South Hill’s Natural Area - Ithaca College

South Hill’s Natural Area

an in-depth look at the land

First Edition ITHACA COLLEGE NATURAL LANDS

To be used as an informational guide for
South Hill Natural Area and Nature Trail

PHOTO: CARTER RAINES

Authors:
Andreava Kasianchuk
Communication Management and Design & Environmental Studies ‘11

Jason Hamilton
Ithaca College: Associate Professor of Environmental Studies & Sciences
Co-Chair and Faculty Manager of Ithaca College Natural Lands

Contributors:

Pauline Layton
A long time neighbor to Ithaca, New York’s South Hill

Kevin Gill
Environmental Studies, Artist ‘12

Brittany Longhetano
Environmental Studies, Artist ‘15

Many Thanks To:

Gigi Marks
Ithaca College: Writing Professor

Jacquelyn Simone
Journalism and Politics ‘11

Introduction: Informational Guide

This book is an expanded version of Ithaca College Natural Land’s self-guided nature trail
brochure—a brochure that was created to be used while walking Ithaca College’s nature
trail. The following book provides and in-depth look at the species, historic patterns and
biological communities on South Hill. This book will reference the features of Ithaca,
N.Y.,’s South Hill and nearby areas where a specific species can be seen, but the material
is not exclusive to someone visiting this region.

This book addresses categories specific to this area (see below) and provides background
information on a species’ “history,” “web of life,” “products and uses,” “habits” and
identification traits (“description”) where applicable. This book is not just a resource for
naturalists, but can also be a guide for curious readers or nature enthusiasts.

Natural Land Categories:

•Shrubland Community
•Utility Poles
•Deer Enclosure
•Human Activity
•Invasive Species
•Ecotone/Forest Edge
•Multiple Trunk Trees
•Ferns
•Rare Species
•Pine Plantation
•Tracking Box
•Healthy Forest Community
•Pitch Pine Heath Barrens
•Snag Habitat
•Pileated Woodpecker Holes
•Edible Species



Introduction: Icons
Icons

Edible Invasive Endangered

Poisonous Important To Native Medicinal
Cultures

DRAWINGS: KEVIN GILL

Icons will be used throughout the book to indicate the following information about a species
or biological feature: endangered, native, edible, poisonous, important to native cultures,
medicinal, invasive (see table for icons).

NOTE: Please be cautious when considering whether or not to eat a plant that is indicated as
edible. You must consider the five “rights:”

(1)Are you positive you have the RIGHT PLANT?
(2)Are you eating the RIGHT PART?
(3)Are you harvesting at the RIGHT TIME?
(4)Have you done the RIGHT PREPARATION?
(5)If it is rare, is it RIGHT TO EAT IT?



Introduction: South Hill

To most people, there is the belief that Ithaca College’s campus ends at the edge of the buildings, but it does
not stop here. In fact it extends 356 acres, creating a “natural campus.” Not only does this area consist of a trail
system, but also unique, natural, invasive, and state listed endangered species. In addition this area is known
for a number of rare ecological communities, one of which is designated as a Unique Natural Area. While
exploring South Hill Natural Land, it is also not uncommon to spot an abundant mix of wildlife species, such as
red tailed hawks perched on the utility poles or deer scampering and creating their own trails.
Some students do make use of this living laboratory, so don’t’ be surprised if you run into a class or even a
jogger or two. The South Hill Natural Area has multiple uses. This area includes two recreational trails [blue
and gold], which provide a variety of terrain for athletes, who use the paths for training and practice. Many
classes use this area for rich experiential learning opportunities, such as the Biology Department’s initiative to
plant and reintroduces chestnut trees to South Hill. Students take to walking the trails in the warmer months
as well. If you are intrigued by astrology, Ithaca College’s Observatory is also located on this site and is opened
to students and the community.
In addition to utilizing the area for recreational and educational purposes, the rare plant communities offer
attractive opportunities for research. The South Hill Swamp on this site was selected as a Unique Natural Area
by Tompkins County.

Red = ICNL Self-Guided Nature Trail
Blue = Blue Trail

Yellow = Yellow Trail
Black = West Entrance & North Entrance Trail



Introduction: History

For a better understanding of South Hill, it is always best to talk with someone who is familiar with this
fascinating area. Pauline Layton, a local who was born and raised on Ithaca, N.Y.,’s South Hill, explained in an
interview how her own background history connects to the unique features and species present on South Hill
today.

Pauline’s vivid memory, curiosity of the land, interest in local history and love for recreational walking relates
to her vast knowledge about this area. Pauline can recall Ithaca’s cold winters during her childhood, including
the harsh winds from the lake that would cause large snowdrifts. Before she was born, when the area was less
developed, people who lived on the hill would commute to Danby for goods, as it was not easy for a horse
and buggy to go up and down South Hill to the city of Ithaca. It wasn’t until the late 1960s when South Hill had
access to Ithaca City water and when Ithaca College became well established in this area and other houses
were built nearby. In addition, traffic increased in the 1980s when the railroad tracks near the base of the hill
were removed and the road was widened.

Prior to the construction of Ithaca College, Pauline recalled a forest of shorter trees that allowed her to still
see a view of the lake. This forest is known as a post-agricultural forest—forest that grows back on abandoned,
clear-cut land. As Pauline later explained, South Hill was clear-cut during the 17th century for farming
purposes. Stonewalls were built to contain sheep during the 1830s and 1840s for the production of sheep
wool. The soil on South Hill was not right for growing crops, and it was easier to keep land for grazing instead
of plowing. Farmers used this area for cattle, on which they relied for meat, milk and leather production. After
the Civil War, barbwire was invented to contain these livestock. Remnants of barbwire can still be found on
South Hill today. Wealthy cattle farmers built older homes that still exist on the lower parts of South Hill today.

Farmers would plant oak and shagbark hickory trees to provide shade for the cattle, and they would align
these trees with the stone fences. At the peak of WWII, there were many cattle, but after the war, the cattle
seemed to decline and the forest began to grow in. Clear-cut trees began to grow back, and the trees planted
by farmers grew taller. Some farmers continued to rent out their land, but South Hill was becoming developed.
An airstrip existed on what is now Ithaca College’s Circle Apartments, and the college later relocated from
their downtown location to South Hill. Developments continued, such as Ithaca College’s soccer and baseball
practice fields, which were originally marshes with maple trees. The natural areas that remained consisted of
post-agricultural forests with unique features, such as the perched swamp white oak swamp.

Today, a nature trail exists where students, locals and visitors can walk to learn about the area’s natural
features. We hope this booklet serves as a guide for your own exploration and understanding of South Hill.



Shrubland Community

The ecological community under the power lines is known as a shrubland. In New
York, most shrublands are transitional areas forming after disturbance (e.g. fire or
wind storms). Plants common here include many wildflowers, low woody shrubs such
as blueberries, and edible & medicinal herbs such as yarrow & goldenrod. There are
also many invasive shrubs such as shrub honeysuckle and multiflora rose. Habitats
like this are important for many songbirds and mammals. The golden-winged warbler,
for example - a small yellow and black songbird - may soon be listed as a threatened
species in New York state.

