South Hill’s Natural Area - Ithaca College

Multiple Trunked Trees

Many Red Maples and pine trees in this area have more than one trunk per tree. Like a
scar on your body, multiple trunks are an indication of previous trauma in the life of a
tree. Multiple trunking can be caused by anything that kills or damages the main stem
of the tree: logging, fire, deer browsing, insects, disease. Multiple-trunked trees are
common in formerly logged areas and in post-agricultural forests, such as the South
Hill Natural Area.

Red Maple

Acer rubrum

HISTORY

The red maple is also known as scarlet maple, soft maple, swamp maple, water maple
and Drummond’s maple. Part of the red maple’s Latin name, rubrum, means red, which is
associated with the tree’s most vibrant feature: its red-colored leaves. Originally, the tree
spread to the eastern parts of North America, and it is now the most common deciduous
tree in the Eastern United States. It is also found in the coastal prairies of southern Louisiana
and southeastern Texas, and in the swamp prairie of the Florida Everglades—which links to
its name, swamp maple. This shade-tolerant, fast-growing tree is one of the most important
members in the development stages of many forest types. It is known to be the first tree to
prosper in an open space. The cultivation of the first red maple occurred in 1656. Folklore
symbolism recognizes the red maple leaves as the icon of autumn. The red maple symbolizes
reserve and retirement.

The red maple is the most common tree of post agricultural forests and is much more
abundant today than in original forests.

WEB OF LIFE

The red maple is known to grow best in moist or wet acidic soil, but it can also grow on dry,
rocky, upland soils. This shade-tolerant tree typically grows in dense woods but can survive
in openings as well. The red maple’s ability to grow on sites with very little moisture is due in
part to its early development of roots, which can adapt to the environment to absorb needed
nutrients and water.

Wildlife uses the red maple for food and habitat use. The tree provides food in the form of
nutritious browse for deer, cottontails and hares. Birds nest in its branches and cavities, and
they feed on seeds and insects that live on the tree. White-tailed deer and elks like to eat the
twigs. Young maples (3 to 6 feet high) are an ideal resting site for prairie warblers. The leaves
of the red maple are deadly poisonous to horses if consumed from a damaged branch or
when they are green.

The red maple is affected by a variety of diseases and insects, none of which are extremely
harmful to the species. The fungus Polyporus glomeratus forms sterile conks that protrude
from a knot on the trunk and eventually cause the tree to rot and become hollow. Other
red maple rot-related funguses include Fomes conatus, Daedalea unicolor and Hydnum
septentrionale. In terms of pests, certain species can reduce tree growth, make the tree more
susceptible to decay and hastensthe death of already-weakened trees. Common red maple
pests include leaf-feeding moths, specifically the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), the linden
looper (Erannis tiliaria) and the elm spanworm (Ennomos subsignarius).

Post #10

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, the pioneers made ink and brown and black dyes from a bark extract of the
red maple. Red maple is now used as an ornamental tree, but it has a variety of other uses
as well, such as furniture, flooring, kitchenware, woodenware, boxes, crates, pulp, clothes
hangers, clothespins, gunstocks, veneer and distillation products. This tree can also be tapped
for maple sap, but in smaller quantities than sugar maple.

DESCRIPTION

Large tree with a short trunk, narrow or rounded,
compact crown and upward-arching branches. Flowers,
fruit and leafstalks are red.

Height: 60-90’
Diameter: 2 ½’
Leaves: Opposite; 2 ½-4” long and nearly as wide.

Broadly ovate, with three shallow short-
pointed lobes (sometimes with two smaller
lobes near the base), wavy, with five main
veins from the base, long red or green leafstalk.
The leaf is dull green above; whitish and hairy
beneath; turns red, orange and yellow in
autumn.
Bark: Fray, thin, smooth, becoming fissured into long,
thin and developing scaly ridges with age.
Twigs: Reddish, slender, hairless.
Flowers: 1/8” long; red.

Red Maple Leaves PHOTO: JENIFFER DARRELL
Summer & Fall

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK



Ferns

South Hill supports 13 different species of ferns, six of which are in this patch. Ferns
are considered exploitable vulnerable in New York State. Ferns are ancient plants that
have been around since before the dinosaurs. They do not reproduce by seed, but
instead reproduce from spores that are housed in small structures on the underside of
a fern frond.

Sensitive Fern

Onoclea sensibilis

HISTORY

The first part of the sensitive fern’s Latin name, Onoclea, means “vessel” (onos) and “to close”
(kleio), which refers to the fern’s closely rolled fertile fronds (large divided leaf). The second
part of its Latin name, sensibilis, means “sensitive”. Colonists used this name because this
fern is particularly sensitive to frost—the fronds die as soon as a frost occurs. Other names for
the sensitive fern include bead fern and meadow brake. This plant is native to eastern North
America and East Asia and can be found in eastern Canada, and in the Northeast, Southeast
and Midwest of the United States.

Fossil imprints of fern fronds dating back to the dinosaur age closely resemble the modern
sensitive fern, suggesting that this fern has changed little since then. The sensitive fern is also
the only member of its genus.

Fossil imprints that date back to the dinosaur age closely resemble the sensitive fern, which
means this fern has changed little throughout history. The sensitive fern is also the only
member of its genus.

WEB OF LIFE

The sensitive fern can survive in both sun and shade, but it requires moist soil if grown in the
open. The sensitive fern’s typical habitat includes wet meadows, thickets and woods; open
prairies, bogs and the edge of marshes; stream and riverbanks; swamps and bogs. The fern’s
habitat makes it an indicator species of moist soil even if it does not seem wet to a human
observer. This plant thrives best in lightly acidic soils.

PRODUCTS & USES

The sensitive fern’s uncurled leaves, fiddleheads, can be cooked or eaten raw. The young The
sensitive fern’s curled leaves (fiddleheads), can be cooked or eaten raw. The young shoots
have been sold as delicacies in Asian markets. The sensitive fern is considered a famine food
and is only used in times of scarcity.

People will sometimes use the fronds for dry flower arrangements.

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing features of the sensitive fern include its
greenish-yellow featherlike lobes, which extend from each
leaf stalk. The adjacent lobes of this plant are larger near the
bottom of the stalk and smaller near the top, which overall
creates a triangular leaf.

Post #12 Height: 12-36”
Fronds: A few loose leaves develop directly from the
Sensitive Fern Fronds
rootstalk. Infertile leaves 2-3’ tall and erect, light
to medium green and pinnate (feather like). Fertile PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK
leaves are 1- 1 ½” tall and erect. The central stalk
of each fertile leaf is winged with lobes that are
feather-like and roll downward. There are gaps of
space between each lobe, and each leaf has
about eight pairs of lobes. The fertile leaflets form
hard, bead-like structures.

Stalk: Dull yellow and reddish-brown.





Rare Species

South Hill supports several plant species that are very rare in New York. The native
blue sedge is a small grass-like plant with wide blades. It is listed as an endangered
species. This sedge grows low to the ground and has blue-tinted leaves with a white
powdery finish. The sedge enjoys slightly disturbed areas and frequently makes an
appearance on the recreational trails of South Hill in small patches, such as this one.

This area is known as a Perched Swamp White Oak swamp and is rare in Tompkins
County because of its unique biology, hydrology and tree composition. To study the
hydrology of this area (the movement, distribution, and quality of water) groundwater
monitoring wells were installed several years ago. These are the two five-foot tall
pipes you see sticking out of the ground in the forest on both sides of the trail. Using
these wells, students can monitor the level of water in this area and help manage this
important forest community.

