World History

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Rome Turns East

Rome had several reasons to turn attention to the east. First, it wanted
to secure the rest of the Mediterranean so it could control trade.
Second, it wanted to punish Macedon, which had allied with Carthage
during the Second Punic War. By 218 B.C.E., Rome had conquered
Macedon and Greece. By 64 B.C.E., Rome had conquered some of the
Hellenistic kingdoms that controlled the territory of what had been the
Achaemenid Persian Empire, then Alexander the Great’s Empire, and
finally, the Seleukid Greco-Macedonian Empire. Rome now controlled
the Mediterranean. But Rome had not yet come into conflict with the
Arsacid (or Parthian) Persian Empire, which controlled Mesopotamia.

Rome and the Arsacid Persian Empire

While Rome was expanding to the east, the Arsacid Persian Empire,
which began in Parsa, was expanding west. Scholars are not sure
whether or not the Arsacids intended to reclaim the territory that had
belonged to the Achaemenid Persian Empire. The Achaemenid Empire

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at its largest is shown on this map.

Rome moving east and the Arsacid Empire moving west brought them
into contact.When they became neighbors in 96 B.C.E., the Arsacid king
sent an ambassador to Rome. The two empires made a pact of
friendship. By 88/87 B.C.E., the Arsacid Empire included Armenia and
Mesopotamia. And in 69 and 66 B.C.E., agreements set and confirmed
the Euphrates as the boundary between the two empires.
The thought of winning military glory led a Roman general named
Crassus to break the pact. In 54 B.C.E., Crassus led an attack on
Mesopotamia. But he did not gain the glory he desired. The Persians
beat the Romans at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 B.C.E. During the battle,
Crassus was killed and the Roman standards, or flags, were captured by
the Persians.
After this, the Romans added “revenge” to their goals. Julius Caesar
began to plan a war, and Antony prepared to conduct the campaign.
But when Rome became an empire and Augustus came to power,
Rome’s goals changed again. Augustus concluded a new pact with the
Persian King Phraates IV in 20 B.C.E., when the Roman standards were
returned. Again, the Euphrates was established as the western border

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of the Arsacid Empire.

In the 1st century C.E., Roman Emperor Nero fought the Arsacid Empire
for control of Armenia. But the empires came to an agreement. Nero
ended up crowning the Arsacid King Tiridates as King of Armenia, and
relations remained peaceful, with the Augustan pact in place until
during the reign of Trajan.

Rome’s New Goals

The Emperor Trajan was not satisfied with the Augustan pact. Nothing
less than world domination won through glorious military encounters
would satisfy him. Specifically, he wanted to move Rome’s eastern
border across the Euphrates. Rejecting Arsacid peace offers, Trajan
undertook a “Parthian War” in 114–117 C.E. The territory he gained—
Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria—did not stay under Rome’s control
for long. His successor Hadrian, who became emperor in 117 C.E.,
restored the Augustan pact and outlook. This map shows the shared
border of Rome and the Arsacid Empire in the 2nd century C.E.

The restoration was temporary. In the mid-2nd century C.E., Rome took
control of upper Mesopotamia. But while it threatened the central

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Arsacid Empire, it retreated after each gain. It pushed the border, but
did not move to conquer the Persians.

In the early 3rd century C.E., Emperor Caracalla did attempt to
overthrow the Persians. He attacked in 216 C.E., but was assassinated
by his own men. His successor was the man whom scholars believe
plotted his assassination, Macrinus. In 217 C.E., Emperor Macrinus
stopped the war, and he restored peace in 218. The peace lasted until
the Arsacid Empire was overthrown.

Rome and the Sasanian Empire

The rise to power of the Sasanian Empire was partly made possible by
Arsacid preoccupation with Rome. The future King Ardashir I, founder of
the Sasanian Empire, killed the last Arsacid king on the battlefield,
ending the Arsacid Empire in 224 C.E. Ardashir I, and at least some of
his followers, may have intended nothing less than to reclaim the
territory of the Achaemenid Empire. This map shows the shared borders
of Rome and the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd century C.E.

By this time, Rome was facing a number of problems. The Roman
armies were continually threatening revolt or mutiny. The German tribe

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invasions had to be addressed, and then the Huns as well. The
Sasanian Empire only received Roman attention after a series of
attacks on Hatra, Roman Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Roman Emperor
Gordian III brought a large army against the Persians, led by Shapur I,
who claims Gordian was killed in battle.
Shapur I’s battles didn’t end up acquiring territory from Rome. But he
deported thousands of Roman prisoners to cities throughout his empire.
Meanwhile, Rome took back its territory and more. By 298 C.E., a
treaty extended the Roman border to the eastern bank of the Tigris. It
also restricted trade between Roman and Persian merchants to Nisibis,
which gave Romans much more control over trade.
The Roman Emperor Constantine, the first to be a Christian, unified the
Roman Empire in 324 C.E. In the same year, he sent a letter to Persian
king Shapur II on behalf of the Christian population of the Sasanian
Empire. Some scholars believe it had the reverse effect, making Shapur
II fear that Christians would not be loyal and led to persecution of
Christians in the Sasanian Empire. The Sasanians continued their minor
attacks.
The next major encounter was the invasion of the Emperor Julian in 363
C.E.. He made the mistake of burning his fleet after his army crossed
the Tigris. When reinforcements did not arrive as planned, Julian died in
the battle, and his successor was forced to make peace. The defeat of
Julian is commemorated in this Persian rock relief. He is shown lying on
the ground beneath the king's feet.

