World History

G E O G R A P H Y A N D T H E E A...

I. Geography and the Early Development of Rome

How did the Etruscans and Greeks influence the development of
Rome?
Introduction
The Roman civilization flourished from about 700 B.C.E. to about 476
C.E. It began in the ancient city of Rome.
Rome is located in Italy, which includes a peninsula and islands in
southern Europe. The Italian peninsula is shaped a lot like a boot and
reaches into the Mediterranean Sea with its toe pointed toward the
island of Sicily.
The Romans have a myth about the founding of their city. Long ago, the
story explains, a princess gave birth to twin sons, Romulus and Remus.
The boys' father was Mars, the Roman god of war. The princess's uncle
—the king—was afraid the boys would grow up to take his throne, so he
ordered his men to drown them in the Tiber (TIE-bur) River. However,
before the twins drowned, a wolf rescued them.
When Romulus and Remus grew up, they decided to construct a town
on the banks of the Tiber River where the wolf had found and saved
them. However, in a quarrel over who would rule the new settlement,
Romulus killed his brother. He became king of the city, which he named
Rome.
The tale of Romulus and Remus is a colorful myth, but in this lesson you
will learn about the real founding of Rome. You will learn how Rome's
location on the Italian Peninsula brought it in contact with two
neighboring groups. Interaction with these groups, the Etruscans and
the Greeks, influenced Roman culture in the fields of engineering,
sports, architecture, writing, art, and religion.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
cuniculus
Etruscan
gladiator
Greco-Roman
Rome
1. Early Romans and Their Neighbors

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Over the years, many have attempted to discover the truth about the
founding of Rome. Although no one really knows who the first king of
Rome was, historians do know that the first people to live in the area
that became Rome were the Latins. The Latins were one of several
groups who had invaded Italy sometime before 1000 B.C.E.
Perhaps around 700 B.C.E., a Latin tribe built the village that eventually
became Rome. They constructed their village on the Palatine, a hill in
central Italy that overlooks the Tiber River at a location about a dozen
miles inland from the sea. Eventually, the village of thatched huts
developed into a mighty city that spread over seven hills.
As Rome grew, Roman culture was greatly influenced by two of Rome's
neighbors, the Etruscans (eh-TRUH-skans) and the Greeks. The
Romans borrowed many ideas and skills from these two groups,
beginning with the Etruscans.
The Etruscans had come to control Etruria, a land just north of the
Palatine, by about 800 B.C.E. It is uncertain where they originally came
from. They built some city-states and conquered others. By 600 B.C.E.,
they ruled much of northern and central Italy, including the town of
Rome.
The Greeks also were a major influence on Roman culture. The Romans
learned about Greek culture when Greek colonists established towns in
southern Italy and on the island of Sicily. Romans also discovered Greek
ways from traders and the many Greeks who came to Rome.

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2. The Influence of Etruscan Engineering
The Romans became excellent builders because they learned many
techniques about engineering, or the science of building, from the
Etruscans. Two important Etruscan structures the Romans adapted
were the arch and the cuniculus.
Etruscan arches rested on two pillars, which supported a half-circle of
wedge-shaped stones. A keystone in the center held the other stones of
the arch tightly in place.
A cuniculus was a long underground trench connected by vertical shafts
to the ground above. Etruscans used these trenches to irrigate land, to
drain swamps, and to distribute water to their cities.
The Romans adapted both of these structures and, in time, became
even better engineers than the Etruscans. They used arches to build
huge public works, including bridges, stadiums, and aqueducts to carry
water over long distances.

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3. The Influence of Etruscan Sporting Events
Romans also adapted two bloody Etruscan sporting events. The first
was slave fighting. The Etruscan custom was to stage slave fights
during funerals. Two slaves of the dead master fought to the death with
swords and small shields. After being congratulated, the winner was
executed.
Etruscan spectators also enjoyed watching chariot races. The
charioteers, or drivers, were strapped to their chariots. If a chariot
overturned, they could be dragged under the chariot's wheels or
trampled by the horses. These fierce competitions often resulted in
injury or death.
These Etruscan sports gained popularity in Rome. In Roman stadiums,
thousands of slaves died fighting as gladiators, professionally trained
fighters who battled either each other or wild animals. Romans also
flocked to see charioteers risk their lives racing four-horse teams.

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4. The Influence of Greek Architecture
The Romans borrowed and adapted ideas from the Greeks, as well as
the Etruscans. Greek architecture was one important influence on the
Romans. The Greeks constructed marble temples as homes for their
gods. Temples like the Parthenon had stately columns that added to
their beauty.
The Romans used Greek designs in their own public buildings.
Eventually, they learned to use concrete to create even larger
structures, such as the Pantheon in Rome.
The Romans also used concrete to build huge stadiums like the
Colosseum, where gladiators fought. The Circus Maximus, where people
watched chariot races, could seat more than 200,000 spectators.

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5. The Influence of Greek Writing
Sometimes, the Greek influence on Roman culture was indirect. For
example, the Greek alphabet was adopted and then changed by the
Etruscans. The Romans then borrowed and altered the Etruscan
alphabet.
The Greek and Roman alphabets had many similarities. Like the
Greeks, the Romans wrote in all capital letters. The Greeks carved
important documents, such as laws and treaties, into bronze or stone
plaques, some of which were displayed in the public squares. The
Romans also carved inscriptions in walls and columns for all to see.
Many Roman writers were inspired by Greek poetry and myths. The
Roman poet Virgil expanded on Greek tales of a long-ago conflict, the
Trojan War. Virgil's poem, the Aeneid, told how Aeneas (ay-NEE-ahs), a
Trojan prince, fled to Italy after the war. According to Virgil, Aeneas was
the ancestor of the first Romans.

