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believed that true happiness was the peace of mind that came from
living up to Stoic ideals.
The most famous Roman Stoic was the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who
documented his private thoughts in a book he called “To Himself.”

Later, it was retitled Meditations. In his writings, Aurelius constantly
reminded himself of Stoic ideals. He said not to worry if you encounter
ungratefulness, insults, disloyalty, or selfishness because if you think
and act rightly, none of these things can hurt you.
Stoics were famous for bearing pain and suffering bravely and quietly.
To this day, someone who behaves in this way is referred to as “a
stoic.”
Law and Justice The Stoics' beliefs about justice and nature fit very
well with Roman ideas about law. Roman law covered marriages,
inheritances, contracts, and countless other aspects of daily life.
Modern law codes in European countries, such as France and Italy, are
partially based on Roman laws.
Another legacy of the Romans was their concept of justice. The Romans
believed that nature provides a universal law of justice. Under this
natural law, they believed, every person has natural rights. Romans
aimed to spread this idea by applying it to all citizens of the empire.
Judges in Roman courts attempted to make just, or fair, decisions that
respected individual rights.
Like most people, the Romans did not always live up to their ideals, as
their courts did not treat the poor or slaves equally with the rich.
Emperors often made bad laws.
Regardless, the Roman ideals of justice and natural law still survive.
The U.S. Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution were
influenced by Roman ideas about law and government. Like judges in
Roman courts, modern-day judges make decisions based on these
ideals, as well as on written law. Similarly, many people today believe
that all humans have basic rights that no written law can take away.

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Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned about the fall of Rome and explored
its legacy.
The End of the Empire in the West By 500, the Roman Empire had
divided. The eastern empire lasted for over 1,000 years. However, the
western empire collapsed due to political instability, economic and
social issues, and the weakening of the frontiers.
Art Modern artists still follow Roman or Greco-Roman styles in the arts.
Murals and mosaics, similar to Roman ones, decorate modern buildings
and public spaces.
Architecture and Engineering Roman architectural influences are
seen in the structures of many modern buildings. The Romans also
were talented engineers, whose construction methods and standards
survived thousands of years.
Language Many words and word parts in modern languages, such as

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English, French, and Spanish, came from Latin. Roman numerals
appear today on clocks, in books, and in movie credits.
Philosophy and Law Roman ideals, such as Stoicism, the rule of law,
and justice, shaped law and government in many modern nations.
Examples include today's law courts and documents, such as the U.S.
Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

Reading Further
Lessons from Pompeii
About 2,000 years ago in Italy, a volcano named Mount
Vesuvius erupted and completely destroyed the city of Pompeii,
killing thousands of people. As much as 16 feet of hot ash and
rock buried the city, wiping it from the face of the Earth.
Pompeii lay forgotten until archaeologists uncovered it in 1748.
Excavations have continued since then, exposing a city
preserved like a time capsule. What can this long-dead Roman
city reveal about life in cities today?
Pompeii lies southeast of Rome, near the present-day city of Naples. At
the time it was destroyed, about 20,000 people lived in Pompeii. Many
Romans also vacationed there. Pompeii was already an old town when
the Romans took control of it in 89 B.C.E. The new rulers rebuilt the
existing city in a particularly Roman way.
At the center of every Roman city was a gathering space called a
forum, where the most important public buildings were located. Meeting
at the forum were two main streets, one going north and south (the

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cardo), and one going east and west (thedecumanus). The Romans laid
out Pompeii's streets in a grid paralleling these two streets. In pre-
Roman times, there were shops in and around the forum, but the
Romans relocated them all to a single large building that faced the
forum.
Pompeii's residential neighborhoods had their own smaller public
centers. Shops were placed on side streets or on the ground floors of
buildings where people lived. There were bakeries, grocery stores,
taverns, gyms, theaters, and a library.
The Romans gave Pompeii a public water system. An aqueduct brought
water into the city and branched into three main pipes. These served
more than 25 public fountains, from which most citizens got their water
for drinking and cooking. The water system also served public baths, a
swimming pool, and some private homes and shops.
Urban Planners Study Pompeii
How can an ancient city destroyed 2,000 years ago continue to educate
people today? Think about the town or city where you live. Its street
system must be well organized for traffic to flow smoothly. There is a
mix of public and private spaces. There is probably a forum—though
you may call it “downtown,” “city center,” or “Main Street.” In the
neighborhoods, too, there are local centers of business and public life.
And there is infrastructure, the term used to describe the physical
systems and facilities that make a city livable.
During the 1990s, scholars at the University of Virginia conducted a
detailed study of Pompeii's archaeology called the Pompeii Forum
Project. One of its goals was to find out how Pompeii could educate
people on today's problems in urban design.
Two main principles, or ideas, guided the urban planners working on
the project. The first principle is that a city is a public place, meaning
that many people live and work there. For that reason, any new
building should serve the needs of the people who use it—not the
architect who designs it. The second principle is that a city as a whole
is more important than its pieces. Therefore, new buildings must not
look out of place among the old ones.

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Planners on the Pompeii Forum Project learned that the Romans
followed both of these principles in Pompeii. For instance, buying and
selling is important to the life of any city. However, the Romans did not
let shops clutter Pompeii's forum or residential streets. Pompeii's
buildings all used similar forms, materials, and parts. The buildings
served different functions and were built at different times, but the
overall look was coordinated.
The Pompeii Forum Project compared two American cities to Pompeii.
They were Savannah, Georgia, and Santa Barbara, California. While not
nearly as old as Pompeii, both cities date back to the 18th century,
which makes them old by American standards. Did these cities follow
the principles of urban planning used in Pompeii?
Savannah was a carefully planned city. Neighborhoods were made up
of family homes grouped around central squares. Each had a similar
mix of lot and block sizes, as well as street types. Businesses were
along the river or in buildings that looked more like homes. Some public
buildings served only one neighborhood, while others served larger
areas. Regardless, no building stood out from the city as a whole.
Modern Savannah has spread far beyond its original core, but the city
has adapted well. For example, a pedestrian path runs along the length
of its main street, ensuring that walkers do not need to step on or off
curbs to cross streets. Newer buildings blend in well with the character
of the old. One exception is a shopping strip that cuts the old main
street in two. Its buildings were designed in what was once considered
a modern style, but one that is no longer in fashion. It broke both the
rules observed in Pompeii. Today, urban planners consider it an
embarrassing eyesore.
Santa Barbara was first settled by the Spanish, so the city's older

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buildings were designed in a Spanish or Mediterranean style. In 1925,
an earthquake damaged the city. Since then, construction of new
buildings has largely followed Spanish architecture. A Spanish-style
plaza lies at the city's heart. Many public buildings are located on or
near the plaza, including a city hall, a courthouse, a post office, a
firehouse, and an art museum. Although you would have no trouble
telling their purposes apart, all of the buildings share some similar
design elements that help link the city's blocks together. As in
Savannah, buildings whose size or design stands out seem out of place.