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After fighting over Armenia between 363 and 383 C.E., Rome and the
Sasanians made peace and partitioned Armenia. Scholars now believe
that the courts of Rome and Persia came into contact more during this
time and became more friendly. One factor that made this possible was
reduction of persecution of Christians in the Sasanian Empire. In the
early to mid-5th century C.E., both powers faced challenges from other
areas. The Sasanian Empire was attacked in the east by the
Hephthalites. At the same time, the Romans were under attack from
the Goths, Vandals, and Huns and lost their western provinces.
Later in the 5th century C.E., the two powers, led by Emperor Justinian
and King Khosrow, maintained diplomatic relations while competing for
rule over the world. But by the mid-6th century C.E., there were
conflicts each year for 20 years. Under Khosrow II in the early 7th
century C.E., the Sasanian Empire took control of most of the Byzantine
Empire. But after more fighting, a treaty returned the territory in 628
C.E.. However, with both empires weakened by the conflict, the
Byzantine Empire fell to the Muslim Arabs within 10 years. And the
Sasanian Empire was conquered by the Islamic Caliphates in 650 C.E..
Cicero and the Roman Republic

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In this lesson, you learned about the rule of Julius Caesar. He was
declared dictator and tried to expand Rome's territories. The Senate
feared Caesar's growing power, and he was assassinated on March 15,
44 B.C.E.
One senator who was critical of Caesar was Marcus Tullius Cicero. He
was an orator, a lawyer, a philosopher, an essayist, and a politician.
After serving the Roman republic in four offices, he became a member
of the Senate. Cicero was a strong supporter of the Roman Republic.
Cicero felt that Rome needed to improve the republic. He believed that
Roman politicians had become corrupt. They took rights away from the
people. He condemned Caesar for becoming a dictator because he took
too much power for himself. Cicero wrote many letters, speeches, and
essays to remind Romans of their duty to the republic. People had to
participate in government and be responsible when elected to office.
The elite had a special duty as important role models for Roman
citizens. Cicero believed they needed to commit to the republic's well-
being over their own fame, wealth, and power.
Cicero did not participate in the assassination of Julius Caesar, but he
did commend the actions of those who did. Below is an excerpt from a
letter by Cicero to Brutus. Brutus was one of the senators involved in
the assassination. In the letter, Cicero praises Brutus for his actions. He

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also asks Brutus to help restore the republic in the aftermath of
Caesar's death. As you read, think about this question: What does
Cicero fear will happen to the republic?

To M. Iunius Brutus [in Macedonia]
Rome [Middle of July, 43 B.C.E.]

". . . . After the death of Caesar and your ever memorable Ides of
March, Brutus, you have not forgotten what I said had been omitted
[ignored] by you and your colleagues, and what a heavy cloud I
declared to be hanging over the Republic. A great pest had been
removed by your means, a great blot on the Roman people wiped out,
immense glory in truth acquired by yourselves: but [now] an engine for
exercising kingly power had been put into the hands of Lepidus and
Antony, of whom the former [Lepidus] was the more fickle of the two,
the latter [Antony] the more corrupt, but both of whom dreaded peace
and were enemies to quiet. Against these men, inflamed [excited] with
the ambition of revolutionizing the state, we had no protecting force to
oppose. . . .
I therefore proposed severe measures against Antony, and severe ones
also against Lepidus, and not so much out of revenge as in order that I
might for the present prevent unprincipled men by this terror from
attacking their country, and might for the future establish a warning for
all who were minded to imitate their infatuation [obsession with
power]."

__________________________________________________
• The Letters of Cicero; the whole extant correspondence in
chronological order, in four volumes. translated by Evelyn S.
Shuckburgh. London. George Bell and Sons. 1908-1909.
Entire Selection: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?
doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0022%3Atext%3DBRUT.%3Abook%3D1%3Aletter%
Accessed April, 2017
Reform in the Roman Republic: The Lives of Tiberius and
Gaius Gracchus

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In this lesson, you read about how Roman power grew through four
main periods of expansion. In the end, Rome ruled over an empire that
lasted 500 years. Yet the costs of expansion were great. Below is a
biography of two men who lived during the beginning stages of Rome's
expansion. They both served in the Roman military, aiding Rome in its
conquests. They also served in politics, witnessing firsthand the effects
of those conquests on Rome's people. As you read, think about how
each man tried to help the people of Rome as they experienced the
results of conquest.

Tiberius Gracchus was born in 163 B.C.E. into a well-to-do plebeian
family. Growing up, he enjoyed a traditional Greek education, which
included the study of philosophy, mathematics, and the Greek
language. This gave him an open-minded view of the world. As a young
man in the Roman army, he distinguished himself during the last Punic
War in Carthage and later in Spain. During his service in the army,
Tiberius traveled throughout the Italian peninsula. He noted that many
of the people who worked the land were foreign slaves, because small
property owners had to serve in the army. When he returned to Rome,
he discovered many people in the city living in poverty. Tiberius felt

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that these two situations could lead to the end of the republic. To find
solutions to these problems, he decided to enter politics.
In 133 B.C.E. he was elected tribune. He immediately began to
campaign for land reform. He wanted to pass a law that would divide
huge estates belonging to the rich into smaller farms and distribute
them among the poor. Many small farm owners had been drafted to
fight in the Roman army. Some never returned to their farms. Those
who did discovered that the constant warfare had severely damaged
the Italian farmland. These small farmers lacked the money to repair
the damage. So, they were forced to sell their land to rich landlords.

These new larger farms owned by the rich were called latifundias. The
latifundias used slave labor, and the few remaining small farmers found
they could not produce crops as cheaply as the larger farms. Eventually
these small farmers also sold their property to the rich and moved to
the cities in search of work.
Tiberius's idea proved quite popular with the common people but was
strongly opposed by large landowners. Tiberius wanted to ensure the
passage of land reform laws. So, he announced that he would run for a
second term as tribune, an unusual action at the time. This enraged the
members of the Senate, and they organized a plot against him. His
enemies stirred up a mob of rioters who seized Tiberius and many of
his followers and killed them.
Tiberius's dreams of reform were left to his younger brother, Gaius.
Gaius Gracchus was born around 153 B.C.E. Like his older brother,
Gaius received a traditional Greek education and distinguished himself
in military service. Gaius was a flamboyant person and a passionate
and skilled speaker. After his brother was murdered in 133 B.C.E., he
took up his brother's cause of helping the poor. Committed to political
reform, he proved to be an even stronger opponent to the wealthy than
his brother had been.