Post #11 Blue Sedge

Carex glaucodea

HISTORY

The blue sedge is also called glaucus sedge because of the white powdery substance on its
leaves (“glaucus” means white powdery covering). The blue sedge is listed as endangered in
New York State by the Department of Conservation, and occurs in five or fewer sites in the
state. Because of its rarity, little is known about this species. In New York, two other sedge
species are threatened and one is endangered: Carex bigelowii, Carex retroflexa, and Carex
willdenowii, respectively. Blue sedge ranges from Canada, east to Maine, south to North
Carolina, and west to Texas. It is not considered endangered in all parts of North America.

While it looks like a grass, it isn’t! All grasses are in the family Poaceae; the blue sedge is in
an entirely different plant family called Cyperaceae (the sedge family). There is another plant
family that is also sometimes confused with grasses, called Juncaceae (the reed family). One
way to tell the difference is through a little poem that refers to the grass-like stems of these
plants: Sedges have edges, reeds are round, and grasses are hollow. Ok, the end doesn’t
rhyme, but what can you do?

On South Hill in Ithaca, N.Y., the blue sedge thrives right in the middle of the trails.

DESCRIPTION

The blue sedge
resembles long
strands of grass.

Leaves: Blue-
gray with a white
powdery finish.

Flowers: Flower
seed heads develop
in early
April, and seeds
remain on the plant
through summer.

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

WEB OF LIFE

Blue sedge thrives in woods and meadows, and it is shade-tolerant. This species enjoys moist dry
soils and slightly disturbed areas.

PRODUCTS & USES

Produce and uses have not been discovered yet, but potential exists with more research.

Perched Swamp White Oak Swamp Post #13

Wetlands
Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil and is above or near the surface of the soil all
year or during some seasons, therefore wetlands are not wet all the time. Wetlands are defined
by the following three characteristics:
•Hydrology
•Wetland Soils (aka hydric soils)
•Wetland Plants

The amount of water saturation in a
wetland will determine the plant and animal
communities living in and on the soil. Many
types of wetlands exist:
•Marshes
•Swamps
•Bogs
•Fens

Swamps
Swamps are wetlands dominated by woody
plants. Many kinds of swamps exist. The
last “swamp” in the title above refers to the
wetland that the species, swamp white oak,
is in. The term before “swamp white oak”
(aka the species), “perched”—as in sitting on
top of something—refers to the wetland’s
hydrology, which is defined by the species in
the wetland—in this case, swamp white oak.

Perched swamp white oak swamp refers to
a swamp on mineral soils that occurs in a
shallow depression on a forest hilltop or hillside PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK
where the water table is perched above the surrounding groundwater. These sites usually have
an impermeable layer of clay or bedrock. The swamp functions seasonally, and it is typically
flooded in spring and summer, but it may be dry in the late summer. Stands of one tree species
may exist in areas that are permanently saturated, or a variety of tree species may inhabit
better-drained soils. In this case, the swamp white oak is usually the dominant tree species;
however, it is sometimes joined by other trees, such as the scarlet oak, white oak, red maple,
white pine and pitch pine. Shrubs are also present and can include species such as black
huckleberry, hingbush berry, lowbush berry and maleberry. The groundcover may be sparse,
but in areas where the canopy is open and wet soil exists, species such as sedges, woolgrass,
mannagrass, marsh fern, arrowwood viburnum and poison ivy exist.

A perched swamp white oak swamp is also extremely rare in New York State and is considered
a S1S2, which means it is critically imperiled. It is also known as a Unique Natural Area (UNA)
and happens to exist on Ithaca, N.Y.,’s South Hill in Tompkins County (UNA 154). Unique natural
areas provide a sanctuary for rare plants and animals, and they help to maintain the diversity
of natural communities in the area. The water depth of South Hill’s perched swamp white oak
swamp varies significantly throughout the year and between years. Due to the varying levels of
standing water, it is difficult to determine the exact boundary of the wetland.



Pine Plantation

Sometime before this land was purchased by Ithaca College, Scots pine and Red
pine were planted here to make a plantation. A tree plantation is a large, artificially
established forest where tree crops are grown for sale. Not much is known about this
plantation and students are currently researching the history of this area. Some I.C.
professors believe these pines were planted as an economic experiment; different
types of pine trees may have been grown to try to develop a lumber source that
wasn’t damaged by the White Pine Weevil that was damaging the native pines in this
region.

Post #14 Scots Pine

Pinus sylvestris

HISTORY

The scots pine is also known as the scotch pine or a fir in England, but the scots pine is not a
fir by definition. Its Latin name, Pinus sylvesris, means “pine of the woods.” This tree is native
across Europe and north Asia, south to Turkey. It is naturalized in southeast Canada and in the
United States from New England west to Iowa. Though beautiful when young, this tree is not
long-lived in the United States, as it is often threatened and killed by diseases and pests at the
age of 30 to 40 years.

This native pine of the Scottish Highlands is one of the most important European timbers. In
the 1660s, England used the scots pine for ship masts, most of which were imported from
Russia, Sweden and the Baltic countries. This was not an ideal use of the scots pine. Due to
its small size, scots pines were pieced together to a satisfactory mast for British battleships. In
addition, their availability was not dependable because of political relationships with foreign
monarchies. It was introduced to the United States in 1752 as an ornamental tree, and later it
was widely used in reforestation projects.

WEB OF LIFE

The scots pine is shade-intolerant and can
grow on any upland soil but thrives on
sandy and clay-rich soils. It is typically found
in forests with the black cherry, red maple,
sugar maple, American beech, quaking
aspen and eastern white pine.

The scots pine comes in contact with
many insects and lichens, which grow
around and in the cracks of trunks. Some
of these insects and lichens include the
stump lichen, the narrow headed ant and
the Scottish wood ant. Birds found in and
around the scots pine include the siskin,
great spotted woodpecker, great crested
tit and cross bill. The tree is a great nesting
place for birds of prey such as the golden
eagle, osprey and goshawk. Red squirrels
nibble on cones and seeds.

The scots pine is subject to many damaging PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK
agents that could harm or kill the tree. Fire
can damage young trees, and severe windstorms may snap off tree nodes. Pests that often
harm the tree are the pine weevil (Hylobius radicis), which attacks the base of the tree and
kills it within three to four years, and the pine root tip weevil (Hylobius rhizophagus), which
feeds on the roots and root tips, reduces the height of the tree and eventually kills it. The
European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer) can cause moderate damage to Christmas trees
and ornamental plantings, and it reduces the growth of the tree by 10 to 20 percent.

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, the tree’s water-resistant
wood was used for ship masts and
water wheels. The resin from the
bark was used to make tar and
turpentine. Today, it is planted as
an ornamental tree in parks or for
Christmas trees—30 percent of the
35 million Christmas trees harvested
annually are scots pine. This tree
is also planted as a windbreak in
prairies and as a way to control
erosion. It is used in reforestation
projects as well.

The Cones & Needles of the Scots Pine

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

DESCRIPTION

The most distinguishing characteristics of this tree
include its twisted needles, which are in bundles of
two, dull blue-green in color and sharply pointed. It is
also known for its orange-red, flaky bark and jagged, fat
cones.

Height: 70’
Diameter: 2’ and much larger with age
Needles: In bunches of two, bluish-green to grayish-

green, twisted, stiff and sharply pointed. The
needles are slightly spread apart.
Bark: Mid- to upper crown, the bark is orange-brown
and flaky. On the lower stem, it is grayish- to
reddish-brown and has long, loose, scaly plates.
Twigs: Slender, reddish- to orange-brown and
eventually becoming grayish-brown. The twigs
are hairless.
Cones: Immature cones appear between late May and
early June, 1 ¼-2 ½” long, egg-shaped, pale
yellow-brown and open to mature cones
with thin, grayish-brown, flattened scales
with a light prickle. Thick at the tip with four-

sided, districted, curved points.

Lower Bark Upper Bark

Red Pine

Pinus resinosa

HISTORY

The red pine is named for the reddish appearance of its bark, but it is also known as the
Norway pine. The name, Norway pine, is misleading because red pine is native to North
America and not to Norway. The latter name was given to the tree by an explorer who
confused it with a European species, the Norway spruce. Another explanation for its name is
its original sighting in Norway, Maine, in 1797.