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6. The Influence of Greek Art
Both the Etruscans and the Romans admired Greek pottery, painting,
and sculpture. The Romans acquired some Greek ideas from Etruscan
art and borrowed others directly from the Greeks.
Greek pottery was valued throughout the Mediterranean world for its
usefulness and beauty. Greek potters created large clay vessels for
storing food, water, and wine. They often painted black figures on the
red clay. Some of their designs showed pictures of gods and heroes,
while others illustrated people in their daily lives. The Romans eagerly
brought the work of Greek potters into their homes. Roman artists
imitated the technique, but developed their own style.
The Greek influence on Roman painting and sculpture was so great that
historians speak of “Greco-Roman art.” Wealthy Romans often
collected Greek art and built monuments in a Greek style. Roman
sculptors and painters used Greek art as models for their own work.
Roman artists also created a lively and realistic style of their own.
Greek artists often tried to replicate an ideal, or perfect, human being
or god. As Rome's power increased, much of Roman art celebrated
great leaders and events. Roman sculptors became especially skilled in

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creating lifelike portraits such as realistic busts, or statues showing the
subject's head and shoulders. They also carved life-sized statues of
famous military leaders. The statues often seemed just as powerful as
the leaders themselves.

7. The Influence of Greek Religion
The religion of the Romans was a blend of many influences. For
example, they followed Etruscan religious rituals in founding their cities.
However, it was Greek religion that especially influenced Roman ideas
about the gods.
The Greeks worshipped a number of gods and goddesses who governed
every part of Greek life. The Greeks performed rituals and sacrifices to
gain the gods' favor for everything from a good harvest to curing the
sick.
The early Romans had their own gods and rituals, but their ideas about
the gods evolved as they interacted with other cultures. When the
Romans encountered a similar god from another culture, they blended
that god's characteristics with those of their own.
The Romans adapted many of the Greek gods as their own, but they
gave them Roman names. The mightiest Greek god, Zeus, became
Jupiter. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, became Venus. Aries, the god of
war, became Mars.
The Romans were much less interested in telling stories about the gods

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than were the Greeks. Romans were more concerned with performing
exactly the right ritual for a particular occasion.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned about the beginnings of ancient
Rome and the Roman civilization. Rome was founded by people
called the Latins who settled near the Tiber River on the Italian
peninsula.
The Early Romans and Their Neighbors Eventually, the Romans
borrowed many ideas and skills from their neighbors. Two groups who
significantly influenced Roman culture were the Etruscans and the
Greeks.
The Influence of Etruscan Engineering Romans learned a great
deal about engineering from the Etruscans. Etruscan ideas included the
arch and the cuniculus.
The Influence of Etruscan Sporting Events The Romans also

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adapted some Etruscan sporting events. Most popular were chariot
racing and slave fighting, which later became gladiator contests in
Rome.
The Influence of Greek Architecture and Writing Greek civilization
had a huge influence on Roman culture. The Romans used Greek
temple designs in their own buildings. They used Greek-style capital
letters in their writing, and many Roman poets were inspired by Greek
poetry and stories.
The Influence of Greek Art and Religion The Romans greatly
admired Greek art. The blend of Greek and Roman styles became
known as “Greco-Roman” art. The Romans also made many Greek gods
and goddesses their own, although they were more interested in rituals
than in stories.

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II. The Rise of the Roman Republic

What were the characteristics of the Roman Republic, and how
did they change over time?
Introduction
Etruscan kings from northern Italy ruled early Rome. Around 509
B.C.E., the Romans overthrew the Etruscans and created a republic, a
form of government in which leaders are elected to represent the
people.
Ancient Romans told an interesting story about the overthrow of their
Etruscan rulers. One day, two Etruscan princes visited the famous
oracle at Delphi (DEL-fie), in Greece. A Roman named Lucius Junius
Brutus traveled with them.
At Delphi, the princes asked the oracle which one of them would be the
next king of Rome. The oracle answered, “The next man to have
authority in Rome will be the man who first kisses his mother.” Hearing
this prediction, Brutus pretended to trip. He fell on his face, and his lips
touched Earth, which is often considered the mother of all living things.
Back in Rome, Brutus led the revolt that eliminated the Etruscan kings.
The oracle's mysterious words came true, to some degree, because
Brutus became one of the first leaders of the new republic. The Roman
people were now free to govern themselves.
Unfortunately, not all Romans were equal under this new system. Power
in the early republic belonged to rich men called patricians (pah-TRIH-
shens). The majority of Romans, the plebeians (pleh-BEE-anz), had no
voice in the government. In this lesson, you will see how a long struggle
between patricians and plebeians shaped the government of Rome.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
constitution
consul
patrician
plebeian
republic
Senate
tribune
veto

1. Patricians and Plebeians Under Etruscan Rule
Between 616 and 509 B.C.E., the Etruscans ruled Rome. During this
time, Roman society was divided into two classes, patricians and
plebeians.
Upper-class citizens, called patricians, came from a small group of
wealthy landowners. Patrician comes from the Latin word pater, which
translates to “father.” The patricians chose from among themselves the
“fathers of the state,” the men who advised the Etruscan king.
Patricians controlled the most valuable land and also held the important
military and religious offices.
Free non-patricians called plebeians, who comprised about 95 percent
of Rome's population, were mostly peasants, laborers, craftspeople,
and shopkeepers. The word plebeian comes from plebs, which
translates to “the common people.” Plebeians could not be priests or
government officials and had little voice in the government, but they
were still forced to serve in the army.

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2. The Patricians Create a Republic
Eventually, the patricians resented the Etruscan rule. In 509 B.C.E., a
group of patricians, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, rebelled and drove out
the last Etruscan king. Instead of a monarchy, they developed a
republic, in which elected officials govern for the people.
To the patricians, “the people” meant themselves, not the plebeians.
The patricians placed most of the power in the hands of the Senate,
which was a group of 300 patricians elected by patricians. The senators
served for life. They also appointed other government officials.
Two elected leaders, called consuls, shared command of the army. The
Senate was supposed to advise the consuls and their decisions were
considered law.
The creation of the republic gave Rome a more democratic form of
government. However, only the patricians could participate in that
government.

