\s, 8f]d, / cfp6n]6 r]Da/ u/L d'Vo tLg efux¿
tof/ kfl/G5 . ldlS;ª\ 6o\ fª\sdf x'g] kª\vfsf] ;xotfn] uf]a/ jf kf| ªu\ fl/s kbfy{nfO{ kfgL ;u+ sf]
ld>0fdf nb] f] tof/ kf/LG5 . ;uF s} f] lrqdf bv] fOP h:t} pSt n]bfn] fO{ Ogn6] kfOkaf6 8fOh:] 6/
df k7fOG5 . 8fOh:] 6/df clS;hgsf]
cfefjdf ufa] / jf kf| ªu\ fl/s kbfy{ ljR5]
bg eO{ afofU] of;F pTkGg xG' 5 . pSt UofF;
8fd] df hdf x'G5 . UofF; cfp6n6] kfOkdf
h8fg ul/Psf] eNe vfn] ]/ hDdf ePsf]
Uof;F nfO{ kfOkdfkm{ t k;| f/0f u/L k|of]u ug{
;lsG5 . UofF;sf] rfkn] lyRbf 8fOh]:6/df lrq 9.13
a9L ePsf] nb] f] cfp6n]6 rD] a/df ;5{ . pSt rD] a/ klg el/bf :n/L cfp6n6] xF'b} n]bf] dn
aflx/lt/sf] sDkf]:6 vf8ndf hDdf x'G5 .
150 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (
afof]Uof;“ k|of]usf kmfObfx¿
ufa] /UofF;df tfkLo ;|f]t a9L x'g,] o;af6 k|fKt x'g] hl} js dnsf] u0' f:t/ /fdf| ] xg' ,] k|b"if0f sd
x'g], agh+unsf] ;/+ If0f x'g] h:tf sf/0fx¿n]
-c_ afof]UofF;sf] ko| f]u wjF' f/lxt xg' ] ePsfn] afo' kb| "if0f lgoGq0f xG' 5 .
-cf_ afofU] of;F KnfG6 lgdf{0fsf nflu ;?' df nufgL a9L nfUg] ePsf tf klg nfdf] ;dosf nflu
of] lgMz'Ns pmhfs{ f] ;f| t] h:t} x'G5 .
-O_ afof]Uof;F af6 pHofnfsf nflu ljhn' L aQL klg afNg ;lsG5 .
-O{_ afof]Uof;F sf] vktaf6 sf7 bfp/fsf] vkt lj:tfkg x'g] ePsfn] jghªu\ n ;/+ If0fdf
;xofu] k'U5 .
-p_ afof]Uof;F KnfG6af6 lg:sg] n]bf] dnnfO{ vf8n agfO{ sDkf:] 6 dnsf ¿kdf k|ofu] ubf{
af]6la?jfx¿sf] /fdf| ] j[l4 ljsf; x'G5 . nb] f] dnnfO{ l;w} v]taf/Ldf k|of]u gu/L vn' f
5f8] /] s]xL lbgkl5 dfq ko| fu] ug'{ k5{ .
hnljBt' \ (Hydroelectricity)
lrq 9.14
hnljBt' alu/xg] kfgLaf6 h]g/] 6] /df ePsf] SjfOnnfO{ 3'dfP/ pTkfbg ul/g] phf{ xf] . o;sf]
pTkfbgsf nflu afFwdf hDdf ePsf] kfgLnfO{ 6g]naf6 k7fO{ tLa| ultdf hg] ]/6] /;uF hf]l8Psf
6afO{ gdf v;flnG5 . 6af{Og 3'Dbf r'DasLo If]qdf /flvPsf] SjfOn klg 3'D5 / SjfOnsf bO' {
5]paf6 ljBt' \ wf/f pTkGg x'G5 . pSt ljBt' n\ fO{ 3/, sfof{no, sf/vfgfdf cflbdf ljt/0fsf
nflu 6«fG;kmd{/af6 pRr ef]N6]hdf ¿kfGt/0f u/L ;a :6;] gx¿df k7fOG5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 151
hnljB't\sf k|of]usf kmfObfx¿
;?' df hn ljBt' \ pTkfbg nfut a9L k/] tfklg bL3s{ fnLg ¿kdf ;:tf] k5{ . o;af6 sg' }
k|sf/sf] k|b"if0f xbF' g} . of] pmhfs{ f] gjLs/0fLo ;f| ]t ePsfn] slxNo} l/lQbg} . ljBt' a\ f6 cfwl' gs
pks/0fx¿ rnfpg ;lsg] ePsfn] cfly{s ljm| ofsnfkx¿ jl[ 4 ug{ ;lsG5 . xfdf| ] bz] df ko| fKt
dfqfdf ljBt' \sf] pTkfbg / vkt x'Fbf jfo'kb| i" f0f 365\ , k6] f« l] nod kbfy{sf] cfoft 36b\ f Jofkf/
3f6f 36\5, ljB't\ Jofkf/af6 bz] sf] cfly{s j[l4 x'G5 .
g]kfndf js} lNks pmhf{sf ;|ft] x¿sf] k|ofu] (Use of alternative sources of energy in Nepal)
g]kfndf 7fpFcg';f/ ljleGg ;f| ]tx¿af6 pmhf{sf] cfkl" t{ xFb' } cfPsf] 5 . jt{dfg ;dodf
k]6f« ]lnod kbfys{ f] ko| fu] nfO{ lj:yfkg ug{ hnljB'ts\ f] vkt a9b\ } uPsf] 5 . k/Dk/fut ¿kdf
k|ofu] ub}{ cfOPsf d'Vo phfs{ f ;|f]tx¿sf] ;66\ fdf ko| fu] ug{ ;lsg] phf{sf ;f| ]tx¿nfO{
as} lNks phf{ elgG5 . h:t}M h}ljs phf{, jfo' phf,{ ;f}o{ phf,{ cflbnfO{ js} lNks pmhf{sf
;f| t] xg' \ . g]kfndf js} lNks pmhf{ kj| 4{g s]Gbs| f] :yfkg ;g\ !((^ gfe] ]Da/ # df gjLs/0fLo
tyf js} lNks pmhf{sf] ;f| ]tsf] ljsf; tyf kj| 4g{ ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy ePsf] xf] . o;n]
afof]UofF;, ;fn] f/ k]gn, ;f]nf/ 8f« o/, ;f]nf/ s's/, ljG8 ldn, las| 6] cflb h:tf j}slNks
phf{sf ;f| t] x¿sf] pTkfbgdf ;xofu] u5{ .
js} lNks phf{sf ;f| t] x¿sf]¿kdf las| 6] sf] k|of]u d'Vo ¿kdf sf7] f tftf] agfpg,] vfgf ksfpg]
h:tf sfo{sf nflu eO/xs] f] 5 . afof] la|s]6sf pTkfbg tyf k|ofu] nfO{ yk Jojl:yt agfpgsf
nflu gk] fn ;/sf/sf] j}slNks pmhf{ kj| 4g{ sG] b|nufot, ljleGg ;/sf/L, u}/;/sf/L, lghL tyf
Jofj;flos zl} Ifs ;+:yf cflb sfo{/t 5g\ . j}slNks pmhf{ s]Gb|n] las| 6] pTkfbg ug{ cfjZos
tflnd pknAw u/fpbF } cfO/x]sf] 5 .
xfdf| ] b]zdf afof]UofF; kl| jlwsf] kj| 4{g lj=;= 2030 ;fnbl] v gk] fn lrq 9.15
;/sf/n] ;?' u/]sf] xf] . afofU] ofF; ;xof]u sfoj{ |mdcGtut{ g]kfn
;/sf/n] ufa] /UofF; KnfG6 agfpg cgb' fgdfkm{ t ls;fgnfO{ kf| ]T;flxt
ub}{ cfO/xs] f] 5 . b]zsf ;a} lhNnfsf u|fdL0f e]ux¿df ufa] /Uof;F
KnfG6x¿lgdf{0f ul/Psf 5g\ . ;uF }sf] lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} ;x/L
If]qk|lt nlIft gfn} f] afof]UofF; k|ljlwnfO{ kl/jz] / /xg;xgcg'sn" x'g]
u/L ¿kfGtl/t ul/Psf5] . o;df kf| ª\ufl/s kbfy{nfO{ clS;hg/lxt
jftfj/0fdf sl' xg] Joj:yf ul/Psf] xG' 5 .
j}slNks pmhf{ s]Gb|n] gu/kflnsfx¿;Fusf] ;fem] bf/Ldf 7'nf KnfG6 lgdf{0f u/L gu/kflnsfaf6
lgisf;g x'g] sl' xg] kmfx] /af6 afof]UofF; pTkfbg ug{] gLlt lnPsf] 5 . xfd|f] bz] df lglh
If]qaf6 ;~rflnt 7n' f Uof;F KnfG6 klg ;~rflnt 5g\ . gjnk/f;Lsf] ;j' |mfn} Ldf cjl:yt
afofU] ofF; gk] fndf lgdf0{ f ePsf] sDk]|:8 g]r/' n UofF; -compressed natural gas_, CNG pTkfbg
ug]{ klxnf] 7'nf] Uof;F KnfG6 xf] . o;nfO{ lnSo'kmfO8 k6] f« l] nod Uof;F -liquified petroleum gas_,
LPG sf] ljsNkdf k|of]u ul/G5 .
152 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (
jfo' phf{ gjLs/0fLo pmhf{sf] ;f| t] xf] . jfo' 6afO{ gsf] lrq 9.16 l;Gwn' Lsf] x/Lx/k/' u9Ldf
ko| fu] n] jfo' pmhfa{ f6 ljBt' \ pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 . cjl:yt 20 kW Ifdtfsf jfo' 6afO{ g
xfjf lg/Gt/ alx/xg] :yfgdf jfo' 6af{Og h8fg u/L
ljBt' \ pTkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 . o; af6 pTkfbg xg' ]
ljB't\ xfjfsf] ju] , lbzf, xfjf axfjsf] lg/Gt/tf,
cflbdf e/ kb5{ . g]kfnsf] uf| dL0f eu] x¿df ;;fgf
jfop' mhf{ pTkfbg sG] b|x¿ :yfkgf ePsf 5g\ . o;
lsl;dsf] pmhf{ pTkfbg ubf{ tLj| ¿kn] axg] xfjf jf
x'/Ln] jfo' pmhf{ 6af{Ogdf Iflt kU' g] ;Defjgf /xG5 .
gk] fnsf a9L xfjf rNg] :yfg h:t} d':tfªdf jfo'
6afO{ gaf6 ljBt' \ pTkfbgsf] pRr ;Defjgf /x]sf] 5 .
si[ fsx¿n] 3/fo;L tyf Jofj;flos ko| f]hgsf nflu ;fn] f/ 8f« o/sf] k|ofu] u/]/ kmnk"mn,
;fukft cflb ;s' fp5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fn] f/ 8«fo/sf] ko| fu] n] cfkF , ;G' tnf, lsaL, uG' bs|' ,
d:of/} f, Rofp, v';f{gL, cflb ;'sfOG5 . o;sf ;fy} df5fnfO{ ;s' fpg klg ;fn] f/ 8f« o/sf]
ko| f]u u5g{ \ . ;f]nf/ 8f« o/df ;'sfP/ tof/ kfl/Psf Jofj;flos pTkfbgx¿ h:t} M uG' b'|s,
l;GsL, tfdf, Rofp cflbsf] ahf/ b]z leq / labz] df klg /x]sf] 5 . ;'sfOPsf kmnkm" n, 6df6/
h:tf pTkfbgx¿n] klg ;x/L If]qdf /fdf| ] ahf/ kfPsf 5g\ . ;s' fOPsf hl8a'6L, cbj' f, a;] f/,
cnr} L, lrof cflb ef/tdf lgof{t ul/G5g\ .
kl/of]hgf sfo{
tkfOsF f] jl/kl/ dflg;n] s] s:tf pmhfs{ f js} lNks ;|f]tsf] ko| fu] u5{g\ < Ps k|ltjb] g tof/
kfg{'xf;] \ .
cEof;
1. tn lbOPsf k|Zgsf] ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf];\ M
-s_ tnsf dWo] s'g cgjLs/0fLo pmhfs{ f] ;|f]t xf] <
-c_ las| ]6 -cf_ afof]Uof;F
-O_ dl6tn] -O{_ jfo' 6afO{ g
-v_ ;fo} { pmhf{ ¿kfGt/0f ug{] ;DaGwdf tnsf dWo] s'g k|ljlw ldNb}g <
-c_ -cf_ -O_ -O_{
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 153
-u_ hl} js OGwgsf] ;dx' s'g xf] <
-c_ cNsfx] n, dl6tn] , afof]UofF;, e;'
-cf_ bfp/f, afofU] of;F , e;' , sfO] nf
-O_ u'OF7f, afofU] ofF;, cNsfx] n, e;'
-O{_ las| ]6, cNsfx] n, k]6f« ]n, afof]Uof;F
-3_ afofU] of;F s'g sg' UofF;x¿sf] ld>0f xf] <
-c_ xfO8«fh] g, ldy]g, clS;hg, gfO6f« ]hg
-cf_ gfO8«f]hg, clS;hg, ldy]g, xfO8«f]hg ;NkmfO8
-O_ gfO8«f]hg, sfa{g 8fOcS;fO8, ldy]g, xfO8«fh] g ;NkmfO8
-O_{ kfgLsf] afkm, sfa{g dfg] f]cS;fO8, ldyg] , xfO8«f]hg ;NkmfO8
2. km/s nV] gx' f];\ M
-c_ gjLs/0fLo pmhfs{ f ;|ft] / cgjLs/0fLo pmhf{sf ;f| ]t
-cf_ ;f}o{ pmhf{ / jfo' pmhf{
-O_ sf]afg]{ fOH8 las| ]6 / sfaf{g] fOH8 gul/Psf] las| 6]
-O{_ k|fs[lts UofF; / afofU] of;F
3. sf/0f n]Vgx' f];\ M
-c_ ;"o{nfO{ pmhf{sf] k|d'v ;f| t] elgG5 .
-cf_ gjLs/0fLo pmhfs{ f ;|ft] x¿sf] ko| fu] a9fpg' k5{ .
-O_ g]kfnsf ;Gbe{df ljBt' \af6 rNg] ;jf/L ;fwgsf] ko| fu] a9fOgk' 5{ .
-O{_ gk] fnsf nflu hnljB't\ Psbd} pkos' t pmhfs{ f] ;f| ]t xf] .
-p_ xfdf| ] b]zsf u|fdL0f e]usf nflu afof]Uof;F Ps pko'St j}slNks phfs{ f] ;f| ]t xf] .
4. tnsf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf;] \ M
-s_ pbfx/0f;lxt pmhfn{ fO{ kl/eflift ug'{xf];\ .
-v_ ydf{]Go'lSno/ km\ oh' g eg]sf] s] xf] <
-u_ ;o" d{ f Go'lSno/ km\ oh' gsf nflu pkoS' t cj:yfx¿ nV] gx' f];\ .
-3_ lgDg pmhf{nfO{ ;f}o{ pmhfs{ f] pkhsf ¿kdf k'li6 ug'{xf;] \ .
-c_ hnljBt' \ -cf_ hLjfzi] f OGwg -O_ jfo' pmhf{
154 lj1fg tyf k|ljlw M sIff (
-ª_ ;"od{ f zlSt pTkGg x'g] k|lj|mof JofVof ug'{xf];\ .
-r_ ;fo} { pmhf{ kl| jlwdf cfwfl/t sg' } bO' { pks/0fx¿sf] sfo{ l;4fGt ;lrq j0fg{ ugx{' f;] \ .
-5_ js} lNks pmhfs{ f] ;f| ]t egs] f] s] xf] < s'g} bO' {cf6] f pbfx/0fx¿ n]Vgx' f];\ .
-h_ lrqdf b]vfOPsf pks/0fx¿ klxrfg u/L ltgsf] sfo{ l;4fGt n]Vg'xf];\ .
-em_ hl} js pmhf{ egs] f] s] xf] <
-`_ hl} js OGwgsf rf/cf]6f pbfx/0f n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-6_ la|s6] sf] k|of]u s] s]sf nflu ul/G5 . o;sf b'O{cf]6f kmfObf n]Vgx' f];\ .
-7_ afof]UofF; s;/L pTkfbg ul/G5 < afofU] of;F KnfG6 lgdf0{ f bv] fpg] lrq;lxt j0f{g
ugx{ f;] \ .
-8_ pmhfs{ f] ;|f]tsf ¿kdf afof]UofF; k|ofu] sf bO' c{ f6] f kmfObf nV] g'xf];\ .
-9_ tkfOFs{ f] jl/kl/ dflg;n] k|of]u ug{] j}slNks pmhf{sf sg' } bO' {cf]6f pmhf{
;|f]taf/] nV] gx' f];\ .
-0f_ gk] fndf js} lNks pmhf{sf ;f| t] x¿ ljsf;sf] ;Defjgf zLif{sdf lgaGw nV] g'xf];\ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 155
!) t/ªu\
t/ª\u ;~hfn (Wave network) (Wave)
lrq 10.1 t/ªu\ x¿sf] ko| fu]
lrq 10.1 df b]vfOP h:t} xfdL sof}F t/ª\un] 3l] /Psf 5fF} . tL t/ªu\ x¿ xfd|f] z/L/;Fu
7f]lSs/x]sf x'G5g\ . xfdLn] ks| fzsf t/ªu\ , 3fddf Gofgf] lbg] t/ªu\ , ;~rf/sf nflu ljleGg
Pkm=Pd=/]l8of] 6f« G;ld6/af6 k|;fl/t t/ªu\ , dfa] fOn ;~rf/sf nflu ko| fu] xg' ] t/ªu\ , 3/df
jfOkmfO /fp6/n] 5f]8\g] t/ª\u cflbn] afS] g] zlStsf] k|ofu] ul//x]sf x'G5f}F . t/ª\ux¿sf] k|ofu]
;/' Iff vt/fsf j:t'x¿ rs] hfFr ug{,] b'/L lx;fa ug]{ h:tf sfod{ f klg ul/G5 . dfgj z/L/sf
leqL cªu\ x¿sf] r]shfFrsf nflu Wjlg t/ª\u tyf PS;–/s] f] ko| fu] ul/G5 .
