Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism

bïja–mantra 40

may be preferable to indifference, because Bïrünï, al- (973–1051)
it is at least a reaction to his presence.
Persian Muslim scholar, scientist and
bïja–mantra (‘seed-mantra’) diplomat who travelled through India
Single syllables believed to be the sonic from 1030 to 1042. He learned Sanskrit
equivalent of certain divine powers. and was the first foreigner to give exten-
They are especially used by Tantrikas. sive and correct descriptions of the major
(See also TANTRA (2).) branches of Hindu learning and sum-
maries of important Hindu writings. His
bilva al-Hind became the single most impor-
Tree, sacred to Ÿiva. Its leaves are tant source of information about India
offered in worship. and Hinduism for centuries to come.

biƒba–pratibiƒba Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna
(‘image and reflection’) (1831–1891)
MADHVA’s description of the relation-
ship between the supreme and the Born Helena Petrovna Hahn-Hahn in
human. While rejecting the Advaitins’ Ekaterinoslav (Russia), she developed
assumption of the identity of ÄTMAN occult powers early on. Married at 17
and BRAHMAN, he nevertheless admits to to a much older man, whom she soon
a concept of the human being as ‘reflect- left, she travelled through Europe,
ing’ certain features of brahman. America, Egypt, India and Tibet, where
she claimed to have met the ‘Master’ she
biæõu ‘drop’ (1) had seen long before in her dreams.
A coloured spot in the middle of the Settling in New York in 1873 and join-
forehead of a woman, indicating her ing the spiritual movement she became
married status. acquainted with Colonel Henry S.
Olcott with whom she formed the
biæõu (2) Theosophical Society in 1875. She
Name for moon. became widely known through her
occult writings, especially Isis Unveiled
biæõu (3) (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888).
In the title of a book, a very short sum- She moved to India in 1878, transfer-
mary of a longer text. ring the headquarters of the
Theosophical Society to ADYAR
birth (Madras), and founding a journal, The
The birth of a child is surrounded by a Theosophist, dedicated to uniting
great many rituals and festivities, such as Eastern spirituality and Western sci-
establishing a HOROSCOPE, giving a NAME, ence. The day of her death, 8 May
feeding brahmins etc. Hindus speak of a 1891, is celebrated as ‘White Lotus
‘second’ birth which is accomplished Day’ by the members of the
through UPA-NAYANA by which a person Theosophical Society.
becomes a full member of the Hindu
community. Some also talk about a bliss
‘third birth’, i.e. the birth of one’s own
child, in which the father is ‘reborn’. See ÄNANDA.

bodha (‘understanding’)

Personified as son of Buddhi, one of the
daughters of DAKÆA.