Under the Volcano
Any American city can learn from Pompeii. As older areas are torn down
and replaced with new buildings and street patterns, urban planners
hope that this ancient model can make modern cities better places to
live. But some cities have another lesson to learn from Pompeii.
Towering above Tacoma, Washington, is 14,410-foot Mount Rainier, one
of a line of 27 volcanoes stretching from Canada to California. Mount
Rainier last erupted less than 200 years ago. If it were to erupt again, it
could release a flow of hot mud and rock that would bury Tacoma.
Many scientists believe that this next eruption is a question of “when,”
not “if.”

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So what has Tacoma learned from Pompeii? Mainly that there is nothing
one can do to stop a volcanic eruption. Organizations such as the Red
Cross publish information about how to survive this type of disaster.
The surest way to survive is to evacuate—to get out of the way when
the mountain starts rumbling.

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Livy and Vergil on Romulus and Remus
Roman legend tells of the founding of Rome. Let’s look at some pieces
of the legend and then consider some examples of its influence.
The legend of Rome’s founding is recorded by the Roman poet Vergil
and the Roman historian Livy. Vergil’s Aeneid is a well-known epic
poem written 30–19 B.C.E. Its Trojan hero, Aeneas, escapes Troy after
its defeat and ends up in Latium (the area outside Rome). According to
Vergil, it is Aeneas’s descendants that eventually founded the city of
Rome.

Excerpt from the Aeneid, Book I

For full three hundred years, the capital
and rule of Hector's race shall be at Alba,
until a royal priestess, Ilia,
with child by Mars, has brought to birth twin sons.

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And then, rejoicing in the tawny hide
of his nursemaid, the she-wolf, Romulus
shall take the rulership and build the walls
of Mars' own city. Romulus shall call
that people 'Romans,' after his own name.

Romulus and Remus had been exposed, left outside to die, as infants
by a king who usurped his brother’s throne. A she-wolf took them in
and raised them. When Livy tells the story of the founding of Rome in
Book I of The History of Rome, he has them return to the place where
they were exposed to found the city

Excerpt from the The History of Rome, Book I

6. . . . Romulus and Remus were seized with the desire to
found a city in the region where they had been exposed
and brought up. . . . Since the brothers were twins, and
respect for their age could not determine between them, it
was agreed that the gods who had those places in their
protection should choose by augury [sign from the gods]
who should give the new city its name, who should govern
it when built. Romulus took the Palatine for his augural
quarter [place to watch for a sign], Remus the Aventine.
7. Remus is said to have been the first to receive an
augury, from the flight of six vultures. The omen had been
already reported when twice that number appeared to
Romulus. Thereupon each was saluted king by his own
followers, the one party laying claim to the honour from
priority [being first], the other from the number of the
birds.
They then engaged in a battle of words and, angry taunts
leading to bloodshed, Remus was struck down in the affray
[fight]. The commoner story is that Remus leaped over the
new walls in mockery of his brother, whereupon Romulus in
great anger slew [killed] him, and in menacing wise added
these words withal, “So perish whoever else shall leap over
my walls!”
Thus Romulus acquired sole power, and the city, thus

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founded, was called by its founder's name. . . .
8. When Romulus had duly attended to the worship of the
gods, he called the people together and gave them the
rules of law, since nothing else but law could unite them
into a single body politic. . . .

According to 1st-century Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, the
founding of Rome by Romulus took place on April 21, 753 B.C.E. The
anniversary of the founding is still celebrated in Rome in a festival
called Natale di Roma (Birth of Rome). So that’s one way in which the
legacy of Romulus and Remus and the men who wrote about them
continues—in Rome at least. But is there a legacy beyond Italy? There
is indeed!
Let’s leap forward in time to colonial America. In 1788, the Founding
Fathers were trying to make sure that enough colonies ratified, or
agreed to, the U.S. Constitution. To try to convince people, they
wroteThe Federalist Papers. The papers were 85 articles published
under the Roman name “Publius.” The founders clearly connected their
own attempts to found a republic with the founding of the Roman
Republic. In paper #38, James Madison (later president) wrote the
following introduction.

Introduction to Federalist Paper # 38

Tuesday, January 15, 1788
To the People of the State of New York:
It is not a little remarkable that in every case reported by
ancient history, in which government has been established
with deliberation and consent, the task of framing
[creating] it has not been committed to an assembly of
men, but has been performed by some individual citizen of
preeminent [great] wisdom and approved integrity
[honesty].
Minos, we learn, was the primitive founder of the
government of Crete, . . . Theseus first, and after him
Draco and Solon, instituted the government of Athens.

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Lycurgus was the lawgiver of Sparta. The foundation of the
original government of Rome was laid by Romulus. . . .

These examples from Greek and Roman history (and legend) were not
addressed to scholars. They were addressed to everyone who, at that
time, lived in New York. Farmers, blacksmiths, housewives, bricklayers,
governors, and representatives to the Continental Congress read them.
The history of Rome was a legacy that they held in common. And
eventually, this type of argument won the day. New York ratified the
U.S. Constitution on July 26, 1788.
But now in the 21st century, do the writings of Livy and Vergil still
interest people? Do people still remember Romulus and Remus? They
do. In fact, creators of popular culture rely on today’s audiences being
able to understand references to these authors. For example, in the
Star Trek universe, Romulus and Remus are two planets in the Romulan
system. And in the Harry Potter series, J. K. Rowling chose the name
Remus Lupin for one of the Hogwarts professors. If readers know the
story of Romulus and Remus, they can connect the babies reared by a
she-wolf to the professor who transforms into a werewolf.
Latin Literature’s Legacy
Latin literature did not die out with the Roman Empire. Even after the
Fall of Rome, Latin literature continued to be read. In fact, the creation
and popularity of Latin literature increased markedly in the European
Renaissance (1300s to 1500s C.E.). During the Renaissance, Latin
literature was highly regarded. And because Latin was used as a lingua
franca, or shared language, Europeans still wrote in Latin. So Latin
literature was still being created 1,000 years after the end of the
empire.
New Latin literature was written even after the Renaissance. The
philosophers Francis Bacon (d. 1626) and Rene Descartes (d. 1650)—
one from England and one from France—both wrote in Latin. Scientists
and mathematicians—including Isaac Newton (d. 1727) from England,
Carl Linnaeus (d. 1778) from Sweden, Leonhard Euler (d. 1783) from
Switzerland, and Carl Friedrich Gauss (d. 1855) from Germany—also
wrote works in Latin.
Today, not as many people write in Latin. But many people still read
Latin literature. Latin is a popular choice for foreign language study in
high school and college. In Latin class, American students read works of

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Roman historian Livy, poets Vergil and Ovid, and letter-writer Cicero.