156 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
t/ªu\ (Wave)
lj|mofsnfk 10.1
p2Z] o M kfgLdf t/ª\u k|;f/0f xbF' f c0f'x¿sf] rfn;DaGwL cjnf]sg ug'{
cfjZos ;fduL| M Pp6f cfwfeGbf a9L kfgL el/Psf] af6f, sfuhsf] 8ª' \uf, 8f/] L /
l/agsf] 6j' |mf
ljlw
1. af6fdf ePsf] kfgLsf] ;tx l:y/ aGg lbg'xf;] \ .
2. kfgLdf sfuhsf] 8ª' \uf /fVgx' f;] \ .
3. kfgLsf] ;txdf cf}nF fn] Psgf;n] lxsf{O nx/ -ripple_ l;hg{ f ugx'{ f;] \ .
4. kfgLsf] nx/sf] rNg] lbzf / sfuhsf] 8ª' u\ fsf] rfn cjnfs] g ug'x{ f];\ .
5. To;} u/L 8f/] Ldf l/agsf] 6'j|mf afWF gx' f;] \ . o;sf] Pp6f 5]p s'g} cf8df afWF gx' f;] \ /
csf]{ 5]pnfO{ xftn] lg/Gt/ tn dfly rnfpgx' f;] \ .
6. 8f]/Lsf] p7s] f] efu rNg] lbzf / l/agsf] rfn cjnf]sg ugx{' f;] \ .
5nkmn / lgisif{ M s] kfgLdf sfuhsf] 8'ªu\ fsf] rfn / kfgLsf] ;txdf nx/ ;g{] lbzf
Pp6} 5 < s] 8f]/Ldf afFlwPsf] l/agsf] rfn / 8f]/Lsf] p7]sf] efu ;g{] lbzf Pp6} 5 <
5nkmn u/L lgisif{ nV] g]xf;] \ .
kfgLsf] ;txdf cf}nfn] lxsf{pbF f kfgLsf c0fx' ¿df sDkg pTkGg xG' 5 . kfgLsf] ;txsf c0fx' ¿
tn jf dfly ;bf{ tL c0f;' uF }sf c0f'x¿ klg tn tflgg] jf dlfy ws]lng] x'G5 . ;?' df rfndf
cfpg] kfgLsf c0fx' ¿af6 glhss} f cGo c0f'df zlSt ;5{ . tL c0fx' ¿ klg oyf:yfgdf tn
dfly rNg yfN5g\ . h;n] ubf{ kfgLdf t/ª\u pTkGg eO{
zlSt k;| f/0f x'G5 . olb kfgLsf] ;txdf sfuhsf] 8'ª\uf
/flvPdf kfgLsf c0f'x¿ cfk\mg} :yfgdf tn dfly u/]/
rln/xg] tYo cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsG5 . kfgLsf c0f'x¿ tn
dfly rln/xbF f o;sf] ;txdf p7s] f] efu ;tx x'Fb} ;b{}
uPsf] bl] vG5 .
8f]/Lsf] Ps 5p] nfO{ sg' } cf8df afFw/] csf]{ 5]pnfO{ xftn] lrq 10.2 kfgLdf pTkGg t/ªu\
8f/] L rnfpbF f k|fKt xg' ] ult zlStn] 8f]/Lsf c0f'x¿ lrq 10.3 8f/] Ldf pTkGg t/ªu\
klg xftsf] rfnsf] lbzfdf ;5g{ \ . pSt rfn glhs}sf]
csf]{ c0f'df klg ;bf{ klxnf] c0fs' f] rfnnfO{ k5o\ fpF5 .
of] jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/xbF f 8f]/Lsf] sg' } v08 dfly p7s] f] /
sg' } v08 bas] f] b]lvG5 . olb 8f]/Ldf l/ag aflF wPdf pSt
l/agsf] rfnn] o;df l/kn (ripple) cufl8 a9\bf c0fx' ¿
oyf:yfgdf tn dfly rln/xg] tYo cjnfs] g ug{ ;lsG5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 157
ljBt' Lo / rD' asLo If]qdf xg' ] k]l/of]l8s l8:6/aG] ;n] klg zlSt k;| f/0f u5{ . zlSt k|;f/0f
ug{] Ps k]l/ofl] 8s l8:6/aG] ; -periodic disturbace_ t/ª\u -wave_ xf] .
e"sDksf t/ª\ux¿n] kY[ jLsf] leqL efudf r6\6fg 7f]lS“sbf pTkGg xg' ] zlStnfO{ o;sf]
;tx;Dd Nofp“5g\ .
t/ª\usf ks| f/ (Types of waves)
t/ª\usf ks| f/
oflGqs t/ª\u ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ª\u
-Mechanical Wave)
(electromagnetic wave)
nªl\ uRo'l8gn t/ªu\ 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u
-Longitudinal wave _ -transverse wave)
6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u / nªl\ uRol' 8gn t/ª\u (Transverse wave and longitudinal wave)
lj|mofsnfk 10.2
p2Z] o M nlª\uRo'l8gn / 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\usf] k|bz{g ug{'
cfjZos ;fduL| M ld6/ 6]k, l:nªs\ L -slinky_
ljlw M
1. ;dtn e'FOdf otfptf grNg] u/L Pp6f ld6/ 6k] la5o\ fpgx' f;] \ .
2. l:nª\sL -slinky_ sf] s'g} v08df /ª\uLg wfufsf 6'j|mf afFWg'xf];\ .
3. l:nª\sLnfO{ ld6/ 6]kdfly /fv]/ Psgf;n] sx] L cufl8 wsN] g] / k5fl8 tfGg] ljm| ofaf6
pTkGg xg' ] t/ª\usf] cjnfs] g ug'{xf;] \ . o:tf] t/ª\unfO{ nª\luRo'l8gn t/ª\u elgG5 .
4. k'gM l:nªs\ LnfO{ Psgf;n] bfofF afofF rnfpbF f pTkGg x'g] 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ sf] cjnfs] g
ug{'xf;] \ . o:tf] t/ªu\ nfO{ 6«fg;e;{ t/ªu\ elgG5 .
5. bj' } lsl;dsf t/ª\ux¿;Fu ;DalGwt hfgsf/Lx¿ tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf eg'x{ f];\ .
u'0fx¿ nª\luRo'l8gn t/ªu\ 6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\
wfufsf] rfn / wfuf]nfO{ 10 k6s cufl8 k5fl8 rNg wfufn] fO{ 10 k6s bfofF
t/ªu\ cfj[lQ -f_ nfus] f] ;do Ö afoF f rNg nfu]sf] ;do Ö
======================= 1 s df cufl8 k5fl8 ;/s] f] -f_ Ö ==== =========== 1 s df bfofF afFof
Hz ;/s] f] -f_ Ö ==== Hz
158 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
t/ª\u nDafOnfO{ Pp6f vfFlbPsf] efu -compression_ 6]kaf6 ;a}eGbf 6f9f
λ n] hgfOG5 . b]lv glhss} f] vflF bPsf] efusf] b/' L Ö afoF flt/ k'u]sf] efu
==== m -crest_ af6;Fus} f]
csf{] To:t} efularsf]
b'/L Ö ==== m
t/ªu\ sf] ult ================ Ö ==== m/s ============ Ö ==== m/s
v=f×λ
5nkmn / lgisif{ M nª\luRo'l8gn / 6f« G;e;{ b'O{ lsl;dsf t/ª\ux¿lar leGgtfx¿
56' \ofpg'xf];\ .
l:nªs\ L -slinky_ nfO{ Psgf;n] cufl8 wsN] g] / k5fl8 tfGg] j|mddf o;sf] sg' } v08df l/ªx¿
cufl8 ;//] vflF bg] / kg' M k5fl8 kms]{/ km' Sg] j|md lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . ;uF ;uF } slinky df pTkGg
t/ª\u klg cufl8 al9/xs] f] bl] vG5 . t/ª\u k;| f/0fsf] lbzf / k]l/of]l8s xnrn -periodic
disturbance_ jf sDkg -vibration_ Pp6} lbzfdf x'g] t/ªu\ x¿ nª\luRol' 8gn t/ªu\ xg' \ .
Wjlg t/ªu\ nª\luRo'l8gn t/ªu\ sf] pbfx/0f xf] . nª\luRol' 8gn t/ªu\ x¿ 7f;] , t/n, / UofF;
tLgcf]6} dfWodf l;hg{ f ug{ ;lsG5 .
l:nª\sL -slinky_ nfO{ Psgf;n] bfofF afofF rnfpbF f o;sf] sg' } v08df l/ªx¿ bfofF ;g{] / afofF
;g{] jm| d lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . o;;uF } slinky df pTkGg t/ªu\ eg] cufl8 al9/x]sf] bl] vG5 .
t/ª\u k|;f/0fsf] lbzf / kl] /of]l8s xnrn -periodic disturbance_ jf sDkg -vibration_ Ps
csf]l{ ;t nDa xg' ] t/ª\ux¿ 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u xg' \ . kfgLdf pTkGg x'g] t/ª\u, 8f/] Ldf pTkGg
x'g] t/ªu\ cflb 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\usf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ . 7f]; dfWod / t/n dfWoddf 6«fG;e;{
t/ª\ux¿sf] l;h{gf ug{ ;lsG5 t/ Uof;F dfWodf l;hg{ f ug{ ;lsbF g} .
6f« G;e;{ t/ªu\ / nªl\ uRo'l8gn t/ª\u;“u ;DalGwt zAbfjnLx¿
nªl\ uRo'l8gn t/ª\u sDk]|;g -compression_ / /o] /k]mS;g -rarefaction_ sf ¿kdf k|;f/0f
xG' 5 . t/ªu\ k|;f/0fsf jm| ddf dfWodsf c0fx' ¿ vfFlbPsf] v08 sDk]|;g xf] . c0f'x¿ k'ms]sf]
v08 /o] /km] S;g xf] . 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u jm| :] 6 -crest_ / 6«km -trough_ sf ¿kdf k;| f/0f xG' 5 .
t/ªu\ k;| f/0fsf jm| ddf o;sf] dWo efuaf6 ;ae} Gbf dfly p7s] f] efu j|m]:6 xf] / ;a}eGbf tn
bas] f] efu 6k« m xf] . t/ªu\ sf] PlDKnRo8' -amplitude_ n] lj>fd l:yltaf6 dfWodsf c0fx' ¿sf]
clwstd lj:yfkg jf t/ª\usf] dWo efuaf6 j|m:] 6 jf 6k« m;Ddsf] lj:yfkgnfO{ hgfpF5 .
l:nªs\ L -slinky_ df t/ªu\ k;| f/0fsf j|mddf y'k}| t/ªu\ nx/ -wave cycle_ x¿ l;hg{ f eO{
kN; -pulse_ cufl8 a9s] f] cjnfs] g ug{ ;lsG5 . k|lt;]s]G8 pTkGg x'g] t/ª\u ;ªV\ ofn] t/ª\u
cfj[lQ -frequency_ hgfpF5 . cfj[lQsf] P;=cfO={ PsfO - SI unit_ xh{ -Hertz_ xf] . Ps k0" f{
t/ªu\ pTkGg xg' nfUg] ;donfO{ t/ª\usf] ;dofjlw -period_ elgG5 . o;nfO{ 'T' n] hgfOG5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 159
t /ªu\ cfjl[ Q (f) = t/ª;\udsof] ;ª\Vof
(t)
olb 'f' cf6] f t/ªu\ x¿ 1 s df l;hg{ f ePdf Ps k"0f{ t/ªu\ l;hg{ f xg' nfUg] ;do
;dofjlw (T) = 1 (f)
cfj[lQ
nª\luRo'l8gn t/ªu\ df Pp6f vflF bPsf] efu -compression_ sf] dWo efuaf6 glhs}sf] csf{]
vfFlbPsf] efu -compression_ sf] dWo efu;Ddsf] b/' L cyjf Pp6f km' s]sf] efu -rarefaction_
sf] dWo efuaf6 glhs}sf] csf{] k'mss] f] efu -rarefaction_ sf] dWo efu;Ddsf] b/' L t/ª\u
nDafO xf] . 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\udf Pp6f j]m| :6 -crest_ af6 glhss} f] csf{] jm| ]:6 -crest_ ;Ddsf] b/' L
cyjf Pp6f 6k« m -trough_ af6 glhss} f] csf{] 6k« m -trough_ ;Ddsf] b/' L t/ª\u nDafO xf] .
t/ªu\ nDafOnfO{ lu|s cIf/ nfD8f -lambda_, …λÚ n] hgfOG5 .
;a} t/ª\ux¿ Psgf;n] k|;f/0f xbF' }gg\ . t/ªu\ k;| f/0fsf] b/ ;f| ]taf6 kf| Kt zlSt, dfWod,
t/ª\usf] k|s[lt cflbdf e/ k5{ . t/ªu\ k|;f/0fsf j|mddf k|ltPsfO ;dodf t/ªu\ n] kf/ ug]{
b/' L t/ªu\ sf] ult -wave velocity_ xf] . o;nfO{ t/ª\u nDafO / t/ª\u cfjl[ Qsf] u0' fgkmnaf6
kf| Kt ug{ ;lsG5 .
t/ª\usf] ult (v) = t/ªu\ cfj[lQ (f) × t/ª\u nDafO (λ)
oflGqs t/ª\u / ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ (Mechanical wave and electromagnetic wave)
sg' } t/Ë k|z;/0fsf] nflu dfWodsf] cfjZos k5{ eg] s'gn} fO{ kbg}{ . k|;f/0fsf nflu
dfWodsf] cjZostf kg{] t/ªu\ x¿nfO{ oflGqs t/ª\u -mechanical waves_ / dfWodsf]
cfjZostf gkg]{ t/ËnfO{ ljB't\ rDasLo t/ª\u -electromagnetic waves_ elgG5
. Wjlg t/ª\u Ps oflGqs t/ª\u -mechanical waves_ sf] pbfx/0f xf] . oflGqs t/ª\u
kbfyd{ f sDkgåf/f xg' ] zlStsf] k;| f/0f xf] . zlSt k;| f/0fsf jm| ddf sDkg xg' ] kbfy{nfO{
dfWod elgG5 . oflGqs t/ªu\ sf] zlSt dfWoddf vkt x'bF } hfFbf o;sf] zlSt 36b\ }
hfG5 . To;sf/0f oflGqs t/ªu\ sf] k|;f/0f dfWodcg';f/ lglZrt ;Ldf;Dd xG' 5 . oflGqs
t/ª\usf] ult 7f];, t/n / UoFf; dfWoddf km/s km/s xG' 5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fdfGo cj:yfdf
xfjf, kfgL / kmnfddf Wjlgsf] ult j|mdzM 343 m/s, 1481 m/s / 5120 m/s x'G5 . oflGqs
t/ª\ux¿ nªl\ uRo'l8gn t/ªu\ jf 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u xg' \ .