The tree’s general range extends from Newfoundland and Quebec, west to Ontario and
southeastern Manitoba, south to northeastern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern
Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut and Maine, and in a relatively narrow zone about 1,500
miles long by 500 miles wide around the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. The red pine
is also the Minnesota state tree. During the first 60 to 70 years, this tree has rapid growth, and
thereafter the growth becomes much slower. Despite being native to New York state, the red
pine is not native to the South Hill area of Tompkins County. Farmers planted red pine in this
area to provide shade for their cattle.

WEB OF LIFE

The red pine is characteristically a tree of
dry, sandy soils, and it is found on gravelly
ridges, rocky outcrops, sandy plans and
other areas of low soil fertility. It is typically
a northern and higher-elevation species
found at 700 to 2,600 feet in boreal forests,
such as in the Adirondacks. It can be
found in both areas of only red pine—it is
known to stand alone on degraded lands
formerly occupied by the eastern white
pine—and in areas with a variety of other
species, like the eastern white pine, jack
pine, quaking aspen and bigtooth aspen.
The red pine cannot tolerate shade. Its
propagation is dependent on fire for natural
establishment: Undamaged crown-stored
seeds germinate after the event of a fire.

The red pine is a common food for
snowshoe hares and a prime nesting tree
for bald eagles. Typically, when growing under its natural conditions, the red pine is not
subject to disease and pests. It is when the red pine is grown on less acidic, finer textured and
poorly drained soils that it is more prone to damage through pests like the redheaded pine
sawfly, Neodiprion lecontei, or diseases like Scleroderris canker, Gremmeniella abietina, which
usually occurs on plantations.

Post #14

PRODUCTS & USES The Cone of a Red Pine

In the past, the tree’s bark was sometimes used for tanning
leather. Today, the red pine is planted in the United States
and Canada because it is a very important source for wood
production and for the control of wind erosion. The red
pine is used to shade other forest trees that have seeds that
can grow in low light, and it is also used as an ornamental
tree—a Christmas tree. It is easily cultivated and grown
in plantations, and it is primarily used as lumber and
pulpwood. The tree’s wood is light, hard and very close-
grained. Its wood will rot if in contact with soil; therefore,
it is treated when used for poles, pilings and posts. The red
pine is an attractive tree in recreational areas, especially
near lakes or ponds.

DESCRIPTION

The distinctive characteristics of the red pine include
long, stiff 3” needles in twos that break cleanly when
bent sharply, 1 ½-2” egg-shaped cones with concave
bases, and thick reddish-brown bark, broken into long,
irregular diamond-shaped plates.

Height: 70-80’
Diameter: 1-3,’ often larger.
Needles: 4 ½-6 ½,“ in pairs, slender, dark green,

breaking cleanly when sharply bent.
Bark: Young bark is orange-red and scaly. Mature bark

is thick and reddish-brown or gray, with broad,
flat, scaly plates.
Twigs: Stout, rough with scales, orange at first but
becoming reddish-brown.
Cones: Immature cones 2/5-4/5” long, April to May,

mature cones 1 ½ -2 ¼“ long, egg-shaped and
light brown, opening in the fall and shedding
seeds throughout the following winter and
into the next summer, and then falling from
the tree the next spring or summer. Some
cones may remain on trees for two to three
years.



Tracking Box

Daytime-active animals such as deer, squirrels, and chipmunks, are frequently seen
by people, but many other mammals call this forest home. Smaller animals like mice,
shrews, and voles are common in these woods. Motion-activated cameras have
photographed fox, coyote, bobcat, skunk, opossum, and racoon. Tracking boxes are
used to identify the many mammal species living in this forest by capturing their prints
like the ones you see here. Often tracks provide information that photography cannot.

Healthy Forest Community

Forest regeneration is a good measure of forest health. A forest that produces enough
young trees to replace the larger, older trees as they are cut, blown down, or die,
indicates a sustainable and healthy forest. This patch of forest is one of the healthiest
on South Hill, with a recognizable understory, young replacement trees, and a mature
canopy.

Tracking Box

Mammals in general are secretive and difficult to see because they are either prey species
that will be eaten if noticed or predator species that will not be able to eat if noticed. This
creates an issue for people who want to see animals, determine their numbers or understand
their habits and activities.

Techniques need to be developed to see mammals and determine what they are doing. The
question is, how do you do this without sitting in the woods for hours?

One method would be to set up cameras to take photographs of these secretive species, but
this can be expensive and is not accessible for everyone. In addition, a picture of an animal
does not provide enough information—why it was there, where it came from and how it was
feeling. Tracking boxes can begin to explain this information. A tracking box is a shallow sand
box to study tracks. Tracking boxes are similar to when search and rescue groups use track
traps—areas that naturally hold a footprint, like sand or mud, to note human tracks and find
people. Search and rescue teams look and analyze track traps to find lost people. A tracking
box is a manmade track trap. It may seem like a low-tech substitute, but it provides more
information than a camera. The camera gives you the “who,” but a tracking box can provide:

•Who: came, which animals were here
•What: the animals’ actions were at the time—running, walking or stalking (determined
from the way the tracks are laid down)
•Where: the animal was heading
•When: the animal was here (determined by the aging of the tracks)
•Why: they came, if you baited the box or other sources of food are in the area
•How: the animal is feeling—alert, tired or calm—based on the pattern of the steps

Tracking boxes may require more training to analyze, but they can answer the six questions of
tracking (who, what, where, when, why and how), unlike a photograph.

Who’s been here?

Post #16 Tracking Box Tracks in Box

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

Healthy Forest Community

Forests are systems made of interacting parts that create certain relationships, which must exist in
order for the forest to persist. Forests are more than just a bunch of trees. For example, if you were
to plant many trees to create a garden or plantation, this would not be a forest because it would
require people to maintain the site, so it would persist in that state. Healthy forests do not require
people to take care of them.
Many traits define a healthy forest community. Like a person, a healthy forest community
goes through an aging cycle. There are young, middle and old age forests that have certain
characteristics as a whole, not based on individual trees—young trees can exist in an old growth
forest. Middle-aged forests have the most biodiversity because there are organisms present from
young forests, which will eventually be part of the old forest. As a forest ages, there are changes in
its soil, animals and ability to store water and control flooding and runoff.
Despite these changes, a healthy forest community can persist. There are many ways to determine
if a forest is healthy. One of these methods includes analyzing the age structure of a tree. Look
around to see if there are seedlings, little saplings and bigger trees. If seedlings do not exist,
the forest will not reproduce and will disappear. If there are no middle-aged trees, something
disturbed the forest in the past. If there are no old growth trees, there was a disturbance even
longer ago.
When a forest functions as a healthy community, there are a number of processes that occur along
with this state. Flood control and water purification are natural processes known as ecosystem
services.
Diversity in a forest—whether it is species diversity (total number of species present), species
richness (the total number of individuals distributed across a species) or age diversity—increases
the resilience of the forest and its ability to deal with stressors like weather, pests and human
interaction. That diversity gives the forest the resilience to recover from any of these stressors.
A healthy forest community is more than disease-free trees. You have to have a complete
functioning ecosystem in which all living organism and non-biological components in an area are
functioning together to maintain life.
Questions to Ask when Identifying a Healthy Forest Community

Biodiversity Water Post #17

•Are there trees of all different ages? •If it has rained, is a lot of the water running across the
•Are seedlings of the canopy trees distributed surface of the ground, or is it soaking in?
across the forest floor?
-Seedlings are desirable because they -It is strongly desired for the soil to absorb water.
•If there is stream running through or near the area? Is this
mean future growth. water clear or muddy?
•Are there many different kinds of trees? •If there is a stream near the area, does the stream have life
in it?
Wildlife •Do you see some mushrooms on the ground?
-These are positive indicators.
•Are there indications of wildlife?
-Deer droppings? Insects
-Bird songs?
-Animal tracks? •Are there insects?
-Woodpecker holes? -This depends on the time of year. It undesired to
see too many of one kind of insect.
Forest Floor •Can you find a salamander under a stone or rotting piece
of wood?
•Is there bare soil?
-It is strongly desired for soil to be covered Invasive Species

and protected by leaves or plants. •Are there invasive species in the forest?
•Is there downed wood or an occasional tipped -This is a negative sign.
over tree or branch?
-This is a good sign. Understory
•Do the trees look like they are thriving?
•Is there a well-developed understory—many green shrubs
and plants on the ground?