Tall Goldenrod

Solidago altissima

HISTORY

There are anywhere from 60-125 species (depending on how you count) of goldenrod
native to North America. The goldenrod is an iconic wild flower of this area with at least
six species native to South Hill. At the same time, it is considered to be an invasive
species in parts of Europe and Asia. Blooming between July and September, many
people blame their late-summer allergies on goldenrod, but the showy yellow flowers
of this plant are insect-pollinated, and therefore the pollen does not blow around. The
goldenrods are taking the blame for the wind-pollinated common ragweed (Ambrosia
artemisiifolia). Ragweed has inconspicuous yellow-green flowers that most people don’t
even notice.

WEB OF LIFE
The tall goldenrod requires

bright sunlight and survives in

moist to dry soil. It is known to

thrive in dry prairies, thickets

and openings in both floodplain

and upland forests. It can also

persist in abandoned farmlands,

infrequently grazed pastures,

waste areas and tall grass prairies.

Additionally, it sometimes grows PHOTO: JENIFFER DARRELL
along roadsides and fence lines and

in dry open fields, open woods and

damp meadows.

A variety of insect species visit the flowers for pollen or nectar, such as long-tongued
bees, short-tongued bees, wasps, flies, beetles and various butterflies and moths.
Caterpillars and moths feed on many parts of the foliage. Additional insects that feed
on the goldenrod include the black blister beetle, goldenrod scarlet plant bug, tarnished
plant bug and other leaf beetles and leafhoppers. Prairie chicken, eastern goldfinch and
swamp sparrow birds eat the seeds, while the white-tailed deer and eastern cottontail
rabbit occasionally eat the foliage.

Post #1 The tall goldenrod is known for its galls, round swelling in the stems. At the center of
these galls is the larva of the fall fly (Eurosta solidaginis). Galls usually are formed when
certain parasitic insect species lay eggs on or in plant tissue. The insect’s larvae hatch
and begin to feed on the host plant. Biochemical interactions between the plant and
the developing insect lead to formation of the gall. Galls come in a wide variety of sizes
and shapes depending on the specific plant/insect pair. Often you will find galls on tall
goldenrod that have been torn open by woodpeckers looking to snack on a tasty morsel.

PRODUCTS & USES

Some people view the goldenrod as an aesthetically pleasing late-flowering part of
their home gardens, but to others, this species is seen as a weed. Beekeepers rely on
the Canadian goldenrod as a source of nectar for their bees, and they consider it an
important wildflower that allows the bees to survive through the winter. Goldenrod is
also used as a companion plant in many gardens since it is beneficial for some insects
and can repel pests. A tea can be made from the goldenrod’s flowers to treat diarrhea,
body pain and fevers. The yellow flowers can also be used to dye fabrics.

DESCRIPTION

The tall goldenrod looks like a furry, yellow,
tall shrub from a distance, with its curved,
tenticle-like flowered stems. Up close,
this plant contains short stems of yellow
branches at the top and longer branches as
you move down.

Height: 2-6’
Leaves: Alternating, 4-6” long and 1”

wide, broad, linear, lined with
small teeth, becoming shorter
toward top of the shrub
Flower: Each head is less than ¼” across

Exotic Honeysuckles

Marrow’s Honeysuckle: Lonicera morrowii

HISTORY

A variety of non-native shrubby honeysuckles have been introduced to North America.
These upright deciduous shrubs are widespread in the upper Midwest and in pockets
of the Northeast. Exotic honeysuckles are native to Asia and Eastern Europe and were
introduced to the United States in 1752 as ornamentals. These species are known for
their rapid growth, reaching 20 feet tall.

WEB OF LIFE

These species thrive in sunny, upland
sites, which include forest edges,
roadsides, pastures and abandoned
fields. Exotic honeysuckles are also
found in fends and bogs, and on
lakeshores. These honeysuckles are
relatively shade-intolerant.

Some birds eat the fruit of exotic
honeysuckles and are known to disperse
seeds over great distances.

Post #1 & #7 Exotic honeysuckles are invasive, often
inhibiting the growth of native shrubs
and ground layer species. Open woods
are particularly vulnerable to these
species if the area has been disturbed.
Their vigorous growth can lead to
reduced food and cover for wildlife.
Researchers believe that nests placed
in these non-native shrubs are more
vulnerable to predators, compared to
nests placed in native species.

Honeysuckles can be manually removed Marrow’s Honeysuckle Shrub
by hand-pulling the plants or using a
leverage tool, depending on the size PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK
of the shrub. This is easy in the spring
when the soil is moist. Pulled plants or
cut stems of honeysuckles will reroot
if the plants are in contact with the
soil. Plants should be placed in piles
for burning and easier monitoring. For
control of these species, this method
must be repeated for three to five years

to deplete the seedbank

PRODUCTS & USES

Some parts of exotic honeysuckles are edible, while others are poisonous. The flowers
of the honeysuckle are never poisonous. Children typically like to suck nectar out of
the flowers, which is a perfectly safe thing to do. Honeysuckles are also frequently
used for landscaping.

DESCRIPTION

Distinguishing features of exotic
honeysuckles vary from species to species.
These plants share some common traits:

Height: 9-18’
Leaves: Opposite on stem, oval, short.

Produce leaves one to two weeks
before native trees and shrubs in
the spring, and hold their leaves
later in the fall.
Flowers: Abundant, pink to purplish
red, or white fading to yellow
with age. Tubular, in pairs
protruding from the leaf axis,
bloom in May and June, fragrant.
Fruit: Abundant, red or orange paired

berries, ripen in the early
summer.
Stems: Multiple, several branches,
arching and sometimes
developing roots where they
touch the ground.
Bark: Gray or tan, shaggy. Older
branches are hollow.

Leaves, Stems & Fruit of the
Marrow’s Honeysuckle

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

Golden-winged Warbler

Vermivora chrysoptera

HISTORY

The golden-winged warbler, an endangered
species, breeds from Canada to northern
New York, southern Vermont, eastern
Massachusetts, west to Minnesota and south
to Iowa, New Jersey, South Carolina, Tennessee
and Georgia. It is migratory and winters in
southern Central America and neighboring
regions, such as Colombia, Venezuela and
Ecuador.

The golden-winged warbler is known to
hybridize with the blue-winged warbler, which
has led to Brewster’s and Lawrence’s warblers.
The difference between these two types of warbler is their plumage. The Brewster’s warbler
looks like a blue-winged warbler with a white chest, and the Lawrence’s warbler looks like an
all-yellow, golden-winged warbler. Hybrids do not sing a song that is reflective of both birds’
singing, but instead they sing either normal blue-winged warbler or golden-winged warbler
songs. Some birds sing both, and occasionally a pure warbler parent will sing the “wrong
song.”

Despite increasing its abundance and spreading into New England in the last century, the
golden-winged warbler is a near-threatened species and is on the federal list of species of
special concern. Declines are related to loss of shrub habitats because of succession and
reforestation, as well as to the expansion of the blue-winged warbler. Loss of winter habitats
in Central and South America may be related to its decline as well.

WEB OF LIFE

The golden-winged warbler breeds in patchy shrubland and forest edges like shrubby fields,
swamp forests, marshes and bogs. In addition, the golden-winged warbler also prefers
abandoned farms and clear-cuts for breeding. In the winter, the golden-winged warbler lives
in the canopy of tropical forests. It feeds on larvae, small bugs, spiders, ants, beetles and
caterpillars, such as the gypsy moth caterpillar.