;"on{ ufot cGo tf/fx¿af6 cfpg] k|sfz aflx/L cGtl/Ifsf] zG" o -vacuum_ xbF' } kY[ jL;Dd
cfOkU' 5 . lagf s'g} dfWod k;| f/0f xg' ] k|sfzsf t/ª\u tyf cfvF fn] gb]lvg] tfk af]Sg] OGkm| f/]8
t/ªu\ , cN6f« efon]6 t/ª\u cflb ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ª\u xg' \ . ljB't\ rD' asLo t/ª\ux¿sf
dfWodaf6 zlStsf] k|;f/0f xg' ] ljlw ljls/0f -radiation_ xf] . oL t/ª\ux¿ dfWodlagf k;| f/0f
x'bF f zlSt ;+/lIft /xG5 . h;n] ubf{ ljBt' \ r'DasLo t/ªu\ ks| fzsf] ultdf lgs} 6f9f;Dd
k;| f/0f xG' 5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;"o{df pTkGg k|sfzsf t/ª\ux¿ 3×108 m/s sf] ultn] k|;f/0f
eO{ nueu 8 ldg]6 20 ;s] ]G8df kY[ jL;Dd cfOkU' 5g\ . ljBt' \ r'DasLo t/ª\u (electromagnetic
160 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
waves) x¿ 6f« G;e;{ t/ª\u x'g\ lsgls ljB'tLo Ifq] / rD' asLo Ifq] sf] sDkg t/ªu\ k|;f/0fsf]
lbzf;uF nDa xG' 5g\ . s[lqd ¿kdf /l] 8of] 6f« G;ld6/, PS;–/] dl;g cflb af6 ljB't\ rD' asLo
t/ª\ux¿ pTkGg ug{ ;lsG5 .
ljBt' \ r'DasLo j0fk{ 6 (Electromagnetic spectrum)
lj|mofsnfk 10.3
tkfO{n“ fO{ hfgsf/L ePsf s]xL ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ x¿ h:t} M ks| fz t/ªu\ , cN6f« efon6]
t/ª\u cflbsf ;f| ]t / ltgsf ljz]iftfx¿ af/] 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .
lahn' L aQLaf6 cfpg] pHofnf] af]s]sf t/ª\u / /]l8of] k|;f/0f s]Gb|af6 ;~rf/sf] ;ª\s]t
af]ss] f] t/ªu\ b'j} ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ x¿ xg' \ . ltgLx¿sf] cfjl[ Q / t/ªu\ nDafO km/s km/s
x'G5 . ;a} ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ x¿nfO{ a9\bf] cfj[lQ cyft{ \ 36b\ f] t/ªu\ nDafOsf cfwf/df
ul/Psf] juLs{ /0f ljB't\ rDasLo j0fk{ 6 -electromagnetic spectrum_ xf] . /l] 8of] t/ªu\
-radio waves_, dfOj|mfj] a] -microwaves_, OGk|mf/8] t/ª\u -infrared waves_, ks| fz -light_,
cN6«fefon6] t/ªu\ -ultraviolet waves_, PS;–/] -X-ray_ / ufdf /] -γ -ray_ ljB't\ rD' asLo
j0fk{ 6 lgdf0{ f ug]{ t/ªu\ x¿ xg' \ .
lrq 10.4 ljB't\ rD' asLo j0fk{ 6
ljB't\ r'DasLo j0f{k6sf] Pp6f 5]pdf ;a}eGbf nfdf] t/ªu\ nDafO cyf{t\ sd cj[lQ ePsf
/]l8of] t/ªu\ x¿ /xs] f 5g\ . o;sf] csf]{ 5p] df ;ae} Gbf 5f6] f] t/ª\u nDafO cyft{ \ ;ae} Gbf a9L
cfj[lQ ePsf ufdf /] /xs] f 5g\ . ufdf /], PS;–/] h:tf 5f]6f] t/ª\u nDafO ePsf ls/0fx¿n]
a9L zlSt afs] s] f x'G5g\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 161
ljBt' \ rD' asLo tª\usf pkof]ux¿ (Application of electromagnetic waves)
/]l8of] t/ªu\ -radio waves_
/l] 8of] t/ª\ux¿sf] nDafO ;ofF} lsnfl] d6/ b]lv 1 m ;Dd x'G5 .
oL t/ª\ux¿n] hLjx¿sf] z/L/sf sfi] fx¿nfO{ c;/ gug{] ePsfn]
pkofu] sf nflu z/' lIft xG' 5g\ . /l] 8of] t/ªu\ lgDglnlvt sfo{df
pkofu] ul/G5 M
-c_ 6«fG;ld6/df /l] 8of] t/ªu\ pTkGg u/L /l] 8of,] l6eL cflbsf]
;~rf/sf ;ªs\ t] k;| f/0f ul/G5 .
-cf_ /l] 8of] 6l] n:sfk] sf dbtn] afxo\ cGtl/Ifaf6 cfPsf /l] 8of]
t/ªu\ ux| 0f u/L a|xd\ f08sf af/]df cWoog ul/G5 . lrq 10.5 /l] 8of] gk] fn ;'v{]t
dfOjm| f]j]a -microwave_
dfOj|mfj] a] sf] t/ª\u nDafO 1mm bl] v 30 cm ;Dd x'G5 . o;sf] pkof]u lgDglnlvt sfo{sf
nflu ul/G5 M
-c_ dfOj|mf]j]a cfe] gdf pTkGg x'g] dfOjm| f]j]an] kfgLsf c0fx' ¿ sDkg x'bF f tfT5g\ / vfg]
s'/f kfS5 .
-cf_ /8f/ ;~rf/df dfOj|mf]j]asf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . xjfO{ 6f« lkms lgoGq0fdf ;len{ G] ; /f8f/
-Airport Surveillance Radar_ sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . o;u} /L /f8f/ l:k8 ug -radar speed
gun_ sf] k|ofu] af6 ;8sdf u'l8/xs] f ;jf/L ;fwgsf] ult dfkg ul/G5 .\
-O_ ;~rf/sf k|ljlwdf ;ª\st] k|;f/0fsf nflu klg dfOjm| f]j]asf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . e" pku|x
;~rf/, df]afOn, jfOkmfO, An6' y' -bluetooth_ cflb k|ljlwdf dfOjm| f]j]asf] ko| fu] n]
;~rf/ :yflkt x'G5 .
lrq 10.6 dfOj|mf]ja] cfe] g lrq 10.7 ljdfg:yn lrq 10.8 /8f/ l:k8 ug
;len{ ]G; /8f/
OGkm| f/]8 t/ª\u -Infrared wave_
OGkm| f/]8 -infrared_ sf] cy{ /ftfs] f] d'lg -below red_ eGg] x'G5 . oL t/ªu\ x¿sf] cfjl[ Q /ftf]
/ªsf] ks| fz t/ª\ueGbf sd t/ t/ªu\ nDafO /ftf] /ªsf] ks| fzsf] eGbf nfdf] xG' 5 . k|ofKt
162 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
tLj|tf ePsf OGkm| f/]8 t/ªu\ z/L/df kbf{ tftfk] gsf] cg'e'lt x'G5 . logsf] t/ªu\ nDafO
10-3 m b]lv 7.5 × 10-7 m ;Dd x'G5 . oL t/ªu\ sf] pkfof]u lgDgcg;' f/sf sfos{ f nflu
ul/G5 M
-c_ OGkm| f/]8 lx6/, s's/ cflbdf OGkm| f/8] t/ª\uaf6 tfk pTkGg ul/G5 .
-cf_ OGk|mf/]8 ljls/0fsf] tLj|tfsf cfwf/df /]l8P;g ydf{]ld6/n] z/L/sf] tfkjm| d dfkg u5{ .
-O_ OGkm| f/]8 l;l;l6eL Sofd/f -Infrared closed circuit television camera-IR CCTV
camera _ df cfFvfn] gb]lvg] OGkm| f/8] t/ª\usf dfWodaf6 /ftLsf] ;dodf klg lgu/fgL
ug{ ;lsG5 .
-O_{ l/df6] ;]lG;ª -remote sensing_ k|ljlwdf OGk|mf/8] t/ªu\ sf] ko| f]u ul/G5 . l6eL cg÷ckm
ug{ vn] f}gf uf8L rnfpg tyf 8«f]gnfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ l/df]6af6 OGk|mf/]8 t/ªu\ sf ¿kdf
;ªs\ ]t k7fOG5 .
-p_ OGk|mf/8] 6l] n:sf]ksf] ko| fu] åf/f cGtl/Ifsf] cg';Gwfg ul/G5 .
lrq 10.9 OGk|mf/8] lx6/ lrq 10.10 OGkm| f/8] lrq 10.11 IR l/df6] sG6«f]n kl| jlw
l;l;l6eL Sofd/] f -6fo] sf/, l6eL_
ks| fz t/ª\u -light waves_
ks| fz ;dx" sf t/ª\unfO{ xfdf| ] cfvF fsf] /l] 6gfn] 7Dofpg ;S5 .
cfvF fn] b]lvg] /ªx¿dWo] /ftf] k|sfzsf t/ª\ux¿sf] t/ªu\ nDafO
;a}eGbf nfdf] -7.5 × 10-7 m_ / a}hgL -violet_ /ªsf t/ªu\ x¿sf]
t/ªu\ nDafO ;ae} Gbf 5f]6f] -2 × 10-7 m_ x'G5 . k|sfzsf] ;f| t] af6
cfPsf t/ªu\ x¿ sg' } j:td' f kbf{ k/fjt{g x'G5g\ . tL k/fjlt{t lrq 10.12 xl/of] ks| fzsf
t/ªu\ x¿ xfd|f] cfvF fdf kj| ]z ubf{ j:t'nfO{ b]Vg ;lsG5 . ks| fz k/fjltt{ t/ªu\ x¿
t/ª\usf] pkof]u lgDglnlvt sfos{ f nflu ul/G5 .
-c_ j:tx' ¿nfO{ bV] g
-cf_ af]6la?jfx¿df ks| fzaf6 kf| Kt zlStaf6 k|sfz ;+Zni] f0f lj|mof xG' 5 .
-O_ ks| fz t/ª\usf sf/0fn] l6eL df]afOn cflbsf l8:Kn] l:jm| gdf cfs[lt b]lvG5 .
-O_{ ks| fz t/ªu\ k|of]u u/L clK6s kmfOa/åf/f ;~rf/sf ;ªs\ t] k|;f/0f ul/G5 . 163
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u -Ultraviolet waves_
cN6«fefon]6 t/ªu\ x¿sf] t/ª\u nDafO 4× 10-7 m b]lv 10-9 m x'G5 . logLx¿ cfvF fn]
gbl] vP tfklg nfdf] ;do 3fddf a:bf logsf] c;/n] 5fnf 89s] f] cjnf]sg ug{
;lsG5 . cTolws dfqfdf cN6f« efon]6 t/ªu\ x¿ 5fnfdf kbf{ SofG;/ xg' ] ;Defjgf
xG' 5 . k[YjLdf cfpg] cN6«fefon6] t/ªu\ x¿sf] dV' o
;|ft] ;"o{ xf] . UV-tube af6 klg cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u
pTkGg ug{ ;lsG5 . of] t/ªu\ sf] pkof]u lgDgcg;' f/sf
sfos{ f nflu xG' 5 .
-c_ km\ nf]l/;G] 6 aQL -CFL_ leq pTkGg xg' ]
cN6f« efon]6 ls/0fn] o;df nk] g ul/Psf]
km\ nf]l/;]G6 kfp8/ rlDsG5 / pHofnf] k|bfg
u5{ .
-cf_ rsf]{ 3fddf /fv]/ vfB kbfy{, nu' f, bl} gs lrq 10.13 ;f]l8; kl| jlwaf6 kfgL z'4Ls/0f
k|ofu] xg' ] ef8F fs'F8f cflbdf x'g ;Sg] AofS6]l/of -bacteria_ gf; u/L ;ªj\ |md0faf6
hf]lug ;lsG5 .
-O_ ;f]l8; -Solar Disinfection- SODIS_ ljlwcGtu{t kf/bzs{ af]tndf kfgL e//] sl/a
6 306f hlt ltgnfO{ 3fddf /fvL kfgLdf xg' ;Sg] /fu] sf hLjf0f'x¿ gi6 ul/G5 .
-O{_ 3fddf a:bf k|sfz;uF } cfpg] cN6f« efon6] ls/0fsf] pkl:yltn] 5fnfdf le6fldg–D
aG5 . xfd|f] j/k/ dV' otM lzzx' ¿nfO{ bl} gs s]xL ;do laxfgsf] 3fddf /fVg] ul/G5 .
PS;–/] -X-ray_
PS;–/]sf] t/ª\u nDafO 10-9 m b]vL 10-12 m ;Dd xG' 5 . PS;–/] kf| s[lts ¿kdf aflx/L
cGtl/Ifaf6 k[YjLsf] jfod' 08n;Dd cfp5 . sl[ qd ¿kdf PS;–/] dl;gaf6 PS;–/] pTkGg
u/fOG5 . PS;–/s] f] pkof]u lgDglnlvt sfos{ f nflu
ul/G5 M
-c_ kmf]6fuf| k] mL / l;6L :Sofg h:tf kl| jlwdf PS;–/] sf]
k|of]u u/L z/L/sf leqL cªu\ tyf x88\ Lx¿ rss{] f] jf
eflF rPsf] rs] hfrF ul/G5 .
-cf_ PS;–/] ;'/Iff :Sofg/ (X-ray security lrq 10.14
scanner) sf] k|of]un] ns' fP/ /flvPsf ;/' Iff
vt/fsf j:tx' ¿nfO{ kQf nufOG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu
ljdfg:yndf PS;–/] ;'/Iff :Sofg/af6 ofq'x¿sf emf]nfx¿sf] r]shfrF ul/G5 .
-O_ PS;–/] y]/fkL -X-ray theraphy_ df zlStzfnL PS;–/] ladnfO{ SofG;/ sf]ifx¿tk{m
lgb]{lzt u/L ltgnfO{ gi6 ul/G5 .
164 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
-O_{ PS;–/]sf] ko| fu] n] ljleGg lsl;dsf cWoog cg;' Gwfgx¿ ul/G5g\ . logsf] ko| fu] af6
kbfys{ f] dl0fe ;/+ rgfsf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . kY[ jLsf] leqL agf6] tyf vlghx¿sf]
klxrfgsf nflu ;dt] PS;–/]sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
ufdf /] -γ ray_
ufdf /] k/df0f'sf] Go'lSno; 6l' jm| P/ zlSt lg:sg] lj|mof cyft{ \ /l] 8ofP] lS6le6L -radioactivity_
af6 pTkGg xg' ] zlStzfnL t/ªu\ x'g\ . logLx¿ ;a}eGbf a9L cfj[lQ ePsf zlStzfnL ljBt' \
r'DasLo t/ª\u xg' \ . o:tf ls/0fx¿ Psbd} 3fts k|sl[ tsf xG' 5g\ . logn] hLljt sfi] fnfO{ gi6
ug'{sf ;fy} SofG;/ u/fpg ;S5g\ . ufdf /s] f] pkof]u lgDgcg;' f/sf sfos{ f nflu ul/G5 M
-c_ ufdf /]sf] lgolGqt ko| fu] af6 z/L/df ePsf SofG;/ sfi] fx¿nfO{ gi6 ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf]
pkrf/ k4ltnfO{ /]l8of]y]/fkL -radiotherapy_ elgG5 .
-cf_ logsf] k|ofu] n] zNolj|mofsf nflu ko| fu] x'g] pks/0fx¿ -surgical equipment_ lgd{nLs/0f
ug{ ;lsG5 .
-O_ ufdf /]sf] k|of]un] ;I" d hLjx¿ -microorganism_ gi6 u/L vfB kbfyn{ fO{ nfdf] ;do
e08f/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
-O_{ Go'lSno/ pkrf/ k4lt -nuclear medicine_ df ufdf–/] 6;]« / -gamma ray tracer_ nfO{
z/L/df kj| ]z u/fO{ r]shfrF ul/G5 .
Wjlg k/fjtg{ (Reflection of sound)
Wjlg ;f| ]taf6 pTkGg ePsf] t/ª\u s'g} dfWod eP/ k;| f/0f xG' 5 . Wjlg t/ªu\ k|;f/0fsf jm| ddf
s8f ;txdf 7fl] sP/ kmlsP{ sf] t/ª\u k/fjltt{ Wjlg xf] . s'g} cUnf] kvf{nsf cufl8 hf]8n]
s/fpbF f ;l' gg] kl| tWjlg Ps k/fjlt{t Wjlg xf] .
k/fjlt{t Wjlgsf] pkofu] -Application of reflected sound_
Wjlgsf] k/fjt{gsf] pkof]u k|fsl[ ts ¿kdf ljleGg
hgfj/x¿n] ul//x]sf xG' 5g\ . rd/] fn] cN6f« ;fpG8 20,000 Hz cyf{t 20 kHz eGbf a9L
pTkGg u5{ / pSt Wjlg jl/kl/sf cj/fw] x¿af6 cfjl[ Q ePsf] WjlgnfO{ cN6f« ;fpG8
kms/]{ cfp5F g\ . k/fjlt{t Wjlgsf cfwf/df rd]/fn] -ultrasound_ elgG5 . o:tf] WjlgnfO{
cufl8 /xs] f cj/fw] tyf cfk\mgf] cfxf/ -ls/f_ /x]
sf] :yfg kQf nufp5F . o;/L kl| tWjlgsf dfWodaf6 xfdf| ] sfgn] ;G' g ;lsb“ }g . cfj[lQ a9L
:yfg kQf nufpgn' fO{ Osf]nfs] ;] g -echolocation_ xg' ] ePsfn] cN6«f;fpG8n] a9L zlSt
elgG5 . 8nlkmgn] klg Osf]nfs] ;] gaf6 kfgLdf af]ss] f] x'G5 .
cfvF fn] gb]lvg] :yfgsf af/]df hfgsf/L k|fKt u5{ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 165
s[lqd ¿kdf pTkGg ul/Psf] cN6«f;fpG8sf] ko| f]u u/L b'/L lx;fa ug{ ;lsG5 . cN6«f;f]lgs
?n/ -ultrasonic rular_ n] b'/L dfkg ug{ ;G] 8/af6 cN6«f;fpG8nfO{ 7f;] cj/f]wlt/ k7fOG5 . s]
xL ;dosf] cGt/fndf 7f]; cj/f]waf6 k/fjltt{ Wjlg ?n/sf] l/l;e/n] k|fKt u5{ . Wjlg pTkGg
ePsf] / kf| Kt ePsf] ;do cGt/fnsf] cfwf/df b/' L lx;fa ul/G5 . Pp6f pks/0faf6 pTkGg
cN6f« ;fpG8nfO{ 7f;] ;txlt/ k7fOP/ k/fjltt{ cN6«f;fpG8 k|fKt xFb' f;Ddsf] ;do u0fgf u/L
b/' L lx;fa ug]{ kl| jlw ;f]gf/ -Sound navigation and ranging- SONAR_ xf] . o; kl| jlwn] kfgL
hxfhdf hl8t k]myf]ld6/ -fathometre_ sf] ko| f]u u/L ;d'bs| f] ulx/fO dfkg ul/G5 . ;fg] f/
kl| jlws} l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t cN6f« ;f]gf]u|fkmLdf k/fjltt{ cN6«f;fpG8sf] ko| f]u u/L z/L/sf leqL
cªu\ x¿sf] rs] hfrF ul/G5 .