41 Brahmä Kumäris

Bodhäyana by AVIDYÄ (ignorance, lack of wisdom).
It consists of the triad of moha–lobha–
Author of a (lost) gloss on the Brahma- krodha (delusion–greed–anger) which
sütras. causes people to commit acts that bind
them into the cycle of rebirths. More
body specifically, each Hindu school of
thought defines the causes of bondage
Hinduism has an ambivalent attitude in correlation to the view of the nature
towards the body. On the one hand of liberation. Thus SÄßKHYA considers
there is a sharp dichotomy between the spirit’s infatuation with nature as
body and spirit and most Hindu systems the cause of its bondage; Advaitins iden-
insist on viveka (discernment) through tify avidyä with the habitual perceiving
which a person learns to identify with of plurality; RÄMÄNUJA teaches that
the spirit and to consider the body as ‘forgetfulness’ (of one’s true nature as a
‘non-self’. On the other hand, the body child of God) is the root of human
is valued as a vehicle of salvation: all bondage. All systems also teach means
acts necessary to obtain liberation and practices to become free. (See also
require a well-functioning body. Many LIBERATION; REBIRTH.)
systems of YOGA aim at maintaining or
restoring bodily health. In TANTRA (2) Brahmä
the body acquires even greater impor-
tance as the seat of ÿakti and as an In Hindu mythology the creator of the
indispensable instrument for realizing universe; the first member of the tri-
BHUKTI and mukti ([spiritual] LIBERA- mürti (consisting of Brahmä, Vi•æu and
TION) together. Ÿiva). He is represented as four-faced.
Originally he had five heads; the loss of
According to Hindu psychology and the fifth head is explained variously by
physiology the human being has three different myths. In iconography he is
components: the gross body (sthüla represented with four arms, holding a
ÿarïra); the subtle body (sük•ma ÿarïra); sceptre, a ladle, a string of beads and the
and the spirit–soul (ätman). While the book of the Veda. His consort is
gross body decays at death, the subtle SARASVATÏ, the goddess of learning. His
body (roughly equivalent to what is vehicle (VAHANA) is a swan. There are
today called the ‘psyche’), in which the only a few Brahmä temples left in India,
person’s KARMA is stored, lives on and is the most famous in Puskär (Gujarat).
in due time reincarnated in a new The BRAHMÄ PURÄŒA contains a large
(gross) body. This cycle of death and amount of mythology concerning
reincarnation continues as long as the Brahmä.
subtle body exists, united with the
undecaying and unchanging ätman. Brahmä Kumäris (‘Daughters of
Hindu strategies of liberation are aimed Brahmä’)
at annihilating the subtle body, neutral-
izing the force of karma and freeing the A religious order of celibate women,
ätman from its bondage to the (gross founded in 1937 by a Sindhi business-
and subtle) body. (See also NÄ¥I.) man, Dada Lekhraj (1876–1969). Their
headquarters are on Mount Abu; they
bondage (bandha) have centres in all major Indian cities
and in some cities outside India. They
Hindus believe that due to the influence claim a following of over 100,000
of immemorial KARMA (2) every human worldwide and are active in YOGA edu-
being is born in (spiritual) bondage and cation. Dada Lekhraj had visions of
that every effort must be undertaken to
achieve LIBERATION. Bondage is caused

Brahma Puräæa 42

Vi•æu and received prophecies about consciousness, infinity, omnipotence,
the end of the world, which was to be eternity, immanence in all things, bliss-
followed by an earthly paradise. fulness and unfathomableness. It is
unborn and uncreated, and the source
Brahma Puräæa and ultimate destiny of everything.
The first in the list of the 18 Mahä-purä-
nas, also called Ädi-puräna, describing Brähmaæa (1)
the origin of the universe. It has major The second part of the VEDA, a class of
parts devoted to a description of the voluminous writings that was intended
holy places of Orissa. to guide the BRÄHMAŒAS (2) in their rit-
uals. They also contain short versions of
Brahmä saƒpradäya myths which are found expanded in the
One of the four sections of VAIÆŒAVISM, Puräæas. The oldest Sanskrit prose
also called Madhva saƒpradäya, follow- texts, they are divided into four groups,
ing the teachings of DVAITA VEDÄNTA. according to the division of the Veda.
Its centre is in U¥IPÏ (Karæätaka). Øgveda: Aitareya and Kauÿïtakï Bräh-
maæas; Black Yajurveda: Katha and
brahmacäri Taittirïya Brähmaæas; White Yajur-
One who leads the brahman life, i.e. veda: Ÿatapatha Brähmaæa; Sämaveda:
lives in strict celibacy. Pañcaviƒÿa, Æadviƒÿa and Jaiminïya
Brähmaæas; Atharvaveda: Gopatha
brahmacarya Brähmaæa.
(‘way of life of brahman’)
The first stage in the life of a brahmin, Brähmaæa(s) (2), also brahmin(s)
‘studenthood’, where strict sexual conti- The first and highest VARŒA, created
nence and service to one’s GURU is oblig- to recite the Veda, to perform rituals
atory. Some opt for lifelong brahma- and to teach the rest of the people by
carya and become SAMNYÄSIS without word and deed the true nature of
going through the gøhastya (householder) DHARMA. Due to their descent, their
stage. education and their influence they
enjoyed high status throughout Indian
Brahma-loka history.
Also Sarvaloka (‘all places’) and
Satyaloka (‘sphere of truth’), the abode brahmända
of BRAHMÄ, the highest point in the tra- See WORLD EGG.
ditional Hindu universe, from which
there is no return. Brahmända Puräæa
Puräæa containing a detailed account of
brahman the development of the brahmäæõa
The supreme being, universal conscious- (WORLD EGG) as well as prophecies
ness, the highest reality. Derived from about the future.
the Sanskrit root bøh (to grow, to
become large), it denotes greatness per Brahmäæï
se. It is a key concept in the Upani•ads The female form or the daughter of
and in the Vedänta systems. Brahman is BRAHMÄ, also known as ŸATARÜPÄ
SACCIDÄNANDA, i.e. it is characterized by (hundred forms).