Julius Caesar’s book The Gallic Wars is another common choice. Lesser-
known works are also read.

This table shows a subset of the young people studying Latin in the 21st
century. It includes data for only a single year in each country. And only
the United States and certain European countries are included.

Secondary Students Studying Latin in the
United States and Parts of Europe

Number of Country Date of Data
Students Collection
2,000,000 Italy
800,000 Germany 2011
501,000 France 2012
120,000 United States 2013
63,000 Austria 2013
40,460 Flanders 2012
24,737 Croatia 2011
15,000 United Kingdom 2013
12,970 Switzerland 2013
3,577,167 Subtotal 2013

There are many more people in the world who study Latin and read
Latin literature than the table shows. Besides those who read Latin
literature in Latin, many people read Latin literature translated into
their native language. And translators continue to find new ways to

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present these works. New translations of the Aeneid, for example,
continue to be made.
People have been influenced by Latin literature—either in Latin or in
translation—in variety of ways. They have retold it, used it as a jumping
off point, and/or referenced it in obvious and subtle ways. Here are
some examples.

Latin Literature in Opera

In the 17th century, English composers began using Latin literature as
the basis for opera. An early example in English was by composer John
Blow. His opera Venus and Adonis, composed in about 1683, was based
on English poet Aphra Behn’s libretto (words to be sung in an opera).
Behn had adapted text from Ovid’s poem Metamorphoses.
English composer Henry Purcell is thought to have seen Blow’s opera.
Blow is credited with inspiring Purcell to turn to Latin literature for an
opera story. Purcell’s first opera Dido and Aeneas, composed about
1685, has a libretto based on Book IV of Vergil’s Aeneid. It was written
by English poet laureate Nahum Tate.

Latin Literature in Painting

Latin literature also inspired paintings. French painter Jacques-Louis
David’s "Le Serment des Horaces" ("Oath of the Horatii" [Huh-RAW-tee-
eye] ; 1784–5) is based on Livy’s The History of Rome, Book I. Livy tells
the story of the Horatii triplets. These young men are honored because
they put their country ahead of their personal feelings. David shows the
brothers taking an oath to their father, while their mother and sisters
grieve to one side. French patriots who overthrew the monarchy in the
French Revolution (1789–1799) and established a constitution were
inspired by David’s paintings.

Roman Rhetorical Models Used by Modern Authors

The Roman poet Juvenal (55/60–c. 127 C.E.) lived during the Roman
Empire. He is known for his Sixteen Satires. Satire uses humor, irony,
and exaggeration to point out and criticize abuses of power, crimes,
and vices. Juvenal was criticized during the Renaissance for satirizing
the crimes of officials. This was considered an unsuitable topic. But this
approach makes Juvenal a model for modern satirists with political
topics. For example, 21st-century novelist Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger
Games trilogy is a political satire. It satirizes the luxury in the capital

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city of a futuristic North America. So Collins could be said to use Juvenal
as a model.
Linking Collins’ and Juvenal’s work even more closely is Collins’ use of a
key word from Juvenal’s Satire X (127 C.E. ):

. . . the people that once bestowed commands, consulships,
legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs
eagerly for just two things----Bread and Games [panem et
circenses]!
Juvenal is comparing the past and present behavior of the upper class
in the empire. During the republic, they participated in the running of
the state, appointing officials and holding public offices. Under the
empire, he says, they have no role in public life, and are happy to
simply eat and be entertained.
Collins chose a telling word from Juvenal for the name of her futuristic
country: she called it Panem. The capital of Panem is characterized by
citizens’ focus on food, luxury, and the Hunger Games. By using this
one word, Panem,Collins provides a whole backstory for any reader who
knows (or researches to find out) where it comes from. This is called
allusion.
Other 21st-century writers use allusions to Rome to provide backstory.
For example, the goddess Minerva helped Hercules in his labors
(Hyginus Stories, 30) and was identified as the goddess of wisdom by
Greeks and Romans. If a reader knows (or researches to find out) these
facts, he or she will have expectations for a character with this name.
An example is Minerva McGonagall, Professor of Transfiguration and
later Headmistress of Hogwarts in the Harry Potter series by J. K.
Rowling.

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VI. The Development of Feudalism in Western Europe

How well did feudalism establish order in Europe in the Middle
Ages?
Introduction
The collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. marks the beginning of
the period in Europe known as the Middle Ages. During this time period,
a complex political and economic system developed that largely shaped
people's lives.
Historians divide the Middle Ages into three periods. The Early Middle
Ages lasted from about 476 to 1000 C.E. The High Middle Ages lasted
from about 1000 to 1300. The Late Middle Ages lasted from about 1300
to 1450.
The Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire, which had
unified much of Europe for about 500 years. After its collapse, life
became dangerous and difficult in Western Europe. People worked hard
simply to survive and to have enough to eat. They also needed to
protect themselves from conquest by invading barbarians and
neighboring kingdoms.
These challenges gave rise to the economic and political system
historians call feudalism (FEWD-ahl-ism) in which people had clearly
defined roles and relationships with each other. In the feudal system,
people pledged loyalty to a lord—a ruler or powerful landholder. In
return, they received protection from that lord. Warriors fought on
behalf of their lords, and peasants worked the land. At the bottom of the
system were serfs, or peasants who were not free to leave the lord's
land without permission.
In this lesson, you will discover more about the difficulties people faced
during the Early Middle Ages. Then you will learn about the rise of
feudalism and how it helped to establish order and security after the fall
of Rome. Finally, you will explore what daily life was like for people
living under feudalism.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
Charlemagne
chivalry
Christianity
feudalism
fief
serf
1. Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages

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For 500 years, much of Europe was part of the Roman Empire. The rest
of the continent was controlled by groups of people the Romans called
“barbarians” because they did not follow Roman ways. When Rome fell
to invading barbarians in 476 C.E., Europe was left with no central
government or system of defense. Throughout Western Europe, many
invading groups set up kingdoms that were often at war with one
another. The most powerful rulers were those who controlled the most
land and had the greatest warriors.
Charlemagne's Empire One powerful group during this time was the
Franks (from whom modern-day France takes its name). The Franks
were successful because they had developed a new style of warfare
that depended on troops of knights, heavily armed warriors who fought
on horseback. To achieve and hold power, a ruler needed the services
and loyalty of many knights. In return for their loyalty and service, the
ruler rewarded knights with land and privileges.
One of the early leaders of the Franks was an ambitious young warrior
named Clovis. In 481 C.E., at the age of 15, Clovis became leader of the
Franks. Five years later, he defeated the last great Roman army in Gaul
at Soissons. During his 30-year reign, he led the Franks in wars that
largely extended the boundaries of the Frankish kingdom.
Clovis also helped convert the Franks to Christianity. Clovis married a
Christian woman, Clotilda, and eventually was baptized into the Roman
Catholic Church. Many of his followers became Christians, as well.
The most important leader of the Franks was Charlemagne (SHAR-luh-
main), which means “Charles the Great.” This impressive king ruled for
over 40 years, from 768 to 814. Writings from that period say that he
was six feet four inches tall—extremely tall for his time—and “always
stately and dignified.” Legend has it that he read very little and couldn't
write, yet he loved to have scholarly works read to him. He encouraged
education and scholarship, making his court a center of culture. Most
important, he unified nearly all the Christian lands of Europe into a
single empire. One of the poets at his court called him the “King Father
of Europe.”
Charlemagne built his empire with the help of a pope—Leo III, the
leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church was a central part of
society during this time, and for Charlemagne, the blessings of the
Church sent the message, “God is on my side.” The Church also valued
support from the empire, and Leo needed the backing of someone with
an army. In return for Charlemagne's help, the pope crowned him Holy