Post #1

HABITS

The golden-winged warbler has two types of songs. One of the songs consists of a high-pitch buzzy
phrase followed by one to six short buzzy phrases.This song is particularly used to attract males. The
second song is characterized by three to five low buzzy phrases ending with a higher buzzy phrase,
and it is used to defend the bird’s territory against other males. Their song sounds like the phrase
“zee bee bee bee.”

The golden-winged warbler usually arrives in the United States in early May. The males claim their
territory, which ranges from one to five acres, and they sing to attract mates and defend their
territory from other species. Males tend to return to the same site year after year. After pairing takes
place, the females build bulky nests near the ground, using grasses, leaves, vine tendrils and other
fine material. These nests are also supported by bushes and goldenrod stems. From mid-May to mid-
June, one egg is laid each day, and the female will incubate the egg for 10 to 11 days. Both parents
care and feed the chicks. The parents tend to care for the chicks for several weeks even though the
chicks can leave the nest after 10 days. The chicks acquire their winter plumage within one month
and reach full maturity after one year.

When foraging for food, the golden-winged warbler often searches in the upper half of trees and
shrubs, and it often hangs upside-down while peering around branches for insects.

Golden-winged warblers migrate in late August and early September and have a life expectancy of
two to three years.

DESCRIPTION

Small bird with a yellow forehead, slender short
bill, black mask and throat, white streaks across
sides of the face, grayish-white underparts,
yellow part on the wings, dark legs and white
outer tail feathers. The female golden-winged
warbler has the same feathers but a slightly duller
shade.

Length: 5”
Weight: 0.3-0.4 ounces
Clutch size: Three to six eggs

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL



Utility Poles

The utility poles are favored perches for red-tailed hawks as they scan the ground for
their next meal. Standing dead trees called “snags” serve this function in undeveloped
areas. In this field you can also spot wild carrot, a flowering plant with a root that can
be eaten when young. Wild carrot has clusters of very small white flowers that form
the top of the plant. It is also called Queen Anne’s lace or bird’s nest.

Red-Tailed Hawk

Buteo jamaicensis

HISTORY

The red-tailed hawk is present throughout North America, from central Alaska and Canada
south to Panama. The red-tailed hawk is known for its raspy scream, which is often recorded
and used as a bird sound for a variety of birds in films. The oldest known red-tailed hawk was
28 years and 10 months old. Red-tailed hawks tend to survive 10 to 15 years in the wild and
20 to 23 years in captivity.

WEB OF LIFE

Red-tailed hawks are typically found in open areas, such as fields, pastures and swamps. They
are also commonly seen along fields or perched on telephone poles, fence posts or trees
standing alone or at the edges of fields. The trees they tend to perch on typically belong to
deciduous and coniferous forests. They tend to put their nests in the crowns of tall trees
where they can have a view of the entire landscape. They are known to nest on cliff ledges
and on artificial structures, such as window ledges. Both the male and the female construct
the nest or improve the nest they used the previous year. Nests consist of piles of dry sticks up
to six and half feet high and three feet across. The interior of the nest is lined with bark strips,
fresh foliage, leaves and dry vegetation. This nest construction can take four to seven days.
More broadly, their habitats include deserts, scrubland, grassland, roadsides, pastures, parks
and broken woodland areas.

The red-tailed hawk’s diet depends on the region, and they typically feed on voles, shrews,
moles, mice, squirrels, chipmunks and cottontail rabbits. Their prey also consists of red-
winged blackbirds, pheasants, starlings, snakes, carrion and various insects. Individual prey
can weigh anywhere from less than an ounce to more than five pounds. Small mammals are
usually swallowed whole.

PHOTO: MICHAEL ROGERS HABITS

Post #2 Red-tailed hawks are typically seen soaring over
open fields and are known to be aggressive
when defending nests or territories. Their raspy
scream sounds like kee-eeeee-arr. It lasts two to
three seconds and is usually given while soaring.
During courtship, red-tailed hawks make a shrill
chwirk, sometimes giving several of these calls
in a row. Red-tailed hawks breed during the late
winter and early spring. These birds are known
for their unique mating habits, which take place
while soaring in the air. The males put on a
display first by flying in circles at great heights
and then diving steeply and shooting up again
at an angel that is nearly as steep. After several
swoops, he soars above the female, extends
his legs and touches her briefly. Sometimes the
pair grabs onto one another, clasps talons and
plummets in spirals toward the ground before
pulling away.

DESCRIPTION

The red-tailed hawk is large and very broad, with rounded wings and a short tail.
It can often be mistaken for an eagle. The feathers on its back are brown, and the
feathers below are streaked white and brown. Underneath its wings, a dark bar
exists between its shoulder and wrist. The tail is pale below and a brownish red
on top. Colors of feathers can vary between age groups and among color morphs.
Length: 17-22”
Wingspan: 44-53”
Weight: 24-46 ounces
Young Hatch: After 28 to 35 days
Incubation period: 28 to 35 days
Nestling period: 42 to 46 days
Clutch Size: One to five eggs

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

Wild Carrot
Daucus carota

HISTORY
The wild carrot, also known as Queen Anne’s lace, bird’s nest,

and bee’s nest, is the ancestor of the domestic carrot. The great

lace maker, Queen Anne, was wife of King James I of Great

Britain. Many people at the time believe that the wild carrot’s

flowers resembled a white lace or doily. At the center of the

“lace” is a tiny purplish-red flower. The folklore suggests Queen

Anne pricked her finger while making her lace, and a small drop

of blood fell onto it, resembling the wild carrot’s flowers. The

wild carrot is native to regions of Europe and southwest Asia and

is naturalized across the United States and most of Canada. and it is known Wild Carrot
Settlers brought seeds into the country for Victorian gardens DtoRAsWprIeNaGd: KEVIN GILL
and medicinal uses. People sometimes refer to this as a weed,

quickly.

In ancient times, the wild carrot was valued for its medicinal uses. Ancient folklore views
the wild carrot as a cure to epileptic seizures by ingesting the dark-colored middle flower.
In the past, it was used as diuretic to prevent and eliminate kidney stones and to rid
individuals of worms. Its seeds were also used as a contraceptive. It has also been used
as a remedy for hangovers.

Wild carrot is sometimes confused with poison hemlock, one of the most toxic plants in
North America. So be careful! See below to distinguish the difference between these
two species.

Flowers Fruits Seed “Birds Nest”

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK WEB OF LIFE
The wild carrot thrives in the sun and is usually found on
Poison Hemlock
agricultural sites, such as hayfields, pastures, meadows,
DRAWING: KEVIN GILL
roadsides, railroad rights-of-way, waste places and even in

urban sidewalk cracks. Since the wild carrot is a biennial

species, its abundance may fluctuate and peak on a site

after a few years. It is also known to compete with other

Post #2 perennial plants and grasses. The wild carrot grows in

almost any soil type, from heavy clay to sand or gravel. It can

survive best in moderate levels of soil moisture and is absent

from wet and very dry sites.

The wild carrot has some benefits for other animals.
Caterpillars of the eastern black swallowtail butterfly eat
the leaves, and bees and other insects drink the nectar. The
ruffed grouse and ring-necked pheasant are known to eat
the plant’s seeds. The pine mouse eats the plant’s seeds and
roots.