43 Braja

brahma-randhra Brahma-vaivarta Puräæa
(‘Brahma’s crevice’)
Aperture at the crown of the head, iden- A rather late Vai•æava Puräæa which
tified by the ŸIKHA, the small tuft of hair relates in great detail the story of KØÆŒA
kept unshaven. According to popular and RÄDHÄ.
Hindu tradition it is the opening
through which the soul of a good per- brahmävarta
son leaves the body at the time of death. (‘The country where brahmins dwell’)
Bad souls are forced downwards
through the excretionary channels. The Hindu heartland, considered the
ideal living space for Brahmins.
Brahma-rekha (‘Brahmä’s line’) Brahmins living in brahmävarta were
According to popular Hindu belief held up as exemplars to the others.
BRAHMÄ inscribes a child’s destiny on its
forehead on the sixth day after its birth. brahma-vidyä
(‘brahman knowledge’)
brahmästra (‘Brahma’s weapon’)
An unfailing device, mentioned in the The highest kind of knowledge, knowl-
epics. edge that liberates: ‘Those who know
brahman become brahman.’ To attain it
a person has to practise SÄDHANAS
and fulfil a variety of conditions
(ADHIKÄRAS).

Brahma-sütra brahmin
See BRÄHMAŒA (2).
Also called Vedäntasütra, a collection
of 550 aphorisms. It is arranged in four Brahmo Samäj
pädas (parts), subdivided into four (‘Brahman Association’)
adhyäyas (chapters), each containing a A reformist Hindu movement founded
number of sütras (aphorisms) purport- by Ram Mohan ROY in 1828 as
ing to summarize the content of the ‘Brahmo Sabhä’ and in 1843 restruc-
UPANIÆADS. The present Brahmasütras tured and renamed ‘Brahmo Samäj’ by
are ascribed to BÄDARÄYANA, although Debendranath TAGORE. It aimed at
the names of former authors of such purifying Hinduism and developing a
works (all of them lost) are mentioned. strong ethical consciousness among
The Brahmasütras have become the Hindus.
most important text of the Vedänta sys-
tems: its brevity necessitates lengthy Braja, also Brajbhümi, Vraja
commentaries (bhä•yas) which have
become the main sources of the various The district around Mathurä, Uttar
systems. Each of these has a proper Pradesh, associated with Kø•æa. It com-
name: Ÿaökara’s commentary is called prises, besides Mathurä, the birthplace
Ÿarïrakabhä•ya, RÄMÄNUJA’s Ÿrïbhä•ya of Kø•æa, Gokula, the hometown of his
and MADHVA’s Aæubhä•ya. foster-parents, where he grew up,
Vøndävana, the place where he frol-
brahma-vädinï icked with the GOPIS, Govardhana,
where he sheltered the shepherds from
A class of women mentioned in the torrential rains, and many other forests
HARITA-SMØTI, who remained celibate and ponds associated with his exploits.
and devoted themselves to study and Revived in the 16th century by the
ritual.

breath control 44

followers of CAITANYA, Brajbhümi is the on astronomy/ASTROLOGY, the making
destination of many millions Hindu pil- of IMAGES and TEMPLES, and other
grims every year and a preferred place matters of importance in connection
of retirement for many pious with worship.
VAIÆŒAVAS. The local language,
Brajbhä•a, a dialect of Hindi, is a major Buddha (sixth century BCE)
literary language especially for devo-
tional works. Gautama Buddha, founder of Bud-
dhism, often described in Hindu writ-
breath control ings as the worst enemy of Hinduism;
also listed as the ninth AVATÄRA of
See PRÄŒAYAMA. VIÆŒU who descended to earth in order
to lead astray people who were destined
Bøhad-äraæyaka Upani•ad not to be saved by Vi•æu.