Blueberries & Huckleberries

The understory here is made up of species of blueberry, deerberry, and huckleberry.
This habitat is called a heath – like the Pitch Pine Heath barrens where the soil is
acidic. Blueberry bushes fruit in early to mid-summer and are a delicious treat on a
walk through the woods. Blueberries are also a favorite snack for black bears, white-
tailed deer, and blue birds.

Blueberry

Vaccinium angustifolium

HISTORY

The blueberry is also known as the lowbush blueberry or wild blueberry, and this berry is
commonly associated with the state of Maine because of its abundance in this area. There are
about 35 species of blueberry in North America, and they are grown in central Canada and the
northeastern United States, as far south as West Virginia and west to the Great Lakes region.

For centuries, the American Indians had gathered blueberries from forests and bogs to eat
them in their fresh state and to preserve them. Folklore also developed around the calyx of
the berry—the blossom at the bottom of the berry that forms a five-pointed star. The elders
of the tribe would tell how the Great Spirit sent “star berries” to relieve the children’s hunger
during a famine. American Indians would eat the berries fresh, dried or baked, and they
would add them to soups or mix them with venison and other meats.

The pilgrims established Plymouth in the winter of 1620, but many struggled to survive in
the harsh winter conditions. Those who survived later built homes and learned survival skills
from the neighboring tribe, the Wampanoag American Indians, who taught them to gather
and use native plants as food. The colonists learned to gather blueberries, dry them under
the summer’s sun and store them for the winter. This later became an important food source,
and berries were preserved and canned. During the Civil War, soldiers would drink a beverage
made of blueberries, and they regularly consumed this fruit in other forms. In the late 19th
century, the blueberry canning industry bloomed in the Northeast.

Today, many commercial blueberry businesses thrive in the Northeast.

Post #20 WEB OF LIFE

The red pine is characteristically a tree of dry, sandy soils, and it is found on gravelly The
blueberry prefers open woods and plenty of sunlight, but it can survive in partial shade as
well. It thrives on acidic ground and poor, rocky or sandy soil, especially with conifer forests. It
is commonly grown in northern mountainous regions. The blueberry occurs as the understory
or part of the understory in forest communities. It is typically associated with the following
canopy trees: eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple
(Acer rubrum) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra).

The black bear, eastern cottontail and white-tailed deer feed on the foliage of the low sweet
blueberry. It is also an important moose browse in parts of Maine. A wide variety of birds
and mammals consume the fruit and flowers. Wildlife that feed on the fruit include the black
bear, red fox, raccoon, red-backed vole, white-footed mouse, fox squirrel, red squirrel, eastern
spotted skunk, gray fox and many species of chipmunks. Birds that feed on the fruit include
the American robin, common crow and eastern bluebird. Other birds include the wild turkey,
ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, gray catbird, brown thrasher, rufous-sided towhee, starling,
cardinal, scarlet tanager, Canada goose, herring full, whimbrel, quail and thrushes. The flower
buds are considered a major food source for the ruffed grouse during the winter.

PRODUCTS & USES

The American Indians would use parts of the blueberry for medicinal purposes. They would
use the leaves to create a tea to improve the health of one’s blood, and they would use berry
juice to treat coughs. Blueberries were used as dyes, and in food preparation, they were added
to stews, soups, and used to make rubs for meat and beef jerky. Today, blueberries are highly
commercialized and can be purchased at the grocery store; they are included in many foods,
and they can be picked fresh on local farms and preserved in your own home. Blueberries are
also found in processed foods, such as pies or muffin mixes, pastries, jam, ice cream and yogurt.
The fruit is also used to make wine and various juice products. Blueberries are also freeze-dried
and sold. Blueberries are known as a super food because the fruit is packed with antioxidants.
Berry-picking also remains an important recreational activity today.

Various Blueberries on South Hill

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

DESCRIPTION

The distinctive characteristics of the red pine include A low, straggling shrub with multiple
stems and twiggy branches, with red-green foliage in the spring, dark blue-green foliage in
the summer and maroon-purple foliage in the fall. The fruit are dark blue spheres. Small,
white, pink-tinged, bell-shaped flowers are followed by the edible fruit.
Height: A few inches to 12’.
Leaves: Small, finely toothed, elliptic in shape, with alternating leaves on thin twigs.

Most leaves are deciduous.
Flowers: Urn-shaped, five fused petals except at the tip.
Fruit: Small and round, with a crown on the distal end, composed of five lobes.

Berries have a whitish tint over the blue color on their skin. Berries grow during
the spring and summer depending on the location.



Snag Habitat

A “snag” is a dead tree that is still standing and is often missing its top and most of
the smaller branches. Snags such as this provide critical habitat for numerous species.
Many birds, such as Barred owls and Great Horned owls, as well as small mammals,
use snags for their nesting habitat, making snags very important for ecological
stability. So critical are snags to wildlife, that foresters sometimes create snags by
killing living trees and leaving them standing.

Post #23 Barred Owl

Strix varia

HISTORY

The barred owl has many names such as northern barred owl, swamp owl, striped owl, hoot
owl, eight hooter, round-headed owl, le chat-huant du nord (French for “the hooting cat
of the north”), wood owl, and rain owl. It is named for the white bars that run cross-wise
on its neck and breast. Sometimes it is mistakenly called the bard owl. The first published
description of this owl was created by amateur naturalist Benjamin Smith Barton, in 1799.
This owl can be found from Florida northward to southern Canada and spreads westward to
North Dakota and is also found in northern parts of Canada and the northwest of the United
States. The movement westward is of concern because the barred owl may have to compete
with the endangered spotted owl. The barred owl can live up to 23 years in captivity and 10
years in the wild. Deaths are usually related to human (shootings or road kills) or associated
with its preadator, the great horned owl.

A variety of American Indian myths and tales are associated with owls in general, such as that
death is near or it is a bearer of the deceased’s soul as it passes from one world to the next.
These tales perpetuate the eerie and spooky emotions connected with the owl, and are also
often linked to its mysterious and intriguing appearance. Its eyes make people believe that it
is a wise species. The Cherokee Indians saw great value in the owl and would also bathe their
child’s eyes in water containing owl feathers, believing it would help them stay awake.

WEB OF LIFE

The barred owl can be found in moist forested
areas, wooded swamps and wooded areas near
waterways. This owl tends to build cavities in
deciduous trees or occupies open nests made by
a hawk or a crow.

The barred owl tends to hunt at dusk or at night
by sitting on a high perch to look and listen for
prey. This owl can quickly swoop down and dive
at the sight or sound of prey. The barred owl’s
typical diet consists of meadow voles, shrews
and deer mice. Other mammals include rats,
squirrels, young rabbits, bats, moles, opossums,
mink, and weasels. This owl is known to eat birds,
fish, and reptiles. Small prey is usually consumed
on the spot while large prey are carried back to
a perch or nest to be devoured. The barred owl
is attracted to campfires and lights where it can
forage for insects. The barred owl is considered
aggressive often flying at or fighting rivals at the
edge of its territory.