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3. The Plebeians Rebel
Even though Rome was now a republic, the patricians retained all the
power. They ensured that only they could participate in the
government. Only they could become senators or consuls. Plebeians
had to obey their decisions. Because laws were not written down,
patricians often changed or interpreted the laws to benefit themselves.
As a result, a small group of families maintained all the power in Rome.
The plebeians had to unite and fight for what they wanted. They began
to demand more political rights. The struggle between plebeians and
patricians is referred to as the Conflict of the Orders, a conflict between
the two social classes.
The rivalry grew especially heated during times of war. The new
republic frequently fought wars against neighboring tribes. Plebeians
resented the fact that they were required to fight in the army even
though the patricians decided whether to go to war.
The struggle took a dramatic turn in the year 494 B.C.E., at which
point Rome was a city of twenty to forty thousand people, and the
majority of the population was plebeian. Angry over their lack of power,
the plebeians marched out of the city and camped on a nearby hill,
refusing to return until the patricians met their demands.
Work in the city and on the farms came to a halt, putting Rome in a
crisis. Without the plebeians, patricians feared that the army would be
helpless if an enemy struck at Rome. “A great panic seized the city,”
wrote Livy, a noted Roman historian. With Rome quickly deteriorating,
the patricians had little choice but to compromise.

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4. The Plebeians Gain Political Equality
The plebeians' revolt led to a major change in Roman government. The
patricians agreed to allow the plebeians to elect officials called Tribunes
of the Plebs. The tribunes represented the plebeians in the Senate and
with the consuls. Later, tribunes gained the power to veto, or overrule,
actions by the Senate and other government officials. Eventually, the
number of tribunes increased from two to ten.
Plebeians could also elect a lawmaking body, the Council of Plebs.
However, the council created laws only for plebeians, not for patricians.
Although the plebeians had gained some important rights, they still
held less power than the patricians. Over the next 200 years, the
plebeians conducted a series of protests to gradually win political
equality.
First, they demanded that the laws be transcribed, or written down so
that the patricians couldn't change them at will. Around the year 451
B.C.E., the patricians agreed, and the laws were published on tablets

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called the Twelve Tables.

Next, in 367 B.C.E., a new law stated that one of the two consuls must
be a plebeian. Former consuls held seats in the Senate, so this change
also allowed plebeians to become senators.

Finally, in 287 B.C.E., the plebeians earned the right to pass laws for all
Roman citizens. Now, assemblies of all Roman citizens, such as the
Citizens' Association, could approve or reject laws. These plebeian
assemblies also nominated the consuls, the tribunes, and the members
of the Senate. The number of plebeians who served alongside
patricians in the Senate continued to increase. After 200 years of
struggle, the plebeians had won their fight for equality. The diagram
shown here illustrates the organization of the Roman Republic following
this victory.

Rome's republican form of government inspired future European and
American leaders. Rome became an example of a type of government
ruled by a set of basic laws, or a constitution. Future political thinkers
also drew from Roman ideals of elected assemblies, citizenship, and
civic duty. They adopted the model of governmental bodies that could
check each other's power. Most importantly, they were inspired by the
spirit of republicanism, which means that government should rule for
the good of the people. Cicero (SIS-eh-roh), a famous Roman
statesman, captured this spirit when he wrote, “The people's good is
the highest law.”

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Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned how the Romans overthrew the
Etruscans and created a republic. Romans were proud of their
republic, which lasted for about 500 years.
Patricians and Plebeians Under Etruscan Rule Under the
Etruscans, Roman society was divided into two classes, patricians and
plebeians. Plebeians comprised about 95 percent of Rome's population,
but had little voice in the government.
The Patricians Create a Republic In 509 B.C.E., patricians drove out
the last of the Etruscan kings and created a republic. Most of the power
was maintained by the patrician Senate and the consuls. Only
patricians could participate in the new government.
The Plebeians Rebel The plebeians began to demand more political
rights in a struggle with the patricians known as the Conflict of the
Orders. In 494 B.C.E., angry over their lack of power, the plebeians
rebelled.

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The Plebeians Gain Political Equality The patricians agreed to allow
the plebeians to elect Tribunes of the Plebs and the Council of Plebs.
Around 451 B.C.E., the Twelve Tables were published. By 287 B.C.E.,
assemblies of all citizens could pass laws. Plebeians governed alongside
patricians, and finally won their fight for equality.

Cincinnatus and Roman Citizenship
Similar to how Confucian teachings on the ideal of government service
strengthened Chinese government and society, Roman ideals about the
duty of a citizen to the state provided much stability to the state and
social order. These ideals remained as ancient Rome grew from a
republic into an empire.
Unlike the Greeks who valued competition and individual achievement,
as exemplified by their creation of the Olympics, the Romans valued
family, the state, and the gods. The story of Roman general Lucius
Quinctius Cincinnatus perfectly emphasized these Roman duties.
Cincinnatus was a renowned general who retired to a small farm just
outside of Rome. In 458 B.C.E., the warlike Aequian nation was
threatening the ancient city. Representatives from Rome were
dispatched to ask Cincinnatus for help. The story goes that he left his
plow in the field, said goodbye to his wife, and accepted the role of
dictator.
Cincinnatus quickly led the Romans into victory against the Aequians.
Sixteen days later, he resigned his position as dictator giving up all his
power, and returned home to his farm.

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The account was written by Roman historian Titus Livius, or Livy, and
modern day historians believe he may have embellished parts of the
story. However,the concepts of Roman duty to the state, like citizenship
and fighting when needed, remain present making Cincinnatus a
legend.