One of the oldest major UPANIÆADS, the
longest of all, extensively used by
Vedäntins. It is the last part of the Ÿata-
patha Brähmaæa and combines both
ÄRAŒYAKA and Upani•ad. (See also
BRÄHMAŒA (1).)

Bøhad-devatä

An ancient vedic work (fifth century
BCE) containing a systematics of the
deities that are addressed in the Vedic
HYMNS.

Bøhaspati Buddha, the founder of Buddhism,
depicted as the ninth avatära
This name is frequently encountered in of Vi•æu.
Hindu literature, with a variety of con-
notations. In the Vedas he is a deity, the buddhi
priest of the gods. In later times he is a (Sense-related) mind, sensus communis.
ØÆI. The ø•i Bøhaspati was the son of the (See also MANAS.)
ø•i ANGIRAS, and is also called Ängirasa.
His wife, TÄRÄ, was carried off by Soma Buddhism
(the moon); this led to a war, after At the time of Gautama Buddha (sixth
which Tärä was restored to Bøhaspati. century BCE) there were many different
She subsequently bore a son, BUDHA, schools of thought and many teachers
who was claimed by both Bøhaspati and of practices that claimed to lead to
Soma. Soma was declared the father. emancipation. When Prince Siddhärtha
Bøhaspati is also the presiding deity of left his home in search of enlightenment
the planet Jupiter, and a day of the he underwent the usual training of a
week, Bøhaspativära (Thursday), is SAMNYÄSI and practised severe forms of
named after him. self-mortification (TAPAS). After gaining
enlightenment and becoming a Buddha,
Bøhat-saƒhitä

A famous work by Varäha Mihira
(sixth century) containing information

45 Burnouf, Eugéne

an enlightened one, he first approached Bühler, Georg (1837–98)
his former companions in a grove near
Väräæasï to announce to them the good A gifted linguist (he studied Latin, Greek,
news of the finding of deathlessness and Arabic, Persian, Zend, Armenian and
freedom from suffering. It was only in Sanskrit), he spent many years in India as
the course of time that Buddha’s teach- professor of oriental languages at
ing, which de-emphasized caste and ritu- Elphinstone College, Bombay, and was
al, and taught liberation through an eth- officially entrusted with the collection of
ical life and meditation only, was consid- Sanskrit manuscripts in the Bombay
ered heterodox and his followers were Presidency. He produced valuable cata-
deemed outside the Hindu community. logues of manuscripts, edited texts and
produced translations of Sanskrit and
In later centuries, when Buddhism Prakrit texts. He specialized in Indian
became the predominant religion in law and contributed a translation of the
India, Hindus considered it (together MANU-SMØTI with an extensive intro-
with JAINISM) the paradigm of a nästika duction of his own to the Sacred Books
(heterodox) system, a DARŸANA (2) that of the East series. He later occupied the
did not recognize the Veda as supreme chair of Sanskrit at Vienna and became
authority and precluded membership in co-founder of the Oriental Institute of
SANÄTANA DHAØMA. From the eighth cen- Vienna and its journal.
tury CE onwards, beginning with
Kumärila Bhaflfla’s Ÿlokavärttika, a major Burnouf, Eugéne (1801–52)
Hindu polemic against Buddhism devel-
oped, which found expression in hun- He studied Sanskrit with his father,
dreds of literary works as well as Jean-Louis Burnouf, and with L. de
in the occasional persecution of Chézy, the first occupant of a chair in
Buddhists. In modern India there is a ten- Sanskrit at a European university.
dency to consider Buddhism as one of the While his main interest was in Buddhist
forms of Indian religiosity that in course texts, he contributed to the study of
of time was reabsorbed by Hinduism. Hinduism through his translation of the
entire Bhägavatam into French (1840–8).
budha (‘wise, intelligent’) He persuaded Max MÜLLER to under-
take the first critical edition of the
The planet Mercury; son of Soma (moon), ØGVEDA (1849–73).
by TÄRÄ (star), wife of BØHASPATI.