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Roman emperor in 800 C.E.
Charlemagne's empire survived many attacks. After his death in 814,
however, it quickly fell apart. The weak rulers who followed him could
not defend the empire against new waves of invasions. Still, these kings
helped prepare the way for the system of feudalism by following
Charlemagne's example of rewarding knights with land and privileges
in return for military service.
A Need for Order and Protection In the 9th and 10th centuries,
Western Europe was threatened by three main groups. Muslims, or the
followers of the religion of Islam, advanced from the Middle East and
northern Africa into what is now Spain. The Magyars, a central Asian
people, pressed in from the east. Vikings swept down from present-day
Norway and Denmark.
The Vikings were fierce warriors who instilled fear in the people of
Europe. At times, the Vikings' intent was to set up colonies, but they
were best known for their terrifying raids on towns and religious
centers.
Picture a Viking attack. The people of the town are at early morning
church services when an alarm bell starts to clang. Vikings! Long,
shallow wooden boats have brought the Vikings close to shore. Now
they leave their boats and run toward the town with swords and axes
raised over their heads. People are running in all directions, while
several villagers who attempt to resist are killed. Others are seized by
the Viking raiders and taken back to the ships.
Clearly, the people of Western Europe needed to figure out new
methods of defense. To protect themselves and their property, they
gradually developed the system we call feudalism.

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2. Feudalism: Establishing Order
By the High Middle Ages (about 1000 C.E.), Europeans had developed
the system of feudalism. Feudalism provided people with protection
and safety by establishing a stable social order.
Under this system, people were bound to one another by promises of
loyalty. In theory, all the land in the kingdom belonged to the monarch
(usually a king, but sometimes a queen). A large amount of land was
also owned by the Church. The king kept some land for himself and
gave fiefs (FEEFS), or land grants, to his most important lords, who
became his vassals. In return, each lord promised to supply the king
with knights in times of war. A lord then enlisted lesser lords and
knights as his vassals. At times, these arrangements were written
down, and some of these contracts even survive to this day in
museums.
At the bottom of the social system were peasants. Lords rented some of
their land to the peasants who worked for them. However, some
peasants, called serfs, were “tied” to the land they worked, which

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meant that they could not leave the lord's land without permission and
had to farm his fields in exchange for a small plot of their own.
Most lords and wealthier knights lived on manors, or large estates. A
manor included a castle or manor house, one or more villages, and the
surrounding farmland. Manors were in the country, far from towns,
which required peasants to produce everything the people on the
manor needed. Only a few goods came from outside the manor, such as
salt for preserving meat and iron for making tools.
During the Middle Ages, people were born into a social class for life.
They had the same social position, and often the same job, as their
parents. Let's take a closer look at the social classes in feudal society.

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3. Monarchs During Feudal Times
At the very top of feudal society were the monarchs, or kings and
queens. As you have learned, medieval monarchs were also feudal
lords. They were expected to keep order and to provide protection for
their vassals.
Most medieval monarchs believed in the divine right of kings, the idea
that God had given them the right to rule. In reality, the power of
monarchs varied greatly. Some had to work hard to maintain control
of their kingdoms, and few had enough wealth to keep their own
armies. They had to rely on their vassals, especially nobles, to provide
enough knights and soldiers. In some places, especially during the Early
Middle Ages, great lords grew very powerful and governed their fiefs as
independent states. In these cases, the monarch was little more than a
figurehead, a symbolic ruler who had little real power.
In England, monarchs became quite strong during the Middle Ages.
Since the Roman period, a number of groups from the continent,
including Vikings, had invaded and settled England. By the mid-11th

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century, it was ruled by a Germanic tribe called the Saxons. The king at
that time was descended from both Saxon and Norman (French)
families. When he died without an adult heir, there was confusion over
who should become king.
William, the powerful Duke of Normandy (a part of present-day France),
believed he had the right to the English throne. However, the English
crowned his cousin, Harold. In 1066, William and his army invaded
England. William defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings and
established a line of Norman kings in England. His triumph earned him
the nickname “William the Conqueror.”
When William of Normandy conquered England, he brought feudal
institutions from Europe with him. Supported by feudalism, strong
rulers brought order to England. In fact, by the start of the High Middle
Ages, around 1000 C.E., the feudal system had brought stability to
much of Europe.

4. Lords and Ladies During Feudal Times
Like monarchs, lords and ladies were members of the nobility, the
highest-ranking class in medieval society. Most of them lived on
manors. Some lords had one manor, while others had several. Those
who had more than one manor usually lived in one for a few months
and then traveled with their families to another.
Manor Houses and Castles Many of the people on a manor lived
with the lord's family in the manor house. Built of wood or stone, manor
houses were surrounded by gardens and outbuildings, such as kitchens

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and stables. They were protected by high walls.
The manor house was the center of the community, and in times of
trouble, villagers entered its walls for protection. Its great hall served
as the lord's court, but it also offered a place for special celebrations
and feasts, such as those given at Christmas or after a harvest.
Kings and queens, high-ranking nobles, and wealthy lords lived in even
grander structures: castles. Castles were built for many purposes, but
one of their main functions was to serve as a home. Castles were also
one of the most important forms of military technology. With their
moats, strong walls, and gates, they were built for defense. Finally,
their large size and central locations made castles visual reminders of
the social hierarchy and the power of the ruling classes.
The earliest medieval castles were built of wood and surrounded by

high wooden fences. The strongest part, the motte, was built on a
hilltop. A walled path linked the motte to a lower enclosed court, the
bailey, where most people lived. After about 1100 C.E., most castles
were built of stone to resist attacks by more powerful siege weapons.
Castles gradually became more elaborate. Many had tall towers for
looking out across the land. The main castle building had a variety of
rooms, including storerooms, kitchens, a dining hall, sleeping quarters
for distinguished guests, and the lord and lady's quarters.
The Responsibilities and Daily Life of Lords and Ladies It was
the lord's responsibility to manage and defend his land and its laborers.
The lord appointed officials to make sure villagers fulfilled their duties,
which included farming the lord's land and paying rent in the form of
crops, meat, and other foods. Lords also acted as judges in manor
courts and had the power to fine and punish those who broke the law.
Some lords held posts in the king's government. In times of war, lords
fought for their own higher-ranking lords, or at least supplied them with
a well-trained fighting force.
In theory, only men were part of the feudal relationship between lord
and vassal. However, it was quite common in the Middle Ages for
noblewomen to hold fiefs and inherit land. Except for fighting, these
women had all the duties that lords had. They ran their estates, sat as
judges in manor courts, and sent their knights to serve in times of war.
Noblewomen who were not landowners were still extremely busy. They
were responsible for raising and training their own children and, often,
the children of other noble families. Ladies were also responsible for