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Gaius was elected tribune in 124 B.C.E. and was reelected the following
year. As tribune, he passed programs that benefited many groups in
Roman society. For example, he supported a measure that divided
state lands from conquests into smaller holdings and redistributed
them to the lower classes. Another law he passed created corn
allowances, or subsidies, for the poor living in the city. Under the law,
the government provided produce and money for food to guarantee
that these people would not starve. This reform was important to many
people in Rome. After the years of conquest, very few people could
afford to continue operating farms. Farmers who lost or sold their
property left the land and drifted toward the cities, particularly Rome.
Unemployment was high. Rome did not have many factories, and
slaves held most of the few available jobs.
Gaius developed programs that built better roads and harbors, thus
helping the business community. He also reformed the system for
taxing the provinces and administering the law. All of Gauis's reforms
weakened the power of the Senate. Although Gaius became popular
with many citizens, most senators hated and feared him. Therefore,
when Gaius ran for a third term as tribune in 121 B.C.E., the Senate
supported its own candidate. Gaius lost the election, and his enemies in
the Senate went after him. A mob of soldiers and citizens attacked
Gaius and his supporters, claiming they threatened the stability of the
republic. Recognizing that resistance was hopeless, Gaius ordered his

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personal slave to kill him.
Though both met tragic ends, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus introduced a
number of reforms that made a dramatic impact on the quality of life
for many people in Rome.

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IV. Daily Life in the Roman Empire

How did wealth affect daily life in the Roman Empire?
Introduction
Around 100 C.E., the Roman Empire was at the height of its power. “All
roads lead to Rome,” boasted the Romans. For thousands of miles, road
markers showed the distance from a location to Rome.
But more than roads connected the empire's 50 million people. They
were also connected by Roman law, Roman customs, and Roman
military might.
If Rome was the center of the empire, the Forum was the center of
Rome. The word forum means “gathering place.” The original Forum
was an open area used for merchants' stalls, and for viewing races,
games, and plays. Eventually, the Forum became a sprawling complex
of government buildings, meeting halls, temples, theaters, and
monuments. This place was the heart of life in Rome.
In this lesson, you will visit this bustling center of Rome's vast empire.
You'll learn about different areas of daily life in ancient Rome including
how the Romans ran their government and spent their spare time. You
will also find out where the Romans lived and how they practiced
religion.
By examining these aspects of ancient Roman culture, you will discover
how life drastically differed for the rich and the poor. Daily life in Rome
also varied greatly for men and women. As you explore the daily lives
of the Romans, note how similar or different they are to your daily life.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
Circus Maximus
Colosseum
Forum
paterfamilias
rule of law
1. Daily Life in Ancient Rome

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If you had visited Rome in the 1st century C.E., you would have
encountered a city of great contrasts. Nearly one million people resided
in the empire's capital city. Although Rome was full of beautiful
temples, stately palaces, and flowering gardens, most of its people
lived in tiny apartments crammed into narrow, dirty streets.
In the city's Forum, or public gathering place, wealthy Roman women
shopped for goods, accompanied by their slaves. Proud senators
strolled about, protected by their bodyguards, while soldiers marched
through the streets. Merchants and craftspeople labored at their trades,
while foreigners roamed the streets from such faraway places as
Britain, Spain, and Egypt. In the midst of it all were Rome's slaves—
hundreds of thousands of them, many of them captured in war.
People and goods flowed into Rome from the four corners of the empire
as well as from China and India. Wealthy Romans spent enormous
sums of money on silks, jeweled weapons, perfumes, and musical
instruments. They decorated their homes with statues, fountains, and
fine pottery.
However, the rich were only a small portion of Rome's population since
the majority of the city's people lived in filthy neighborhoods filled with
crime and disease. Their children were lucky to survive past age ten. To
keep the poor from turning into an angry, dangerous mob, Roman
emperors donated food and provided entertainment, such as gladiator
contests and chariot races.
The empire had many large cities, but most people lived in the
countryside where most of the people were also poor. Some worked
their own small farms, but others labored on huge estates owned by
the rich.

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2. Law and Order
The Romans always believed in the rule of law . In the days of the
republic, the Senate and the assemblies were important sources of law.
But in the empire, the ultimate source of law was the emperor. As one
Roman judge stated, “Whatever pleases the emperor is the law.”
Even in the empire, however, Romans honored some of their old
traditions. The Senate continued to meet, and senators had high status
in society. They developed their own styles of clothing, which may have
included special rings, pins, or togas (robes) trimmed with a wide
purple stripe. Important senators hired personal bodyguards who
carried fasces, bundles of sticks with an ax in the center. The fasces
were symbols of the government's right to punish lawbreakers. When
carried inside the city, the ax was removed, to symbolize the right of
Roman citizens to appeal a ruling against them.
Roman laws were strict but necessary since crime was common in
Rome. The most frequent crimes were stealing, assault, and murder.
Roman police protectively watched wealthy neighborhoods, but rarely
patrolled the poor sections of the city. In fact, some streets were so
dangerous that they were closed at night. To pay these officers, the
Roman government taxed its citizens.
Romans tried to protect themselves against crime. Rich men attempted
to hide their wealth by wearing old, dirty togas when they traveled at
night. Women and children in rich families were told never to go
outdoors alone, even during the day.

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Any Roman, including the poor, could accuse someone else of a crime.
A jury of citizens decided the case. Accused persons sometimes tried to
win the jury's sympathy by wearing rags or dirty clothes to court or by
having their wives and children sob in front of the jury.
Romans believed that one law should apply to all citizens. Still, under
the empire, Roman law was not applied equally. The poor, who were
often not citizens, faced harsher punishments than the rich, sometimes
even torture.

3. Religion
Religion was important to the Romans. As you may know, the Romans
adopted many Greek gods. They also adopted gods from other cultures
to create their own group of gods.
Romans wanted to please their gods because they believed that these
deities controlled their daily lives. At Rome's many temples and shrines,
people made offerings and promises to the gods. They often left gifts of
food, such as honey cakes and fruit. They also sacrificed animals,

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including bulls, sheep, and oxen.
When someone was sick or injured, Romans would leave a small
offering at a temple in the shape of the hurt part of the body. For
instance, they might leave a clay foot to remind the god which part of
the body to cure.
While festivals and holidays, or “holy days,” were held throughout the
year to honor the gods, religion was also a part of daily life. Each home
had an altar where the family worshipped its own household gods and
spirits. The family hearth, or fireplace, was sacred to the goddess Vesta.
Once a year, during the main meal, the family threw a small cake into
the fire as an offering to Vesta.
Eventually, the Romans came to honor their emperors as gods. One
emperor, Caligula (kah-LIG-yoo-lah), had a temple constructed to house
a statue of himself made of gold. Every day, the statue was dressed in
the type of clothes that Caligula was wearing that day.
As the empire grew, foreigners brought new forms of worship to Rome.
The Romans welcomed most of these new religions, as long as they
didn't encourage disloyalty to the emperor.