lrq 10.15 cN6f« ;f]lgs ?n/ lrq 10.16 kfgL hxfhdf hl8t k]myfl] d6/sf] k|ofu]
k/fjlt{t cN6f« ;fpG8df cfwfl/t ;/' Iff cnfd{ -security alarm_ lgdf0{ f ug{ ;lsG5 . 3/sf]
9f]sfdf ko| fu] ul/g] aUn/ cnfd{ -burglar alarm_, sf/ kfls{ª cN6f« ;f]lgs ;G] ;/ -ultrasonic
sensor_ cflb o;sf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ .
csl:6s ;/' Iff -Acoustic protection_
sf]7fleq x'g] Wjlg k/fjtg{ n] Wjlg c:ki6 aG5 . lrKnf] ;tx ePsf leQfx¿af6 xg' ] Wjlg
k/fjt{g g/d / v;|f] ;txaf6 x'g] Wjlg k/fjt{geGbf clws xG' 5 . csl:6s ;'/Iff g/d /
Kjfno'St -porous_ ;txx¿åf/f cgfjZos Wjlgsf t/ª\ux¿ zfi] f0f -absorption_ ug{] k|ljlw
xf] . o;af6 sf]7f, ;efxn, Wjlg /]sl8ª{ :6'l8of] -sound recording studio_ cflbdf x'g] Wjlg
k/fjt{g lgoGq0f ug{ ul/G5 . csl:6s ;/' Iffsf nflu leQfnfO{ v;f| ] agfpg,] leQfdf kmf]d
6f:F g] h:tf pkfox¿ ckgfpg ;lsG5 . ;fpG8 /]sl8{ª :6l' 8of,] ;efxn cflbsf leQfdf dl;gf
Kjfn ePsf] csl:6s ;/' Iff k|of]u ul/Psf] x'G5 .
lrq 10.17 Wjlg zfi] f0f ug{ leQfdf k|of]u ul/Psf] csl:6s ;'/Iff lrq 10.18 /l] 8of] g]kfn /]sl8ª{ :6'l8of]
166 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
dfgj cªu\ sf] r]shf“rdf t/ª\ux¿sf] ko| fu] (Use of waves in human organ diagnosis)
lj|mofsnfk 10.5
tkfO{s“ f] glhssf] c:ktfn jf d]l8sn ;]G6/sf] ed| 0f cyjf >JobZ[ o ;fdu|L tyf rf6s{ f
dfWodaf6 tn pNn]v ul/Psf t/ªu\ df cfwfl/t r]shf“r k|ljlwsf] cjnf]sg ugx'{ f;] \ . tL
kl| jlwx¿sf] sfol{ jlwaf/] hfgsf/L ;d]t ;ªs\ ng ug{'xf;] \ .
cN6f« ;fg] fu] |fkmL PS;–/] kmf]6f]uf| kmL l;6L= :Sofg
-Ultrasonography_ -X-ray photography_ -CT scan_
r]shfrF l/kf]6{ =============== PS;– /] pTkfbg sDKo6' / / PS;–/] dl;gsf]
6«fG;8o\ ';/ / sDKo6' /sf] ug]{ pks/0fsf] ko| f]uaf6 8f6fsf] ;ªs\ ng
k|of]uaf6 lelq cªu\ sf] lrq gfd==================, / k|zfw] gaf6 bO' { cfoflds
k|bzg{ ug]{ ljlw============= kmf6] f] lvRg] ljlw,===== / lqcfoflds lrq agfpg]
k|ofu] ============== k|of]u ================= ljlw=============
rs] hfFr l/kf6] { =============== rs] hfFr l/kf6] { =============== k|ofu] ==============
cN6«f;f]gfu] |fkmL -Ultrasonography_
cN6f« ;f]gfu] f| kmL pkrf/ Ifq] df cN6«f Wjlg
t/ª\usf] ko| fu] af6 z/L/sf leqL efux¿sf]
r]shfrF ug]{ kl| jlw xf] . o;nfO{ af]lnrflnsf]
efiffdf lel8of] PS;/] elgG5 . o;df
k|of]u xg' ] 6«fG;8\o;' / -transducer_ n] pRr
cfjl[ Q ePsf] cN6f« ;fpG8 pTkGg u5{ . pSt
cN6f« ;fpG8 z/L/sf] leqL efult/ nlIft lrq 10.19 USG sf] ko| fu] / bO' { cfoflds ;fg] f]uf| d
ul/G5 . z/L/sf ljleGg txaf6 k/fjt{g eO{
cfpg] cN6«f;fpG8nfO{ k'gM 6«fG;8 o;' /n] ux| 0f
-receive_ u5{ . u|x0f xg' ] cN6«f;fpG8nfO{ cfOkU' g nfu]sf] ;do, To;sf] cfjl[ Q cflbsf]
;ª\s]t sDKo6' /df hfG5 . sDKo6' /n] k|fKt tYofª\ssf cfwf/df leqL agfj6sf] cfs[lt tof/
kf5{ . pSt cfs[ltnfO{ ;fg] fu] f| d -sonogram_ elgG5 .
cN6«f;fpG8 ubf{ z/L/sf sf]ifnfO{ xflg xFb' g} . o;n] z/L/sf sf]dn tGt' tyf t/nsf]
cfsl[ t k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 . cN6«f;fpG8sf] ko| f]un] lduf}n{ f, lkQy}nL, cflbsf] kTy/L, dl:t:s,
Kofªl\ j|mofh cflbdf x'g] 6\o'd/, snh] f] /fu] , cfGbf| sf] ;d:of, dlxnfx¿sf] kf7]3/sf] ;d:of
cflb rs] hfrF ul/G5 . cN6«f;fpG8sf] ko| fu] uef{zodf x'sb{ } u/]sf] lzzs' f] cfsf/, cj:yf,
cª\ux¿sf] rfn, s'g} c;fdfGo cj:yf cflbsf] r]shfFrsf nflu ul/G5 . lqcfoflds -three
dimensional – 3D_ cN6f« ;f]lgs kl| jlwsf] k|of]uaf6 lzz'sf] cj:yf cem k|:6 9ªu\ n] cjnf]sg
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 167
ug{ ;lsG5 . cG6;« fpG8sf] k|ofu] af6 d6' s' f] rfn, eNex¿sf] cj:yf / o;sf sfo{ rs] hfrF
klg ul/G5 . of] k|ljlwnfO{ eg] Osfs] fl8o{ fu] f| kmL -echocardiography_ elgG5 .
PS;–/] Odl] hª -X-ray imaging_
PS;–/] ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ª\u xf] . PS;–/] Od]lhª PS;–/]sf] k|of]uaf6 z/L/sf leqL
cª\usf] lrq tof/ kf/L r]shfrF ug{] k|ljlw xf] .
PS;–/] kmf]6fu] f| kmL (X-ray photography) nfO{ ;dfGo efiffdf PS;–/] ug'{ elgG5 . PS;–/] kmf]6f]
uf| kmL z/L/af6 PS;–/x] ¿ k7fpbF f aGg] leqL cª\ux¿sf] 5fofsf cfwf/df PS;–/] kmf6] f] kf| Kt
ug]{ kl| jlw xf] . k/Dk/fut PS;–/] k|ljlwdf kmf]6f] lvRg dflg;nfO{ PS;–/] d]l;gsf] cufl8
lglZrt b/' Ldf /flvG5 . d]l;gnfO{ cg ul/;sk] l5 dflg;sf] z/L/ eP/ uPsf PS;–/]x¿n]
csfk]{ 6l\ 6 /flvPsf] PS;–/] lkmNddf k5g{ \ 5fof agfpF5g\ . pSt 5fofsf cfwf/df PS;–/]
lkmNdaf6 PS;–/] kmf]6f] tof/ kfl/G5 . kmf6] f]df 5fof k/]sf] efunfO{ ;t] f] / c¿ efunfO{ sfnf]
agfp5F . cfw'lgs kl| jlwdf 5fofnfO{ /]s8{ ug{ kmf]6f]uf| lkms lkmNdsf] ;6\6f OnS] 6«f]lgs /s] l8ª{
pks/0f k|ofu] ul/Psf] xG' 5 . z/L/sf leqL cª\ux¿sf] 5fofnfO{ sDKo'6/sf] l:jm| gdf cjnf]
sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
radiograph
monitor observation
x-ray generator
object
x-ray dectector
print out
lrq 10.20 PS;–/] /]s8/{ sf] k|of]u
xfd|f] z/L/df ePsf x88\ Ln] PS;–/] a9L zf]if0f u5g{ \ . PS;–/] kmf]6fdf logsf] 5fof uf9f
;t] f] bl] vG5 . cGo tGt'nufot df+zkz] L, af;] f]af6 w/] }h;f] PS;–/] l5/]/ hfG5g\ / sx] L dfq
zfi] f0f xG' 5g\ . o:tf efux¿sf] Psbd} dw/' f] 5fof b]lvG5 . z/L/sf xfjf x'g] efux¿ h:t} M
kmfS] ;f]af6 PS;–/] ;lhn} l5g]{ ePsfn] PS;–/] kmf6] fdf sfnf] efu bl] vG5 . z/L/df efFlrPsf
jf rs{s] f x88\ L, bftF sf h/f, /f]usf] ;ªj\ m| d0f, 6\o'd/, /StgnLsf] Ansh] cflbsf] r]shfFr ug{
PS;–/] ul/G5 .
168 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
w/] } zlSt ePsf PS;–/] :jf:Yosf nflu xflgsf/s ljls/0f xg' \ . cTolws PS;–/] z/L/df kbf{
z/L/sf sf]ifx¿ gfz x'g] tyf jz+ f0f' ql' 6 x'g] ;d:of bl] vg ;S5 . o;n] dflg;df SofG;/ xg' ]
;Defjgf xG' 5 . PS;–/] dl] ;g cg ePsf] cj:yfdf PS;–/x] ¿ sf7] fdf 5l/Psf x'G5g\ . 5l/Psf
PS;–/] 5S] g n8] -lead_ sf] Pk|fg] nufpg'k5{ . r]shfFrsf j|mddf nfdf] ;do tyf k6s k6s
PS;–/] z/L/df kg{ lbg'xb'F }g .
ef}ltszf:qL ljnx]Nd /fG] 6hg -Wilhelm Roentgen_ n] ;g\ 1895 df ko| fu] zfnfdf lgDg
rfkdf /flvPsf Uof“;x¿df ljBt' w\ f/f k7fp“bf X-ray kQf nufPsf xg' \ .
l;6L :Sofg -CT scan_
sDKo'6/fOH8 6fd] f]u|fkmL :Sofg -Computerized
Tomography scan- CT scan_ PS;–/] kmf]6f]
uf| kmLaf6 ljsl;t ePsf] kl| jlw xf] . l;6L
:Sofg ug{ dflg;nfO{ Ps 8fg] 6 -doughnut_
cfsf/sf] dl;gleq k7fOG5 . d]l;gdf ePsf]
PS;–/] ;f| ]t k'/} dl;g el/ 360o sf] sf]0fdf
3'Dg ;S5 . ;f| ]tsf] l7s cufl8 PS;–/] l86]S6/
-X-ray detector_ /flvPsf] x'G5 . ;f| ]t 3'Dbf
l86S] 6/ klg ;Fu;uF } 3D' g] agfOPsf] xG' 5 .
l;6L :Sofg ug{ PS;–/] ;f| ]taf6 pTkGg Pp6f
zlStzfnL ;fF3'/f] PS;–/] lad -beam_ nfO{
rs] hfFr ug'k{ g]{ cªu\ ePsf] efult/ nlIft
ul/G5 . PS;–/] ;f| t] nfO{ z/L/sf] jl/kl/ lrq 10.21 ;L=6L= :Sofg ljlw
3'dfP/ :Sofg ubf{ kT| os] 45o sf] sf]0fsf] cGt/fndf ljleGg lbzfaf6 z/L/sf] Pp6} v08df
nlIft u/L sDKo'6/sf dfWodaf6 8f6f ;ªs\ ng ul/G5 . pSt 8f6fnfO{ sDKo6' /n] k|zfw] g
-processing_ u//] bO' { cfoflds -2D_ jm| ;–;S] ;gn lrqx¿ tof/ kfb{5 . o;nfO{ 6fd] fu] f| lkms
-tomographic_ lrq elgG5 . z/L/sf] leqL ;/+ rgfx¿sf] lj:tt[ cfsl[ tsf nflu PS;–/] v08x¿
-X–ray slices_ af6 8f6f ;o+ fh] g u/L lqcfoflds -3D_ lrq lgdf0{ f ul/G5 .
6f]df]uf| lkms lrqdf k/Dk/fut PS;–/e] Gbf clws lj:tt[ hfgsf/L ;dfj]z xG' 5 . logdf z/L/
leqsf g/d tGtx' ¿sf] cj:yf klg cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsG5 . lqcfoflds -3D_ lrqaf6 z/L/sf] leqL
efusf] klxrfg ;xh xG' 5 . o;n] leqL ;/+ rgfdf cfPsf] kl/jtg{ jf c;dfGo cj:yfnfO{ 7Dofpg
;lsG5 . l;6L :Sofgsf] k|ofu] z/L/ leqsf 3fprf6] , /ut hds] f], 6o\ d' /, dl:tissf] cj:yf,
kmf]S;f]sf] cj:yf cflb rs] hfrF ul/G5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 169
cEof;
!= ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf;] \ M
-s_ nª\luRol' 8gn t/ª\usf] pbfx/0f sg' xf] <
-c_ Wjlg t/ªu\ -cf_ kfgLdf pTkGg xg' ] t/ªu\
-O_ k|sfz t/ªu\ -O_{ /l] 8of] t/ª\u
-v_ cfj[lQ a9L ePsf] t/ªu\ sf ;DaGwdf tnsf dWo] s'g egfO l7s xf] <
-c_ j]u sd x'G5 -cf_ t/ª\u nDafO 5f]6f] xG' 5
-O_ PlDKnRo'8 a9L xG' 5 -O{_ ;dofjlw a9L x'G5
-u_ lbOPsf t/ªu\ x¿sf] ;dx" df a9\bf] t/ª\u nDafOcg;' f/ ldns] f] ;dx" sg' xf] <
-c_ PS;–/], cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ªu\ , a}hgL ks| fz t/ªu\
-cf_ a}hgL ks| fz t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ªu\ , cn6f« efon6] t/ª\u, PS;–/]
-O_ cN6«fefon]6 t/ª\u, a}hgL k|sfz t/ªu\ , /ftf] k|sfz t/ªu\ , OGk|mf/8] t/ª\u
-O{_ a}hgL k|sfz t/ª\u, /ftf] k|sfz t/ªu\ , OGk|mf/]8 t/ª\u, cN6«fefon6] t/ª\u
-3_ l6eLsf] l/df]6 sG6«fn] k|ljlwdf sg' ljB't\ r'DasLo t/ªu\ sf] pkofu] ul/Psf] xG' 5 <
-c_ cN6f« efon]6 t/ª\u -cf_ OGk|mf/8] t/ªu\
-O_ ks| fz t/ª\u -O_{ /l] 8of] t/ªu\
-ª_ ;8s b'3{6gfdf k/]sf dflg;sf] 6fpsfdf aflx/af6 xb] f{ ;fdfGo 3fprf]6 bl] vG5 .
pSt dflg;sf] dl:tissf] lj:tt[ rs] hfrF sf nflu s'g k|ljlw pko'St xG' 5 <
-c_ k/Dk/fut PS;–/] kmf]6f]u|fkmL -cf_ l;6L :Sofg
-O_ Osf]sfl8o{ f]uf| kmL -O{_ cN6f« ;f]gfu] |fkmL
-r_ lbOPsf jfSox¿dWo] s'g jfSo cN6«f;fg] f]uk| mL / PS;–/] Od]lhª;Fu ;DalGwt
5 <
-c_ Pp6f a9L ljZjf;gLo / csf{] sd ljZj;gLo x'G5 .
-cf_ Pp6fdf sDKo6' / kl| jlw / csfd]{ f ;fdfGo kl| jlwsf] k|of]u xG' 5 .
170 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
-O_ Pp6f 6«fG;e;{ t/ªu\ / csf{] nª\luRol' 8gn t/ª\usf] k|of]udf cfwfl/t xG' 5 .
-O{_ Pp6f x8\8Lsf] r]shfrF ug{ ko| f]u xG' 5 / csf]{ sfd] n cª\usf] r]shfrF ug{
ko| f]u x'G5 .
@= km/s n]Vg'xf];\ M
-s_ nªl\ uRol' 8gn t/ª\u / 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u
-v_ ljBt' \ rD' asLo t/ªu\ / oflGqs t/ª\u
-u_ k/Dk/fut PS;–/] kmf6] f]uf| kmL / l;6L :Sofg
-3_ OGk|mf/]8 t/ª\u / cN6«fefon]6 t/ªu\
#= sf/0f n]Vgx' f];\ M
-s_ 8f]/Lsf] Ps5]p afwF ]/ csf{] 5p] nfO{ Psgf;n] lg/Gt/ tn dfly rnfpFbf pTkGg x'g]
t/ªu\ nfO{ 6«fG;e;{ t/ª\u elgG5 .
-v_ es" Dksf] sG] b|laGb'af6 b'/L a9b\ } hfFbf 6f9fsf dlg;nfO{ j|mdzM wSsf sdhf/]
ePsf] cge' j xG' 5 .
-u_ l;6L :Sofg ubf{ dl;gdf ePsf] PS;–/]sf] ;|ft] nfO{ dflg;sf] jl/kl/ 3D' g] u/L
/flvPsf] xG' 5 .
-3_ l;6L :Sofgn] z/L/sf leqL cªu\ sf] lj:tt[ r]shfFh u/L lqcfolds l/kf]6{ k|fKt ug{
;lsg] eP tfklg kf7]3/sf] lzz'sf] cj:yfaf/] r]shfrF sf cN6«f;fg] fu] |fkmL k|ljlwsf]
ko| fu] ul/G5 .
$= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ t/ªu\ egs] f] s] xf] <
-v_ kfgLsf] ;txdf pTkGg x'g] t/ªu\ tyf xfdLn] af]Nbf k;| f/0f xg' ] Wjlg t/ªu\ sf]
lrq sfg] x'{ f];\ . b'j} t/ª\udf ;DalGwt zAbfjnLx¿ gfdª\sg ug'{xf;] \ .
-u_ ljB't\ rD' asLo j0f{k6 eg]sf] s] xf] <
-3_ ljB't\ rDasLo t/ªu\ sf] j0fk{ 6df ;ae} Gbf sd t/ªu\ nDafO / ;a}eGbf a9L
t/ª\u nDafO ePsf t/ª\ux¿sf] gfd nv] L ltgsf b'O{ b'O{cf]6f pkof]lutf
nV] g'xf];\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 171
-ª_ tnsf] lrqdf sDd/sf] PS;–/] kmf6] f] / l;6L :Sofg kmf6] f] b]vfOPsf] 5 .
AB
-c_ PS;–/] kmf6] f] / l;6L :Sofg kmf6] f] 56' o\ fpg'xf];\ .
-cf_ oL bj' } r]shfFr k|ljlwsf r/0fx¿ pNnv] ug[{x' f;] \ .
-O_ PS;–/] kmf6] fu] f| kmL tyf l;6L :Sofgsf pkof]ux¿ nV] g'xf;] \ .
-r_ Wjlg k/fjtg{ sf sg' } rf/cf]6f pkof]u nV] gx' f];\ .
-5_ /fx] gn] Wjlg k/fjtg{ af6 cfkm\ gf] 3/sf] l7s cufl8 kg]{ l5d]sLsf] 3/sf] b/' L lx;fa
u/] . pSt ljlw JofVof ug'{xf;] \ .
-h_ tkfOnF ] pN6«f;fpG8 ;]G8/, l/l;e/nufotsf cfjZos cjojx¿ h8fg u/L agfpg'
xg' ] Wjlg k/fjtg{ df cfwfl/t sg' } ;'/Iff k|ljlwsf] vfsf tof/ kfg{x' f];\ . pSt
kl| jlwnfO{ gd'gf lrqsf ¿kdf sf]g{x' f];\ .
-em_ csl:6s ;/' Iff -acoustic protection_ eg]sf] s] xf] < o;sf pkfox¿ nV] g'xf];\ .
-`_ cN6«f;fg] fu] f| kmL egs] f] s] xf] < o;sf r/0f tyf pkofu] x¿ nV] gx' f];\ .
-6_ cfw'lgs hLjgz}nLdf ljB't\ rD' asLo t/ª\ux¿sf] el" dsf zLifs{ df lgaGw
nV] g'xf];\ .
172 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
!! ljBt' \ (Electricity)
lrq 11 .1 wf/f ljBt' s\ f] ko| f]u
ljBt' \ pmhfs{ f] d'Vo ;f| t] xf] . ;'rfns tf/af6 ljBt' \ k|;f/0f x'G5 . dfly lrq 11.1 df
bv] fOP h:t} ufx:{ Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf pks/0fx¿nfO{ ;'rfns tf/n] h8fg ul/Psf] x'G5 .
ljB't\ pks/0f h8fg u/L k|of]u ugs{ f nflu kT| os] pks/0f;Dd bO' c{ f]6f tf/ 56' 6\ f5'66\ }
k¥' ofOPsf] xG' 5 . xfdLn] k|ofu] ug{] ;a} pks/0fn] ljBt' \ zlStnfO{ cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f
u5{g\ . zlSt ¿kfGt/0fsf] b/ pks/0fcg';f/ km/s km/s x'G5 . pHofnf]sf nflu ko| f]u xg' ]
lrdn] eGbf lx6/n] yf]/} ;dodf w/] } ljB't\ zlStnfO{ ¿kfGt/0f u5{ . pks/0fcg;' f/ To;df hfg]
ljB'tn\ fO{ xg' ] cj/f]wn] zlSt ¿kfGt/0fdf ke| fj kf5{ . ljBt' \ zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfkgsf nflu
kl/kydf Pp6f ld6/ /flvPsf] x'G5 . o;n] ljBt' \sf] vktafkt ltg'{kg{] dxzn' lx;fa ug{
;lsG5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 173
ljB't\ wf/f (Electric current)
ljm| ofsnfk 11.1
p2]Zo M ;r' fns tf/, Aofl6« / 3fn] sf] el" dsf cjnf]sg
cfjZos ;fduL| M ;r' fns tf/, Aof6L« , gg' , kfgL, sfrF sf] /8, Knfl:6ssf] a66\ f, l:jr / aNa
ljlw M
1. lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} ljB't\ kl/ky lgdf0{ f ug{x' f;] \ .
2. ljBt' \ kl/kydf ko| f]u ePsf] ;'rfns tf/sf bO' { 5]p AB
A / B nfO{ Knfl:6ssf] a66\ fdf /flvPsf] kfgLdf 8'afpgx' f];\ .
3. ca kfgLdf g'gkfgL yKb} sfFrsf] /8n] rnfP/ 3fN] g'xf];\, aNasf] rlDsnf]kgf
cjnfs] g ug'x{ f;] \ / tnsf] tflnsf eg{'xf];\ M
Aof6L« sf] el" dsf 3fn] sf] el" dsf ;r' fns tf/sf] el" dsf lgisif{
5nkmn tyf lgisif{ M
-c_ g'gkfgLsf] 3fn] df gg' sf] dfqf a9b\ } hfbF f aNasf] pHofnf]df s:tf] kl/jt{g cfpF5 <
-cf_ gg' sf] ;66\ fdf lrgL /fvL cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ . s] aNa aN5 < o;af/] sIffdf 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .
wft'sf k/df0fd' f Gol' Sno;n] aflx/L ;]ndf /xs] f OnS] 6«fg] x¿nfO{ nufpg] an tn' gfTds
¿kdf w/] } sd x'G5 . To;}n] tL OnS] 6«f]gsf] ;lhn} Ps rfhs{ f] P;= cfO{= PsfO sn' Da
k/df0f'af6 ;g{ ;S5g\ . To;sf/0f ltgLx¿nfO{ :jtGq -coulomb_ xf] . Pp6f On]S6«f]
OnS] 6f« ]g elgG5 . On]S6«f]nfO6sf] 3f]ndf wgfTds cfof] gsf] rfh{ 1.6×10 -19 C x'G5 . Ps
s'nDa rfh{ eGgfn] 6.24 × 1018
g -ion_ / C0ffTds cfofg] :jtGq ¿kdf jl/kl/ ;g{
;S5g\ . ha Aof6«L;uF hfl] 8Psf] tf/sf bO' { 5p] nfO{ 3f]ndf On]S6f« g] x¿sf] rfh{nfO{ hgfOG5 .
8'afOG5, ltgLx¿ lglZrt lbzfdf ;5{g\ . o;/L :jtGq
On]S6f« g] x¿ jf wgfTds÷C0ffTds cfof]gx¿ ;bf{ rfh{ kj| fx xG' 5 . rfhs{ f] kj| fxn] ljB't\ wf/f
pTkGg xG' 5 . k|ltPsfO ;dodf x'g] wgfTds ljBt' Lo rfh{sf] k|jfx cyft{ \ wgfTds rfh{ k|jfxsf]
b/nfO{ ljBt' \wf/f elgG5 . olb ;'rfnsdf C0ffTds rfhs{ f] kj| fx eof] eg] Tolt g} kl/df0fsf]
wgfTds rfh{ ljk/Lt lbzfdf k|jfx ePsf] dflgG5 .
olb sg' } ;r' fns tf/af6 't' ;dodf 'Q' rfh{ k|jfx eO/x]sf] 5 eg] ljBt' \ wf/fnfO{ lgDgfg';f/
k|:tt' ug{ ;lsG5 M
ljB't \ wf/f (I) = rfh{ (Q)
;do (t)
174 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
ljBt\ wf/fsf] P;= cfO{= PsfO PlDko/ -ampere) xf] . ldlnPlDko/ -mA), dfOjm| fP] lDko/ -μA_
ljB't\ wf/fsf ;fgf PsfO x'g\ .
1 mA = 10-3A,
1 μA = 10-6A
sg' } ;r' fnsaf6 1 ;]sG] 8 ;dodf 1 sf]nDa -C_ rfh{ k|jfx xF'bf 1 PlDko/ -A_ ljBt' \ wf/f
pTkGg x'G5 . ljB't\ kl/kydf Pld6/ -ammeter_ nfO{ >0] fLjm| d h8fg u/L ljB't\ wf/fsf] dfkg
ul/G5 .
lrq 11.2 sf] ljB't\ kl/kydf af0f lrxg\ n]
;n] sf] wgfTds w|'jaf6 C0ffTds wj|' lt/ ljB't\
wf/f k|jfxsf] lbzf b]vfOPsf] 5 . o;nfO{ ljBt' \
wf/fsf] lbzf -direction_ elgG5 . wgfTds rfh{sf]
kj| fxsf] lbzfnfO{ ljB't\ wf/sf] lbzf dflgG5 . lrq 11.2 ;'rfns tf/af6 On]S6«f]gx¿sf] k|jfx
pbfx/0fM 1
olb sg' } ;r' fns tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ -charge_ 5 s df axG5 eg] pSt tf/ eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f
-electric current) sf] dfqf lx;fa ug{'xf;] \ .
xnM kZ| gdf lbOPcg';f/,
tf/df axg] rfh{ -Q_ Ö 0.2 C
rfh{ axs] f] ;do -t_ Ö 5 s
;"qfg';f/,
ljB't\ wf/f (I) = rfh{ (Q) = 0.2
;do (t) = 0.04 A
5
I = 0.04 × 1000 = 40 mA
pSt tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ 5 s df axFbf 40 mA ljBt' \ wf/f pTkGg xG' 5 .
OnS] 6f« d] fl] 6e kmf;] { -electromotive force-e.m.f_ / kf6] l] G;on km/s -potential difference- p.d._
b'Oc{ f]6f Knfl:6ssf aft] ndf el/Psf] kfgLsf] ;tx km/s km/s prfO;Dd /xs] f] 5 . tL bj' s} f
lardf Pp6f gnLn] hf8] \bf kfgL stfaf6 stflt/ axG5 < s] kfgL lg/Gt/ alx/G5 < olb kfgL
axg 5f8] ]df kg' M kfgL axg] agfpg s] ug'{k5{ <
h;/L kDkn] kfOkdf kfgLsf] k|jfxnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbG5, To;} u/L ljB't\ kl/kydf ;n] n] rfhs{ f]
kj| fxnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbG5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 175
kfgL tfGg] kDksf] sfo{ / ljBt' \ kl/kydf ;]nn] rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu sfo{ ug'k{ g{] lj|moflar ;dfgtf
kfgL pRr kf]6l] G;on ePsf] cUnf] :yfgaf6 ljBt\ rfh{ pRr kf6] l] G;on ePsf] ;f| t] sf]
sd kf]6l] G;on ePsf] xf]rf] :yfglt/ aU5 . wgfTds wj'| 6 Gog" kf]6l] G;on ePsf]
C0ffTds wj|' lt/ axG5 .
kfOksf bj' } 5]pdf kfgLsf] ;tx ;dfg ljB't\ kl/kydf lg/Gt/ rfh{ kj| fx ug{
prfOdf k'Uof] eg] kfgL axg 5f8] 5\ . Aof6L« sf] /f;folgs zlStaf6 o;sf] Pp6f
kfOkaf6 kg' M kfgL axgsf nflu kfgL tfGg] 5p] C0ffTds rfho{ 'St -lgDg kf6] l] G;on_
ljBt' \ df6] /sf] pmhfn{ ] kfgLnfO{ sd prfOaf6 / csf{] 5p] wgfTds rfh{o'St -pRr
a9L prfO ePsf] efudf k7fpg'k5{ . kf6] ]lG;on_ aGg'k5{ .
df]6/sf] zlStn] x'g] sfo{n] kfgLdf zlSt Aof6«Ldf xg' ] /f;folgs k|ltlj|mofn] rfh{
kb| fg u5{ . k|jfxsf nflu zlSt kb| fg u5{ .
ljBt' \ df6] /n] zlSt lbg 5f8] b\ f kfgLsf] Aof6L« df x'g] /f;folgs kl| tljm| of /fl] sFbf
;txsf] prfOdf leGgtf cfpg /f]lsG5 / o;sf bj' } wj|' larsf] kf]6l] G;on ;dfg eO{
kfgL axg 5f8] \5 . rfh{ kj| fx /fl] sG5 . o;nfO{ xfdL Aof6«L gfz
ePsf] eG5f}F .
sg' } kfOkaf6 kfgL axg o;sf] Pp6f 5]p cUnf] efudf ePsf] kfgLsf] ;f| ]t;+Fu hf]l8Psf] / csf{]
5]p xf]rf] efudf xg' 'k5{ . kfOkdf kfgL axFbf ;l~rt l:ylt zlSt -potential energy_ cGo
zlStdf ¿kfgt/0f eO{ sfo{ xG' 5 . ljBt' \ kl/kydf klg ;r' fns tf/ tyf ljB't\ nf]8 -h:t}M
aNa_ af6 rfh{ sfOgl] 6s zlSt jf cGo zlStdf kl/jt{g x'G5g\ . olb kfOkdf 6jf{Og hfl] 8Psf]
eP 6jf{Og 3D' 5 / sfo{ x'G5 . of] ljBt' \ ;f| t] -h:t} Aof6«L_ n] ug]{ sfo{ xf] . ljBt' \ ;f| t] n] kl| tPsfO
rfh{ k|jfx ug{ ;Sg] IfdtfnfO{ kf]6l] G;on elgG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu Aof6«Lsf] wgfTds w'|j a9L
kf]6l] G;on ePsf] / C0ffTds wj|' sd kf6] ]lG;on ePsf] x'G5 . t;y{ ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljBt' \
wf/f pTkGg u/fpg ljB't\ nf8] sf Pp6f 5p] ljBt' \ ;|ft] sf] pRr kf]6l] G;on / csf]{ 5p] Go"g
kf]6]lG;on;Fu hf]l8Psf] xg' 'k5{ .
lj|mofsnfk 11.2
p2Z] o M e.m.f. / pd sf] t'ngf ug{
cfjZos ;fduL| M efN] 6ld6/, j|mf]sf8] fOn lSnK;, ;'rfns tf/, 8f« O;]n / aNa
ljlw M lrqdf bv] fOP h:t} kl/ky lgdf{0f u/L cfjZos kl/df0fsf] dfkg ug'{xf;] \ M
kl/ky cjnfs] g kl/ky cjnfs] g lgisif{
ef]N6ld6/sf] dfkg efN] 6ld6/sf]
x dfkg Ö =====volt
v Ö =====volt
v
lrq 11.4
5nkmn tyf lgisif{ M bO' { kl/kydf ef]N6ld6/sf] dfkg t'ngf u/L lg:sif{ nV] g'xf;] \ .
176 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
;'rfnsdf rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu zlSt cfjZos k5{ . h]g/6] /, Aof6L« , ;fn] f/ k]gn h:tf ljBt' \
sf ;|f]tx¿n] rfh{ kj| fxsf nflu zlSt lbG5g\ . ljBt' \sf ;f| t] n] cGo zlStnfO{ ljBt' \ zlStdf
¿kfGt/0f u5{g\ . Aof6L« df /f;folgs zlSt ljBt' Lo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f -Go"g kf6] l] G;on_
xG' 5 . Aof6L« df /f;folgs kl| tljm| ofsf dfWodaf6 l;h{gf xg' ] pRr kf6] l] G;on ePsf] wgfTds
w|j' / ePsf] C0ffTds w'|jnfO{ ;'rfnsn] hf]8\bf kf| Kt xg' ] zlStåf/f rfh{ kj| fx xG' 5 . ljB't\
kl/kydf Ps s'nDa rfhn{ fO{ jl/kl/ k|jfx u/fpgsf nflu ;f| ]tn] kb| fg ug{] zlStsf] dfqfnfO{
On]S6«f]dfl] 6e kmf];{ (e.m.f.) elgG5 .