HABITS

The barred owl is nocturnal and tends to feed and be active at night. Daytime activity is rare.
The barred owl’s voice is very vocal and loud, with calls often heard in a series of eight. Mates
will duet, but the males voice is deeper and mellower. There call is related to the sound of the
phrase “Who, cooks, for-you? Who, cooks, for-you, all?” Males make breed calls year round,
but courtship does not take place until February, with breeding occurring between March and
August.

The barred owl is responsible for controlling a variety of rodent populations and to a lesser
degree, insect populations. The barred owl’s make up allows it to carry out this role. In addition
its large brown eyes allow for it to function in low light conditions so it can hunt its prey. Its
other features that allow for successful hunting include its ear placement and acute hearing
so it can pinpoint minute sounds of prey movement and its fringed feathers that allow for
almost silent flight. Another interesting fact about this specie in particular is that sometimes its
belly feathers are pink, which may be the result of eating a large amount of crayfish—a similar
occurrence for flamingos as well.

DESCRIPTION

White spots coat its back, and
white streaks run lengthwise
across the owl’s belly. White bars
run cross-wise on the neck and
breast. Its eyes are dark brown,
and coat is whitish and brown
with dark streaks. The barred
owl’s bill is yellowish brown.

Size:
-Length: 16-25”
-Wingspan: 38-50”
-Weight: 17.5-37oz
Young Hatch: min-April
Incubation: 28 days. The

barred owl
beings
incubation as soon
as the first egg is
laid and ends 28
days after the last
egg is laid.
Nestling: 4 months
Clutch Size: 2-3 eggs

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

Post #23 Great Horned Owl

Bubo virginianus

HISTORY

The great horned owl is also known as the hoot owl, cat owl or winged tiger. Its species
name, virginianus, reminds us that the first sighting of this bird by white Europeans occured
in the Virginia colonies. The common name is derived from the tufts of feathers on the owl’s
head that appear to be like “horns.” Johann Gmelin made the first published description
of the great horned owl in 1788. The great horned owl is found throughout North America
and into Central and South America. This owl is long-lived, dying between 29 to 38 years in
captivity and living up to 13 years in the wild. The majority of mortality is related to humans—
shootings, traps and road kills. American Indian tribes have different symbolic meanings
associated with the great horned owl. The Pawnees Indians view the owl as a symbol of
protection, but the Ojibwa Indians view it as a symbol of evil and death, as well as a symbol of
high status of spiritual leaders of their religion.

In the wild, the great horned owl will occasionally fight with the northern goshawk over
nesting sites, but this owl has no natural predators. The great horned owl is the only animal
that regularly eats skunks. In addition, it is unique in that it regularly kills and eats other owls.
The great horned owl is also an important predator of nestling ospreys. The great horned
owl has hindered the reintroduction of the peregrine falcon because it can kill both adult and
nestling falcons. The female great horned owl tends to be 10 to 20 percent larger than the
male owl, but the male still has a deeper calling voice.

WEB OF LIFE

Great horned owls are adapted to many climates
and areas. They can live in areas of dense forest,
deserts, plains and city parks. These owls prefer
woodland and agricultural areas. They are known
to inhabit the same areas as the red tailed hawk.
The great horned owl has a variety of nest sites,
such as trees, cliffs, buildings and the ground,
and it typically takes over nests in trees that are
made by other bird species. One of its common
nesting sites is on billboards.

Great horned owls usually hunt from a high
perch where they can see and hear prey. From this perch, they make short flights attack
potential dinner. These owls are also known to hunt prey while in flight, and they have been
seen walking on the forest floor to turning over litter and other materials to find insects, mice
and shrews. Great horned owls consume more than 250 different species, some of which
are two to three times heavier than the owls themselves. This owl prefers rabbits and hares,
and other prey includes mammals such as squirrels, minks, skunks, raccoons and birds such
as woodpeckers, crows, turkeys and pigeons. They also wade into water to consume crayfish,
fish, frogs and turtles. Rodents and small rabbits are swallowed when captured, and other
larger species are carried back to the owl’s nest or perch to be eaten there.

HABITS

The great horned owl is usually seen at dusk, but it can also be active in the late afternoon
and early morning. This owl is aggressive toward intruders when nesting. A great horned owl
makes a variety of sounds, ranging form deep, booming hoots to piercing shrieks. The male’s
call can be heard over several miles. Most calling occurs from dusk to midnight and just before
dawn. Their call is associated with the sound of the phrase, “Who’s a-wake? Me too.” Males and
females call to each other between January and February to begin mating activity.

DESCRIPTION

The great horned owl’s feathers vary from a reddish brown to gray or black and white. The
underside is light gray with dark bars and a white band of feathers on the upper breast. It
has yellowish-brown eyes bordered by orange discs. Tufts of feathers appear on the head,
and its talons are feathered as well.

Size:
-Length: 18-25”
-Wingspan 36-60”
-Weight: 32-63.5 ounces

Young Hatch: Late February or March
Incubation: 26 to 35 days
Nestling: Three months

Clutch size: Two to four eggs

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL



Pileated Woodpecker Holes
The pileated woodpecker (the inspiration for the cartoon character Woody
Woodpecker) is almost as large as a crow. The primary diet of the pileated
woodpecker includes ants, wood-boring beetle larvae, and fruits and nuts. These
rectangular holes were excavated by a woodpecker searching out delicious insects,
such as black carpenter ants.

Pileated Woodpecker

Dryocopus pileatus

HISTORY

The pileated woodpecker is found in forests throughout North America, from northern
Canada and south to Florida, as well as west to eastern parts of Texas and southeastern parts
of Oklahoma. In addition, the pileated woodpecker is the largest eastern woodpecker. This
bird is commonly known for its drumming noise when it drills holes into large trees. This
noise is not only used to create its habitat or to find food; it is also used to attract mates and
to announce the boundaries of its territories. The pileated woodpecker can live eight to nine
years in the wild. In eastern North America, the population of pileated woodpeckers declined
due to systematic logging in the 19th and 20th centuries. Forests have managed to regenerate
in recent decades, and the pileated woodpecker population has responded positively to this
growth. This bird is responsive to changing forest conditions.

The pileated woodpecker was the model for Woody the Woodpecker, and its Latin, name,
pileatus, means hood, which is for its red-hooded head.

WEB OF LIFE

The pileated woodpecker lives in the cavities
of large trees in deciduous and coniferous
forests. This bird prefers woodlands near
streams and rivers and areas with large dead
trees. A pileated woodpecker pair stays
together on their territory year-round and
will defend their territory, but they will allow
a few species to enter during the winter
months.

The primary food of the pileated woodpecker

is carpenter ants, which they hunt by

digging large, rectangular holes in trees. The

pileated woodpecker’s droppings usually

consist of nothing but ant exoskeletons. The

woodpecker’s holes in trees are known to

weaken smaller trees and can cause them

to break in half. It is important to note that

pileated woodpeckers never damage healthy

wood and only drill into trees with bugs

already in the unhealthy wood. Other birds

are attracted to these large openings left by

the woodpecker, with the intention to find

insects for feeding. The pileated woodpecker

is known to eat wood-boring beetle larvae, Pileated Woodpecker Holes

ants, fruits and nuts as well. PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

Post #25

HABITS

The pileated woodpecker can fly and hop on the ground. It gleans food from branches, trunks
and logs. It makes deep rectangular punctures into trees and logs, and then it pries off slivers
of wood to expose ants. The pileated woodpecker has a call as it flies through the air that
sounds like “kuk-kuk-kuk,” and it uses the drumming sound of its pecking to call other pileated
woodpeckers to mate. Breeding takes place in March in southern and coastal areas and in May
in northern areas.

DESCRIPTION

The pileated woodpecker
is crow-sized, with a zebra-
striped head and neck, long
bill and distinctive red crest
extending several inches
behind its head.