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4. Family Life
Family life in Rome was ruled by the paterfamilias (pah-ter-fah-MEE-
lee-us), or “father of the family.” A Roman father's word was law in his
own home. Even his grown sons and daughters had to obey him.
Roman men were expected to provide for the family. In richer families,
husbands often held well-paid political positions. In poor families, both
husbands and wives needed to work in order to feed and care for
themselves and their children.
Wealthy Roman women ran their households. They bought and trained
the family's slaves. Many had money of their own and were active in
business. They bought and sold property.
Roman babies were usually born at home. The Romans kept only
strong, healthy babies. If the father didn't approve of a newborn, it was
left outside to die or to be claimed as a slave. Romans found it strange
that other people, such as the Egyptians, raised all their children.

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Babies were named in a special ceremony when they were nine days

old. A good-luck charm called a bulla (BOO-lah) was placed around the
baby's neck and worn throughout their childhood.
Between the ages of 14 and 18, a Roman boy celebrated becoming a
man. In a special ceremony, he offered his bulla, along with his
childhood toys and clothes, to the gods.
Roman girls did not have a ceremony to mark the end of childhood.
They became adults when they were married, usually between the ages
of 12 and 18.
Weddings were held at a temple. The bride wore a white toga with a
long veil. The groom also wore a white toga, along with leather shoes
that he had shined with animal fat. However, the new husband did not
become a paterfamilias until his own father died.

5. Food and Drink
What Romans cooked and ate depended on whether they were rich or
poor since only the rich could afford kitchens in their homes. The poor
cooked on small grills and depended on “fast-food” places called
thermopolia (therm-op-oh-LEE-ah), where people could purchase hot

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and cold foods that were ready to eat. Even the rich often bought their
daytime meals at thermopolia because the service was fast and
convenient.
The main foods in ancient Rome were bread, beans, spices, a few
vegetables, cheeses, and meats. Favorite drinks included plain water
and hot water with herbs and honey.
For breakfast, Romans usually enjoyed a piece of bread and a bowl of
beans or porridge, an oatmeal-like cereal made from grains like barley
or wheat. Lunch might include a small bit of cheese and bread, and
perhaps some olives or celery.
For dinner, poor Romans might have chunks of fish along with some
asparagus and a fig for dessert. Wealthy Romans consumed more
elaborate dinners. Besides the main part of the meal, they had special
appetizers. Some favorites were mice cooked in honey, roasted parrots
stuffed with dates, salted jellyfish, and snails dipped in milk.
Roman markets offered a variety of choices to those who could afford
them. Wealthy Roman women or their slaves shopped for the perfect
foods for fancy dinner parties. Merchants often kept playful monkeys or
colorful birds on display to attract customers. Shelves were packed with
fruits, live rabbits, chickens, geese, baskets of snails, and cuts of meat.

Large clay jars were filled with a salty fish sauce, called garum, that the
Romans liked to pour over the main dish at dinner.

6. Housing
Similar to food, housing in Rome differed greatly for the rich and for the

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poor. The spacious, airy homes of the rich stood side by side with the
small, dark apartments that housed the poor.
Wealthy Romans lived in grand houses, built of stone and marble. Thick
walls shut out the noise and dirt of the urban city.

Inside the front door was a hall called an atrium where the family
received guests. An indoor pool helped to keep the atrium cool, and an
opening in the roof allowed for plenty of light.
Beyond the atrium, there were many rooms for the family and guests.
The fanciest room was the dining room because its walls were covered
in pictures, both painted murals and mosaics made of tiles. Mosaics
also decorated the floors, while graceful statues stood in the corners.
Some dining rooms had beautiful fountains in the center to provide
guests with cool water.
During dinner parties, guests lay on couches and ate delicious meals
prepared by slaves. While they feasted, they listened to slaves play
music on flutes and stringed instruments, such as the lyre and the lute.
Nearby, many of the poor crowded into tall apartment buildings. Others
lived in small apartments above the shops where they worked. Without
proper kitchens, the poor cooked their meals on small portable grills,
which filled the rooms with smoke.
The apartments were cramped, noisy, and dirty. Filth and disease-
carrying rats caused sickness to spread rapidly. Fire was another
danger since many of the buildings were made of wood, and the
cooking grills caught fire easily. In 64 C.E., a disastrous fire broke out
that burned down much of the city.

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7. Education

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If you had grown up in ancient Rome, your education would have
depended on the type of family you were born into. Many poor children
in Rome were sent to work instead of to school in order to learn trades,
such as leatherworking and metalworking, to earn money for their
families.
In wealthier families, boys and girls were tutored by their fathers, or
often by slaves, until they were about six years old. Then boys went off
to school. Classes were held in public buildings and private homes.
Many of the tutors were educated Greek slaves.
A typical school day in Rome began very early in the morning. Students
walked through crowded streets, carrying their supplies in a leather
shoulder bag. On the way, they stopped at local breakfast bars where
they purchased beans, nuts, and freshly baked bread to munch on
while they walked to class.
Once at school, students sat on small stools around the tutor and used
a pointed pen, called a stylus, to copy down lessons on small, wax-
covered wooden boards. When the lesson was over, they rubbed out the
writing with the flat end of the stylus so they could use the board again.
The school day lasted until two or three o'clock in the afternoon.
Roman boys learned Latin, Greek, math, science, literature, music, and
public speaking. They typically became soldiers, doctors, politicians, or
lawyers. Girls might become dentists, real estate agents, or tutors,
while some female slaves or freedwomen could become midwives
(nurses who helped with childbirth).
Upper-class boys remained in school until age 12 or 13. Boys from very
wealthy families often continued their studies until they were 16, when
they began to manage their own properties.