Roman Ideals and George Washington

The allegiance to public service that Cincinnatus displayed paralleled
the actions of future leaders like George Washington. Similar to the
Roman general, Washington was called out of retirement to lead the
Continental Army. He composed a letter to his wife Martha stating his
concerns for her well-being and explaining why he needed to help: “it
was utterly out of my power to refuse this appointment without
exposing my Character to such censures as would have reflected
dishonour upon myself, and given pain to my friends.”
Washington led the army to victory, winning the Revolutionary War.
Many feared he would take his newfound power and declare himself
leader of the new world. But Washington resigned his position as
general on December 23, 1783, and returned home to Mount Vernon to
tend to his property. In another letter to his former lieutenant,
Washington wrote, “I am not only retired from all public employments,
but I am retiring within myself; and shall be able to view the solitary
walk, and tread the paths of private life with heartfelt satisfaction.”
Washington’s decision only made him more respectable and admired
by the nation, leading to another role he couldn’t refuse: the first
President of the United States.

Cincinnatus in Early America

In 1783, a group was formed by General Henry Knox called the Society
of Cincinnati after Cincinnatus. The society was created in response to
the dissolution of the Continental Army after the American Revolution
ended. Its goals were included maintaining connections between former
soldiers, the continual defense of liberty, and helping members and
their families by collecting membership dues.
Washington did not found the group but later joined and was named the
President General. The society became problematic with critics claiming
they wanted to overthrow the government. With membership being
hereditary based and French officers joining, critics believed it was the
start of American nobility. Washington consulted Thomas Jefferson on
the issues, and promptly made changes to the society on Jefferson’s

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advice.
By 1835, most state societies were inactive, but it regained popularity
at the end of the 19th century. The city of Cincinnati, Ohio, was named
in honor of the society in 1790.

Changing Citizenship in the Roman Republic

To talk about Roman citizenship, let’s begin by talking about the word
Roman. The word Roman first simply referred to people living in Rome.
The city borders defined what it meant to be Roman.
We would naturally expect the number of citizens in a community to
grow over time. Families have children, and children grow up and
become citizens. But that’s only part of what happened in Rome. Of
course, the number of citizens increased over time as new citizens were
born. But there were other factors at work that dramatically increased
the number of Roman citizens.

What Did It Mean to Be a Citizen of Rome?

Rome is unusual in that the definition of full citizenship changed over
time. Citizens of the republic began as a small patrician group who
were deeply involved with governing Rome. They had the right to vote
and to serve in the government, and with those two things came
control of Rome’s present and future.
As the definition of who was a citizen changed, the role of citizens
changed, too. Eventually in the empire in 212 C.E., citizenship came to
apply to every free man who lived somewhere controlled by Rome.
With citizenship held by millions of people, the control of Rome’s future
was no longer a key aspect.

Different Types of Citizenship

You may have noticed the term full citizenship in the previous
paragraph. It is used because there were actually several different
types of Roman citizenship during the republic. Citizenship was not the
same for everyone.
The full citizen was called cives optimo iure, one who shared in the
sovereign power of the state, that is, participated in governing. Only
men could be full citizens. A full citizen’s rights and duties are listed
below.

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Public Rights The public rights of the full citizen included voting

(suffragio) and holding office (honores) in Roman offices called
magistracies. By the law of provocationis, they were allowed to appeal
to the assembly when accused of serious crimes. Their duties included
military service (ius militias) and reporting family members and
property to the census (census).
Private Rights The first part of private rights held by a full citizen,
commercium, included the right to own, buy, and sell property. It also
included the right to make a will. Property rights that were defined by
law was a unique characteristic of Rome. No other ancient civilizations
included it. The second part, connubium, was the ability to marry a
Roman citizen and to have legal power over the children born of that
marriage.
Those who were not full citizens were cives non optimo iure, those
whose rights were restricted. One group of such citizens were cives non
suffragio, citizens without the vote. These citizens might be able to own,
buy, and sell property, but they could not cast a vote. In fact, any of the
rights of the full citizen could be limited for various reasons. If a person
was exiled, enslaved, or convicted of a crime they could lose some or all
of their rights. Women were among those who were not full citizens.
Roman women could neither vote nor hold magistracies, though they
could exercise property rights and marry.

Rights and Duties of cives optimo iure—Full Citizens

Public Rights and Duties
suffragio—the right to vote
honores—the right to hold public office
provocationis—the right of appeal
ius militias—duty of military service
census—duty of registering with the census
Private Rights

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commercium—the right to own, buy, and sell property
and make a will
connubium—the right to marry a Roman citizen and
have legal power over children

Gaining More Citizen Rights

On the other hand, if a person was freed from slavery or conquered by
the Romans, that person could gain more Roman rights. Granting
citizenship rights to foreigners set Rome apart from other civilizations,
such as the Greek city-states. Besides freedmen and the conquered,
there are two important examples of groups whose citizenship rights
underwent a change during the republic. These two groups are the
plebeians and the Latin confederacy, the group of Roman allies that
lived near Rome in Italy.
The Rise of the Plebeians At the beginning of the republic, the
patricians formed a ruling class. They were descendants of the original
senators, and many were wealthy. They were the only ones who could
hold office (honorees). There were many more plebeians than
patricians. But while they could vote, they could not hold public office.
Through the 5th century B.C.E., the plebeians gained rights. In 494
B.C.E., they left Rome. The patricians realized that they were too few to
defend Rome by themselves. They needed the plebeians. So they had
to compromise with the plebeians. It was at this time that the office of
tribune was created.
Change continued in 471 B.C.E. with the creation of the council of the
plebs, but their laws applied to plebeians only. It wasn’t until 287 B.C.E.
that laws passed by the council of the plebs came to apply to everyone,
patricians as well as plebs. In the meantime, in 445 B.C.E., plebs had
become able to marry patricians. In the 3rd century B.C.E., the plebs
gained the right to honores: they could be elected to the position of
consul.
Allies Become Romans Rome conquered the territory of Italy that
surrounded the city, called Latium, from 380–250 B.C.E. As it
conquered an area, it would make treaties with the inhabitants. The
treaties gave the people various versions of citizenship. Cives sine
suffragio—citizenship without the right to vote—was common in Latium.
When allies received citizenship, they had a different duty than

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citizens. They were required to provide soldiers to Rome. The particular

form of citizenship offered to Latium was known as ius Latium, Latin
rights, and it was sometimes given to other conquered peoples or
Roman colonies. Latin rights included buying and selling, as well as
marriage. But those with Latin rights could only hold office within their
own town, not in Rome.
Things changed in 91 B.C.E. when a tribune named Marcus Livius
Drusus proposed a law that would give full citizenship to Latium. He
was killed by opponents of his law. The territories of Latium sent a
delegation to Rome to discuss the matter, but the Senate refused to
listen to them. So they declared war on Rome. Because the Roman
word for allies is socii, the war is known as the Social War. The Social
War led to the passing of a new law, the lex Iulia, which granted full
citizenship to allies who had stayed loyal to Rome.