Length: 15-20”
Wingspan: 26-30”
Weight: 8-13 ounces
Young Hatch: Two weeks
after mating

Incubation period: 12
to 14 days, both parents
incubate eggs alternately
during the day, males at
night. Eggs are attended to
the majority of the time.

Nestling Period: Several
months

Clutch Size: Four eggs

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL



Pitch Pine

Heath Barrens
In the past, Pitch Pine was a major source of pitch and timber for shipbuilding,
railroad ties, and mine timbers because the wood’s high resin content preserves it
from decay. On South Hill, we have a community called the Pitch Pine Heath Barrens.
This community typically occurs on dry, nutrient-poor soils and is characterized by a
tall open canopy, an understory of dwarf shrubs (such as blueberry, huckleberry, &
deerberry) and little to no tall shrub layer.

Post #18 Pitch Pine

Pinus Rigida

HISTORY

The pitch pine is also known as black, torch or sap pine.

This eastern North American native tree inhabits central Maine, south to northern Georgia
and as far west as western Kentucky. The health of these forests depends on frequent fires.
Pitch pine is not considered long-lived, with an average lifespan of 78 years.
The pitch pine is known as the pine of Cape Cod and is a major species in New Jersey’s famous
Pine Barrens. When the colonists first entered the west part of New Jersey’s coastal marshes,
they found a vast forest of pitch pine and southern white cedar. This region also consisted of
sterile sand and bogs. Colonists discovered an abundance of bog iron ore—some of the first
iron available at this time. At this stage, pitch pine was the ideal wood for charcoal to use
during the smelting process to create iron. The pitch pine charcoal and the bog iron ore were
used to forge weapons for troops during the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.

Pitch pine is not the most durable wood and is difficult to work with, but despite these
characteristics, it was heavily used for the boat-building industry, barn floors and inexpensive
houses. This intensive exploitation of the pitch pine destroyed all virgin timber stands and has
left the Pine Barrens invaded by scrub oaks. The pines themselves are stunted, never again
growing 50’ to 60’ tall, as they once did. The colonists were unable to farm on the region’s
nutrient-poor soil, so the Pine Barrens still exist.

In the early 1800s, residents of Ithaca, N.Y., extracted tar from pitch pine and exported this
resource to surrounding areas. Later, Tompkins County’s pitch pine trees appeared to have
been wiped out as part of early deforestation. Since this time, the county has undergone
some reforestation projects to bring back this tree to the area

WEB OF LIFE

The pitch pine thrives in less-fertile sites and shallow, sandy or gravelly soils on plains of
glacial origin. This tree is commonly seen on steep slopes, ridges, plateaus, highlands and also
glacial plains. It can grow on sites with various moisture conditions. The pitch pine is slow-
growing and shade-intolerant. The trees associated with the pitch pine include oaks on dry
sites, and red maple and black gum on wet sites. Eastern white pine and lowbush blueberries
often occur with the pitch pine.

Pitch pine is a fire-adapted species that grows from serotinous cones, which are covered with
a resin that must be melted for the cone to open up and release seeds. When a fire moves
through the forest, the cones open up and release the seeds, which are then spread through
wind and gravity. In addition, fire helps kill competing vegetation and provides a suitable
seedbed. The pitch pine is associated with other fire-adapted species, like the scarlet oak,
creating fire-resistant forest communities.

Pitch pine seeds are eaten by many species of birds and mammals, such as the white-tailed
deer. Many birds nest in the dense foliage, including the morning dove, brown thrasher, pine
warbler and purple finch.

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, colonists extracted tar, pitch and turpentine
from the resinous knots of the pitch pine through
crude distillation. At the time, the tar and turpentine
were considered the best axel grease for wagons. In
addition, this tree’s resistance to water decay made
it an ideal wood for barn floors and water wheels for
mills. The high resin content of the knotty wood also
made it suitable for torches. When the trees were in
abundance, children were sent out to gather pitch pine
knots, which were then tied to a pole and lit to provide
light for settlers. These torches could burn for hours.

Today, the pitch pine is considered difficult to work with
because it is coarsely grained and full of knots. It is no
longer a part of the domestic American economy. Its
uses are limited to wharf piles, mine timbers and the
production of cheap crate material.

Upper Right

Stem, Needles & Cones of the Pitch Pine

Below

Pitch Pine’s Epicormic Shoots

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK
DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing features of the pitch pine include
thick and twisted 3-5”needles in bundles of three (the
only native three-needled pine in northeastern North
America), 1 ¼-2 ¾” long cones with a ridged prickle and
scales that thicken near the top, and tufts of needles on
the trunk, some of which bear cones.

Height: 40-60’
Diameter: 1-2’
Needles: Evergreen, 3-5,” three in a bundle, stout,

stiff, yellow-green.
Bark: Mature bark is dark reddish-brown and thick,

and with age it becomes tough, broad and flat-
topped, with dark gray plates.
Twigs: Stout, greenish-orange, turning dark grayish-
brown, roughened by ridges and grooves.
Cones: 1 ¼-2 ¾” long, yellow-brown from May to

June, open at maturity at irregula intervals,
egg-shaped and flattened at the base with
raised, thickened, prickly scales. Can stay on
the tree up to a decade.



Edible Species
Many of the species on South Hill are edible, but you must remember the five “rights”
prior to ingesting any part of these species:

The Five “Rights” For Edible Species
(2)Are you eating the RIGHT PART?
(3)Are you harvesting at the RIGHT TIME?
(4)Have you done the RIGHT PREPARATION?
(5)If it is rare, is it RIGHT TO EAT IT?

Serviceberry

Amelanchier arborea

HISTORY

The serviceberry is also known as Downy or Common serviceberry, juneberry, sadblow
serviceberry, Saskatoon and shadbush. This native tree blooms in the spring, and New Yorkers
associated this with the annual shad fish spawn in the Hudson and Delaware River, which led
to the nickname shadbush. Also, people would often associate this tree’s blossom in early
spring with funeral services, which were often delayed by snow and frozen ground until that
time—hence the name “serviceberry.” This tale was created long after the name was in use.
Serviceberry is a corruption of an older name of a similar fruit in England, “sarvissberry.” The
serviceberry can be found in parts of Canada and from the coast of Maine to the Carolinas,
and it is often not recognized as an excellent source of food.
American Indians were known to gather serviceberries by the bushel, and they dried and
stored this food source for winter. Today, they are considered a minor fruit, as the berries are
small and quite similar to blueberries. Due to this similarity and lack of popularity, this fruit is
not commercially cultivated.

WEB OF LIFE

The serviceberry prefers wet or moist, sandy or clay, well-drained soils and full sun to partial
shade conditions. The serviceberry naturally occurs in wet sites, bogs, swamps. Its favorable
habitats also include pine barrens, lakeshores, bluffs, fencerows, field edges, abandoned
farmlands, roadsides and young or open woods.
Wild birds, squirrels, raccoons, bears, beavers, skunks, red foxes and deer tend to eat the
most berries from these trees. The birds tend to pick the berries before they are fully ripe.
Specific birds include the ring-necked pheasant, bluebird, cardinal, chickadee and robin.

Post #21

Service Berry Leaf

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, American Indians and colonists used the species’
dried fruits to flavor pemmican, a type of hard, dried meat.

The fruits of the serviceberry are edible raw or cooked and
have a sweet-tasting flavor with a hint of apple. The fruit of
this tree can be picked in late June through September. The
quality of fruit varies from one species to the next, but all are
edible and most are very good. The fruit can be eaten fresh,
in pies and in both preserved and dried forms. It is important
to bear in mind that the fruit varies in quality, with some
tasting bitter and others delicious. The fruit is rich in iron and
copper.

Service Berry Stem & Flowers

DRAWING: KEVIN GILL

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing traits of the serviceberry include its
spring white or light pink flowers, blackish-purple sweet
berries and light gray bark with horizontal grooved
markings.