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8. Recreation
There were many forms of recreation in Rome. Wealthy Romans had a
lot of leisure, because slaves completed the work. The rich enjoyed
plays in theaters and musical performances in one another's homes.
Both rich and poor often relaxed at Rome's public baths where they
could bathe, swim, exercise, and enjoy a steam bath or a massage. The
baths also had gardens, libraries, shops, and art galleries.
Roman emperors made sure to provide the poor with “bread and
circuses”—food and entertainment—to keep them occupied and happy.
Besides the numerous festivals throughout the year, rich and poor alike
flocked to two spectacles: gladiator contests and chariot races.
Romans watched gladiators fight in large public arenas, like the
Colosseum. Both men and women were gladiators. Usually, they were
slaves or prisoners of war, although some won or bought their freedom
eventually. The crowd shouted as the gladiators fought each other and
wild animals to the death. Many thousands of gladiators died bloody
and painful deaths for the entertainment of the spectators.
A favorite gathering place was the Circus Maximus, a huge racetrack
capable of accommodating 200,000 spectators. There, Romans
watched thrilling chariot races. Wealthy citizens rested on plush
cushions close to the track, with shades protecting them from the sun.
The poor sat on wooden benches high above the track.
Men and women sat in separate sections at the Colosseum, but could

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sit together at the Circus Maximus. A Roman poet said the Circus
Maximus was the best place to meet a new boyfriend or girlfriend
because you never knew who would sit next to you.

9. Country Life
Rome was one of many cities scattered throughout the Roman Empire.
But 90 percent of the empire's people lived in the country where the
rich and poor also led very different lives.
Wealthy Romans often owned country estates with large homes, called
villas. A villa was a place for Romans to invest their money in raising
crops and livestock. And it was a pleasant place to relax in the
summer's heat.
When they went to the country, wealthy estate owners checked up on
how their farms were being managed. But they had plenty of time left
over for reading and writing, as well as for hunting, picnicking, and
taking long walks in the fresh air.

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The empire's farms provided much of the food for Rome and other
cities. They produced grain for bread, grapes for wine, and olives for
oil. Goats and sheep provided cheese, and their skins and wool were
made into clothing. Cattle and pigs were raised for their meat. Farmers
also kept bees for making honey, the sweetener used by the Romans.
Slaves did much of the actual work of farming. Overseers, or
supervisors, closely watched the slaves and often treated them cruelly.
Many people in the countryside were not slaves, but their lives were still
difficult. They lived in huts and worked their own small farms, trying to
earn enough to survive. Or, they labored on the estates, tending the
animals, helping with the crops, or working as servants. In the 1st
century C.E., Paul of Tarsus, a Christian writer, summed up the lives of
the empire's poor when he wrote, “He who does not work shall not eat.”

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you learned about daily life for the rich and the
poor in the Roman Empire. Rome was a large, thriving capital

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city.
Daily Life in Ancient Rome Nearly one million people lived in the city
of Rome. The Forum was its center. The empire had many large cities,
but most people lived in the country.
Law and Order Romans believed in the rule of law. Laws were strict,
but crime was common. Any Roman could accuse someone else of a
crime, but a jury decided the case.
Religion Religion was part of daily life. Romans made offerings to the
gods. Festivals and holy days were held throughout the year. Each
home had an altar for household gods and spirits. The Romans also
honored their emperors as gods.
Family Life Each family was ruled by the paterfamilias. At nine days
old, a baby was given a bulla, which he or she wore throughout
childhood. Between 14 and 18, a boy became a man. Girls became
adults when they were married, between 12 and 18.
Food, Drink, and Housing Only the rich had kitchens. The poor
cooked on small grills or bought “fast food.” The main foods were
bread, beans, spices, vegetables, cheeses, meats, and garum. Drinks
included plain water and hot water with herbs and honey. The rich
resided in large houses, constructed around a central atrium. The poor
crowded into apartment buildings.
Education and Recreation Many poor children in Rome learned
trades, instead of attending school. Wealthier boys and girls were
tutored by their fathers or by slaves until they were about 6. Then boys
went to school. Roman boys learned Latin, Greek, math, science,
literature, music, and public speaking. Upper-class boys remained in
school until age 12 or 13. The rich enjoyed plays and musical
performances. Both rich and poor often relaxed at Rome's public baths.
Besides celebrating many festivals, rich and poor alike enjoyed viewing
gladiator contests and chariot races.
Country Life Ninety percent of the empire's people lived in the
country. The wealthy often owned villas. Farms provided much of the
food for the cities. Slaves did much of the farm work. Many country
people were not slaves, but their lives were challenging. They lived in
huts and worked their own small farms or on the great estates.

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Investigating Primary Sources
Were Gladiators Heroes?
As spectators cheered, ancient gladiators battled one another
and ferocious animals, often until someone suffered a brutal
death. Who were these men and women who fought so
violently for entertainment? You are going to analyze the
details of four primary sources about gladiators. Then you will
make an argument to support your opinion about whether or
not gladiators were heroes.
The first gladiator fights were held at funeral services. Most likely,
people believed that the deceased person would be protected in the
afterlife by the defeated gladiator of a contest. Eventually, the thrill of
watching a gladiator contest became so popular that thousands of fans
poured into stadiums, such as the Colosseum, to watch these violent
matches where gladiators frequently fought to their deaths.
Who became a gladiator in ancient Rome? Most gladiators were slaves
or prisoners who did not fight out of choice. However, sometimes
people who lost their jobs volunteered to become gladiators in hopes of
earning fame and money. Owning gladiators and entering them in
contests was considered a legal business. But to be in charge of a
gladiator-training school was considered a disgraceful occupation.
The bas relief, or carved stone with raised figures, shown here depicts a
gladiator contest held at a Roman stadium. This artifact dates back to
between the 1st and 3rd centuries C.E. Identify the gladiator and
describe the armor, weapons, and what the gladiator is fighting. What

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do you think the person on the right is doing? What do you think the
figures in the upper left corner represent? What does this bas relief
reveal about gladiators?
In a gruesome way, gladiators fascinated Romans from all walks of life
—rich and poor, young and old. Many of them sat among the
bloodthirsty crowds as gladiators faced other gladiators and sometimes
ferocious lions, tigers, and bears.
Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote about gladiators in the 1st century B.C.E.
He was one of the most famous Roman orators (speakers) of all time.
As a lawyer, political leader, scholar, and writer, he combined
philosophy, humor, argument, and emotion to comment and persuade

on issues of the time. This text is from a book called On Bearing Pain,
which is part of a series of books collectively entitled Tusculan
Disputations. In his writing, Cicero talks about the importance of
controlling destructive emotions and maintaining a virtuous will. This
excerpt, which is taken from a section about the importance of
endurance, highlights some of the strengths of the gladiators.
After you read the excerpt from Cicero's Tusculan Disputations, answer
the following questions: How does Cicero portray gladiators in this text?
What qualities of gladiators does he mention? According to this source,
why would gladiators be willing to die to make their masters happy?
Why would Cicero describe gladiators this way? Do you think his
opinion is trustworthy? Do you see any similarities to this portrayal of
gladiators and the way modern athletes are portrayed?