C

caitanya eight verses is ascribed to him
(Ÿïk•ä•flaka), his immediate followers,
See CONSCIOUSNESS. the six Gosvämis, who revived
VØNDÄVANA as a centre of Kø•æa wor-
Caitanya, also Kø•æa Caitanya ship in the 16th century, produced
(‘Kø•æa Consciousness’) (1486–1533) under his inspiration and command
voluminous literature in which the
Born Viÿvambhara Miÿra, the second teachings of Gaudïya Vai•æavism are
son of a VAI•¢AVA brahmin family, at laid out. The most important of these
Nadia (Navadvip, Bengal) he married are RÜPA GOSVÄMI’s Bhakti-rasämøta-
Lak•mïprïyä at the age of 19, and, after sindhu and Ujjvala-nïlämaæï and Jïva
her death, Vi•æuprïyä. He began teach- Gosvämi’s Æat-sandarbha.
ing secular literature. At the age of 22
he went to Gayä to perform ŸRADDHA Gauõïya Vai•æavism was revived in
for his deceased father and his first wife. Bengal in the late 19th century by
Suddenly overcome by a strong emo- Thäkura Bhaktisiddhänta (1838–1914).
tional attraction to Kø•æa, he was initi- His son, Bhaktivinode Thäkur (1874–
ated by Ïÿvara Pürï and became the 1937), organized the Gauõïya Math,
spiritual leader of the Vai•æavas of consisting of a number of temples and
Nadia. In 1510 he took SAMNYÄSA from ashrams dedicated to teaching and pub-
Keÿava Bhärati and began travelling lishing. One of his disciples,
throughout India proclaiming Kø•æa’s Abhaycaran De, a Calcutta business-
name. In 1516 he settled in Purï, regu- man, better known under his monastic
larly worshipping at the JAGANNÄTHA name Swami A. C. Bhaktivedanta,
temple and instructing disciples. He founded the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY
died in 1533, when walking in a trance FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON;
into the sea. His life has been described ‘Hare Krishna Movement’) in New
by his followers Vøædävanadäsa York in 1966 and gave the Caitanya
(Caitanya-bhägavata) and Kø•æadäsa movement a worldwide following.
Käviräja (Caitanya-caritämøta).
cakra (1) (‘wheel’, ‘discus’, ‘circle’)
His school, which became known as
Gauõïya Vai•æavism, is characterized One of the weapons of Vi•æu.
by its strong emotional Kø•æa BHAKTI
and its devotion to RÄDHÄ, Kø•æa’s cakra (2)
beloved. By his followers he was regard-
ed as an incarnation of both Kø•æa and Symbol for the whole earth: a
Rädhä. While only a short poem of Cakravartin is a universal ruler.

47 Cäæakya

APRIL CAITRMA ARCHPHALGUŒFAEBRUARY

IES AR MÏNA KUMBHA MÄG MONTHSPAUS
EŸA M PISCES AQUARIUS CAPRI MAK
ŸAKH VAI JANUARY DECELUHNAASROALRARACORMNONSDATHHGSIATNTAURIUS
BHANU
MAY VEDANGA SÜRYA

JUNE JYESTHA TAURUS RAVI ARA MA H ARUŒA
VØÆA RUDRA VIÆŒU

GEMINI A SK ABH MITRA VØSCIKAMBER NOVEMBERLIBMARGAŸIRSA
MITHUNA DIVÄKARA SCORPIO
AŸA¥HA GAHBYHAAARMSITDAI AoŸrVA SRUEVTAARSNA-

KAR CANCER OCTOBER
ŸRAV
JULY KATA LEO VIRGO TTIKA KAR
AŒA SIMÅA KANYÄ ULÄ T
RA
AUGUST BHADRA AŸWINI

SEPTEMBER

The Hindu calendar: The solar and lunar months are shown with the signs of
the Zodiac in relation to the months of the Western (Gregorian) calendar.

cakra (3) camphor

In TANTRA (2), six (to nine) nerve cen- The burning of camphor is part of the
tres in the subtle body through which daily ritual of IMAGE worship; it is
the spiritual energy is channelled. (See believed to keep away ghosts and
also BODY.) demons.