Height: 6-30’
Width: 10’
Bark: Gray-silver, smooth but also striped with

horizontal shallow slashes.
Leaves: Elliptical, alternating on the stem, white and

fuzzy when young, and becoming shiny green
when mature. In the fall, the leaves turn
yellow, red and orange.
Flower: White, five-petaled, in erect clusters 2” long,
arranged as clusters along an unbranched,
elongated axis. The serviceberry blooms in
the spring.
Fruit: Blackish and dark purple when ripe, sweet and
edible.

Black Cherry

Prunus serotina

HISTORY

This tree has many common names, such as American cherry, wild black cherry, rum cherry
and mountain black cherry. This tree’s Latin name, Prunus, means “plum,” and serotina refers
to “later-ripening fruit.” This name is in reference to the tree’s dark, reddish-black fruit. The
black cherry can be found in southern Quebec to Nova Scotia, south to central Florida, west
to east Texas and north to Minnesota. This tree grows rapidly, often adding an inch a year to
its diameter. The black cherry was one of the first New World trees introduced into English
gardens around 1629. Colonists would often flavor their brandy with the fruit of the black
cherry to make a drink called cherry bounce, which later led to the name “rum cherry.” Today,
it is one of the most important trees grown for fine furniture wood.

WEB OF LIFE

This tree prefers rich soil with uniform moisture, which is found on bottomlands and moist
hillsides. This tree is shade-tolerant and can sometimes be found in pure stands but thrives
best among other trees, such as oaks, hickories, basswood, yellow poplar, white ash, red
maple, sugar maple, beech, yellow birch, eastern white pine, hemlock, red spruce and balsam
fir.

Black cherry leaves, twigs, bark and seeds are poisonous to livestock—the tree’s leaves, twigs,
bark and seeds contain cayanogenic glycoside, which breaks down during digestion into
hydrocyanic acid and causes a reaction in livestock. The white-tailed deer eats the leaves and
twigs without harm. Birds such as the American robin, brown thrasher, mockingbird, eastern
bluebird, European starling, gray catbird, blue jay, willow flycatcher and northern cardinal
eat the fruit. They are also essential for the ruffled grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, wild turkey,
northern bobwhite and prairie chicken during the summer and fall. The fruit is also consumed
by mammals such as red fox, raccoon, opossum, squirrel and rabbit and it is known to be a
favorite food source of the black bear.

The black cherry is subject to disease and pest damage. Some of these diseases include black
nob—a fungal disease that causes elongated rough black swellings—and numerous root and
butt rotting fungi. Insects of concern include the eastern tent caterpillar and the cherry scallop
shell moth, which can cause growth loss and mortality. Borers and beetles have the potential
to damage the tree as well.

Post #19

PRODUCTS & USES

This tree is known for its high-quality wood, which was used
by colonial craftsmen to create furniture, such as cabinets. The
wood’s fine, even texture makes it perfect for furniture and a
decorative finishes.

Today, the wood is used for furniture, paneling, professional
and scientific instruments, handles and toys. The bark is used to
make “wild cherry” cough syrup. Jelly and wine are created with
the fruit. Its consistently delicious-tasting fruit makes it a great
trailside nibble.

Black Cherry Leaf

PHOTO: DREA KASIANCHUK

DESCRIPTION

The characteristics that make this tree noticeable in a forest are
its pointed, oval leaves with reddish-brown hairs underneath
along both sides of the mid-rib near the leaf base. Its mature
bark resembles burnt potato chips. Its fruit is black and tends to
be in clusters.

Height: 80’
Diameter: 2’
Leaves: 2-5” long, 1 ¼ -2” wide, alternates, elliptic, dark

green on top and paler on the other side.
Bark: Dark gray, smooth, with horizontal lines, becoming

irregularly fissured, scaly and exposing reddish-brown
inner bark.
Twigs: Red-brown, slender and hairless.
Flowers: 3/8” wide, five rounded white petals
Fruits: Dark red, becoming close to the color of black when
ripe. Bitter, juicy, edible, but cherries are
undependable—taste varies tree to tree.

Shagbark Hickory

Carya ovata

HISTORY

The shagbark hickory belongs to the walnut family, and it is often confused with New York’s
threatened species, shellbark hickory, Carya laciniosa. The American Indians used the
tree’s nuts as a source of food. They steeped pounded hickory nuts to create sweet milk,
pawcohiccora, which later led to the Algonquian Indians’ name for the tree, “hickory.” Also,
the American Indian name for the nut was Kwaskadamenné, which means that it “must be
cracked with the teeth.” This tree is found throughout the Northeastern United States from
Maine and southern Quebec and Ontario to southeastern Minnesota and southward to East
Texas and Georgia. Hickories are known to grow slowly and may live as long as 250 years. The
shagbark hickory is peculiar in that it does not mature until about 40-60 years of age, when a
single tree may produce one to two bushels of nuts annually.

This species is one of the most distinctive hickories because of its shaggy bark. Its wood is also
strong, tough, light and elastic, and it is associated with the early settler’s phrase “tough as
hickory.” Hence, President Jackson’s strong leadership qualities as a commander in the War of
1812 left him with the nickname “Old Hickory.”

In Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell Professor Laurence H. MacDaniels (1888-1986) planted hundreds of
nut trees, including shagbark hickories, in the Ithaca area. These patches of nut trees were an
agricultural crop experiment that still remains today and are known as MacDaniels’ nut grove.

Post #5 WEB OF LIFE

The shagbark hickory prefers a humid climate and well-drained, moist soils, but it can tolerate
drier uplands. It is found on a variety of sites and is most commonly seen on south-facing
slopes. The shagbark hickory usually stands among other hardwoods, most often with oaks.
These oak-hickory forest types support diverse herb and shrub layers on the forest floor,
which are valuable for wildlife.

The shagbark hickory’s Latin name, ovata, means “egg-shaped,” which refers to the shape of
the tree’s nut. These heavy nuts ripen in September through October and fall to the ground
in September through December. The sweet, aromatic nut is a major part of the diets of red
squirrels, eastern gray squirrels, eastern fox squirrels, eastern chipmunks and raccoons. Deer,
wild turkeys and bears eat the nuts as well but prefer the twigs, bark and foliage.

Hickory bark beetles, Scolytus
quadrispinosus, can cause
significant damage to the shagbark
hickory, and they typically attack
the tree following a fire or drought
when the tree is weakened. Major
diseases of the shagbark hickory
are anthracnose, Gnomonia
caryae, a fungus that causes leaf
spots.

Other Types of Hickory Fruits DRAWINGS: KEVIN GILL

PRODUCTS & USES

This tree is known for its high-quality wood, which was
used by colonial craftsmen to In the past, the American
Indians used hickory milk, pawcohiccora, for cooking
corn cakes and hominy. They would also mash the tree’s
nuts, boil them in water and use the oils that float to the
surface for other cooking purposes.

Because the wood is shock-resistant, the settlers most
commonly used it for tool handles, such as the ax. Its
wood was also used for ladder rungs and wooden spokes
for wagons.

Today, both wild and cultivated varieties of shagbark

are used to grow nuts and for lumber. The wood is still

used for tool handles and is now also used for sporting Shagbark Hickory Fruit
equipment, such as baseball bats. It is also known as the
only reliable edible hickory in the Eastern United States. DRAWINGS: KEVIN GILL

The nuts often have a similar taste to pecans, which are a part of the same family—“Carya.” In

addition they are an excellent source of fuel.

DESCRIPTION

The distinguishing feature of this tree is its long plates of
bark, free at one end or both ends and curving outward,
making the tree appear shaggy. Also distinctive is its leaf with
five leaflets, the center being the largest, all fringed with
small hairs. In addition, its fruit is a distinctive characteristic,
with its thick husk, splitting at the base, opening to wide
yellow and brown edible nuts.