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However, not everyone enjoyed the blood and gore of the gladiator
games. Here is a letter written by Lucius Annaeus Seneca who lived
from 4 B.C.E. to 65 C.E. Seneca was one of Rome's most respected
philosophers and statesmen. As a writer, he authored numerous works,
including philosophical essays, tragic plays, and letters about moral
problems. Seneca was known for his interesting beliefs on morality in
various aspects of Roman daily life such as marriage and slavery.

In this letter from the work Moral Letters to Lucilius, Seneca is
describing to his friend, Lucilius, his time as a spectator in the gladiator
arena and how the crowd responded while the gladiators were thrown
into violent, and often deadly, competitions. Based on information in
Seneca's letters, some scholars believe Lucilius was a natural science
writer who lived on and governed the island of Sicily in the
Mediterranean Sea.
According to this letter, what happened to gladiators at the morning
and midday games? How does Seneca portray the gladiators? Do you
think Seneca is a reliable source? How is Seneca's description similar to
and different from Cicero's observation? Why might these two men
have different opinions of the gladiators? After reading this letter, do
you think that gladiators were heroes? Why or why not?
While Seneca attended the gladiator games, he may have witnessed
the heart-stopping final moments of a fight. As one gladiator defeated
another, the wounded athlete might have asked to be saved from the
final death-blow. As the crowd cheered, they knew it was not the
victor's decision to let the opponent live or die. Rather, there was a

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referee, called an editor, who made the decision. Emperors, senators,
and politicians often served as editors in the arena.
To please the cheering fans, the editors looked up to the spectators.
Some historians believe that spectators raised their thumbs up to
indicate that they wanted the gladiator to live, or thumbs down if they
wanted the gladiator put to death. Other historians report that a
thumbs up pointing toward the heart meant that a spectator wanted
the gladiator killed.
From 264 B.C.E. to 423 C.E., these competitions were so popular that
artists put gladiator images on everyday objects. This clay oil lamp
from 3rd-century Rome is one example.
Look at the image on this artifact, and notice how one gladiator is
kneeling in a plea for mercy. At whom might the gladiator on the left be
looking? Why might images of gladiators be placed on common objects
such as this lamp? What does this suggest about the significance of
gladiators in ancient Rome?
Consider the four primary sources about gladiator
competitions. Which are most trustworthy in giving an honest
portrayal of gladiators in ancient Rome? Make an argument
about whether or not ancient Roman gladiators were heroes.
Support your argument with evidence from the primary
sources.

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Roman Citizenship
Just like people in our country today, people in ancient Rome were
proud to be citizens. Citizens have a sense of belonging to a country.
(In the case of Rome, they belonged to an enormous empire.)
Citizenship gives people a voice in their government. Citizens also have
responsibilities. How was citizenship in the Roman Empire similar to and
different from citizenship in the United States today?
Citizenship was a unique concept for ancient civilizations. The Roman
Republic was one of the first to allow everyday people, outside of the
wealthy elite, to participate in lawmaking. Roman citizens elected
representatives to speak for them as laws were made. But citizenship in
the Roman Empire meant different things for different people.

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Wealthy Romans

What did citizenship mean to the patricians, or wealthy Romans?
Wealthy people in ancient Rome had large homes, fancy possessions,
and good educations. They also had the ability to help build a better
society.
Members of the small wealthy class of Roman citizens came from a long
line of elite families. These people had the best chances of winning
respect, power, and maybe a seat in the Roman Senate. It was
important for them to keep this respect, especially as the empire grew.
They needed to remind the public of their accomplishments, by
bragging or other means. Perhaps that is why wealthy citizens
contributed their personal assets to improve city life. Many wealthy
citizens helped fund buildings, statues, and events for the public.
Think about ways that this is similar to and different from the United
States today. Research to find specific examples of how wealthy U.S.
citizens have contributed their time, money, or efforts to improve the
United States, or the world.

Common People

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The common people, or plebeians, made up 95 percent of the Roman
population. Their numbers grew as the Roman Empire expanded. Even
in the days of the republic, this group of people had little voice in the
government. They could not hold a government office, but they were
responsible for serving in the army.
As Rome conquered other lands and the population of plebeians grew,
they fought to gain more rights and power to make laws. But this did
not last. By 14 C.E., Rome had conquered surrounding lands, and it had
millions more citizens. To control such a vast empire, the Romans
changed their form of government from republic to empire. As an
empire, a single emperor made the rules but also delivered peace after
a long period of civil war. Did the Romans give up freedom for order
and peace?
Compare this to the United States today. We live in a democratic
republic, which means that we elect people to represent us in
government. Because all U.S. citizens have the right to vote, it is critical
that all citizens, not only wealthy people, are educated. Education helps
people understand issues that are important to themselves and to
society. Education allows people to participate in government, evaluate

leaders running for office, and hold leaders accountable. It also helps all
people have a chance to improve their lives and to use their talents and
learning to better society.

Women

Women could be citizens in the patrician and plebeian classes;
however, they did not have all the rights of men. Like earlier societies,
the father, or oldest male in the family set the rules. Women could not
attend certain public gatherings or be elected to government jobs.
However, unlike more repressive places, Roman women could make
wills, sue for divorce, walk in public places, and hold certain religious
offices. Also, women in wealthy families could influence public decisions
by voicing their opinions among male relatives.

Slaves

As Rome conquered new lands, it acquired hundreds of thousands of
prisoners. These prisoners became slaves who worked in Rome's cities
and on farms in the countryside. They typically had no rights and were
often treated badly. Farms and industry may not have grown so
prosperous without the hard labor of slaves.
Some slaves eventually bought their freedom and became Roman

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citizens. These foreign-born citizens were not allowed all the rights of
citizens who lived in Rome. For example, only those who lived in Rome
could vote. How might this growing number of foreign-born citizens
affect the ability to govern the empire?