calendar Cämuæõä

Calendars were always important in An aspect of the goddess DURGÄ, created
Hinduism for the exact determination to destroy the demons Caæõa and
of the time for SACRIFICES and feast days, Muæõa.
as well as for providing basic informa-
tion for establishing HOROSCOPES. The Cäæakya (fourth century BCE?)
Hindu calendar is a solar–lunar calen-
dar, requiring regular adjustments. The Also called Kauflilya, author of the
printed calendars (PAÑCÄ¢GA) contain famous Cänakya Sütra or Kauflilïya
the astronomical tables for each fort- Ärthaÿästra. According to tradition he
night as well as other information was a brahmin responsible for the
important for astrological calculations. downfall of the NANDAS (2) and the ele-
(See also FESTIVALS.) vation of Candragupta, the founder of
the MAURYA dynasty. His work is

caæõäla 48

famous for its realistic, almost Portuguese casta: ‘pure, clean’, desig-
Machiavellian tone. It gives a very valu- nating purity of descent. Hindu society
able detailed description of the adminis- has been characterized by caste divi-
tration of the Maurya empire. sions from time immemorial. The four
classes (catur varæa) mentioned in the
caæõäla (‘wicked or cruel’) VEDA, namely Brahmanas (teachers),
A generic designation of people of the K•atriyas (soldiers), Vaiÿyas (traders)
lowest CASTE, someone who has a Ÿüdra and Ÿüdras (servants) are subdivided
father and a brahmin mother, and is into a great multitude of jätïs, ‘birth-
therefore an OUTCASTE. groups’, or castes proper. A large num-
ber of people who for various reasons
caæõana were excluded from these formed the
Sandalwood, used in many forms of so-called OUTCASTES, who, however,
worship and also valued for its cooling also maintained caste-like ranking
properties when applied as a paste. among themselves. (See also SOCIAL
ORDER.)

Caæõï, also Caæõikä, Caæõä cat school
The goddess Durgä (Ambä) in the form See TEŒGALAI.
she assumed to kill the demon Mahi•a.
caturmäsya (1) (‘four months’)
Caæõïdäsa The rainy season, when ASCETICS were
(‘Caædï’s slave’) (15th century) obliged to stay in one place. Vi•æu was
Medieval author of poetry celebrating believed to be resting during this time.
the loves of KØÆŒA and the GOPÏS.
caturmäsya (2)
Candra A feast observed at the beginning of
The moon, as both planet and deity. each four-month period into which the
Vedic year was divided.
Caraka (first century CE)
A writer on medicine who is reputed to catur–varæa–äÿrama–dharma
have lived in Vedic times. Author of the Comprehensive designation of the
Caraka Saƒhitä, one of the most impor- Hindu SOCIAL ORDER dividing society
tant texts of Indian medicine through into four (catur) classes (VARŒA); whose
the ages. (See also AYURVEDA.) life is to be regulated by four stages:
brahmacarya (studenthood), gøhastya
Cärväkas (householder stage), vänaprasthya (for-
The followers of an ancient materialistic est-dweller stage), and samnyäsa (stage
system of philosophy, which denies the of renunciation, homelessness). (See
validity of Vedic rites and encourages a also CASTE.)
hedonistic lifestyle. Hindus have always
condemned it as the most objectionable cauõa
of all NÄSTIKA systems. Tonsure of the whole head before initi-
ation (upanayana), leaving only a little
caste tuft at the back (ÿikha). It is repeated
The word ‘caste’ is derived from the every fortnight thereafter. (See also
SA§SKÄRA.)

49 churning of the ocean

cetana Chinmoy (1931– )
See CONSCIOUSNESS.
Kumar Ghosh, a disciple of AUROBINDO
chandas GHOSE. He called himself ‘Made of
Verses, metres, one of the six VEDÄŒGAS. Mind’, settled in the USA in 1964 and
has formed meditation groups at the UN
chandoga in New York. The main technique is inte-
A priest or chanter of the Sämaveda riorization of the GURU by the disciple.
(VEDA of melodies).
Chinnama•flä (‘the beheaded’)
Chändogya Upani•ad
One of the oldest and largest UPANIÆADS, A form of DURGÄ, carrying her own
belonging to the Sämaveda. It is the decapitated head under her right arm;
most frequently referred to text in one of ten tantrik DAŸA VIDYÄS.
Bädaräyaæa’s BRAHMA-SÜTRAS.
Chitragupta
chäyä (1) (‘shade’, ‘shadow’)
Mythical handmaid of the SUN. YAMA’s secretary in the netherworlds,
recording the good and evil deeds of
chäyä (2) people. (See also AFTERLIFE, PÄTÄLA.)
Term used to designate an aid in under-
standing a text. choti (‘small’)