PRODUCTS & USES

Two parts of the wild carrot are a source of vegetables: the taproot and the shoot. The
taproot is the parsnip-like carrot, and the shoots have a carrot like-flavor, but they are
much sweeter and more tender than the root. The shoots can be consumed both raw
and cooked.

The wild carrot is an aromatic herb, which can function as a diuretic—it can soothe
the digestive tract and stimulate the uterus. In addition, the wild carrot can support
the liver and help to eliminate kidney waste. Wild carrot leaves are infused into
treatments for patients with digestive, kidney and bladder issues. The root is used as a
remedy for threadworms, and a warm water infusion of the flowers can be used in the
treatment of diabetes.

DESCRIPTION

This biennial edible species blooms from mid-summer to early autumn. This
carrot is white, which means it contains very little carotene—the orange coloring
associated with conventional carrot species. See the section Wild Carrot vs. Poison
Hemlock to learn to recognize wild carrot’s distinctive features.
Root: Thin, woody, cream-colored core, resembles small parsnips.
Leaves: 5-10,” arranged alternatively on the stem with thick, short, erect hair,
lay flat on bare soil or grow erect if competing plants grow near.
Stalk: 3.5-6,’ light green and rounded in cross sections by the second year,
branches near the top.
Flowers: Tiny, white, five-petaled flowers tightly packed together to form a
flower head 2.5-5’ across, sometimes a single dark purple flower
exists at the center of the cluster of flowers.

Don’t kill yourself!:
Wild Carrot Vs. Poison Hemlock

The wild carrot resembles the poison hemlock*, and this confusion has led to deadly
mistakes. It is important to distinguish between the two species to limit harm. The
following table provides distinct features to differentiate between the two plants.
ALL OF THESE NEED TO BE TRUE TO DETERMINE WHAT IS A WILD CARROT AND
WHAT IS POISON HEMLOCK.

*Poison Hemlock has no relation to the Eastern Hemlock Tree



Deer Exclosure

The fence you see is a deer exclosure, installed in 2001 with a research grant from the
Environmental Protection Agency. Students and faculty use this exclosure to study the
effects of deer browsing on forest regrowth. Deer are capable of consuming all new
tree seedlings in an area. The fenced-in area protects baby trees from the deer, as
evidenced by the small white pine and oaks that are thriving inside the exclosure, but
not outside. Dealing with the effects of deer damage is a major component of land
management today.

Post #3, #10 & #22 Eastern White Pine

Pinus strobus

HISTORY

The eastern white pine is also known as sapling, pumpkin or Weymouth pine, and it is the state
tree of Maine. This tree is found throughout New England (except Cape Cod and Nantucket,
Mass.) and is more generally present from Minnesota, east to Maine and heading south through
the Appalachian Mountains into Georgia. This long-lived and fast-growing tree was known as a
sacred species; it was influential in both American Indian and colonial lifestyles. Haudenosaunee
Indians view this tree as a symbol of peace because its five needles represent the five conflicting
nations that came together to form the Iroquois Confederacy. The united tribes created a
powerful force until the European colonizers settled in the 18th century.

Early settlers found pure stands of the eastern white pine when they first arrived and were
amazed by the size of these trees, often extending beyond 150 feet. This tree was an important
resource, particularly because of its use for ship masts. In 1605, Captain George Weymouth
traveled up the Maine River, cut down some eastern white pine trees, gathered seeds and
brought these materials back to England. The king was amazed by the 100 to 200 foot masts and
wanted more timber, but the eastern white pine was not adaptable to the English climate, so he
demanded more supply from New England. The Royal Navy claimed white pines by blazing the
trunks with the king’s Broad Arrow. This created tension between the British and the colonists,
who sought to use this resource for trading and developing their own lumber contracts.
New Englanders had established the first mill in 1623 in York, Maine, to serve the needs of
the colonies. Virgin white pines stands no longer existed in the 1900s except in the southern
Appalachians.

The eastern white pine was also pictured on one of the first flags of the American Revolution,
and legend has it that a 240-foot eastern white pine with a circumference of 40 feet once stood
on the present site of Dartmouth College in Hanover, N.H.

WEB OF LIFE

The eastern white pine grows on a variety of sites, from dry, sandy soils and rocky ridges to bogs.
This tree occurs in pure stands, but is usually associated with eastern hemlock, northern red oak
and other oaks, red maple, hickories, aspens, red pine and red spruce. Vegetation in white pine
stands varies because it is present in many cover types.

This tree offers a nesting site and a source of food for many birds, such as early nesting robins
and mourning doves, whose first nests are made before hardwoods leaf out. Woodpeckers use
decayed parts of white pines for nest and roost holes. Red squirrels and birds, such as crossbills
and pine siskins, eat the seeds of the tree. Cottontail rabbits and snowshoe hares occasionally
eat the bark of young trees, and porcupines eat the bark as well, potentially causing damage to
the tree.

The eastern white pine comes in contact with several insect pests and diseases. The most
common and serious insect that white pine is subject to is the white pine weevil (Pissodes
strobi). The white pine weevil attacks the trunk of the tree, specifically the leading growth tip,
but does not kill the tree. Instead, this attack can slow down the tree’s growth by two to three
years. If the terminal shoot is attacked several times, it will die, and lateral branches from the
highest whorl turn upward so that one becomes the new leader. Dying eastern white pines
resemble bushes. The white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) affects young trees and can
cause the tree to die if the disease travels from an infected branch into the trunk.

PRODUCTS & USES

Historically, the eastern white pine has been one of the most valuable trees of the Northeast.

In the past, the Algonquin Indian tribe was known to chew on the bark of the eastern white
pine or use it for tea, which is rich in vitamin C. It was also one of their essential ingredients
for cough remedies.

In colonial times, it is also important to note that one of the major uses of the white pine was
in the figureheads of sailing ships. These were carved from pumpkin wood, the smoothest
and softest part of the white pine, which is usually found in very old trees. This type of wood
could be carved easily in any direction. This tree was used for construction, millwork, trim
and pulpwood. More specifically, in colonial times, its better grades of wood were used for
paneling, doors and floors in elegant colonial interiors,
and it was also used for furniture, bobsleds, matches,
shingles, furniture and covered bridges, such as the
bridge over the Charles River connecting Boston to
Cambridge.

This light and soft wood (24 pounds per air-dried cubic

foot) is strong for its weight, and its variety of uses

makes it probably the most versatile wood in the United

States. Today, its uses are mainly associated with framing

lumber, interior finish, furniture and window frames. In

the past, its lumber was also used for fleets, railroads

and cities, and it was valuable resource for trade. For

more than 300 hundred years, the white pine was the

greatest timber-producing tree in North America. Entire

cities were constructed with the use of the white pine, The Cone & Needles of an East-
and before 1805, more than half a million homes were ern White Pine
constructed between Maine and Florida with the use
of the white pine. Today, the white pine is planted as an DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

ornament and for creating healthy forest communities, and

it is commonly used as a Christmas tree.

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing features of the eastern white pine include its broad

and irregular evergreen branches protruding out of the central trunk.
These branches include needles in clusters of five—the only five-
needle pine native to eastern North America.