OnS] 6«fd] fl] 6e kmf;] { -e.m.f._ n] ljBt' \ kl/kydf h8fg ul/g] nf]8sf b'O{ 5]plar kf]6l] G;on km/s
-potential difference- p.d._ l;hg{ f u5{ . ljB't\ nf]8sf] Pp6f 5p] A nfO{ Aof6«Lsf] wgfTds
wj'| ;Fu+ / csf]{ 5]p B nfO{ Aof6«Lsf] C0ffTds w|'j;uF hf]8b\ f A sf] kf]6]lG;on B sfe] Gbf a9L
x'G5 . h;n] ubf{ wgfTds rfh{ A af6 B df axG5 . kf]6l] G;on km/s -p.d._ sf] sf/0fn]
nf8] af6 rfh{ k|jfx x'bF f ljB't\ zlSt cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . ljB't\ kl/kysf s'g} b'O{
laGb'lar kl| tsn' Da rfh{ kj| fx xbF' f ¿kfGt/0f xg' ] ljB't\ zlStsf] dfqf tL b'O{ laGb'larsf]
kf6] ]lG;on km/s xf] . o;nfO{ rngrNtLdf efN] 6]h -voltage_ eg]/ lrlgG5 .
kf6] l] G;on km/s (p.d.) = zlSt ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfqf
rfhs{ f] dfqf
ef]N6ld6/sf] k|of]un] OnS] 6f« d] f]l6e kmf];{ / kf]6]lG;on km/ssf] dfkg ul/G5 . oL bj' } kl/df0fsf]
dfkgdf zlSt k|ltsf]nDasf] lx;fa ul/g] ePsfn] logsf] P;= cfO{= PsfO -SI unit_ efN] 6
-volt) xf] . afXo kl/kydf rfh{ kj| fx gePsf] cj:yfdf Aof6«Lsf] b'O{ 5p] larsf] kf]6l] G;on
km/s / e.m.f a/fa/ xG' 5g\ . To;}n] o;sf] dfkgsf nflu ef]N6ld6/nfO{ lrq 11.4 df bv] fOP
h:t} Aof6«Lsf bO' { 5p] ;Fu hfl] 8G5 . kf6] l] G;on km/s dfkg ug{sf nflu efN] 6ld6/nfO{ ljB't\
nf]8;uF ;dfgfGt/ x'g] u/L o;sf b'O{ 5p] ;Fu hf]l8G5 .
nf]8;lxtsf] kl/kydf ljBt' \ kj| fx x'bF f Aof6L« leq sx] L zlStsf] pkof]u x'g] ePsfn] Aof6L« sf
bO' { w|j' larsf] kf]6]lG;on km/s hlxn] klg OnS] 6f« d] f]l6e kmf];e{ Gbf sd xG' 5 . pbfx/0fsf
nflu e.m.f. 3 V ePsf] Aof6L« n] kl/kydf ljB't\ kj| fx ubf{ nf]8sf b'O{ 5]p -A / B_ larsf]
kf6] l] G;on km/s 2.5 V bl] vg ;S5 . o;sf] cy{ 1 C rfh{ kj| fx ubf{ Aof6«Ln] ko| fu] ug]{ k0" f{
zlSt 3 J eP tfklg aNaaf6 k|lt sf]nDa rfh{ k|jfx xb'F f 2.5 J ljB't\ zlSt Aofl6« aflx/sf]
kl/kydf cGo zlSt -tfk / k|sfz_ df ¿kfGt/0f x'G5 eGg] a'lemG5 . On]S6fd] fl] 6e kmf];{ /
kf]6l] G;on km/slarsf] leGgtfnfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ pNnv] ug{ ;lsG5 M
OnS] 6«f]dfl] 6e kmf];{ (e.m.f.) kf6] l] G;on km/s (p.d.)
e.m.f. n] ;f| t] af6 k|lt PsfO rfh{ kj| fxsf kf6] l] G;on km/sn] afx\o ljBt' \ kl/kydf k|lt
nflu kf| Kt zlStnfO{ hgfp5F . PsfO rfh{ kj| fx x'bF f ¿kfGt/0f x'g] zlStnfO{
hgfpF5 .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 177
of] aflx/L kl/kydf ePsf cj/fw] ssf] of] aflx/L kl/kydf ko| f]u ul/Psf
cj/f]wdf lge{/ x'bF }g . cj/fw] ssf] cj/f]wdf lge/{ xG' 5 .
e.m.f. kf6] l] G;on km/s sf] sf/s -cause_ xf] . kf]6]lG;on km/s e.m.f. sf] c;/ -effect_ xf] .
5nkmnsf nflu kZ| g
-c_ xfdLn] ko| fu] ug]{ 8f« O{ ;n] df On]S6f« ]df]l6e kmf;] { -e.m.f._ 1.5 V nl] vPsf] xG' 5 . o;sf] cy{
s] xf] <
-cf_ xfdLn] ufx:{ Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf pks/0f ko| fu] ug{ lsg o;sf] Pp6f 5]pnfO{ nfOe
tf/ / csf{] 5p] nfO{ Go'6«n tf/;u+F h8fg ul/G5 < ;fdfGotof pSt kl/kydf x'g]
kf6] l] G;on km/s slt x'G5 <
cfx] dsf] lgod (Ohm's law)
lj|mofsnfk 11.3
p2Z] o M cf]xf]dsf] lgdo k|bzg{ ug{
cfjZos ;fduL| M 1.5 V sf 4 cf6] f ;n] , 6 V sf] DC aNa, Pld6/, efN] 6ld6/, jm| fs] f8] fOn
lSnk, / ;'rfns tf/
ljlw
1. ljBt' \ kl/ky tof/ kfgx'{ f;] \ .
2. jm| dzM Ps, b'O,{ tLg / rf/cf6] f ;]nsf bO' { 5p] sf] kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ / kl/ky
eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ dfkg ugx'{ f;] \ .
3. pSt tYofª\snfO{ tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf eg'x{ f];\ . kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ nfO{
x-cIfdf / ;DalGwt ljB't\ wf/f -I_ nfO{ y-cIfdf /fv]/ u|fkm lvRg'xf];\ .
;n] sf] ;ª\Vof kf]6l] G;on km/s -V_ ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ V/I = .... lgisif{
1 ================== ====================== =================
5nkmn / lgisif{ M uf| kmsf] ks| l[ tsf cfwf/df 5nkmn u/L lgisif{ n]Vgx' f];\ .
hdg{ efl} tszf:qL hf]h{ ;fOdg cf]xd -George Simon Ohm_ n] ;'rfnssf b'O{ 5p] sf]
kf6] ]lG;on km/s kl/jt{g ubf{ pSt ;r' fns eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ wf/fdf klg kl/jtg{ cfpg]
tYo kQf nufPsf lyP . cfx] dsf] lgodcg';f/ tfkj|md / cGo ef}lts cj:yf l:y/ x'bF f sg' }
;'rfnsdf k|jfx x'g] ljB't\ wf/f -I_ To; ;r' fnssf] bO' { 5p] lar x'g] kf]6l] G;on km/s -V_ ;uF
;dfgk' flts xG' 5 .
178 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
olb s'g} ;'rfnssf] b'O{ 5]psf] kf6] l] G;on km/s 'V' / pSt ;r' fns eP/ hfg] ljB't\ wf/f 'I'
eP, cfx] dsf] lgodcg;' f/,
I∝V
cyjf, V = Constant i
I lrq 11.3 kf6] ]lVG;on km/s /
ljB't\ wf/fsf] u|fkm
cyjf, V nfO{ cj/f]w (R) elgG5 .
I
hxfF R Ps cr/ /flz xf] . o;n] kl/kydf ko| f]u ePsf]
;'rfnssf] ljB't\ cj/fw] nfO{ hgfpF5 .
efl} ts cj:yf l:y/ xb'F f, V = R = cr/ dfg
I
kf6] ]lG;on km/s -V_ nfO{ x–cIfdf / ;DalGwt ljBt' \ wf/f -I_ nfO{ y cIfdf /fv]/ lvlrPsf
u|fkmdf Ps l;wf /v] f k|fKt x'G5 . o;sf] e'msfj = V xG' 5 .
I
ljB't\ cj/f]w (Electric resistance)
;dfg nDafO ePsf] Pp6f df6] f] tfdfsf] tf/ / csf{] Psbd} dl;gf] tfdfsf] tf/nfO{ Pp6}
ljBt' \sf] ;f| ]t;uF h8fg ubf{ df6] f tf/df ljBt' \ rfh{ ;lhn} kj| fx xG' 5g\ . sg' } rfnsdf ljBt' \
wf/f pTkGg xFbf o;df x'g] rfhs{ f] k|jfxnfO{ /f]Sg vf]Hg] u'0fnfO{ ljBt' \ cj/fw] elgG5 . o:tf]
cj/fw] rfnsdf axg] rfh{ / o;sf k/df0fx' ¿larsf] 6s/fj -collision_ n] pTkGg x'G5 .
ljBt' \ cj/f]wsf] P;=cfO{= PsfO -SI Unit_ cfx] d -ohm_ xf] hg' \ ef}ltszf:qL ;fOdg cf]xdsf]
vf]hsf] sb/:j¿k pgs} gfdaf6 /flvPsf] PsfO xf] . o;sf] ;ª\st] sf nflu lus| efiffsf]
cIf/ cfd] ]uf -omega_ 'Ω' sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . o; PsfOdf ;dfj]z /x]sf cfwf/e"t PsfOnfO{
lgDgfg;' f/ k|:tt' ug{ ;lsG5 M
Energy⁄charge Force × displacement
R = V/I = charge⁄time = charge2⁄time
dflysf] ;dLs/0fdf ePsf ef}lts kl/df0fsf ;ªs\ t] x¿nfO{ ltgsf cfwf/e"t PsfOn] k|lt:yfkg
ubf{,
W = kA g2 xx m2 =kgm2 A-2S-3
S3
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 179
cf]xd PsfOdf lk08sf] PsfO 'kg' , nDafOsf] PsfO 'm', ;dosf] PsfO 's' / ljB't\ wf/fsf] PsfO
'A' ;dfjz] 5g\ . t;y{ of] Ps tThGo PsfO xf] .
1 Ω cj/fw] M cfx] dsf] lgodcg;' f/, R = V 1 Ω = 1 V
I IA
sg' } ;r' fnssf b'O{ 5]plar 1 V sf] kf6] l] G;on km/s xb'F f pSt ;r' fnsdf 1 A sf] ljBt' \ wf/f
pTkGf x'G5 eg] To;sf] cj/fw] 1 Ω x'G5 .
pbfx/0fM 2 lrq 11.4
Pp6f kfgL ttfpg k|ofu] x'g] Od;g{ /8 -Immersion rod_ sf] cj/fw] 40Ω
5 . pSt /8nfO{ 220 V sf] kf6] ]lG;on km/s ePsf] kfj/ Knudf hf]8\bf To;af6
hfg] ljB't\ wf/f lx;fa ug'{xf];\ M
kZ| gdf lbOPcg';f/,
kf6] l] G;on km/s (V) = 220 V
cj/fw] (R) = 40 Ω
cfx] dsf] lgodcg';f/,
s/G] 6 (I ) = kf6] ]lG;on km/s (V)
ljB't\ cj/f]w (R)
220 lrq 11.5 ;q" lqe'h -cf]xdsf]
I = = 5.5 A lgod_
40
pSt Od;g{ /8 eP/ hfg] ljB't\ wf/f 5.5 A x'G5 .
ljB't\ cj/f]wnfO{ ke| fj kfg]{ tŒj -factors affecting resistance_
ljm| ofsnfk 11.4
p2Z] o M rfnssf] nDafO / ca/fw] larsf] ;DaGw cWoog ug{
cfjZos ;fduL| M 1.5 V sf 2 cf]6f ;n] , aNa, Pld6/, efN] 6ld6/, jm| f]sf]8fOn lSnk, ;'rfns
tf/ / l;;fsnd
ljlw M
1. Pp6f l;;fsnd af6 gefFlrg] u/L u|fkmfO6 /8 A
lgsfNgx' f;] \ . V
2. lrqdf b]vfOP h:t} ljB't\ kl/ky tof/ ug'x{ f];\ .
3. uf| kmfO6 /8sf] b'a} 5p] df lSnkn] hf]8/] kl/ky tof/ kf/L Pp6f ;]n / bO' c{ f]6f ;n] hf8] \
180 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
bf k|fKt x'g] kf6] ]lG;on km/s / ljBt' \ wf/fsf] dfqf dfkg u/L tYofªs\ ;ª\sng ug{x' f;] \ .
4. u|fkmfO6 /8sf] b'a} 5p] df ePsf lSnknfO{ dWo] s'g} Ps lSnknfO{ larlt/ ;f//] kg' M
:6]k 3 bf]xf¥ofpgx' f];\ .
j|m=;= uf| kmfO6 /8df bO' { lSnk larsf] b/' L -l/cm_ kf6] ]lG;on ljBt' \ wf/f cj/fw]
km/s -V/V_ -I/A_ -R/Ώ_
1a.
1b.
2a.
2b.
5nkmn / lgisif{ M bj' } cj:yfdf V / I sf] cgk' ft lx;fa ug'x{ f];\ . kf| Kt glthfnfO{ ljZn]if0f
u/L lgisif{ n]Vg'xf;] \ .
rfnsx¿sf] cj/fw] ltgsf] nDafO, df6] fO, tfkjm| d, agf6] cflbdf e/ k5{ . df]6fO
a/fa/ ePsf 5f6] f / nfdf tf/dWo] nfdf] tf/df ljBt' \ cj/f]w a9L xG' 5 . dl;gf] tf/sf]
cj/fw] df6] f] tf/sf]eGbf a9L xG' 5 . ;'rfns tf/sf] tfkj|md a9\bf cj/f]w klg a9\5 . j:t'sf]
cj/fw] To;sf] agfj6df klg e/ k5{ . pbfx/0fsf nflu p:t} cfsf/ / ;fOh ePsf sk/
sf] tf/ / gfOj|mfd] sf] tf/dWo] gfOjm| fd] sf] cj/f]w a9L xG' 5 . ;r' fnssf] cj/f]w cj:yfcg';f
km/s kg{] eP tfklg sg' } lglZrt efl} ts cj:yfsf nflu V = R = cr/ dfg, tYo nfu' xG' 5 .
I
cj/f]wsx¿sf] h8fg (combination of resistors)
ljm| ofsnfk 11.5
p2Z] o M
cfjZos ;fduL| M bO' {cf]6f 8f« O{ ;]n, bO' c{ f6] f aNa, Pld6/, ef]N6ld6/ / j|mf]sf8] fOn lSnk
– +A – +A
kl/ky s xx x
v x kl/ky v
v
ljlw M
1. klxnf] kl/kysf nflu aNax¿nfO{ kl/ky s df bv] fOP h:t} Ps kl5 csf]{ u/]/
>]0fLj|mddf h8fg ug'{xf;] \ .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 181
2. bf];|f] kl/kysf nflu kl/ky v df b]vfOP h:t} aNax¿nfO{ ;dfgfGt/ ¿kdf h8fg
ugx'{ f;\ .
3. kfnk} fnf] ba' } kl/kysf nflu tn tflnsfdf pNn]v ul/Pcg';f/ kf6] l] G;on km/s
tyf ljB't\ wf/fsf] dfkg u/L eg'x{ f;] \ .
kl/ky k|To]s aNasf bO' { 5p] larsf] bj' } aNalarsf] lgisif{
kf6] l] G;on km/s kf6] l] G;on km/s (V) V1,V2 / V larsf] ;DaGw
klxnf] aNa V1 bf;] |f] aNa V2
s ========== ============ =============== V=…
v =========== =========== ===============
kl/ky k|Tos] aNa eP/ hfg] ljBt' \ ;Dk0" f{ kl/ky eP/ lgisif{
wf/f hfg] ljB't\ wf/f (I) I1, I2 / I larsf] ;DaGw
klxnf] aNa I1 bf;] f| ] aNa I2
s ========== ============ =============== I = ………..
v =========== =========== ===============
5nkmn tyf lgisif{ M pSt tYofªs\ sf] ljZn]if0f u/L lgisif{ nV] g'xf];\ .
dflysf kl/kydf Pp6f Pp6f aNa yk h8fg u/L aQLx¿sf] pHofnf] cjnfs] g ug'{xf;] \ .
aNasf] pHofnf]kgfdf s]xL kl/jt{g cfof] < cfk\mgf] cjnfs] gsf cfwf/df sf/0f kQf nufpg
sIffdf 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .
cj/f]wsx¿sf] >0] fLj|md h8fg (series combination of resistors)
>0] fLj|md h8fgdf cj/fw] sx¿nfO{ jm| lds
¿kdf Pskl5 csf{] h8fg u/L cGTodf klxnf]
/ clGtdnfO{ ljBt' \sf] ;f| t] l;t h8fg ul/G5 .
>0] fLjm| d h8fgdf ljB't\ wf/fsf nflu Pp6f dfq
af6f] x'G5 . t;y{ kT| o]s cj/f]wsdf ;dfg ljB't\
wf/f -I_ xG' 5 t/ kf]6l] G;on km/s -V_ eg] k|To] lrq 11.6 cj/fw] x¿sf] >0] fLjm| d h8fg
s cj/f]wsdf aflF 8G5 . o; lsl;dsf] h8fgdf
s'g} Pp6f cj/f]wsdf ql' 6 cfpbF f kl/ky vn' f
aG5 / h8fgel/sf cGo cj/f]wsn] sfd ug{ 5f]8\5g\ . o:tf] h8fgdf k|To]s cj/f]wssf nflu
56' \6f5'66\ } l:jr /fvL k|of]u ug{ ;lsbF }g . lbkfjnL cflbdf ko| fu] x'g] ;hfj6sf aQLdf o;
lsl;dsf] h8fg ul/G5 .