child marriage See ŸIKHA.
See MARRIAGE.
chronology
children It has always been extremely difficult to
To have children, especially sons, was establish a chronology of Hinduism
the purpose of Hindu MARRIAGE from before the time of the Buddha (sixth
early on. An often-used marriage ritu- century BCE). Widely accepted
al closes with the blessing of the bride: chronologies devised in the late 19th
‘May you be the mother of a hundred century, assuming an invasion of the
sons.’ Children were important not Vedic ÄRYANS around 1500 BCE and the
only for the continuation of the fami- development of the Veda between 1200
ly lineage but also for the perfor- and 600 BCE, have been challenged and
mance of the last rites for their are no longer tenable. The ‘new
parents (besides being expected to chronology’, supported by astro-archae-
contribute to the maintenance of their ology, satellite photography and
parents in old age). Limiting the archaeo-climatology, rejecting the
number of children or practising birth ‘Äryan invasion theory’, sets the begin-
control (especially abortion) has been ning of the Vedic age at around 4000
condemned by classical Hindu BCE and its end at around 2000 BCE.
ŸÄSTRAS as well as by contemporary
Hindu leaders. churning of the ocean
(samudra manthana)
An ancient story, often depicted in Indian
art, concerning the attempt made by
DEVAS and DAITYAS at the beginning of
time to obtain AMØTA, the nectar of
immortality. They used Mount MAŒDARA
as a churning stick, put it upon the

Cidambaram 50

The Churning of the Ocean: Devas and asuras churn the ocean from which wonderful
objects such as the elephant Airävata, the wish-fulfilling tree, the vessel of ambrosia,

and many more are obtained.

TORTOISE, a form assumed by Vi•æu, circumambulation, also
took the king of snakes, Vasuki, as a parikramä, pradak•iæä
rope and successively obtained the fiery
poison HALÄHALÄ, the heavenly elephant Ritually walking around a person, an
AIRÄVATA, and DHANVANTARI with a pot IMAGE, a place, keeping the venerated
filled with the nectar of immortality. To object to one’s right; a widespread
prevent the daityas from gaining immor- Hindu custom showing respect. Besides
tality, Vi•æu appeared in the form of the circumambulation of an image in a
Mohinï (seductress) and distracted their temple, or the temple complex itself, cir-
attention while the devas shared amøta. cumambulation of sacred cities such as
Väräæasï or Vøndävana, or a district
Cidambaram such as BRAJA, takes place. The circum-
ambulation of the river NARBADÄ or of
Famous temple city in Tamilnäõu, the whole of India is a custom still prac-
South India, sacred to ŸIVA. Ÿiva is tised by many SÄDHUS today.
believed to have first performed the
TAδAVA dance at Cidambaram, which cit
is repeated daily in his honour by pro- See CONSCIOUSNESS.
fessional temple dancers.

Cinmayananda, Swami (1915–97) citra näõï

Founder of Sandipani Hindu Mission One of the inner vessels of the subtle
and instrumental in founding the VIŸVA body according to KUŒ¥ALINÏ YOGA.
HINDÜ PARIÆAD in Bombay in 1964. (See also BODY.)