Height: 75-100,’ formerly 150’
Diameter: 3-4’ or more
Needles: Evergreen, 2 ½ -5” long, five in a bundle, slender, blue

green.
Bark: Gray, smooth, grayish-green when young, becoming deeply

furrowed into narrow, scaly ridges with age.
Twigs: Twigs transition from slender, green and coated with matted

hairs, to becoming smooth and light brown, to finally
becoming thin, smooth and green.
Cones: Immature appearing in late May to early June, oval,
yellowish-green. Mature cones are 4-8” long, narrowly
cylindrical, yellow-brown, long-stalked, cone-scales thin,
rounded and flat.

White-Tailed Deer

Odocoileus virginianus

HISTORY

The white-tailed deer’s genus name Odocoileus is from the Greek words odous, meaning
tooth, and koilos, meaning hollow; this refers to the hollow teeth of the deer. The white-
tailed deer can be found in southern Canada and most of the United States, except for the
southwest, Alaska and Hawaii.

The American Indians viewed the white-tailed deer as an “animal helper,” as opposed to the
dark-tailed deer, which meant “danger.” When the Cherokee traveled during harsh winter
weather, they would rub their feet in warm ashes and sing a song to obtain powers from
animals whose feet do not get frostbitten. One of these animals was the deer.

American Indians and colonists harvested deer for food and clothing. Deer hide clothing
included leggings, shawls, dresses, breechcloths, moccasins, sashes, shirts, robes, skirts,
headwear and mittens. Commercial trade in deer hides eventually developed in the 1700s, and
the best buckskins were sent to England, leaving the colonists with the poorest hides. People
also used the deer’s muscles and tendons to make thread and string. Its bones were used to
make needles, awls, hoes, digging sticks, hide scrapers, fishhooks, arrowheads, clubs, arrow
straighteners, corn scrappers, cutting tools and decorative beads. Hooves were used to make
glue and rattles. The deer’s fur was used for the interior of moccasins and for embroidery.

Today, deer and people are living closer to each other because of human development and
increased deer populations. This can cause problems for both deer and humans. This close
proximity leads to a lack of food resources for deer and the tendency for deer to eat food from
gardens. Deer often have to cross the road to get to food and water, which can cause sudden
car accidents. People are also prone to sicknesses, such as Lyme Disease, from the deer tick.

Post #3 & #24 WEB OF LIFE

The white-tailed deer live in a variety of habitats but thrive best in

agricultural or wooded areas. In some areas, like Tompkins County,
N.Y., deer overpopulation is an issue. Gray wolves and mountain
lions used to keep this population under control as the white-tailed
deer’s predators, but because of hunting and human development,
the wolf and mountain lion populations have greatly decreased.
Other natural predators include bobcats or coyotes, but there are
not enough of these to balance the deer population. Often, there
are not enough resources for deer to survive, and they are left
starving or hungry. Hunters help control deer populations in rural
areas, but this is not possible in urban areas where hunting is often
banned.

Deer Trail

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

White-tailed deer are herbivores, and they browse—eat the leaves, stems and buds of wood
plants. Deer also eat flowers and weeds during the spring and summer. Fruits and nuts are a
dietary staple as well. Grasses are also consumed but are a less substantial part of the deer’s
diet. On average, a deer eats 2 to 4 percent of its body weight each day. Deer chew their food
like cows do—softening its food within the first stomach and regurgitating the cud, and chewing
it again, also known as ruminating. The deer have four stomach compartments to carry out this
process.

Deer are also prone to disease and parasites like lice, mites and roundworms, which can weaken
or kill them. Young and old deer tend to get sick and die in the winter. The winter is a dangerous
time of year for the deer, as they struggle to move their pointed hooves through the snow and
ice. These conditions make it easy for predators like dogs to catch them.

HABITS

Deer are most active in the early morning and evening. The deer’s home range is usually less
than one square mile. White-tailed deer breed between October and January, and fawns are
born in May or June. It is not uncommon for female deer (does) to give birth to twins. Fawns
usually weigh seven to eight pounds at birth. After birth, the mother will keep her fawn well-
hidden for hours while she feeds. If she happens to have more than one fawn, she will hide them
in separate places. Female fawns typically stay with their mother for two years, while males
usually leave after a year.

The doe and fawns usually stay in a group, unless the doe does not have fawns. In this case,
female deer are solitary when roaming. Male bucks are usually in groups of three to four deer,
except in mating season, when they are solitary.

If the white-tailed deer is alarmed or upset, it may stomp its hooves and snort to warn other
deer. Other signals include raising its tail and showing its white underside. The mother might also
show the underside of her tail while running to help her fawns follow. White-tailed deer are fast
runners and can reach speeds of up to 30 miles per hour. They are also known for leaping high
and for their ability to swim.

DESCRIPTION

The white-tailed deer is known for its tan or brown coat in the summer and grayish-
brown coat in the winter. Its other distinguishing features include the white fur on its
throat, around its eyes and nose, on its stomach and on the underside of its tail. Males
are recognized by their antlers, but only in the late spring to mid-winter.

Weight: Males weigh between 150 and 300 pounds, and females weigh
between 90 and 200 pounds.
Coat: Rust-colored with white spots at birth, spotted coat is shed in three to four

months and is replaced by a grayish-brown coat for the fall and winter.
Summer coats are reddish-brown. Tail, chin, belly and throat are always white.
Antlers: Grow on males from April to August and are covered by a “velvet” layer

while growing. This layer is shed before the fall, just in time for breeding
season. Deer antlers are shed in mid-winter and grow in the following
spring. Antler size varies depending on the nutrition, age and genetics of the
deer.
Hooves: Even-toe split hooves

Red Oak

Quercus Rubra

HISTORY

The red oak is also known as the northern red oak, mountain red oak and gray oak, and it is
native to America. It ranges from western Ontario to Cape Breton Island, south to Georgia,
west to eastern Oklahoma, and north to Minnesota. Red oak is also a provincial tree of Prince
Edward Island. This tree is known to grow rapidly, more than any of the other oaks, and is
long-lived.

This tree was first cultivated in 1724 and is now a popular ornamental shade tree in eastern
North American and parts of Europe. This is a valuable timber tree as well, and it is one of the
most important oaks for this purpose—others include black oak, scarlet oak and pin oak.

WEB OF LIFE

The red oak is tolerant of many soils but prefers glacial drift

and the well-drained borders of streams. This tree is the
most shade-tolerant among all oaks and is usually found
with sugar maple, beech, yellow birch, red maple, white
ash, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock and northern
white cedar.

This tree not only reproduces from acorns; it also grows

from stump spouts.

The nuts of this oak in particular are bitter-tasting and

therefore not a primary source of food for squirrels and

other animals, but some squirrels and deer eat the nuts.

Birds that consume the nut for food include the bobwhite,

red-headed woodpecker, red-bellied woodpecker, red-

necked pheasant, wild turkey, blue jay, tufted titmouse,

grackle, ruffed grouse and many others. The bitter taste of

the nut leaves plenty of leftover acorns for germination. Old

red oaks develop cavities that offer habitats for squirrels,

raccoons and other mammals.

Red Oak Leaf

Diseases and pests known to be destructive to the tree include Summer 8/11/11

oak wilt, shoestring root rot, anthracnose, leaf blister, powdery PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

Post #3 mildews and eastern gall rust. The oak bark beetles, carpenter worm, Columbian bark beetle,

oak timber worm, red oak borer and two lined chestnut borer eat at the inside of the red oak,

while the gypsy moth, oakleaf caterpillar and orange-striped oakworm attack the foliage of

the tree. The acorns are often damaged by nut weevils.