Roman Citizenship by the Numbers

When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 B.C.E., estimates put the
number of (adult male) citizens between 8,000 and 12,000, out of a
total population of 20,000–30,000. As Rome grew and other areas were
incorporated, so did the number of citizens, reaching 373,000 in the
mid-2nd century B.C.E. After the Social War, the number of citizens
increased dramatically to three times as many.
When the whole concept of citizenship changed under the empire is
when the numbers climbed into the millions. By this time, citizenship
had been extended to the provinces and the meaning of citizenship had
changed dramatically.

Changing Citizenship in Rome

Year Significance Area Number
of Date of

509 start of within Rome Roman
B.C.E. Roman Citizens
Republic
8,000–
12,000

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168– mid-Republic within 100 373,000
130 miles of Rome 980,000
B.C.E. 4,063,000
4,233,000
89 after the within 300 4,937,000
B.C.E. Social War miles of Rome

28 under throughout
B.C.E. Augustus the empire

8 C.E. under throughout
Augustus the empire

14 C.E. under throughout
Augustus the empire

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III. Rome From Republic to Empire

Did the benefits of Roman expansion outweigh the costs?
Introduction
As the ancient republic of Rome grew, its power expanded. By the early
1st century C.E., it had become a mighty empire that ruled the entire
Mediterranean world.
The expansion of Roman power occurred over approximately five
hundred years, from 509 B.C.E. to 14 C.E. At the beginning of this
period, Rome was a tiny republic in central Italy. However, five hundred
years later, it was the thriving center of a vast empire. At its height, the
Roman Empire included most of Europe, together with North Africa,
Egypt, much of the present-day Middle East, and Asia Minor.
The increase of Rome's power happened gradually and came at a price.
Romans had to fight countless wars to defend their developing territory
and to conquer new lands. Along the way, Rome itself transformed. The
Romans had once been proud to be governed under a republic of
elected leaders. Their heroes were men who had helped to preserve the
republic. Leaders in different parts of the world would later be inspired
by this structure of government.
However, by 14 C.E., the republic was just a memory. Power was in the
hands of a single supreme ruler, the emperor. Some Romans even
worshipped old emperors as gods, an act that shows how powerful
these rulers could be.
In this lesson, you'll see how this dramatic change occurred. You'll
trace the gradual expansion of Roman power. You will also explore the
costs of this expansion, both for Romans and for the people they
conquered.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
Caesar
Augustus
civil war
dictator
Julius Caesar
Pax Romana
Punic Wars

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1. From Republic to Empire: An Overview
The growth of Rome from a republic to an empire happened over 500
years. The story has four major periods.
The First Period of Expansion The first period of expansion, or
becoming larger, began in 509 B.C.E. At this time, the Romans drove
the last Etruscan king out of power, and Rome became a republic.
The Romans wanted to protect their borders and to gain more land,
which led to a series of wars. During the next 245 years, the Romans
combatted one enemy after another. They conquered their Latin
neighbors in central Italy and also defeated their old rulers, the
Etruscans.
Wisely, the Romans eventually made allies, or friends, of their former
enemies. By 264 B.C.E., Rome and its allies controlled the entire Italian
peninsula.
The Second Period of Expansion Rome's growth threatened two
great powers—the Persian Empire and the city of Carthage (KAR-thidge)
in North Africa. During the second period of expansion, from 264 to 146
B.C.E., Rome and Carthage fought three major wars. Through these
wars, Rome gained control of North Africa, much of Spain, and the
island of Sicily. Roman armies also conquered Macedonia and Greece.

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The Third Period of Expansion During the third period of
expansion, from 145 to 44 B.C.E., Rome came to rule the entire
Mediterranean world. In the east, Rome took control of Asia Minor,
Syria, and Egypt. In the west, the Roman general Julius Caesar
conquered much of Gaul (modern-day France).
Proud Romans now called the Mediterranean “our sea.” However, the
republic was in trouble because civil wars divided the city. Roman
generals were becoming dictators and setting their armies against the
power of the Senate. Caesar himself ruled as a dictator for life until he
was assassinated in 44 B.C.E.
The men who murdered Caesar thought they were saving the power of
the Senate. However, several more years of civil war followed. Then
Caesar's grandnephew, Octavian, seized total power. The Senate
named him Augustus, or “honored one.” Rome was now an empire
governed by one supreme ruler.
The Fourth Period of Expansion The fourth period of expansion
began with the start of the empire and lasted until 14 C.E. The first

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emperor, Augustus, added an enormous amount of new territory by
pushing the borders of the empire all the way to natural boundaries,
like rivers, to more easily defend it. Later emperors continued to add
more territory so that, at its height, the Roman Empire stretched from
the island of Britain in the northwest to the Black Sea in the east.
Each period of expansion involved cost and sacrifice. The next four
sections provide more details about each expansion. As you read, ask
yourself how Romans of the time might have perceived these events.