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overseeing their household or households. Some households had
hundreds of people, including priests, master hunters, and knights-in-

training called pages and squires, who assisted the knights. There were
also cooks, servants, artists, craftspeople, and grooms. Entertainment
was provided by musicians and jesters who performed amusing jokes
and stunts.
When they weren't hard at work, lords and ladies enjoyed hunting and
hawking (hunting with birds), feasting and dancing, board games such
as chess, and reading. Ladies also did fine stitching and embroidery, or
decorative sewing.
Although nobles and monarchs had the most privileged lives in
medieval times, they were not always easy or comfortable by modern
standards. Lit only by candles and warmed only by open fires, manor
homes and castles could be gloomy and cold. There was little or no
privacy. Fleas and lice infected all medieval buildings, and people
generally bathed only once a week, if that. Clothes were not washed
daily either. Diseases affected the rich as well as the poor. And, of
course, warfare was a great and ever-present danger.

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5. Knights During Feudal Times
Knights were the mounted soldiers of the medieval world. In general,
knights needed to have a good deal of wealth, since a full suit of armor
and a horse cost a small fortune. Knights were usually vassals of more
powerful lords.
Becoming a Knight The path to becoming a knight involved many
years of training. A boy started as a page, or servant. At the age of
seven, he left home and went to live at the castle of a lord, who was
often a relative. Nearly all wealthy lords had several pages living in
their castles and manors. A page learned how to ride a horse and
received religious instruction from the local priest or friar.
During this first stage of training, a page spent much of his time with
the ladies of the castle and was expected to help them in every way
possible. During this period, the ladies taught pages how to sing, dance,
compose music, and play the harp—skills that were valued in knights.
After about seven years as a page, a young boy became a squire.

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During this part of his training, he spent most of his time with the
knight who was his lord. The squire helped care for his horse and
polished the knight's armor, sword, shield, and lance. He even waited
on his lord at mealtime, carrying water for hand washing, carving meat,
and filling his cup when it was empty.
Most importantly, squires trained to become warriors. They learned how
to fight with a sword and a lance, a kind of spear that measured up to
15 feet long. They also learned how to use a battle-axe and a mace (a
club with a heavy metal head). Squires practiced by fighting in make-
believe battles, but they also went into real battles. A squire was
expected to help dress his lord in armor, care for his weapons and
horses, follow him into battle, and look after him if he was wounded.
In his early 20s, if deserving of the honor, a squire became a knight, a
process that at times was a complex religious event. A squire often
spent the night before his knighting ceremony in prayer. The next
morning, he bathed and put on a white tunic, or long shirt, to show his
purity. During the ceremony, he knelt before his lord and said his vows.
The lord drew his sword, touched the knight-to-be lightly on each
shoulder with the flat side of the blade, and knighted him. Sometimes, if
a squire did particularly well in battle, he was knighted on the spot.

The Responsibilities and Daily Life of Knights Being a knight was

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more than a profession. It was a way of life. Knights lived by a strong
code of behavior called chivalry. (Chivalry comes from the French
word cheval, meaning “horse.”) Knights were expected to be loyal to
the Church and to their lord, to be just and fair, and to protect the
helpless. They performed acts of gallantry, or respect paid to women.
From these acts, we get the modern idea of chivalry as traditional forms
of courtesy and kindness toward women.
Jousts and tournaments were a major part of a knight's life. In a joust,
two armed knights on horseback galloped at each other with their
lances extended, aiming to unseat the opponent from his horse. Jousts
were held as sporting events, for exercise, or as serious battles
between rival knights. A tournament involved a team of knights in one-
on-one battle.
Knights fought wearing heavy suits of armor. In the 11th century, armor
was made of linked metal rings, called chain mail. By the 14th century,
plate armor was more common and offered better protection.
The medieval style of knighthood lasted until about the 17th century,
when warfare changed with the growing use of gunpowder and
cannons. Knights, who fought one-to-one on horseback, were no longer
effective against such weapons.
But knights were only a small group in medieval society. Next, let's turn
to daily life for the vast majority of the population: the peasants.

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6. Peasants During Feudal Times
Most people during the Middle Ages were peasants. They were not
included in the feudal relationship of vassal and lord, but they
supported the entire feudal structure by working the land. Their labor
freed lords and knights to spend their time preparing for war or fighting.
During medieval times, peasants were legally classified as free or
unfree. These categories had to do with the amount of service owed to
the lord. Free peasants rented land to farm and owed only their rent to
the lord. Unfree peasants, or serfs, farmed the lord's fields and could
not leave the lord's manor. In return for their labor, they received their
own small plot of land to farm.
The daily life of peasants revolved around work. Most peasants raised
crops and tended livestock (farm animals), but every manor also had
carpenters, shoemakers, smiths (metalworkers), and other skilled
workers. Peasant women worked in the fields when needed, while also
caring for their children, their homes, and livestock.

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Along with the work they performed, peasants and serfs might owe the
lord numerous taxes. There was a yearly payment called “head
money,” at a fixed amount per person. In addition, the lord could

demand a tax, known as tallage, whenever he needed money. When a
woman married, she, her father, or her husband had to pay a fee called
a merchet.
Peasants were also required to grind their grain at the lord's mill (the
only mill on the manor). As payment, the miller kept portions of the
grain for the lord and for himself, with lords keeping any amount they
wanted. Peasants found this practice so hateful that some of them hid
small handmills in their houses.
Most peasants lived in small, simple houses composed of one or two
rooms. A typical house was made of woven strips of wood covered with
straw or mud, usually with little furniture or other possessions inside.
There was a hearth fire in the middle of the main room, but often there
was no chimney, making the room dark and smoky. An entire family
might eat and sleep in one room that sometimes also housed their farm
animals.
Peasants ate vegetables, meat such as pork, and dark, coarse bread
made of wheat mixed with rye or oatmeal. Almost no one ate beef or
chicken. During the winter, they ate pork, mutton, or fish that had been
preserved in salt. Herbs were used widely, to improve flavor and reduce
saltiness, or to disguise the taste of meat that was no longer fresh.