PRODUCTS & USES

The American Indians cherished the acorn. The red oak’s fruits

were not as sweet as the white oak’s, but the American Indians
were resourceful and would make use of this tree’s acorns as well;
they would process the nut and grind it into flour. In addition, the
abundance of acorns led to balanocultures—societies in which the
collection, storage, preparation and consumption of acorns as a
foodstuff played a large role—before agriculture existed.

The wood of this tree was once considered inferior to the white oak,

but it is now commercially valuable and used for furniture, general

construction, interior finish, railroad ties and mine props. The red Red Oak’s Fruit
oak is also high-quality firewood. In addition, this tree is highly

sought after for growing shitake mushrooms. The red oak often

lines urban streets, as it is tolerant of road salts and is also an ornamental tree.

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing features of the red oak include leaves

with seven to nine pointed lobes, with each lobe wider than
the base and each tooth of a lobe ending in a bristle. The
leaf indents are more V-shaped than U-shaped. The bark
has long ridges and shallow fissures, and the inner bark is
pinkish-red. Its fruit matures during its second season, as
opposed to the white oak’s fruits that mature after one
season.

Height: 70-90’
Diameter: 2-4’
Leaves: 4-9” and 3-6” wide, with seven to 11 pointed

lobes. Leaves are thin, smooth and firm, with a
dull green top and a pale green bottom with
little hairs in the vein axils. New leaves
emerging in the spring are pink or red. Autumn-
colored leaves are red, and the leaves of mature
trees are brown.
Bark: Dark gray.
Twigs: Wide with light colored pores, smooth greenish-
brown and eventually becoming dark reddish-
brown.
Flowers: Bloom between May and June, with both male
catkins and female flowers on short, smooth
stalks, bright yellow-green.
Fruit: Acorns mature in autumn of the second season
singly or in pairs, stalkless, cup shallow, enclosing
the base of the nut, with tight, glossy, bright red-
brown scales. The nut is ¾-1” long with a broad
base and ½ - ¾” in diameter, red-brown.



Human Activity

Embedded in this tree is wire fencing and near the base of the tree is evidence of an
old rock wall. These relicts reveal something of the history of South Hill. Before this
land was owned by I. C., it was used as farmland and pastureland by the settlers in the
area. As time went on, rock walls were eventually replaced with barbed wire fences,
evidence we see today of those who were here before us.

Post #4 Human Activity

In order to survive, humans have transformed forests. Forests are characterized by change
and are strongly related to human activity. It is important to look at history to understand
the health and state of forests in the past and now. The following descriptions outline the
condition of Eastern United State forests during different eras to provide this understanding.

Pre-Settlement Forest: 1700 A.D.
Natural variation existed in pre-settled forests, and natural and human disturbances allowed
for differentiation in age, density, size and species of trees over a wide range of sites.

Factors controlling the pattern and dynamics of the landscape included:

Natural disturbances
•Hurricanes
•Other windstorms
•Ice storms
•Pathogens (insects and disease)
•Fires (ignited by lightning strikes)

Variation in soils and water availability
•Sandy, drought-ridden soils, moist soils, shallow soils with bedrock outcrops
•Flooding triggered by beavers
•Annual fluctuations in the water table

Human activity
•Clearings for American Indian villages and fields
•American Indian burning of forests to improve hunting

Settlers Clear Land for Homestead: 1740 A.D.
European settlement occurred during the late 18th century, which led to forest-clearing,
hunting and trapping. These choices affected surrounding species, and the wilderness was
transformed into a domesticated rural landscape.

Peak Forest Clearing and Agriculture: 1830 A.D.
The majority of New England’s deforestation and agricultural activity occurred between 1830-
80. New England’s landscape was transformed by massive deforestation for pasture, tillage,
orchards and buildings. 60 to 80 percent of the land was cleared at this time. The areas where
trees remained were often a source of wood for lumber and fuel.

In the early 1800s, New Englanders would build zig-zag split-rail fencing to enclose and keep
livestock in or out of open landscapes, but as forests declined and pastureland expanded, this
type fencing was replaced by stonewalls, better known as stone fences. By 1840, the bulk of
agricultural land was used for sheep pastures, which were enclosed by stone fences. Most
stone fences were built between 1810-40. Colonists then shifted to using barbed wire to
contain animals during the 1870s.

Farm Abandonment: 1850 A.D.
As of 1850, farming declined in New England, and abandoned pastures and fields developed

into forests. Many of these forests were dominated by white pines.

“Old Field” White Pine Forests on Abandoned Farmland: 1910 A.D.
“Old field” stands of white pine existed on abandoned farmland. As they reached middle
age, these trees were recognized as a valuable source of lumber. This led to the development
of portable sawmills across New England. The white pine was commonly used for “box
boards”—shipping containers.

White Pine Forests Become More Diverse: 1915 A.D.
As a valued source of lumber, the “old field” white pine was clear-cut, and mixed hardwoods
joined the white pine stands. The white pine was unable to sprout after being cut, in contrast
to the rapidly growing hardwood species. These patterns of succession enhanced the
diversity of forest types, which offered many habitat sites for wildlife.

Vigorous Hardwood Growth: 1930 A.D.
Fast-growing species, such as red oak, red maple, white ash, birches and black cherry,
replaced the “old field” white pines and began to outgrow other tree species.

Modern Forest Landscapes
Forests have continued to mature and extend across populated areas of the northeastern
United States. Forests grow, mature and become more diverse as dead and decaying species
cover the forest floor. In addition, more long-lived and shade-tolerant species increase as
early succeeding species decline.

Despite this growth and movement back to the pre-settlement forest, the history of human
activity and land use persists with the distribution of species and abrupt transitions between
forest types. Some stonewalls and barbed wire that remain in post-agricultural forests
remind us of the past and how our land has transformed.

Barbed Wire Threaded Through Tree Old Rock Wall

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK Phases are driectly from Harvard Forest Diorama
Slides. See “Human Activity” in References



Invasive Species

Several plants that are abundant in the South Hill Natural Area are introduced species
that are invasive and potentially ecologically dangerous. Invasive species or “invasive
exotics” are plants & animals that did not originate in the region and that drive out
native species. Invasive species can change habitat and resources and often must be
managed so that they don’t adversely effect native species.

Post #7 Multiflora Rose

Rosa multiflora

HISTORY

The multiflora rose is native to Asia, specifically Japan, Korea and eastern China. Today, this
invasive species infests 45 million acres nationally and can be found in most parts of the
Northeastern and Midwestern United States.

This plant entered the United States in 1886 as rootstock for cultivated ornamental roses. In
the 1930s, the U.S. Soil Conservation Service encouraged the use of multiflora rose to lessen
soil erosion. It was most commonly used as a “living fence” for homeowners and to enclose
livestock for farmers. Many seeds were distributed to farmers throughout the East and
Midwest. Up until the 1960s, wildlife managers used this plant for food and cover for wildlife.
Its uncontrollable growth eventually disturbed cattle grazing and was finally recognized as a
problem.