182 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
dfgf}F klxnf,] bf];f| ] / t;] |f] cj/f]wssf bO' { 5p] larsf] kf6] ]lG;on km/s jm| dzM V , V , / V
12 3
5 . ltgsf] cj/fw] jm| dzM R , R , / R 5 / ;du|df tLgcf6] } cj/f]wssf] cj/f]w R 5 . o;
12 3
lsl;dsf] h8fgdf kf6] l] G;on km/s afFl8g] ePsfn] kf]6l] G;on km/snfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k|:tt' ug{
;lsG5 M
V = V1 + V2 + V3
cf]xdsf] lgodcg';f/,
IR = IR + IR + IR
123
\ R = R1 + R2 + R3
t;y{ >]0fLj|md h8fgdf cj/f]wsx¿sf] sn' cj/f]w k|To]ssf] 5'66\ f5'66\ } cj/f]wsf] ofu] kmn;Fu
a/fa/ xG' 5 .
cj/f]wsx¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg -parallel combination of resistors_
;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf bO' { jf b'O{eGbf a9L cj/f]wsx¿nfO{ 56' \6f56' 6\ } lrq 11.7 cj/fw] x¿sf]
ljB't\sf] ;|ft] ;Fu hfl] 8Psf] x'G5 . ;a} cj/fw] ssf bO' { 5p] lar ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
;dfg kf6] ]lG;on km/s -V_ xG' 5 / k|Tos] cj/f]wssf nflu
ljBt' \ wf/fsf] 56' \6} af6f] xG' 5 . h;n] ubf{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf
ljB't\ wf/f ljeflht xG' 5 . olb s'g} Pp6f cj/f]wsdf q'l6 cfP
klg h8fgsf cGo cj/f]wsdf ljB't\ wf/f ;'rf? u/L ltgsf]
ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] h8fgdf kT| os] cj/fw] ssf nflu 5'6\6f5'66\ }
l:jr /fvL ko| fu] ug{ ;lsG5 . xfdLsf] 3/x¿df ul/g] ljB't\ nf]8x¿sf]
h8fg ;dfgfGt/ h8fg xf] .
dfgfF} klxnf,] bf;] f| ,] / t];f| ] cj/f]wsdf ljBt' \ wf/f jm| dzM I1 , I2 , / I3 5, ltgsf] cj/f]w j|mdzM
R1 , R2 / R3 5 / ;dud| f tLgcf]6} cj/f]wsx¿sf] cj/f]w R 5 . ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf s'n
ljw't\ wf/f -I_ ;a} cj/fw] sdf aflF 8g] ePsfn] ljBt' \ wf/fnfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ k:| tt' ug{ ;lsG5 M
I = I1 + I2 + I3
cf]xdsf] lgodcg';f/,
V V V V
=+ +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
\ =+ +
R R1 R2 R3
t;y{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf cj/fw] ssf] sn' cj/fw] sf] Jo'Tj|md -reciprocal_ k|To]ssf] 56' 6\ f56' 6\ }
cj/f]wsf] JoT' j|mdsf] of]ukmn;Fu a/fa/ xG' 5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 183
pbfx/0fM 3
Pp6f ljB't\ kl/kydf 10Ω, 20Ω / 30Ω sf cj/f]wsnfO{ 12 V sf] Aof6L« ;u“ klxn] >]0fLjm| d
h8fg ul/Psf] 5 / To;kl5 ltg} cj/fw] snfO{ klxn]s} Aof6L« sf] ko| fu] u/L ;dfgfGt/ h8fg ul/
of] . oL b'j} cj:yfsf nflu ljBt' \ wf/f lx;fa u/L ltgsf] dfg tn' gf ugx{' f];\ M
k|Zgdf lbOPcg';f/,
klxnf] cj/f]wssf] cj/fw] -R1_ Ö 10Ω
bf];f| ] cj/fw] ssf] cj/f]w -R2_ Ö 20Ω
t];f| ] cj/fw] ssf] cj/fw] -R3_ Ö 30Ω
ljBt' \ kl/kydf ePsf] kf6] l] G;on km/s -V_ Ö 12 V
>]0fLjm| d h8fgsf nflu ;dfgfGt/ h8fgsf nflu
s'n cj/fw] R Ö R1 + R2 + R3 s'n cj/f]wsf nflu 12V
R Ö 10Ω + 20Ω + 30Ω = 60Ω 1 1 1 1
= ++
R R1 R2 R3 10Ω
ljB't\ wf/f V 12 20Ω
I = = = 0.2 A 30Ω
R 60 11 1 1
=++
>]0fLj|md h8fgdf sn' cj/f]w 60Ω R 10 20 30
x'G5 / kl/kydf ljBt' \ wf/f 0.2 A 1 6 + 3 + 2 11
==
x'G5 . R 60 60
+– R = 5.45 Ω
12V ljBt' \ wf/f I V 12
10Ω 20Ω 30Ω
= = = 2.202 A
R 5.45
;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf sn' cj/f]w 5.45 Ω x'G5 / kl/
kydf ljBt' \ wf/f 2.202 A xG' 5 .
pxL cj/fw] sx¿nfO{ >]0fLj|md h8fgaf6 ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ kl/kydf ljB't\
wf/f a95\ . o; pbfx/0fdf >]0fLjm| d h8fgnfO{ ;dfgfGt/ h8fgdf ¿kfGt/0f ubf{ ljB't\
wf/f nueu 11 u0' ff a9s] f] 5 .
ljBt' \sf] tfk c;/ (heating effect of electric current)
ljm| ofsnfk 11.6
Pp6f 6r{nfO6sf] lrd b'O{cf6] f 8f« O;n] , l:jr / ;r' fns tf/ lng'xf];\ . x
oL ;an} fO{ h8fg u/L ljB't\ kl/ky tof/ kfgx{' f;] \ . l:jr cg u/s] f] s]
xL ;dokl5 o;nfO{ ckm ug'x{ f;] \ / lrdsf] tfkj|md cjnf]sg ug'{xf;] \ . k|fKt glthfsf] sf/0faf/]
5nkmn ug{'xf];\ .
184 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
ljBt' \ nf]8df x'g] cj/fw] n] ljBt' \ zlSt cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . gfOj|mf]d ljB't\
lx6/df k|of]u ul/Psf] tf/sf] cj/fw] n] ljB't\ zlSt tfkdf ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . o;df k|ofu]
x'g] gfOj|mfd] Ps pRr ljB't\ cj/f]w ePsf] lgs]n / j|mfl] dodsf] ld>0faf6 agfOg] lxl6ª
OlndG] 6 -heating element_ xf] . o;sf] kUng] laGb' klg pRr x'G5 . o;nfO{ ko| fu] ubf{ 900 oC
sf] pRr tfkj|md;Dd klg clS;hgsf] pkl:yltdf hNb}g . cj/f]w a9fP/ ljB't\ zlStnfO{ rfF8}
tfk zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . lkmnfdG] 6 lrddf ljB't\ zlStnfO{ tfk / ks| fzdf kl/
jtg{ ug{ lgs} dl;gf] 6ª\u;6g] lkmnfdG] 6 /flvPsf] x'G5 . ljB't\ nf8] sf] k|ofu] ubf{ ljB't\ zlSt
tfkdf ¿kfGt/0f xg' ' ljBt' s\ f] tfk c;/ xf] . ljBt' \ lx6/, kfgL ttfpg ko| f]u xg' ] Od;{g /8
-immersion rod_, O:qL -iron_, /fO; ss' /, ljB't\ s]6nL cflb ljB'ts\ f] tfk c;/df cfwfl/t
pks/0fx¿ xg' \ . ljB'ts\ f] tfk c;/ kl/kydf axg] ljB't\ wf/fdf klg e/ k5{ . slxns] fxLF
PSsfl; kf6] l] G;on km/s a9\bf nf]8df cTolws ljB't\ kj| fx xg' uO{ ;'rfns tf/ cTolws
tft/] klUnG5 .
Onl] S6s« lx6/ Onl] S6«s cfO/g /fO; s's/ Onl] S6«s hu
lrq 11.8
ljB't\ ;fdYo{ (electric power)
lj|mofsnfk 11.7
lrqdf bv] fOPsf pks/0fdf 145 W ;fdYo{ nl] vPsf]
5 . tkfO{s“ f ljBfnodf ko| fu] ul/Psf ljleGg ljBt' Lo
pks0fx¿ -LED aQL, kª\vf cflb _ sf] ;fDfYo{ l6kf]6
ug{x' f;] \ . pSt ljj/0fnfO{ ko| fu] u/L tn lbOPsf] h:t}
tflnsfdf eg'{xf;] \ M
pks/0f ;fdYo{ -P_ Ps ;s] G] 8df x'g] zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0fsf] dfqf
LCD TV 145 W 145 J
============ ============== ======================
tkfOFn{ ] cjnf]sg u/s] f pks/0fdWo] k"0f{ ¿kn] sfo{ ul//xs] f] cj:yfdf s'g pks/0fn]
k|lt ;]s]G8 ;a}eGbf a9L zlStnfO{ cGo zlStdf ¿kfGt/0f ug{] /x5] <
ljBt' \ nf]8sf] k|of]uaf6 zlSt ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 . sg' } ljB't\ pks/0fsf] ko| f]u ubf{ k|ltPsfO
;dodf x'g] ljBt' \ zlStsf] ¿kfGt/0f pSt pks/0fsf] ;fdYo{ xf] .
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 185
ljBt' \ ;fd Yo{ (P) = ljB't\ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug{] zlSt ====================== -i_
;do (t)
pks/0fsf b'O{ 5]pdf xg' ] kf6] l] G;on km/sn] OnS] 6«f]g k|jfx eO{ ljB't\ zlSt ¿kfGt/0f xG' 5 .
kf6] ]lG;on km/ssf] kl/efiffcg';f/,
kf]6]lG;o n km/ s (V) = pks /0fsf b'O{ 5p] rlafhr{ rfh{ kj| fx u/fpbF f xg' ] sfo{ (W)
(Q)
ljB't\ pks/0fn] ug]{ sfo{ (W) = QV = ljB't\ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug{] zlSt
;dLs/0f -i_ af6
ljB't\ ;fdYo{ (P) = QV
t
ljBt' \ ;fdYo{ (P) = IV \ ljB't\ wf/f (I) = Q
t
pbfx/0fM 4
/f]xgn] cfkm\ gf] efG5fsf7] fdf ePsf] /fO;s's/df ljB't\ ;fdYo{ 900 W n]lvPsf] kfP . /
fO;s's/nfO{ cfjZos kg]{ ljB't\ wf/f lgsfNg'xf;] \ . -ufx{:Yo ljBt' \ kl/kydf x'g] kf6] l] G;on
km/s = 220 V_
k|Zgdf lbOPcg';f/,
kl/kydf x'g] kf]6]lG;on km/s -V_ Ö 220 V
/fO;ss' /sf] ;fdYo{ -P_ Ö 900 W
;q" fg;' f/,
ljBt' \ wf/f ;fdYo{ -P_ = IV
ljBt' \ wf/f (I) = P lrq 11.9
V
ljB't\ wf/f (I) = 900 = 4.09 A
220
/fO;ss' /df vfgf ksfpFbf To;sf] SjfOn -coil_ df 4.09 A ljB't\ wf/f pTkGg xG' 5 .
ljB't\ vkt (electricity consumption)
ljB't\ pks/0fsf] k|of]u ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljBt' \ zlStsf] dfqf ljB't\ vkt xf] .
ljleGg pks/0f k|ofu] ubf{ x'g] ljBt' \ vktnfO{ ljB't\ ld6/sf] k|ofu] u/L dfkg
ul/G5 . ljBt' \ vktsf] Jofj;flos PsfO lsnfj] f6 306f -kWh_ xf] . 1 kWh eg]sf] s'g} Ps
186 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
lsnf]jf6 ljB't\ ;fdYo{ ePsf] pks/0fnfO{ 1 306f
ko| f]u ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljBt' \ zlStsf] kl/df0f xf] . 1 kWh
nfO{ ;dfGo afl] nrfnLsf] efiffdf 1 ol' g6 elgG5 .
1 kW h = 1000 W × 1 h
1 kWh = 1000 W ×3600 s
= 3.6 × 106 J =3.6 MJ
ljB't\ ;fdYo{sf] kl/efiffcg';f/ pks/0fn] ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f xg' ] lrq 11.10
ljB't\ zlSt o;sf] ;fdYo{ / k|ofu] sf] ;dfojlwdf e/ k5{ .
ljBt' \ pks/0fn] ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ zlSt (E) = ljBt' \ ;fdYo{ (P) × ;do (t)
ljB't\ dx;'n (electricity bill)
ljm| ofsnfk 11.8
tkfOs“{ f] 3/df ko| fu] ul/g] ljBt' \ pks/0f;DaGwL ljj/0f tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf egx{' f;] \ . pSt
ljj/0fsf cfwf/df bl} gs ljB't\ vkt / dfl;s ljB't\ dx;n' lx;fa ug'{xf;] \ .
pks/0f CFLaQL LED aNa ====== ============== =============
;fdYo{ -P_ lsnf]jf6df 15 W =
15/1000 kW
;ª\Vof -n_
bl} gs ko| f]u ul/g] ;do -t_
306fdf
ljB't\ vkt Ö P × n × t
;a} pks/0fsf] b}lgs vkt hf]8g\ 'xf;] \ . pSt vktnfO{ 30 n] u0' fg ubf{ dfl;s vkt k|fKt
xG' 5 . dfl;s ljBt' \ vktnfO{ kl| t ol' g6 zN' sn] u0' fg u/L dfl;s ljBt' \ dx;n' kQf nufpgx' f;] \ .
xfdLn] ljBt' \ pks/0fx¿ k|ofu] ubf{ xg' ] ljBt' \ vktsf] dx;n' eS' tfg u5f+}{ . o;sf nflu ljB't\
ld6/df xfn b]lvPsf] cªs\ / cluNnf] dlxgfdf b]lvPsf] cª\ssf] leGgtf lgsfNg'k5{ . o;/L
lgsflnPsf] cªs\ nfO{ kl| to'lg6 zN' sn] u0' fg u/L ljBt' \ dx;'n lgsflnG5 .
ljBt' \ pks/0fsf] ;fdYo{ 'P' -lsnfj] f6df– kW_, To;nfO{ k|of]u ul/Psf] ;do 't' -306fdf– h_,
/ pxL pks/0fx¿ PseGbf a9L ePsf] cj:yfdf tL pks/0fsf] ;ª\Vof 'n' ePdf ljB't\ vkt
lgDgfg';f/ lx;fa ul/G5 M
ljBt' \ vkt Ö P × n × t unit (kW h)
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 187
pbfx/0fM 5
Pp6f 3/df 15 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 6 cf6] f l;PkmPn -CFL_ b}lgs 5 306f, 7 W ;fdYo{ ePsf
4 cf6] f PnO8L (LED_ aNa b}lgs 6 306f, 1 kW ;fdYo{ ePsf 2 cf6] f lx6/ bl} gs 2 306f,
900 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] /fO;s's/ bl} gs 50 ldg]6 / 800 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] O:qL xKtfdf 30
ldg6] sf nflu ko| f]u ul/G5g\ . pSt 3/sf] dfl;s ljBt' \ vkt slt x'G5 < olb 1 ol' g6 ljB't\
sf] z'Ns ?= 10 eP dfl;s ljBt' \ dx;'n lx;fa ugx'{ f;] \ .
xn M kZ| gdf lbOPcg';f/,
pks/0f CFL LED lx6/ /fO;s's/ O:qL
;fdYo{ -P_
15 W = 7W= 1 kW 900 W= 800 W
15 7
kW kW 900 9 800 8 kW
= kW = =
1000 1000 1000 10 1000 10
;ªV\ of -n_ 6 4 21 1
6h
b}lgs ko| fu] 5 h 2 h 50 min 30 min k|ltxKtf
ul/g] ;do = 50 5 h = 0.5 h b}lgs
60= 6
-t_ 7
;"qfg;' f/,
Ps lbgdf l;PkmPn -CFL_ n] ubf{ x'g] ljBt' \ vkt = P × n ×t
= 15 × 6 × 5 = 0.45 kW h
1000
Ps lbgdf PnO8L -LED_ n] ubf{ x'g] ljB't\ vkt = P × n × t
7
= × 4 × 6 = 0.168 kW h
1000
Ps lbgdf lx6/n] ubf{ xg' ] ljBt' \ vkt = P × n × t
= 1 × 2 × 2 = 4 kWh
Ps lbgdf /fO;ss' /n] ubf{ x'g] ljB't\ vkt = P × n × t
9 5 = 0.75 kWh
= ×1×
1000 6
Ps lbgdf O:qLn] ubf{ x'g] ljB't\ vkt = = P × n × t
8 × 1 × 0.5 = 0.057 kWh
=
10 7
188 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
Ps lbgdf xg' ] hDdf ljBt' \ vkt = 0.45+0.168+4+0.75+0.057 = 5.425 kWh (unit)
Ps dlxgfdf xg' ] hDdf ljBt' \ vkt = 5.425 × 30= 162.75 unit
Ps dlxgfsf] ljB't\ dx;n' = 162.75× 10 = Rs.1627.5
pSt 3/sf] dfl;s ljBt' \ vkt 162.75 unit xG' 5 / dfl;s ljB't\ dx;n' ?= 1627.5 xG' 5 .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 189
cEof;
!= ;xL pQ/ 5fGg'xf];\ M
-s_ tnsf u|fkmdWo] sg' n] cf]xdsf] lgdonfO{ kb| z{g u5{ <
-c_ A -cf_ B -O_ C -O{_ D
-v_ ljB't\ lx6/df k|ofu] xg' ] lxl6ª Olnd]G6 -heating element_ sg' kbfya{ f6
agfOG5 M
-c_ tfdf -copper_ -cf_ sG;6G] 6g -constantan_
-O_ 6ªU\ :6]g -tungsten_ -O{_ gfOj|mf]d -nichrome_
-u_ ufx{:Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf ljBt' \ nf8] x¿nfO{ ;dfgfGt/ ¿kn] h8fg ugs{' f] sf/0f s'g
xf] <
-c_ ;a} nf]8af6 ;dfg s/]G6 k7fpg
-cf_ ;a} nf]8nfO{ ;dfg kf6] ]lG;on km/sdf /fVg
-cf_ ljB't\ kl/kydf cj/f]w oyfjt /fVg
-O_ ljB't\ kl/kydf cj/fw] a9fpg
-3_ aNa A df 220 V, 0.5 A / aNa B df 220 V, 0.45 A pNnv] ul/Psf] 5 . b'j}n] k0" f{
Ifdtfdf sfo{ ul//xs] f] cj:yfdf tnsf dWo] sg' egfO ;xL x'G5 <
-c_ k|lt306f B n] A eGbf a9L ljBt' \ vkt u5{ .