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Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned about life during feudal times. The
fall of the Roman Empire led to a period of uncertainty and
danger. Europeans developed the system of feudalism to help
provide economic and social stability and safety.
Feudalism The feudal system arose as a way of protecting property
and creating stability. It was based on loyalty and personal
relationships. Monarchs gave fiefs to lords, their most important
vassals. In exchange, vassals promised to supply monarchs with
soldiers in war.
Monarchs and Lords At the top of the feudal social structure was the
monarch. Below the monarch were his vassals, the lords, or nobles.
Monarchs and nobles oversaw their lands and the people who worked
them. They lived in manor houses or castles.
Knights and Peasants Below the lords were the knights, heavily
armored warriors on horseback who provided service in war in return

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for land and protection. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were free
peasants, followed by serfs. Peasants farmed the land and made most
of the necessary articles of life. Serfs were peasants bound to the land.

Decentralization After the Fall of Rome
The ancient world had been characterized by several very large
empires. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 C.E., most
of Europe was split into small to medium-sized kingdoms. There were
frequent changes of both borders and the peoples who ruled them. The
time period after the fall of the Western Roman Empire is known as the
Early Middle Ages. Some historians say this period lasted until the 900s
C.E., while other sources say the Early Middle Ages lasted until 1000.
C.E.
Europe Struggles Through the Early Middle Ages
One way to describe Europe during the Early Middle Ages is by
identifying the three waves of migrant invasion that occurred on the
continent. These were the:

• Germanic invasions of the 5th and 6th centuries
• Invasions of Arabs and the Frankish tribes from the area that is
now north-central France in the 8th century
• Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions of the 9th and 10th
centuries
The invasions had personal and economic effects and also caused

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political and cultural change throughout Europe. It was impossible to
trade or export goods to other locations because the invasions made it
unsafe to even travel short distances. Pottery, manufacturing, and
other industries that depended on trade completely disappeared from
some areas. Populations and economies began to exist on a very local
level. For example, people in the areas of Italy, Spain, and France
continued to speak Latin, but many people in what is now England did
not during the Early Middle Ages. The structure that societies often
receive from their educational systems and centralized military forces
did not exist during this period of European history, so illiteracy
increased dramatically.
Between 400 AD and 600 AD, the European population had declined by
twenty percent. The continent’s agricultural system had also broken
down, and a period of rapidly cooling climate change occurred. These
conditions contributed to low crop yields throughout Europe.
In circa 581 C.E., the spread of sickness presented another threat to the
population. Smallpox began to affect Western Europe, and other
unnamed illnesses later followed. Large numbers of people died.
All of these many factors that influenced European life in the Early
Middle Ages caused the remaining population to make many changes to
what were once long-established practices in society. These included
changes in things like property ownership, law, religion, and culture.
These four maps will give you an idea of how European geography
changed in the Early Middle Ages and how political power became
localized.
1. By 150 C.E., the Roman Empire had unified large amounts of Europe
and beyond under one administration. Notice how the empire
completely surrounds the Mediterranean Sea and extends into Asia. As
the Germanic groups moved into the area, the empire shrank.

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2. By 486 C.E, the Western Roman Empire was gone. Its territory had
been fragmented into many kingdoms. These kingdoms were formed
and ruled by Franks, Goths, Saxons, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and other
migrant groups. The style and development of the government varied
by kingdom.

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3. (above) Kingdoms and their rulers continued to change frequently for
centuries. Here you can see the state of Europe in 526. Note that there
are fewer divisions than in 486. Another change is that the Kingdom of
the East Goths has grown in size.
4. (below) By 533–600, as shown in the lower map, much has changed.
The Kingdom of the East Goths is gone. The Lombards have taken over
Italy. The Franks have expanded their territory. The Eastern Roman
Empire now covers much more territory in the west, including the
region formerly ruled by the Vandals.

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The Beginnings of Feudalism and Decentralization

In this chaotic situation, the Franks began to consolidate power and
territory under the leadership of the family known as the Carolingians.
The name comes from their most famous member, Charlemagne. But
the family began their rule of the Franks with Pepin, who was the mayor
of Austrasia. Austrasia is located in what is now north-central France.
Pepin conquered Neustria, to the west of Austrasia, in 687.

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Pepin's son, Charles Martel (ruled 714–741), took the land in Neustria
and gave it to Austrasian nobles. But he also did something new. With
the gift of land came a requirement. In return for the land, the
Austrasian fighters had to promise military service to Charles Martel.
He also required them to provide their own horses. These two elements
—gifts of land that supplied the means for a soldier to purchase his
battle equipment and a promise of military service—were the
foundation of the feudal system that Charlemagne (ruled 768/771–814)
and those after him developed more fully.
The third wave of invasions in the 9th and 10th centuries also
contributed to breaking up and re-forming kingdoms under new
leaders. And the system of inheritance of kingdoms also promoted
division of kingdoms. For example, the kingdom Charlemagne had
worked so hard to build was broken into three by his three sons shortly
after his death with the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
The next map shows the extent of Charlemagne's empire at his death.
The three colors show how it was divided in 843 among Charlemagne's
three sons. The territory was to split more over time.

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Knights Become Nobles

Charlemagne temporarily provided unity for a large portion of Europe in
the late 8th century. But feudalism was a system that promoted local
loyalties and control rather than state unity. At first, a knight’s social
status in the Middle Ages was not connected to nobility. Knights were a
class of professional mounted soldiers who had access to horses and
armor and could support the costs of maintaining those resources.
Knights who received land swore an oath of fealty to their local lord. But
that lord was rarely the king. The code of behavior known as chivalry
and a knight’s status as a member of nobility developed in the 12th
century. As was the case with royal lines of succession, the idea of
heredity became part of knighthood a century later. Sons of knights
were automatically made squires, so a man’s ancestry now determined
his eligibility for knighthood. Other legal restrictions were also passed
that would close the knight class further and make it a more elite group
of men.

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Royal Women and Children: The Keys to Power and
Control

Inheritance affected the unity of kingdoms in another way. Women who
inherited kingdoms had a certain amount of power, at least to bestow
their land. The following map shows the Frankish lands Henry II of
England gained by inheritance and marriage. He inherited land from
both his father Geoffrey V and his mother Empress Matilda. He also
received land by dowry, or marriage gift, from his wife, Eleanor of
Aquitaine.