WEB OF LIFE

The multiflora rose prefers partial sun and moist conditions. It can survive in a wide range of
soil conditions but thrives in well-drained soils. This plant can be found in old fields, thickets,
weedy meadows near rivers, pastures, fence rows, roadsides and forests.

Long-tongued honeybees, bumblebees, miner bees and anthophorid bees are attracted to the
pollen of the flower of the multiflora rose. In addition, short-tongued halictid bees, syrphid
flies, bee flies and beetles are also attracted to the pollen of the flower. The rose hips, the
fruit of the multiflora rose, are an important food source for the greater prairie chicken and a
minor source of food for the bobwhite quail and ring-necked pheasant. The white-tailed deer
eats the twigs and foliage of the multiflora rose, while the cottontail rabbit eats the lower
stems and leaves. Gamebirds and small mammals that eat the fruit of the multiflora rose
distribute its seeds. The dense foliage and stems of the multiflora rose also provide adequate
cover and a nesting habitat for songbirds.

The multiflora rose is a problem because it interferes with the growth of other woody species
and can replace native vegetation in the forest. This plant can inhibit regeneration of trees
and the growth of native trees, shrubs and ground layer species by monopolizing light,
moisture and nutrients. This plant threatens native grassland and open woodland habitat.
Multiflora rose also alters habitat structures, such as the nests of birds. Cattle farmers can face
economic loss if this invasive species attacks their land because multiflora rose can diminish
pasture forage.

The growth of this plant is slowed when larger trees break through thickets of multirose and
shade it. In addition, if the plants are monitored regularly, young seedlings can be pulled by
hand as a way to control this invasive species. Small plants can be dug out, while larger plants
may require a tractor and chains to remove it. Repeated mowing for two to four years can
be effective as well. Irradiation is extremely difficult, and many plant managers to resort to
chemicals.

PRODUCTS & USES

The fruit of multiflora rose can be eaten and preserved. The fruit is rich in carotene
and vitamin C. It is important to note that the seeds of the fruit have hairs that
may cause irritation to the mouth and the digestive tract if ingested. The hairs can
be removed from these seeds, and the seeds can be found just below the fruit’s
surface. The young leaves and shoots of this plant can be eaten raw or cooked, and
they are a good source of vitamin C. The seed of the multiflora rose can be ground
up and added to flour or other food as a supplement, as it is high in vitamin E.
Despite the minor chance of experiencing digestive issues, many people consider
the species’ fruits a good trailside snack. The rosehips are used for tea as well.

The Stem,
Flowers, and
Leaves of a
Multiflora
Rose

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

DESCRIPTION

The common characteristics of the multiflora rose are its thorny arching stems,
and leaves that are divided into five to 11 sharply toothed leaflets.
The plant is also known for its small, bright red fruit—rosehips.

Height: 8-9’
Stems: Green or reddish, with short prickles that curve downward. Stems

often arch down to touch the ground or extend higher than 9’ if
supported by other branches.
Leaves: Emerge in early spring, with 5-11 tooth leaflets that alternate on the
stem. The leaf stock is fringed.
Flowers: ½-¾” wide, appear in clusters at the end of branches in late May or
early June.
Fruit: Small red fruits lasting through the winter.

Post #7 European Buckthorn

Rhamnus cathartica

HISTORY

The European buckthorn was introduced to the United States in the mid-1800s as a hedge
plant. It is now found as far north as Nova Scotia, and extends south to Missouri and east
to New England. After it was discovered to be very invasive, Minnesota nurseries stopped
selling the European buckthorn in the 1930s. The plant’s Latin name, cathartica, is related to
catharsis, in that the fruits of the plant contain glycosides, toxins that will cause vomiting and
diarrhea if ingested.

WEB OF LIFE

The European buckthorn prefers mostly sun with some shade, and it typically invades open
oak woods, openings in forests resulting from fallen trees, woodland edges, prairies and open
fields. This plant can tolerate a variety of soil types, such as well-drained soil or clay.

The fruit of the plant is eaten by birds and mice. It is known to have a laxative effect on these
animals, which aids in the distribution of seeds far from the plant.

This invasive plant is a problem because it can out-compete native plants for nutrients, light
and moisture. The plant can cast dense shade and alter soil conditions as well. The European
buckthorn can also take over wildlife habitats and can threaten the health of future forests,
wetlands and prairies. In addition, it contributes to erosion by shading forest floor plants
that require light and would typically grow and absorb water. The European buckthorn is also
a problem because it is a host for pests like the crown rust fungus and does not have any
“natural controls” like insects and pests to decrease its growth.

Effective methods to control European buckthorn include fire and hand pulling. Setting
controlled fires between March and early May can manage buckthorn seedling, helping to
decrease the likelihood of plant growth. Fire has the potential to kill the top portion of the
plant, but the plant has the potential to grow back. In this case, the best option is to uproot
seedlings that are a half-inch to one and a half inches in diameter by hand. When doing so, try
to avoid disturbing the soil, since this could release buckthorn seeds stored in the soil.

PRODUCTS & USES

The European buckthorn is sold as an ornamental plant in some states despite its
invasiveness. A green dye can also be extracted from the European buckthorn’s immature
fruit, which can be best used as a watercolor paint when mixed with gum arabic and
limewater.

DESCRIPTION

The European Buckthorn is known for its oval-shaped leaves that are shiny and smooth
on both sides and pointed at the tip, with three to four pairs of up-curved veins. It is also
known for its small black fruits that are present in the fall.
Height: As high as 25’
Bark: Dark gray on the outside and orange on the inside.
Twigs: Tipped, with a sharp spine.
Leaves: 1 ½”-3,” dark green, oval and slightly curved, with three to four serrated

veins.
Flowers: Occur in spring, yellow-green, four-petaled and developing in clusters of

two to six.
Fruit: ¼” in diameter, small and black, which grow in during the fall. The fruit tastes

very bitter.

The Stem,
Fruit, and
Leaves of a
European
Buckthron

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

Japanese Barberry

Berberis thunbergii

HISTORY

The Japanese barberry, native to Japan and Europe, is an invasive exotic in the United States.
This shrub, which now ranges from Nova Scotia south to Tennessee and west to Montana,
was first introduced to the United States in 1875 as an ornamental plant. Seeds sent from
Russia were planted at the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, Mass. The resulting shrubs were later
transplanted to the New York botanical garden in 1896. This species was used to replace the
colonists’ common barberry (Berberis vulgaris), which was planted for hedgerows, dye and
jam.

WEB OF LIFE

Japanese barberry prefers well-drained soils and partial sunlight at the woodland’s edge,
but it will survive in wet areas and can flower and fruit in heavy shade. It is drought-resistant
and adapts to wooded habitats, wetlands, closed canopy forests, pastures, meadows and
disturbed areas, such as along fences and roadsides. The Japanese barberry is spread both by
seed, and vegetatively when branches touch the ground and root to form new plants or from
root fragments in the soil. Small mammals and birds (e.g. wild turkey, ruffed grouse, & ring-
necked pheasant) help this plant establish in new areas by eating the fruits and depositing
seeds in their droppings. The shrub’s flowers attract small insects in search of nectar and
pollen. Insects that feed on the berries include berry aphids and moth caterpillars such as the
barberry looper. The shrub provides prime habitat for birds because the thorny branches offer
cover and protection from predators.