Roman Mithraism
Beginning in the 19th century, archaeologists found a number of sites
across the territory of the Roman Empire. Many included artwork
showing a figure in the act of killing a bull. The sites date from about
100–400 C.E. and were meeting places for the Roman cult of Mithras.
They were typically caves, and even those that were not actually caves
were called caves by the people who used them. The lack of references
to the mysteries of Mithras, as the cult was called, make it challenging
to understand it. We do know that it involved an initiation, a special
entrance ceremony to become a member of the group. We know that
there were seven levels of membership as well as a ritual, during which
a bull was killed and a feast was shared by cult members.
In trying to interpret the artwork, a 19th-century scholar suggested that
they derived from the Persian god Mithra and ancient Persian forms of
worship. He tried to show links between all the elements of Roman
worship of Mithras and the Persian cult of Mithra. But the people who
practiced the mysteries were not Persians. They were Europeans,
members of the Roman empire's military and bureaucracy, as well as
former slaves. And their practices were not closely connected to
religious practices of the Persians, either Zoroastrian or other practices.
This theory is now dismissed by a majority of scholars.
Today, there is no widely accepted theory that explains how elements
of Persian religion were transmitted to the Roman Empire. Moreover,
there is no widely accepted theory about how the Romans invented the
cult. Scholars today do agree that the cult was connected to the
heavens and the zodiac, but they do not agree on the meaning of the
connections.

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V. The Legacy of Rome in the Modern World

To what extent does ancient Rome influence us today?
Introduction
In the year 1764, long after the Roman Empire collapsed, a young
Englishman named Edward Gibbon visited the city of Rome. Gibbon saw
the ruins of ancient buildings, such as the Roman Colosseum. He
marveled at Roman statues and the remains of aqueducts and bridges
and wondered, “How did such a great empire come to an end?”
Gibbon decided to write a book about the Roman Empire. More than 20
years later, Gibbon finally laid down his pen, after filling six books. He
called this collection of works The History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire . It became a very important work of history and was
noted for its unique style and perspective.
Why did Gibbon spend so many years learning and writing about
ancient Rome? One reason is that Rome has had an enormous influence
on western civilization. As one historian stated, “Rome perished, yet it
lived on.” In this lesson, you will discover the set of problems that
collectively deteriorated the powerful Roman Empire.
At the height of its power, Rome made numerous contributions to
society. As you read on, you will learn how Rome's influence survives in
areas such as modern art, architecture, engineering, language,
philosophy, and law. Many of these contributions still continue to shape
the modern world and can be found in many aspects of daily life.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary
aqueduct
Byzantine Empire
Latin
natural law
patron
Renaissance
Stoicism
triumphal arch

1. The End of the Empire in the West
At the height of Rome's power in the 100s C.E., Romans believed that
the empire would last forever. However, by the year 500, the western
half had collapsed. What happened to cause the fall of one of the
mightiest empires the world has ever known?
Problems in the Late Empire Most modern historians believe that a
number of problems combined to bring about Rome's fall. Three of the
main reasons were political instability, economic and social issues, and
weakening frontiers.
Political Instability Rome never solved the problem of how to
peacefully transfer political power to a new leader. When the emperor
died, rivals might fight each other to replace him. Real control fell into
the hands of the armies, who could choose to help leaders seize power
—or destroy them. Regularly, rivals grew impatient waiting for an
emperor to die and resorted to murder.
Economic and Social Issues Political instability led to other
challenges. To finance Rome's huge armies, citizens were required to

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pay heavy taxes that hurt the economy, drove many people into
poverty, and negatively affected trade.
Weakening Frontiers The huge size of the empire made it difficult to
defend. By the 300s, Germanic tribes were pressing hard from the west
as the threat of the Persians was growing in the east. Many of these
people settled inside the empire and were recruited into the army.
However, these soldiers often had little loyalty to Rome.

The Fall of Rome In 330 C.E., the emperor Constantine took a step
that changed the future of Rome. He moved his capital 850 miles to the
east to the ancient city of Byzantium (bih-ZAN-tee-uhm), in what is now
Turkey. He renamed the city New Rome, which was later called
Constantinople. Today, it is known as Istanbul.
Before Constantine, emperors had attempted to share power over the
vast empire between co-rulers. After Constantine's reign, power was
usually divided between two emperors, one based in Rome and one in
Constantinople. Rome became the capital of just the western part of
the empire.
In 410 C.E., a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths attacked and looted
the city. Finally, in 476, the last emperor in the west, Romulus
Augustus, lost his throne to a Germanic leader, Odoacer (OH-duh-way-
sir). Then, the western half of the empire dissolved into separate
kingdoms ruled by different tribes.
In the east, the empire continued for another 1,000 years. Today, we

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call this eastern empire the Byzantine Empire, after Byzantium, the
original name of its capital city. The Byzantines wove the Roman
heritage into their own rich civilization. But, they were never able to
restore the old empire. For historians, the collapse of Rome marks the
end of the ancient world.
Regardless, the influence of Rome lived on. Let's look now at how
Rome's legacy continues to affect our lives today.

2. Art
The Romans adopted aspects of other cultures by modifying and
blending them with their own. This was true of Roman art. The Romans
were especially influenced by the art of the Greeks, which inspired
historians to coin the term “Greco-Roman” art.
The Romans were skilled in creating realistic statues. They imitated
Greek sculpture but were particularly good at making their sculptures
true to life.
The homes of wealthy Romans were decorated with colorful murals and
mosaics. Again, the Romans took existing art forms and made them
their own. They painted beautiful frescoes, a type of mural, created on
moist plaster with water-based paints.

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Roman frescoes often illustrated three-dimensional landscapes and
other scenes. Looking at one of these frescoes was almost like looking
through the wall at a scene outside. You have probably seen similar
murals in modern restaurants, banks, on the sides of buildings, and in
other public places.
Romans were also great patrons, or sponsors, of art. They paid
thousands of painters, sculptors, and craftspeople to create their works.
As a result, the Romans left behind many examples to inspire future
generations.