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2. Rome's Conquest of the Italian Peninsula, 509 B.C.E. to
264 B.C.E.
Rome's first period of expansion included more than 200 years of
almost constant warfare. During this time, Rome gradually took control
of the entire Italian peninsula.
After the last Etruscan king was overthrown in 509 B.C.E., the Romans
began to expand their territory and influence. In 493 B.C.E., Roman
leaders signed a treaty, or agreement, with their Latin neighbors to the
south. The treaty stated, “There shall be peace between the Romans
and all the communities of Latins as long as heaven and earth endure.”
These new allies agreed to band together against their common
enemies. During the next 100 years, the Romans fought a number of
wars against the Etruscans, as well as against tribes living in hills
surrounding Rome.
Then, in 390 B.C.E., Rome nearly came to an end. A band of Gauls
(gawlz), a warlike people from the north, crushed a Roman army and
surged into the city. Most of Rome's people fled into the countryside,

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and the Gauls looted the city, burning most of it down.

With the city in ruins, the Romans considered fleeing. Instead, they
bravely decided to start over by rebuilding their city and surrounding it
with walls. They also developed their army, and, before long, Roman
soldiers were on the march again.
During the 300s B.C.E., Rome conquered the Etruscans and many
neighboring tribes. To the south, they battled a people called the
Samnites and several Greek city-states. By 275 B.C.E., Rome's
conquest of the Italian peninsula was complete. However, expansion
came at great cost. Romans had been fighting for two centuries, and
the Gauls had once destroyed their capital city.
As Rome's territory expanded, the city had to maintain a large,
permanent army to defend it and the conquered lands. As a result,
more and more Romans were forced to serve in the army. Many
soldiers were plebeians who resented this fact, leading to civil unrest.
Roman citizens were not the only ones who sacrificed for Rome's

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expansion. Rome allowed the people of some defeated cities to become
Roman citizens. Unfortunately, other cities were not treated so well.
Many received more limited privileges, such as the ability to trade with
Rome. And Roman allies were required to pay Roman taxes and supply
soldiers for Roman armies.
By 264 B.C.E., Rome had more citizens and well-trained soldiers than
any other power in the Mediterranean world. But very soon, the Romans
would face their greatest challenge yet.

3. Expansion During the Punic Wars, 264 B.C.E. to 146
B.C.E.
During Rome's second period of expansion, it fought three savage wars
for control of the Mediterranean region. In each of these brutal wars,
Rome's enemy was Carthage, a powerful city-state in North Africa.
When the wars began, Carthage held North Africa, most of Spain, and
part of the island of Sicily. It also controlled most of the trade in the
western Mediterranean. The Greek cities in southern Italy had

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frequently clashed with Carthage over trading rights. When Rome
conquered these cities, it was drawn into the fight with Carthage.
Rome's wars with Carthage are referred to as the Punic Wars, after
the Latin name for the people of Carthage. The First Punic War began in
264 B.C.E. and was fought mostly at sea. Carthage had a very powerful
navy, but the Romans developed their own navy by copying and
improving on the Carthaginians' ship designs. A decisive victory at sea
in 241 B.C.E. won the war for the Romans. The triumphant Romans took
over Sicily, as well as other islands in the area.
The Second Punic War started 23 years later when the Carthaginians
decided to attack Italy itself. In 218 B.C.E., Hannibal, a brilliant
Carthaginian general, surprised the Romans by marching his army from
Spain across the Alps (a high mountain range) and into Italy. His troops
rode elephants and braved snowstorms, landslides, and attacks by local
tribes. For 15 years, Hannibal's men fought the Romans in Italy.
In 202 B.C.E., Hannibal needed to return home to defend Carthage
against an attack by a Roman army. There he was defeated in the
battle that ended the Second Punic War. Carthage was forced to give
up Spain to Rome, along with huge sums of money.

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For about 50 years, there was peace between Rome and Carthage.
Then, encouraged by Cato (KAY-toh), a senator who demanded the
complete destruction of Carthage, the Romans attacked once more.
The Third Punic War lasted three years. In 146 B.C.E., the Romans
burned Carthage to the ground. They killed many people and sold
others into slavery. Rome was now the greatest power in the
Mediterranean region, controlling North Africa, much of Spain,
Macedonia, and Greece.
The Punic Wars expanded Roman power and territory, but Rome's
victories came at a price. Countless young men had died in the long
wars. Additionally, people living outside Rome suffered huge losses in
population and property. Hannibal's army had destroyed thousands of
farms, and others had been neglected while farmers went off to fight in
Rome's armies. By the time the soldiers returned home, Rome had
been forced to import grain from Sicily and other places. Small farms
were being replaced by large estates, where the wealthy planted
vineyards and raised livestock. Unable to compete with the wealthy
landowners, many poor farmers were forced to sell their land.

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While riches and slaves flowed into Rome from the conquered lands, so
did new customs, many of which came from Greece. Wealthy Romans
competed with one another to build Greek‑style homes and beautiful
temples.

4. Expansion During the Final Years of the Republic, 145
B.C.E. to 44 B.C.E.
By 145 B.C.E., Roman conquests had brought considerable wealth to
the city of Rome, but they had also put the ideals of the republic under
great strain. By the end of Rome's third period of expansion, the
republic collapsed.
The final years of the republic were marked by still more wars. Many of
Rome's allies resented having to pay Roman taxes and fight in Roman
armies without enjoying the rights of citizenship. In 90 B.C.E., some
rebelled, and, to end the revolt, Rome agreed to let all free Italians
become Roman citizens.
Rome also had to fight to subdue slave revolts. As Romans conquered
new territory, they brought hundreds of thousands of prisoners to
Roman lands and turned them into slaves who labored on farms and in

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the city. Although some slaves were respected, Romans often treated
their slaves very harshly. A slave named Spartacus led a famous revolt
in 73 B.C.E. After crushing his army and killing Spartacus in battle, the
Romans sentenced thousands of the surviving rebels to death on
crosses.
There was trouble brewing in the city, too. With so many slaves to do
the work, thousands of farmers and laborers had no jobs. They crowded
into Rome, becoming a mob that an ambitious leader could turn into an
army.
Rome's army was producing many such leaders. Generals used their
armies to gain fame and power in distant lands and then to fight for
influence in Rome. In one such civil war in the 80s B.C.E., a Roman
leader named Sulla commanded an army to put down a revolt by Italian
allies to obtain Roman citizenship.
Forty years later, another civil war erupted between two ambitious
generals, Pompey (POM-pee) and Julius Caesar (SEE-zer). Pompey had
expanded Roman rule in such eastern lands as Syria and the island of
Cyprus, while Caesar had conquered much of Gaul.