Despite its benefit to some animals, this invasive species is an ecological threat since it can
alter the soil’s pH levels, nitrogen levels and biological activity. Japanese barberry displaces
many native plants and reduces wildlife habitat and food resources. For example, white-
tailed deer prefer native plants and will avoid the Japanese barberry, giving it a competitive
advantage. Hand-pulling is the most effective method to remove Japanese barberry. It is
advised to wear gloves to protect against the sharp spines on the stems. The species should
be bagged and disposed of quickly to prevent seed dispersal. Care should also be taken to
minimize soil disturbance. If berries are not present, uprooted shrubs can be left in piles as
cover for small animals. A weed wrench may be handy if larger shrubs exist.

Post #7

PRODUCTS & USES

The Japanese barberry is used as an ornamental plant because its orange, red and
crimson fruit make it an attractive hedge. It is also sometimes planted to provide
food for birds and for erosion control.

People have used it to make a yellow dye that can be extracted from the roots and
the branches. The fruit of the Japanese barberry is edible but variable in taste. This
plant has many medicinal uses—the yellow berberine found in the inner bark is an
herbal bitter that is used as an antibacterial or antiseptic. Next time you eat or drink
something questionable, chew some of the yellow inner bark and see how you feel.

DESCRIPTION

The Japanese barberry is a spiny shrub with branches that are brown, deeply grooved
and zig-zaggy in form and bear a sharp spine at each bump, with greenish, bluish-green
or dark purple leaves and red, jelly-bean-sized fruit.

Height: : 2-8”
Leaves: 1/2-1 ½”
Flowers: Appear mid-April to May in the Northeastern U.S. Pale yellow, about ¼”

across and hang in umbrella-shaped clusters of two to four flowers each
along the length of the stem.
Fruit: Bright, oblong, red berries about 1/3” long that grow from narrow stalks.
Mature in late summer or fall and persist through the winter.

Japanese Barberry Leaves & Fruit

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

Japanese Barberry Leaves

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

Post #9 Japanese Stiltgrass

Microstegium vimineum

HISTORY

Japanese stiltgrass is also known as Nepalese browntop or Chinese packing grass. It is native
to eastern Asia, specifically India, China and Japan. Japanese stiltgrass can be found from
Massachusetts, south to Florida and as far west as Texas. Discovered in Tennessee in 1919, it
probably arrived in North America as packing material used to ship Chinese porcelain.

Japanese siltgrass invades native ecosystems and spreads particularly quickly after a
disturbances, such as flooding or soil moving. Within three to five years, this species can form
dense patchs that exclude native vegetation. Japanese stiltgrass was discovered on South
Hill between 2005-06, and Ithaca College has held many “stiltgrass pull” events to remove
the plant by hand before it produces seed for the year—the best strategy for controlling
this invasive species. Unfortunately, this must be carried out intensively for at least seven
consecutive years to be effective because stilt grass continues to propagate from the soil
seed bank. “Stilt grass pullers” must be careful, however, because japanese stiltgrass is often
confused with the native white grass (Leersia virginica). It is best to pull when the soil is
moist so the whole plant can be removed. Pulling is easier and more effective in mid- to late
summer, when the plants are much taller and can be easily grasped.

WEB OF LIFE

Japanese stiltgrass prefers moist, acidic to neutral soils that are high in nitrogen. This plant
thrives in low-light conditions, which, unlike many of our other invasive species, makes it
able to invade the low-light conditions of a closed-canopy forest. This is particularly unusual
because Japanese stilt grass uses the C4 photosynthetic pathway, which is typically better
suited to high-light conditions. This plant can be found in the moist ground of open woods,
floodplain forests, uplands, wetlands, thickets, fields, paths, clearings, roadsides, ditches,
utility corridors and gardens.

Not all introduced species are major ecological threats, however Japanese stiltgrass is. This
species produse copious amounts of seed each year. It spreads quickly and often forms dense
patches that displace native species. Its rapid spread appears to be facilitated by White-tailed
deer who selectively feed on native plants, giving the stilt grass an added boost. In addition to
simply outcompeting native plants for light and soil resources, there is evidence that Japanese
stilt grass alters soil chemistry, making conditions less-desirable for native plants. Stilt grass
invasion doesn’t just affect the plants. For example, this species changes the habitat of the
forest floor, thereby increasing rodents populations (such as rats), that then prey on baby
birds.

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, China used Japanese stiltgrass as packing material.

DESCRIPTION

The Japanese stiltgrass has wide leaves (for a grass) alternating along a thick stalk. Its
most recognizable feature is a narrow shiny stripe that runs down the center of each
leaf. It typically forms dense patches on the forest floor. In the fall, its tops take on a
purple-reddish hue that is recognizable from a distance.

Height: 1-3’, sprawling in a mat-like manner.
Leaves: Pale green, alternate along branched stalk, long and wide at the center, up

to 3” long, lightly hairy, resemble delicate bamboo.
Flower: Spikes are 1-3” long.

Japanese Stiltgrass vs. Native Grass

Japanese Stiltgrass Japanese Stiltgrass Leaf, Stem & Node

Native Grass Native Grass Leaf, Stem, & Node*

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK *notice the furry node in this grass

compared to the stiltgrass



Ecotone/Forest Edge

A transition area between two plant communities is called an ecotone; an ecotone
such as this – between shrubland and forest – is also called a forest edge. Forest edges
are important habitats for many species because many animals like to browse on the
small plants in the open and hide from their predators in the dense cover of the forest.
This makes forest edges a site of high animal activity..

Ecotone

Natural areas are made up of edges: the contact zone where the boundary of one feature
meets the boundary of another feature. Examples include the edge between a pond and
a field, or a meadow and a forest. Edges can be abrupt and contrast sharply between the
adjoining patches, such as the joining of a forest and an agricultural field. Edges can also be
gradual (e.g. 500 miles wide), such as between two major continental-scale forest types. The
area within the boundary acts as a transition zone between the two patches of land, and is
known as an ecotone.
Ecotone Plant & Animal Species
Ecotones often exhibit high plant and animal diversity, and are areas with high animal activity.
In the ecotone we often find the intermingling of plants and animals from both areas, and
we find organisms adapted to the ecotone transition in particular. These transition areas are
particulary rich in a wide variety of resources and provide a place for courtship, nesting and
foraging for food.

Post #8

Where Edges Exist

Natural edges are known as “inherent,” while other edges are considered “induced” because
they are formed through natural or human disturbances to the land.

Examples of Inherent Edges include boundaries between

•Land and water
•North-facing and south-facing slopes of mountains
•Areas of different soil content
•Different microclimates
•Different rock-like features
•Dominating growths of one species and the distribution of another

Induced Edges can result from:

•Fire
•Storms
•Floods
•Livestock grazing
•Timber harvesting
•Agriculture
•Suburban development

Edge Development
The existance, exact location, and nature of edges is transitory and changes over time. For
example, induced edges may result from a sudden change in the environment and can
create a variety of responses, such as tree exposure to more of less light. This might allow for
enhanced growth in some plant species and suppressed growth in others. The altered light
regimes will alter the competitive balance among species leading to changes in abundance.
Over time, edge-oriented species like hawthorn, hickory, aspen and oak might replace the
species that were dominant before the disturbance. Environmenal factors that change across
edges include humidity, soil moisture, light intensity, temperture, and wind speed.