A thousand years after the fall of the empire, Roman art was
rediscovered during the period called the Renaissance. Renowned
artists, such as Michelangelo, revived the Greco-Roman style in their
paintings and sculptures.
A famous Roman example is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which
shows scenes from the Bible painted by Michelangelo in the 1500s. A
Roman would feel right at home viewing this amazing creation.
Roman art has continued to influence painters and sculptors. Roman
styles were especially popular during the early days of the United
States when Americans imitated these styles to give their art dignity
and nobility. For example, many statues in the capital, Washington,
D.C., reflect a strong Roman influence.

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The Romans also brought a sense of style and luxury to everyday
objects like the highly decorative bottles of blown glass they made. For
example, a bottle might be shaped like a cluster of grapes. Romans
also developed the arts of gem cutting and metalworking. One popular
art form was the cameo, a raised and carved portrait of a person's head
or a carved scene. The Romans wore cameos as jewelry and used them
to decorate vases and other objects. Examples of all these art forms
still exist today.

3. Architecture and Engineering
The Romans' greatest contributions to science and technology came in
the fields of architecture and engineering. Roman builders learned from
the Greeks, Etruscans, and others before adding their own genius to
take construction in new directions.
Architecture The Romans learned how to use the arch, the vault, and
the dome. A vault is an arch used to support a roof. A dome is a series
of vaults that form a high, rounded roof.

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The Romans were the first to make widespread use of concrete, which
they made by mixing broken stone with sand, cement, and water and
then allowing the mixture to harden. With the use of concrete, they
were able to construct much bigger arches than anyone had previously
attempted. Roman baths and other public buildings often had great
arched vaults. The Pantheon, a magnificent temple, now a church that
still stands in Rome, is famous for its huge dome.
The Romans also invented a new kind of building, a stadium. This was a
large, open-air structure. The Romans used concrete to build tunnels
into the famous Colosseum in Rome. The tunnels helped spectators to
easily reach their seats, a feature that modern stadiums still use.

The grand style of Roman buildings has inspired many architects
throughout the centuries. One Roman innovation that was widely
copied is the triumphal arch, a huge monument built to celebrate
great victories or achievements. One modern example is the Arc de
Triomphe (Arch of Triumph) in Paris, France, which celebrates the
victories of the French emperor Napoleon in the early 1800s. Today, it
is the national war memorial of France.
You can see a Roman influence in the design of many modern
churches, banks, and government buildings. A fine example is the
Capitol building, the home of the U.S. Congress in Washington, D.C.,
which includes arches, columns, and a dome.
Engineering The Romans revolutionized engineering as well as
architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads, bridges, and
aqueducts in the ancient world.

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About 50,000 miles of road connected Rome with the frontiers of the
empire. The Romans built their roads with layers of stone, sand, and
gravel. Their techniques set the standard of road construction for 2,000
years. In some parts of Europe, vehicles still drive on freeways built
over old Roman roads.
The Romans also set a new standard for developing aqueducts.
Although they did not invent the aqueduct, the Romans once again
learned the technique and improved upon it. They created a system of
aqueducts for Rome. The aqueducts brought water from about 60 miles
away to the homes of the wealthiest citizens, as well as to the city's
public baths and fountains. The Romans built aqueducts in other parts
of the empire, as well. The water system in Segovia, Spain, still uses
part of an ancient Roman aqueduct. Remains of Roman aqueducts can
also be seen in Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor.

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4. Language
One legacy of Rome that affects modern society every day is the
Roman language, Latin. English speakers use the Latin alphabet,
although Roman Latin used 23 letters, and English uses 26. Many
English words come from Latin. Additionally, Latin proverbs are still in
use. For example, look at the reverse side of a U.S. dime. You will see
the words E pluribus unum, which translates from Latin to “out of many,
one.” This is the official motto of the United States. The motto reminds
Americans of how the colonies joined together to form the United
States.
Several modern European languages developed from Latin, including
Italian, Spanish, and French. English is a Germanic language, but it was
strongly influenced by the French-speaking Normans, who conquered
England in 1066 C.E. English has borrowed heavily from Latin, both
directly and by way of French.
The influence of Latin can be seen in many words English speakers use
today. For example, the modern calendar comes from the one adopted

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by Julius Caesar. The names of several months are derived from Latin.

Augus honors Caesar Augustus. September comes from Latin words
meaning “the seventh month.” (The Roman year started in March.)
Many English words begin with Latin prefixes. A prefix is a set of letters
at the beginning of a word that carries its own meaning. Attaching a
prefix to a root word creates a new word with a new meaning. In fact,
the word prefix is formed this way because it comes from pre- (“in front
of”) and -fix (“to fasten” or “to attach”). The table called The Roman
Legacy in Modern Words and Numerals illustrates other examples, as
well as other English words that come from Latin root words. For
instance, manual developed from manus, the Latin word for “hand.”
Finally, Roman numerals are often still used in the modern world. The
Romans used a system of letters to write numbers. Look at the bottom
section of the table. You may see Roman numerals, such as these, on
clocks, sundials, and the first pages of books, like this one. You might
also find Roman numerals on buildings and in some movie credits to
indicate the year in which they were made.
The Romans combined the seven letters shown in the table to express
larger numbers. Putting letters after another adds the value of the
additional letters. For example, VIII means 5 + 3 = 8 and XX means 10
+ 10 = 20. Putting a letter before a letter with a greater value subtracts
its value. For example, IV means 5 – 1 = 4 and IX means 10 – 1 = 9.

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5. Philosophy and Law
Like art and architecture, Roman philosophy and law were greatly
influenced by the Greeks. However, the Romans made contributions of
their own that they passed on to future generations.
Philosophy Many Romans followed a philosophy known as Stoicism
(STOH-ih-sism). First developed by the ancient Greeks, this system of
thinking was adopted by the ancient Romans and followed until about
200 C.E.
Stoics believed that a divine intelligence ruled all of nature and that a
person's soul was a spark of this divine intelligence. These individuals
believed that the right way to live was in a way that agrees with nature
and its laws.
To the Stoics, the key to life was to maintain a good character, which
meant having virtues such as self-control and courage. Stoics
disagreed with those who argued that happiness meant only avoiding
pain and only experiencing pleasure. They highly prized duty and the
welfare of the community over their personal comfort. Additionally, they

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