Eleanor had become Queen of England in 1152 upon her marriage to
Henry II. In childhood, princesses or daughters of high-ranking nobles
were often promised as the future wives of kings. The actual marriages
would then usually take place before the young women became
teenagers. In this way, a young woman’s influence was in what she
could facilitate, or make happen, but women were usually not given the
choice to decide what they wanted to happen. Any wealth or resources
that a woman brought with her into a marriage, such as land, allowed

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monarchs and kingdoms to gain power and forge political alliances with
one another. The ownership of land through marriage and birth also
contributed to the breaking up and remaking of kingdoms.
Once a young woman had entered into a royal marriage, her primary
and most critical influence on a royal court was to have children.
Children who were the offspring of royal marriages during the Middle
Ages became heirs to two kingdoms. Daughters were seen as assets
who could be used to create more political alliances through future
marriages, but sons were especially coveted and prized in royal courts.
Sons had the power to ascend to a royal throne after the death of a
monarch (who, in most cases, was usually the son’s father).
After a royal wife had produced children, the sphere of her influence
evolved from producing children for a royal household to preparing
those children for their future lives as members of royal families. A
royal mother would support a son’s political position in the line of
succession and prepare him for the responsibilities of ruling a kingdom.
Royal women would also prepare daughters for their own eventual royal
marriages. Eleanor of Aquitaine actually shifted her loyalty from her
husband to her sons, who would later become King Richard I and King
John. She encouraged them to rebel against Henry II. As a result, Henry
had Eleanor charged with treason and imprisoned for 16 years.

Charlemagne's Successful Rule
Charlemagne was unique among the medieval rulers in successfully
establishing centralized rule. One of his courtiers, Einhard, wrote a
biography of Charlemagne. Read these translated selections from
Einhard's Life of Charlemagne to discover what made Charlemagne's
rule so effective. Use a dictionary to look up any words you don't know.

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3. Charlemagne's Accession

Pepin, however, was raised by decree of the Roman pontiff, from the
rank of Mayor of the Palace to that of King, and ruled alone over the
Franks for fifteen years or more. He died of dropsy in Paris at the close
of the Aquitanian War, which he had waged with William, Duke of
Aquitania, for nine successive years, and left his two sons, Charles and
Carloman, upon whom, by the grace of God, the succession devolved.
The Franks, in a general assembly of the people, made them both kings
on condition that they should divide the whole kingdom equally
between them, Charles to take and rule the part that had to belonged
to their father, Pepin, and Carloman the part which their uncle,
Carloman had governed. The conditions were accepted, and each
entered into the possession of the share of the kingdom that fell to him
by this arrangement; but peace was only maintained between them
with the greatest difficulty, because many of Carloman's party kept
trying to disturb their good understanding, and there were some even
who plotted to involve them in a war with each other. The event,
however, showed the danger to have been rather imaginary than real,

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for at Carloman's death his widow fled to Italy with her sons and her
principal adherents, and without reason, despite her husband's brother
put herself and her children under the protection of Desiderius, King of
the Lombards. Carloman had succumbed to disease after ruling two
years in common with his brother and at his death Charles was
unanimously elected King of the Franks.

15. Extent of Charlemagne's Conquests

[Charlemagne] so largely increased the Frank kingdom, which was
already great and strong when he received it at his father's hands, that
more than double its former territory was added to it.

16. Foreign Relations

He added to the glory of his reign by gaining the good will of several
kings and nations; so close, indeed, was the alliance that he contracted
with Alfonso King of Galicia and Asturias [in modern-day Spain], that
the latter, when sending letters or ambassadors to Charles, invariably
styled himself his man. His munificence won the kings of the Scots also
to pay such deference to his wishes that they never gave him any other
title than lord or themselves than subjects and slaves: there are letters
from them extant in which these feelings in his regard are expressed.
His relations with [Harun Al-Rashid], King of the Persians, who ruled
over almost the whole of the East, India excepted, were so friendly that
this prince preferred his favor to that of all the kings and potentates of
the earth, and considered that to him alone marks of honor and
munificence were due. Accordingly, when the ambassadors sent by
Charles to visit the most holy sepulcher and place of resurrection of our
Lord and Savior presented themselves before him with gifts, and made
known their master's wishes, he not only granted what was asked, but
gave possession of that holy and blessed spot. When they returned, he
dispatched his ambassadors with them, and sent magnificent gifts,
besides stuffs, perfumes, and other rich products of the Eastern lands.
A few years before this, Charles had asked him for an elephant, and he
sent the only one that he had. The Emperors of Constantinople … made
advances to Charles, and sought friendship and alliance with him by
several embassies; and even when the Greeks suspected him of
designing to wrest the empire from them, because of his assumption of
the title Emperor, they made a close alliance with him, that he might
have no cause of offense. In fact, the power of the Franks was always
viewed by the Greeks and Romans with a jealous eye, whence the
Greek proverb "Have the Frank for your friend, but not for your
neighbor."

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17. Public Works

This King, who showed himself so great in extending his empire and
subduing foreign nations, and was constantly occupied with plans to
that end, undertook also very many works calculated to adorn and
benefit his kingdom, and brought several of them to completion.
Among these, the most deserving of mention are the basilica of the
Holy Mother of God at Aix-la-Chapelle, built in the most admirable
manner, and a bridge over the Rhine at Mayence, half a mile long, the
breadth of the river at this point. This bridge was destroyed by fire the
year before Charles died, but, owing to his death so soon after, could
not be repaired, although he had intended to rebuild it in stone. He
began two palaces of beautiful workmanship - one near his manor
called Ingelheim, not far from Mayence; the other at Nimeguen, on the
Waal, the stream that washes the south side of the island of the
Batavians. But, above all, sacred edifices were the object of his care
throughout his whole kingdom; and whenever he found them falling to
ruin from age, he commanded the priests and fathers who had charge
of them to repair them , and made sure by commissioners that his
instructions were obeyed. He also fitted out a fleet for the war with the
Northmen; the vessels required for this purpose were built on the rivers
that flow from Gaul and Germany into the Northern Ocean. Moreover,
since the Northmen continually overran and laid waste the Gallic and
German coasts, he caused watch and ward to be kept in all the harbors,
and at the mouths of rivers large enough to admit the entrance of
vessels, to prevent the enemy from disembarking; and in the South, in
Narbonensis and Septimania, and along the whole coast of Italy as far
as Rome, he took the same precautions against the Moors, who had
recently begun their piratical practices. Hence, Italy suffered no great
harm in his time at the hands of the Moors, nor Gaul and Germany from
the Northmen, save that the Moors got possession of the Etruscan town
of Civita Vecchia by treachery, and sacked it, and the Northmen harried
some of the islands in Frisia off the German coast.

25. Studies

Charles had the gift of ready and fluent speech, and could express
whatever he had to say with the utmost clearness. He was not satisfied
with command of his native language merely, but gave attention to the
study of foreign ones, and in particular was such a master of Latin that
he could speak it as well as his native tongue; but he could understand
Greek better than he could speak it. He was so eloquent, indeed, that
he might have passed for a teacher of eloquence. He most zealously
cultivated the liberal arts, held those who taught them in great esteem,

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and conferred great honors upon them. He took lessons in grammar of
the deacon Peter of Pisa, at that time an aged man. Another deacon,
Albin of Britain, surnamed Alcuin, a man of Saxon extraction, who was
the greatest scholar of the day, was his teacher in other branches of
learning. The King spent much time and labour with him studying
rhetoric, dialectics, and especially astronomy; he learned to reckon, and
used to investigate the motions of the heavenly bodies most curiously,
with an intelligent scrutiny. He also tried to write, and used to keep
tablets and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at leisure hours he
might accustom his hand to form the letters; however, as he did not
begin his efforts in due season, but late in life, they met with ill
success.