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By 49 B.C.E., Pompey was back in Rome, while Caesar commanded an
army to the north of Italy, across the Rubicon River. Both men wanted
to control Rome, but Pompey had the support of the Roman Senate.
Encouraged by Pompey, the Senate forbade Caesar to enter Italy with
his army. Caesar disobeyed in January of 49 B.C.E. and crossed the
Rubicon with his army. After three years of fighting, he defeated
Pompey. The frightened Senate named Caesar dictator for life. With
Caesar in control, and after nearly 500 years, the republic came to an
end.
As dictator, Julius Caesar introduced many reforms. He provided work
to thousands of Romans by starting projects to create new roads and
public buildings. To keep the poor satisfied, he staged gladiator
contests that they could watch for free. He also adopted a new calendar
that is still used today.
Caesar had a vision of Rome as a great empire. He started new
colonies and granted citizenship to the people of cities in Gaul and
Spain. However, he did not live to see his vision come true. On March

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15, 44 B.C.E., a group of enemies stabbed Caesar to death as he was
entering the Senate.
The men who killed Caesar thought they were saving the republic, but
were wrong. Instead, real power would never return to the Senate, as
an emperor eventually emerged to replace Caesar.

5. Rome Becomes an Empire, 44 B.C.E. to 14 C.E.
Caesar's murder plunged Rome into civil wars that lasted over ten
years. When the fighting ended, Caesar's grandnephew and adopted
son Octavian was the sole ruler of Rome. So began the Roman Empire,
and Rome's fourth period of expansion.
To gain power, Octavian had to defeat jealous rivals, one of whom was
Marc Antony, a popular general. Antony had married Queen Cleopatra
of Egypt. In 31 B.C.E., Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a sea
battle near Actium, Greece. His army chased the couple to Egypt,
where they killed themselves. Octavian was now the supreme ruler of
the Mediterranean region.
Octavian knew that the Romans prized their republic. He told them he
was restoring the authority of the Senate, but in fact, he was in
complete control. The Senate gave him the title Augustus, which

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means “revered” or “honored.” He ruled for life as Caesar Augustus,
and historians call him Rome's first emperor.
Augustus encouraged education, art, and literature. He completed
grand construction projects, repairing more than eighty temples. “I
found Rome brick and left it marble,” he boasted. He also gave Rome
its first police force and firefighters.
Augustus ruled over more than fifty million people. He turned eastern
kingdoms, such as Judea and Armenia, into Roman provinces. To better
defend the empire, he pushed its borders to natural boundaries: the
Rhine and Danube rivers in the north, the Sahara in the south, and the
Atlantic in the west.
The empire needed a strong economy, so the Roman government
implemented taxation in order to fund the building of harbors, canals,
and roads to improve trade. Romans also established a single system of
currency, which made it easier for goods to flow across the empire and
into foreign lands, as far away as China.
But Rome's final expansion brought new problems. To reform Roman
morals, Augustus harshly punished people for being unfaithful to their
husbands or wives. To protect himself and his family, he established a
private army, the Praetorian (pray-TORee- uhn) Guard. Later, this same
Guard sometimes participated in murder plots against the emperors it
was supposed to protect.
Under Rome, the Mediterranean world was mostly at peace for 200

years, a period which is called the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. But
keeping the peace cost the Romans a great deal. During Augustus's
reign, one rebellion in the east took three years and thousands of
soldiers to subdue.
Later emperors added to the territory controlled by Rome. From Britain
to the Red Sea, a single power ruled over the greatest empire the world
had ever known.

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Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you read about four main periods of Roman
expansion. In each period, the costs of expansion were great.
Yet, the Roman Empire lasted 500 years.
Conquest of the Italian Peninsula The first period of expansion
began in 509 B.C.E. The Romans rebelled against the Etruscans, and
Rome became a republic. The Romans then conquered central Italy,
which they controlled entirely by 264 B.C.E.
The Punic Wars During the second period of expansion, from 264 to
146 B.C.E., Rome fought Carthage in the three Punic Wars. As a result,
Rome gained North Africa, much of Spain, and Sicily. Rome also
conquered Macedonia and Greece.
The Final Years of the Republic During the third period of
expansion, from 145 to 44 B.C.E., Rome took control of Asia Minor,
Syria, Egypt, and Gaul. However, civil wars divided the republic. Julius
Caesar made himself dictator for life. Then Octavian seized power,

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becoming the first emperor, Caesar Augustus.
Rome Becomes an Empire The fourth period of expansion began
with the start of the empire and lasted until 14 C.E. The emperors
continued to add a great deal of new territory. At its height, around 117
C.E., the Roman Empire stretched from Britain to the present-day
Middle East.

Trade Routes and Currency Help the Romans Build a
Stronger Empire
Rome grew its empire through a series of wars. With large, powerful
military units called legions, the Romans knew how to conquer new
territory. Roman soldiers were feared for their rigorous training and
discipline.
But it takes more than armies and fighting to keep an empire. An
empire also needs a strong economy to feed its people, provide
necessary goods as well as luxuries, and pay for its armies and
government.
A key part of any economy is trade. As the empire grew, the Romans
promoted trade by improving trade routes and providing a single
currency, or form of money. Let's look at how these steps helped the
Romans grow their economy and strengthen their empire.