Height: 70-100’
Diameter: 2 ½’
Leaves: Finger-like leaf compound, with five 8” fine-

toothed leaflets. The leaves are shiny, dark
green above, pale and covered with soft hairs
beneath.
Bark: Light gray; smooth on young trunks and
becoming rough, with loosely attached plates
giving a distinctively shaggy appearance with
age.
Twigs: Stout, shiny, reddish-brown to gray brown,
becoming gray.
Flowers: Male and female both small without petals,
clustered in catkins. Males catkins yellow-
green, with three hanging branches to 5”
long. Female flowers grow separately on the
same plant.
Fruit: Husk is 1 ¾-2 ½” long, nut encased in thick,
spherical husk, splitting at the base when the fruit is
ripe.

Post #26 White Oak

Quercus alba

HISTORY

The white oak is known by many other names, such as eastern white oak, fork-leaf white oak, ridge
white oak and stave oak. The name “stave oak” is in reference to the tight quality of the wood, which
was a useful quality for making barrels for whiskey and other liquids. Its Latin name, Quercus, means
“beautiful tree.” White oaks can be found in southern Ontario and southern Quebec, east to Maine,
south to northern Florida, west to eastern Texas, and north to central Minnesota. In addition, white
oaks can be found in Eurasia and Africa. This tree is slow to grow and is long-lived. Some white oaks
are known to live 800 years. White oak is the state tree of Connecticut, Maryland and West Virginia.
American Indians taught the colonists to boil the acorns of white oaks for food. The raw nuts taste
slightly bitter and were much sweeter after boiling.

The British had cut down many of their white oak trees to build ships for the Royal Navy. England was
facing a shortage of trees and was intrigued to hear that the colonists found acres of white oak after
discovering new land. Yet, the Royal Navy complained that this white oak wood was weaker than their
own as a structural timber and that it was more prone to decay. The British neglected to season the
wood—to air-dry it over a long period and keep from exposure to wind and rain—which is known to
lessen the formation of cracks.

The dry rot of the American white oak posed problems while at sea. The dry rot would not appear on
the surface and would often cause the interior of the wood to decay. This would occur most in the
futtocks or wales of the ship—just above the waterline. This led to the famous disaster of the Royal
George in 1782, when the whole bottom for the ship dropped. Despite this instance, the American
colonists were determined to use this wood to build their own ships. The colonists were able to
effectively work with this wood and build ships to carry New England sea captains around the world,
like on the ship the Constitution. As of World War II, the white oak still had a place with the American
Navy, as the tree’s wood was used to build the keels of mine sweepers and patrol boats. The trees
used in this instance came from Franklin D. Roosevelt’s estate in Hyde Park.

Oaks in general are considered a tree of worship and were associated with many gods, such as the
Norse Thor, the Roman Jupiter, the Slavic Perun, the Celtic Dagda and the Hebrew El. Large oak trees
have often been centers for meetings and prayer. Yet, during thunderstorms, it is highly suggested to
avoid oaks because people believe this tree attracts lightning. This is true to a certain extent because
of the tree’s great height and the dryness of its fissured bark. When an oak is hit by lightning, the
electrical current seeks moisture behind its thick bark, and the tree tends to explode. The Greeks
related this tree to Zeus, who was known to throw lightening bolts, and Thor, the thunder god.

Today, the white oak is considered the most important species of oak in the United States because of
its extensive range and many uses.

WEB OF LIFE

The white oak is typically found on sandy plains, gravelly and stony ridges, and rich uplands with
well-drained sand or clay soils. This tree is shade-tolerant and can persist as an understory tree, but
it thrives once the stand is opened. White oaks are seen in forests with other oaks, black cherry,
hickories, sugar maple or white pine.

The acorns are a valuable source of food for wildlife. More than 180 species of bird and mammals feed
on acorns. Some of these mammals include squirrels, deer, turkeys, quails, crows, woodpeckers, blue
jays, gray foxes, rabbits and black bears.

The white oak is subject to disease and pests. The most destructive disease is oak wilt, which is
triggered by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum and causes white oaks to die slowly. Most of the
oak’s losses are attributed to cankers, or bark diseases, which are caused by Strumella coryneoida
and Nectrica galligena. These fungi can attack the trunk and damage it so it can no longer be used for
lumber. Root rots can attack, weaken and stress trees. Anthracnose affects the leaves, leaving brown
spots, and this is usually caused by Gnomonia venata. Leaf blisters are associated with the white oak
as well and are caused by Taphrina caerulescens. Several destructive insects attack the white oak.
Pests can cause more damage if a tree is already in a weakened state. Woodborers cause the most
significant damage by eating at the inside of the tree. The tree is also attacked by leaf eaters, such as
the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), the orange-striped timber worm (Anisota senatoria) and the oak
lace bug (Corythucha ciliata). The white oak is also the host to many gall-forming insects. The tree’s
acorns are sometimes damaged by weevils.

PRODUCTS & USES

In the past, the American Indians used the acorns of the white oak as a source of food. They ate the raw
nuts, which were known to be rich in carbohydrates and fats. The American Indians would also pour
boiling water over the shelled nuts to remove the tannin and dry the nut to be grounded into meal for
flour and breads. Pre-agriculture, human civilizations were balanocultures. Civilizations formed around
the collection, storage, preparation and consumption of acorns because they were a reliable source of
food. This was around A.D. 160.

The American colonists got the most use out of the tree’s wood. They would build houses, cabinets,
interior trim, flooring, railroad ties, pilings, barrels, bridges, ships, barns, mills and log cabins with the
white oak. It was also used as a source of fuel and is known as a fireplace favorite. The wood of white
oak was durable and used to build furniture. The tree’s bark also contained a high content of tannin, and
therefore it was stripped and used in tanneries to tan hides. The bark was pounded finely and soaked
for weeks with animal skins—the more vegetable tannin accepted by the skin, the firmer the leather
produced. In addition, oak bark and acorns were used to create yellow, green and brown dyes.

Today, the white oak is the most valuable source of lumber in the United States. At present, white oak
wood is used to build flooring, interior trim, oak paneling and furniture, such as office desks. Wood cut
from tress under 150 years old is not usually ideal; the highest quality of wood is obtained from trees
between 100 to 300 years of age. This poses a problem today as centenarian trees are cut or die. It is
also still considered one of the best types of wood for fuel.

Acron Diversity On South HIll

Top Row: red oaks (northern red, scarlet & black) DRAWINGS: BRITTANY LONGHETANO
Bottom Row: white oaks (white, swamp white & chestnut)

DESCRIPTION

One of the most distinguishing features of the white oak is its
extensive root system, which is often a reflection of the giant
tree above ground. Its leaves are blue-green, with rounded
lobes. The acorn cap is shallow, enclosing a quarter of the
nut, and the rim has no fringe. The mature bark is light gray
with thin rectangular plates on the lower trunk.

Height: 80-100’
Diameter: 3-4’
Leaves: 4-9” long, 2-4” wide, elliptical with five to nine

lobes (widest beyond the middle and tapering
near base). The leaves are hairless, blue-green
above and gray-green beneath, turning red or
brown in the fall and remaining on the tree in the
winter.
Bark: Light gray with shallow fissures that become broad,
scaly plates or ridges with age and often come
loose.
Twigs: Wide with light-colored pours, shiny or covered
with a white bloom. The shoots are a reddish-gray.
Flowers: Female and male flowers bloom in May or June.
Male catkins are hairy, and female flowers are
reddish, very hairy and grow on short stalks.
Fruit: Acorn, ½- ¾,” light brown, cup-like with small
scales, which enclose a quarter of the nut. The rim
has no fringe. Matures in one season, unlike the
red oak’s acorns that mature after two seasons, and
germinates in autumn.