-cf_ k|lt;]sG] 8 A n] B eGbf a9L zlSt ¿kfGt/0f u5{ .
-O_ k|lt;s] ]G8 B af6 pTkGg xg' ] tfk A sf] eGbf a9L x'G5 .
-O{_ aNa A eGbf B sf] k|ofu] a9fpFbf ljB't\ dx;'n a9\5 . .
-ª_ ;F+us} f] lrqdf b]vfOPsf] kl/kydf R sf] dfg slt x'G5 <
-c_ 6 Ω -cf_ 12 Ω
-O_ 18 Ω -O_{ 24 Ω
190 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
-r_ 1 kW sf] lx6/nfO{ 1 306f ko| fu] ubf{ ¿kfGt/0f x'g] ljBt' \ zlSt slt xG' 5 <
-c_ 3.6 × 105 J -cf_ 3.6 × 104 J
-O_ 3.6 × 103 J -O_{ 3.6 × 106 J
@= km/s nV] g'xf];\ M
-s_ On]S6«fd] fl] 6e kmf];{ / kf6] ]lG;on km/s
-v_ nf]8x¿sf] >]0fLj|md h8fg / nf]8x¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg
#= sf/0f n]Vg'xf];\ M
-s_ aNanfO{ Pp6f 8f« O{ ;]n;Fu h8fg ul/Psf] eGbf bO' {cf6] f ;]nsf] ;d"x;+uF h8fg ubf{
a9L rlDsnf]kgf b]lvof] .
-v_ lx6/df gfOjm| f]d tf/sf] k|ofu] ul/G5 .
-u_ ufx:{ Yo ljBt' \ kl/kydf ljB't\ nf]8x¿sf] ;dfgfGt/ h8fg ul/G5 .
$= tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vgx' f;] \ M
-s_ ljBt' \ s/]G6sf] kl/efiff n]Vg'xf];\ .
-v_ On]S6«fd] f]l6e kmf;] { egs] f] s] xf] < s] of] jf:tljs ¿kdf cGo an h:t} xf] < JofVof
ug{'xf];\ .
-u_ Pp6f 8f« O{ ;]ndf nl] vPsf] 1.5 V sf] cy{ n]Vgx' f;] \ .
-3_ cf]xdsf] lgod nv] L V= IR x'G5 egL bv] fpgx' f];\ .
-ª_ ljBt' \ cj/fw] eg]sf] s] xf] < 1 Ω ljBt' \ cj/f]w kl/eflift ugx{' f];\ .
-r_ ;dfg nDafO ePsf df6] f] tf/ / dl;gf] tf/dWo] sg' sf] cj/f]w a9L x'G5 <
-5_ ljB't\sf] tfk c;/ eg]sf] s] xf] < o;df cfwfl/t bO' c{ f]6f pks/0fsf] gfd
nV] g'xf];\ .
-h_ ljB't\ ;fdYo{ eg]sf] s] xf] < Pp6f df]afOn kmfg] df n]lvPsf] 5 W sf] cy{
n]Vg'xf];\ .
-em_ ;/' hn] Pp6f 3 V sf] Aof6«L k|of]u u//] ul/Psf aNasf] h8fgdf Pp6 aNa
x6fP/ afFsL aNanfO{ kg' M Aof6L;« uF hf8] b\ f pHofnf] a9s] f] cg'ej u/] . aNax¿
sg' lsl;dn] h8fg ul/Psf /x5] g\ . pSt h8fg b]vfpg] ljBt' \ kl/kysf] lrq
sfg] {'xf;] \ . aNax¿sf] pHofnf] a9g\ s' f sf/0f pNn]v ugx{' f];\ .
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 191
-`_ tkfOFn{ fO{ ;dfg ;fdYo{ ePsf bO' c{ f]6f aNa, bO' c{ f6] f 8f« O{ ;]n / ;'rfns tf/
lbOPsf] 5 . tL aNanfO{ clwstd pHofnf] xg' ] u/L afNgsf nflu s'g lsl;dn]
h8fg ug{'x'G5, lsg < lrq;lxt k|:6 kfg{x' f];\ .
%= ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{'xf];\ M
-s_ 10 mA ljBt' \ wf/f ePsf] ;'rfns tf/df 0.2 C rfh{ axg nfUg] ;do lx;fa
ug'x{ f;] \ . ( 20 s)
-v_ Pp6f ;r' fns tf/df 5 mA sf] ljB't\ wf/f 5 . 1 ldg]6sf] ;dodf pSt tf/ eP/
axg] rfh{ lx;fa ug'{xf];\ . (0.3 C)
-u_ Pp6f 6r{ nfO6sf] aNadf 3 V, 500 mA pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . aNasf] cj/f]w /
;fdYo{ lx;fa ug'{xf;] \ . -6 Ω ,1.5 W )
-3_ 220 V sf] ufx{:Yo ljBt' \ kl/ky h8fg ePsf] Pp6f 3/sf] sf]7fdf 1100 W
;fdYo{ ePsf] lx6/ / 11 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] CFL aflnPsf 5g\ . ;r' fns tf/sf]
cj/f]w gu0o dfgL k|Tos] pks/0f eP/ hfg] s/]G6 / kT| os] sf] ljBt' \ cj/f]w lx;fa
ug'x{ f];\ . -lx6/– 5 A, 44 Ω , CFL- 0.05 A, 4400 Ω)
-ª_ ;Fu}sf] lrqdf b]vfOPsf] kfgL ttfpg k|ofu] xg' ] lsTnL
-kettle_ df 6fFl;Psf] l:6s/ cjnfs] g ugx'{ f;] \ . pSt
lsTnLnfO{ 220 V kf]6]lG;on km/s ePsf] ufx{:Yo
ljB't\ kl/kydf h8fg ubf{ To;af6 hfg] clwstd
s/G] 6 slt xG' 5 < lsTnLdf kfgL plDng 4 ldg]6
;do nfUof] eg] Tof] lsTnLn] clwstd slt ol' g6
ljBt' \ vkt u5,{ lx;fa ug'{xf;] \ . (13.63 A, 0.2 kW h)
-5_ Pp6f 3/sf] ufx{:Yo ljB't\ kl/kydf h8fg ul/Psf ljleGg ljB't\ pks/0fsf] ;fdYo{
/ ltgsf] ko| f]u ljj/0f lgDgfg';f/ 5 M
-c_ 7 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 10 cf]6f PnO8L -LED _ bl} gs 6 306f
-cf_ 150 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] Pp6f l6eL bl} gs 8 306f
-O_ 150 W ;fdYo{ ePsf 4 cf6] f kªv\ f b}lgs 10 306f
-O{_ 750 W ;fdYo{ ePsf] Pp6f O:qL xKtfsf] 40 ldg]6
pSt 3/df x'g] dfl;s ljB't\ vkt slt x'G5 < olb Ps ol' g6 ljBt' s\ f] d"No ?= 10
eP Ps dlxgfsf] ljB't\ dx;'n lx;fa ugx{' f;] \ . (Ans: 230.7 kW h, Rs. 2037)
192 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
kl/of]hgf sfo{
bl} gs ljBt' \ vktsf] cWoog ug{ tkfO“{sf] jl/kl/sf kfr“ cf]6f 3/sf] ;j]I{ f0f u/L tnsf] h:t}
tflnsfdf ljj/0f ;ª\sng ug{'xf];\ / k|fKt glthfnfO{ sIffdf 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .
3/ g= =====
ljB't\ nf]8 ljB't\ ;fdYo{ -P_ ;ª\Vof ko| fu] ul/g] ljB't\ vkt ljB't\ dx;n'
-kW) -n_ ;do -t_ -P × n × t_ (kWh × rate)
============= ============ ========== ============== ======== kWh ================
lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff ( 193
!@ ax| \df08 (The Universe)
lrq 12.1 uf];fOs0' 8df k/fjlt{s eO{ bl] vPsf] cfsfzuª\uf tf/f k'~h
;|f]t M YEVHEN SAMUCHENKO
ax| d\ f08 cGtl/Ifsf] cyfx lj:tf/ xf] . ;Dk"0f{ kbfy{, pmhf{ tyf ;do oxL aX| df08df lglxt
5g\ . lrq 12.1 df kY[ jLaf6 vfnL cfvF fn] /ftLsf] v'nf cfsfzdf xb] f{ cGtl/Ifdf bl] vg]
cfsfzuªu\ f -Milkyway galaxy_ sf cgluGtL tf/f bv] fOPsf] 5 . tL tf/fdf klg xfd|f]
;f}od{ 08nsf] ;o" { h:t} tfk / ks| fz pTkGg x'G5 . ltgLx¿sf] ;a}sf] lglZrt cfo' x'G5 .
a|xd\ f08df tf/fx¿sf] lj:kmf]6g x'g], cyfx u?' Tjan ePsf lk08;Fu+ } csf]{ tf/f klg 3'Db}
u/s] f] h:tf 36gfx¿ 6]ln:sf]ksf] dbtn] cjnf]sg ug]{ ul/G5 . 6l] n:sfk] cjnf]sgaf6 kf| Kt
hfgsf/Lsf cfwf/df ax| d\ f08sf af/d] f j1} flgs tYox¿ kl| tkfbg ul/Psf 5g\ .
194 lj1fg tyf k|ljlwM sIff (
tf/fsf] hLjg rj|m (Life cycle of stars)
lj|mofsnfk 12.1
;“u}sf] lrqdf ;o" {df Go'lSno/ k\mo'hg -Nuclear fussion_ åf/f
pmhf{ pTkGg xg' ] sf]/, pSt pmhf{ ;~rfng tyf ljls/0fsf
dfWoodaf6 aflx/lt/ k|;f/0f xg' ] /]l8Pl6e hfg] / ;j+ fxgsf
dfWoodaf6 pmhf{ k;| f/0f xg' ] sGe]lS6e hfg] b]vfOPsf] 5 .
tnsf] tflnsf cWoog u/L lbOPsf k|Zgx¿sf ;Gbed{ f 5nkmn
ug'x{ f;] \ . lrq 12.2 ;o" {sf] leqL ;/+ rgf
tf/f ;fo} {d08n ;fOh -cw{Jof; lk08 /ª ;txsf] cfo'
;o" { -Sun_ af6sf] b/' L tfkjm| d
kx]Fnf]
– 695,700 km 2×1030 kg -yellow_ 5778 K 4.6 ca{
l;l/o; P 8.6 k|sfz 1.711 u0' ff 2.063 u'0ff lgnf] ldl>t 9940 K 2 s/f]8
-Sirius A_ jif{ ;o" {sf] cw{Jof; ;f}ol{ k08 ;t] f] -bluish 42 nfv
white_
k|fl} S;df 4.2 k|sfz 0.1542 u0' ff 0.122 u'0ff 4.8 ca{
;G] 6f/} L jif{ ;"o{sf] cwJ{ of; ;fo} {lk08 xNsf /ftf] 3042 K
-faint red_
gf]6 M l;l/o; P -Sirius A_ /ftL cfsfzdf b]lvg] sfnk'?if -orion_ tf/fd08n ;Fus} f] ;a}eGbf
rlDsnf] tf/f xf] . kf| ]lS;df ;]G6f/} L -Proxima centauri_ ;o" a{ f6 glhssf] tf/f xf] . -1 ks| fz
jif{ Ö 9.46×1015 m_
dflysf] tflnsfsf cfwf/df tn lbOPsf kZ| gx¿df 5nkmn ug'{xf;] \ M
-c_ ;"o{ slt jif{ klxn] ags] f /x]5 <
-cf_ ax| d\ f08df ePsf tf/fx¿sf] ;fOh, tfkjm| d, /ª / cfo' ;"os{ f] eGbf km/s xfn] f <
-O_ ;o" {sf] tfk pTkGg xg' ] sf]/ / cGo efu 56' l\ 6P h:t} cGo tf/fx¿sf] ;+/rgf s:tf] x'G5
xfn] f < s] ;o" {sf] sf]/af6 tfk ;wF}el/ lg/Gt/ pTkGg xG' 5 xfn] f <
;"o{ xfd|f] ;fo} d{ 08nsf] tf/f xf] . tf/fx¿ tfk / ks| fz pTkGg ug{] vufn] Lo -celestial_
lk08x¿ xg' \ . ax| \df08df c;ª\Vo tf/f 5g\ . xfO8f« h] g k/df0f'x¿ ;+ofh] g eO{ lxlnod aGg]
lj|mofaf6 tf/fx¿df tfk / ks| fz pTkGg x'G5 . tf/fx¿df k/df0f' ;o+ fh] g x'g] ljm| of logsf]
lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff ( 195
hGd -lgdf{0f_ bl] v dT[ o' -lj:kmf6] g_ ;Dd rln/xG5 . lj:kmf6] gkZrft\ kg' M gofF tf/f aGg] lj|mof
;?' xg' ] ePsfn] k[YjLdf hLjx¿sf] hLjg rjm| eP h:t} cGtl/Ifdf tf/fx¿sf] klg hLjgrjm|
xG' 5 . hGdsf] cj:yf tyf hLjgrj|msf r/0fcg;' f/ tf/fx¿sf] cfsf/, ;fOh, tfkjm| d, /ª
cflbdf leGgtf kfOG5 .
tf/fsf] hGd (birth of a star)
tf/fx¿sf] hGd g]an' fdf xG' 5 . g]a'nf Ps ljzfn
UofF; / wn' fsf s0fx¿sf] afbn xf] . g]a'nfdf d'VotM
xfO8«f]hg / lxlnod Uof;F /xs] f] x'G5 . oL UofF; /
wn' fsf s0f cGo tf/fx¿ lj:kmf]6 xF'bf aG5g\ . zlStzfnL
6]ln:sf]ksf] dbtn] a|xd\ f08df /x]sf sx] L g]a'nfx¿sf]
cjnfs] g ug{ ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu sfnk'?if tf/ lrq 12.3 cf]l/og ga] n' f Credits: NASA,
fd08n -Orion constellation_ ;uF } /x]sf] cfl] /og g]a'nf ESA and the Hubble Space Telescope
;lhn} cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsG5 . Orion Treasury Project Team)
tf/f aGg] jm| ddf u'?Tjansf sf/0f ga] n' fdf /xs] f wn' fsf s0f / UofF; cfslif{t eO{ v'lDrP/
Ps lk08sf] ¿k lnG5 . yk Uof;F / 3'nfsf s0f cfsif{0f u/L o;sf] cfsf/ a9b\ } hfG5 . lk08
a9b\ } hfbF f o;sf] s]Gb|df rfk a9\b} hfG5 . h;n] ubf{ sf]/sf] tfkj|md jl[ 4 xG' 5 . o;/L w'nfsf
s0f / Uof;F sf] ;+ofh] gaf6 aGg] ljzfn lk08nfO{ kf| 6] f:] 6f/ elgG5 . k|f]6f:] 6f/ aGgsf nflu nfvf}F
jif{ nfU5 . pRr rfk ;uF } tfkj|md a9\b} hfbF f k|f6] f:] 6f/sf] sf]/df Go'lSno/ k\mo'hg ;'? xG' 5 /
tf/fsf] hGd x'G5 . Go'lSno/ km\ o'hg ;'? xg' sl/a 107 K tfkj|md rflxG5 .
ax| d\ f08df xfO8f« h] g / lxlnod ePsf yk' }| lk08 5g\ . t/ tL ;a} lk08 tf/f aGg
;Sbg} g\ . ltgLx¿df Gol' Sno/ k\mo'hg x'gsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ Go"gtd tfk / rfk
xF'bg} . gofF tf/fdf x'g] Go'lSno/ k\moh' g k|ltljm| ofaf6 c/afF} jif{;Dd tfk / k|sfz pTkGg x'G5 .
tf/fsf] dT[ o' (death of a star)
gofF tf/fx¿sf] sf/] df k|ofKt dfqfdf xfO8f« h] g /xs] f] xG' 5 . logdf ydfG{] o'lSno/ k\mo'hg
-thermonuclear fusion_ lj|mof lg/Gt/ rln/xG5 . tf/fsf] a9b\ f] pd/] ;Fu} sf]/df xg' ] xfO8«f]hg
lg/Gt/ lxlnoddf ¿kfGt/0f xb'F } hfG5 . cGtt sf]/df xg' ] xfO8f« ]hg ;dfKt xG' 5 . To;kl5
Go'lSno/ km\ o'hg csf{] r/0fdf kj| z] u5{ . h;cGtu{t lxlnodsf k/df0f' sfa{gdf ¿kfGt/0f
x'G5g\ . o;/L tf/fsf] sG] bd| f ux|fF} k/df0f'x¿ aGb} hfG5g\ . t/ sf]/df GolSno/ km\ oh' gsf] dfqf
36b\ } hfg] ePsfn] tf/fsf] tfkj|md eg] 36\b} hfG5 . tfkj|mdcg';f/ tf/fsf] /ª klg kl/jtg{
x'bF } hfG5 . tf/fx¿sf] /ª / o;sf] tfkj|mdn] pd]/ hgfp5F . ev{/ pTklt ePsf tf/fsf] /ª
lgnf] / clGtd cj:yfdf ku' ]sf tf/fsf] /ª /ftf] x'G5 . tf/fsf] /ª / tfkjm| d oxfF lbOPsf] 5 M
tf/fsf] /ª lgnf] kx]n“ f] ;'Gtnf /ftf]
Tffkj|md 11,000°C- 25,000 °C 5,000°C- 6,000°C 3,500°C- 5,000°C 3,000°C- 3,500°C
196 lj1fg tyf kl| jlwM sIff (
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Science_Class-9_2079
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