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Trade Routes

At its height during the 100s C.E., the Roman Empire ruled all the lands
that ringed the Mediterranean Sea. The expansion of the empire had
given the Romans control of trade routes as well as territory. Trade
routes were a way of establishing contact with other civilizations in
Afroeurasia (the mass of land containing Africa, Europe, and Asia).
Romans had multiple ways of trading. There were established land
routes, like the Silk Road, that brought them goods from faraway places
like China. They also traded on the sea, which was faster and cheaper
than trading over land. Despite these advantages, sea trade was riskier
than traveling by land. Boats faced a number of dangers, including
pirates and bad weather.
Traders traveling by land and sea connected people and goods
throughout the empire. From Spain came wine, olive oil, copper, and
gold. Britain sold its tin and wool. Gaul produced olives, wine, grain,
glass, and pottery. Wool, linen, and timber were shipped from Asia
Minor (present-day Turkey) and Syria. Egypt provided papyrus, which
was used to make paper, as well as vast amounts of grain.
After Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, Rome burned down
much of the city but kept the farmlands intact as spoils of war. Thus,

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the growing empire added thousands of square miles of rich lands that
provided wheat, wool, and olive oil in North Africa. Every year vast
grain fleets sailed from Egypt and Africa, bringing much-needed food to
Rome.
Trade also brought valuable goods from outside the empire. Caravans
delivered goods to busy port cities on the Mediterranean. From Africa
came gold, incense, and ivory, and luxuries such as ostrich eggs. From
even further came Indian spices and Chinese silk.
A network of strategically located cities encouraged such trades. From
the Roman port of Antioch, goods would go across thousands of miles.
Often they would stop in the Persian Empire and the Kushan Empire
(Central Asia) on their way to the far east. In this way, Persia and
Central Asia acted as middlemen between the Roman and Han empires.
Despite the rivalry between Rome and Persia, the two were valuable
trading partners for each other. The port of Spasinu Charax allowed
Roman goods to travel throughout the Persian Empire and, in turn,
Persian goods were sent to Antioch and other trade centers.
While it lasted, the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) provided the order and
stability that trade required. The Roman army made the roads and sea
routes safe for traders. Romans were able to improve these trade
routes and create new ones. They built harbors, canals, and a vast
system of roads.
In turn, trade helped the economy grow. People in each area of the
empire could sell what they grew or made to people in other areas who
could use these goods. They could also buy things that they could not
produce for themselves. For instance, the city of Rome needed much
more grain to feed its people than local farmers could grow. By trading
with Egypt, Romans got the grain they needed. Egypt benefited by
selling grain to Rome.
Romans also gained cultural experience from their trade network. For
example, the Persians believed in a god called Mithra. Suddenly, in 136
C.E., Mithraism became popular in Rome. Roman emperors like
Commodus liked this new religion because, in addition to being loyal to
Mithra, the religion also stated that people should be loyal to their king.
Mithraism was especially popular with Commodus' soldiers, who were
very loyal to him. During the Pax Romana, many ideas and valuable
goods were exchanged between the kingdoms of Rome and Persia.

Environmental Advantages

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Environmental factors influenced Rome’s expansion and trade routes.
Rome had a pleasant climate that remained warm, rich soil for crops,
natural geographical defenses, and easy access to the Mediterranean
Sea.
Rome is centrally located on the Italian peninsula. The city was one of
the last areas to be settled, and was built on a defensible hill. The hill
was part of a group of hills known as the seven hills. The one Rome sits
on is called Palatine Hill. Despite being on a hill, there were many
devastating river floods that often affected Rome.
Rome sits right next to the Tiber River, which was one of the easiest
rivers to navigate. The Tiber also gave the city the advantages of a sea
port. Shipments could travel into and out of Rome without much issue.
Being away from the coast also kept the city safe from pirate raids.
Being centrally located helped merchants make their way to the city. To
help trade and military efforts, roads were built. The Appian Way was
one of the first Roman roads constructed. Much of the network led to
territories conquered by the empire.

Currency System

The people who made up the Roman Empire came from many cultures
and spoke many languages. The Romans knew that people needed a
standard way of exchanging money if trade was to flourish. So the
government produced currency in the form of coins.
Coins were made of silver, gold, and sometimes bronze. The value of
each coin was equal to the value of the metal it contained. Everyone
learned to use the same coins, which made it much easier to set prices
and to buy and sell goods (and pay taxes).
Besides making trade easier, coins helped the government to
communicate with people. Inscriptions and images on the coins sent
messages from Rome throughout the empire.
The images on some coins symbolized values, qualities, or ideas that
were important to the Romans. When Americans see the Statue of
Liberty, they think of freedom. For Romans, the goddess Felicitas stood
for happiness. Emperors used the image of Felicitas to symbolize the
blessings of Roman rule.
Our coins don't often change. Roman coins were different. At a time
when there were no newspapers, radio, or television, emperors

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regularly issued new coins that reflected the news of the day. The first
emperor, Caesar Augustus, issued over 100 types of coins during his
long reign.
Emperors also used coins to publicize their efforts and
accomplishments. They put their own images on the coins. (Augustus
chose to show himself as a young man even after he had aged.) Often
they added messages about victories in wars or important construction
projects.
Many messages were intended to persuade people that Roman rule was
good for them. One coin, for example, showed a female figure holding a
cornucopia (a horn-shaped container overflowing with food) and ears of
grain. The image was meant to communicate that the emperor was
making sure his people had enough grain to make food.
The Romans, then, used coins not only to make trade easier but also to
unify the empire. While Roman currency remained strong, it helped the
empire to prosper. In the later years of the empire, Roman coins lost a
good part of their value. This was one sign of a weakening economy—
and of mounting troubles in the empire.

The Roman and Persian Empires at War
By the end of the Second Punic War in 201 B.C.E., the Romans had a
strong foothold in the western Mediterranean. They controlled the coast
of Spain, Carthage in North Africa, as well as Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia.
With the western Mediterranean under control they changed their
tactics.

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