27. Generosity

He was very forward in succoring the poor, and in that gratuitous
generosity which the Greeks call alms, so much so that he not only
made a point of giving in his own country and his own kingdom, but
when he discovered that there were Christians living in poverty in Syria,
Egypt, and Africa, at Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Carthage, he had
compassion on their wants, and used to send money over the seas to
them. The reason that he zealously strove to make friends with the
kings beyond seas was that he might get help and relief to the
Christians living under their rule.
He cherished the Church of St. Peter the Apostle at Rome above all
other holy and sacred places, and heaped its treasury with a vast
wealth of gold, silver, and precious stones. He sent great and countless
gifts to the popes; and throughout his whole reign the wish that he had
nearest at heart was to re-establish the ancient authority of the city of
Rome under his care and by his influence, and to defend and protect
the Church of St. Peter, and to beautify and enrich it out of his own
store above all other churches. Although he held it in such veneration,
he only repaired to Rome to pay his vows and make his supplications
four times during the whole forty-seven years that he reigned.

28. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor

When he made his last journey thither, he also had other ends in view.
The Romans had inflicted many injuries upon the Pontiff Leo, tearing
out his eyes and cutting out his tongue, so that he had been complied
to call upon the King for help. Charles accordingly went to Rome, to set
in order the affairs of the Church, which were in great confusion, and
passed the whole winter there. It was then that he received the titles of

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Emperor and Augustus, to which he at first had such an aversion that
he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that
they were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have
foreseen the design of the Pope. He bore very patiently with the
jealousy which the Roman emperors showed upon his assuming these
titles, for they took this step very ill; and by dint of frequent embassies
and letters, in which he addressed them as brothers, he made their
haughtiness yield to his magnanimity, a quality in which he was
unquestionably much their superior.

29. Reforms

It was after he had received the imperial name that, finding the laws of
his people very defective (the Franks have two sets of laws, very
different in many particulars), he determined to add what was wanting,
to reconcile the discrepancies, and to correct what was vicious and
wrongly cited in them. However, he went no further in this matter than
to supplement the laws by a few capitularies, and those imperfect ones;
but he caused the unwritten laws of all the tribes that came under his
rule to be compiled and reduced to writing. He also had the old [rough]
songs that celebrate the deeds and wars of the ancient kings written
out for transmission to posterity. He began a grammar of his native
language.

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VII. Life in Medieval Towns

What was life like in medieval European towns?

Introduction

The Late Middle Ages lasted from about 1300 to 1450 C.E., a time in which people
experienced a shift in daily life. At the start of the Middle Ages, most lived in the
countryside, either on feudal manors or in religious communities. Many owned or
worked on farms where they produced their own food. But by the 12th century,
towns were emerging around castles and monasteries and along trade routes.
These bustling towns became centers of trade and industry.

Almost all medieval towns were protected by thick stone walls and required
visitors to enter through gates. Inside, homes and businesses lined unpaved
streets. Since few people could read, signs with colorful pictures hung over the
doorways of shops and businesses. Open squares in front of public buildings, such
as churches, served as gathering places. People in the town might shop at the local
market place or watch religious plays.

Most streets were very narrow. The second stories of houses jutted out, blocking
the sunlight from reaching the street. With few sources of indoor light, houses
were often dark, too. Squares and streets were crowded with people, horses, and
carts—as well as cats, dogs, geese, and chickens. There was no garbage collection,
so residents threw their garbage into nearby canals and ditches or simply out the
window. As you can imagine, most medieval towns were filled with unpleasant
smells.

In this lesson, you will first learn about the growth of medieval towns. Then you
will look at several aspects of daily life. You will explore trade and commerce,
homes and households, disease and medical treatment, crime and punishment, and
leisure and entertainment.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
apprentice
charter
common law
guild
1. The Growth of Medieval Towns
In the ancient world, town life was well established, particularly in Greece and

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Rome. Ancient towns were busy trading centers. But after the collapse of the
Roman Empire in the west, trade with the east suffered, and town life declined. In
the Early Middle Ages, most people in western Europe lived in scattered
communities in the countryside.

By the High Middle Ages, towns were growing again. One reason for their growth
was improvements in agriculture. Farmers were clearing forests and adopting
better farming methods, which resulted in a surplus of crops for them to sell in
town markets. And because of these surpluses, not everyone had to farm to feed
themselves. Another reason for the growth of towns was the revival of trade.
Seaport towns, such as Venice and Genoa in Italy, served as trading centers for
goods from the Middle East and Asia. Within Europe, merchants often transported
goods by river, and many towns grew up near these waterways.

Many merchants who sold their wares in towns became permanentresidents. So
did people practicing various trades. Some towns grew wealthier because local
people specialized in making specific types of goods. For example, towns in
Flanders (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands) were known for their fine
woolen cloth. Meanwhile, workers in the Italian city of Venice produced glass.
Other towns built their wealth on the banking industry that grew up to help
people trade more easily.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, towns were generally part of the domain of a
feudal lord—whether a monarch, a noble, or a high-ranking Church official. As
towns grew wealthier, town dwellers began to resent the lord's feudal rights and
his demands for taxes. They felt they no longer needed the lord's protection—or
his interference.

In some places, such as northern France and Italy, violence erupted as towns
struggled to become independent. In other places, such as England and parts of
France, the change was more peaceful. Many towns became independent by
purchasing a royal charter, which granted them the right to govern themselves,
make laws, and raise taxes. Free towns were often governed by a mayor and a
town council. Power gradually shifted from feudal lords to the rising class of
merchants and craftspeople.

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2. Guilds
Medieval towns began as centers for trade, but they soon developed into places
where many goods were produced, as well. Both trade and production were
overseen by organizations called guilds.
There were two main kinds of guilds: merchant guilds and craft guilds. All types of
craftspeople had their own guilds, from cloth makers to cobblers (who fixed shoes,
belts, and other leather goods), to the stonemasons who built the great cathedrals.
Guilds provided help and protection for the people doing a certain kind of work,
and they maintained high standards. Guilds controlled the hours of work and set
prices. They also handled complaints from the public. If, for example, a coal
merchant cheated a customer, it might reflect poorly on all coal merchants. The
guilds, therefore, punished members who had bad practices.
Guild members paid dues to their organization, which paid for the construction of
guildhalls and for guild fairs and festivals. Guilds also used the money to take care
of members and their families who were sick and unable to work.

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