51 cosmology

Cokamela (1293–1338) of mind-generated objects, different
from the subject); su•upti (dreamless
HARIJAN saint from Mangalredha deep sleep: no perception of difference
(Mahärä•flra), a devotee of Viflflhal (a between object and subject); turïya (‘the
Mahratti form of Vi•æu); he had to pray fourth state’, lucid trance, awareness
outside the shrine because of his OUT- without any subject–object split).
CASTE status, and suffered many humili-
ations, but was also recognized for his Coomaraswami, Ananda
piety and his inspired songs. After his (1877–1947)
death he was interred at PANDHARPUR
beside NÄMADEVA. He is the author of Born in Ceylon (Ÿrï Laöka) to a
many popular devotional songs Ceylonese father and a British mother,
(abhangs) in Marathi. and trained in London as a geologist,
Coomaraswami became best known as
Colas a rediscoverer of Indian art, especially
of ancient and classical Indian painting.
Prominent dynasty in South India (c. He wrote Indian Drawings (1910);
319–1297). The Colas were mostly Indian Drawings: Second Series (1912);
adherents of ŸAIVISM; they patronized Rajput Painting (1916). He developed
the arts and religion. They also built, broad interests in Indian culture in gen-
over the centuries, extensive irrigation eral, evident in a great number of essays
systems that are still functional. Famous dealing with Indian mythology and his-
temples such as the Rajeÿvara temple in tory (The Dance of Ÿiva, 1918, Why
TANJORE owe their existence to Cola Exhibit Works of Art?, 1943) and a
munificence. Cola bronze images, espe- monumental History of Indian and
cially of Ÿiva NÄfiARÄJA, are famous for Indonesian Art (1927).
their craftsmanship and high artistic
quality.

confession cosmology

Confessing breaches of the moral code Hinduism does not possess a uniform
is one of the ways of atonement and commonly accepted cosmology.
(PRAYAŸCITTA) for most lighter infringe- Cosmology, however, was always very
ments. important. In the Vedas we find a tri-
partition of the universe into an upper,
consciousness, also caitanya, middle and lower sphere: to each were
cetana, cit assigned eleven deities. The moon was
believed to be the resting place for the
One of the key concepts in Hindu deceased ancestors. In the Puräæas we
thought. Advaitins identify the very find an elaborate division of the uni-
essence of the person with conscious- verse into a series of concentric conti-
ness, others consider it an essential nents surrounded by oceans – all of
attribute. BRAHMAN is often defined as immense size. The Puräæas also specu-
sat–cit–änanda (being–consciousness– late that besides the universe inhabited
bliss). The Upani•ads teach four stages by us there are countless other universes.
of consciousness, corresponding to dif- The world we inhabit is not seen as the
ferent perceptions of reality: jägarita best of all worlds but as the only place
sthäna (waking state: corresponding to where people can work out their salva-
the perception of multiple entities dif- tion. Hindus also operated with
ferent from the perceiving subject); immense time-frames in the context of a
svapna sthäna (dream state: perception periodic creation and annihilation of

cow 52

the physical universe. (See also TIME, out of his body the four CASTES are cre-
DIVISIONS OF.) ated. In the second the whole universe is
fashioned by Väc (word). Some Puräæas
cow (go, gomätä) mention several creations: the first was
unsuccessful because of lack of will to
‘Mother Cow’, held sacred by Hindus procreate among the first creatures.
as the seat of many gods. Killing a cow Since creation is a process, it will find an
was considered one of the most heinous end and the universe will return to its
crimes and was heavily punished. Many pre-creation state. Hindu theologians
contemporary Hindu political move- emphasize that there was no need for
ments agitate for a complete ban on God to create the universe, and that the
cow slaughter, which is forbidden in divine creative activity is more like a
many Indian states. Affluent Hindus game (LÏLÄ). (See also ANNIHILATION;
establish in many places goÿäläs, homes SUSTENANCE; WORLD EGG.)
for old cows, who are fed and cared for
until they die a natural death. Many cremation (smäsana)
ancient rituals involve cows, and the
five products of the cow (milk, curds, The most frequently employed mode of
butter, urine, dung) are highly priced disposal of dead bodies. It is believed
for their purity which they pass on that the fire that consumes the body will
when applied to the human body. transform it into a higher form.
Kø•æa, who also is known as Gopäla Cremation follows a set of ancient rules
(protector of cows), is often depicted in and is usually done in specially chosen
the guise of a cowherd, and the cowherd places outside towns and villages.
girls (GOPÏS) are considered the best Normally only members of the immedi-
models of devotion to him. ate family are allowed to witness crema-
tion. Ancient taboos regarding pollution
creation (sø•flhi) by being associated with a corpse are
still maintained. SAMNYÄSIS are not cre-
The first of the three divine cosmic func- mated but buried, because they perform
tions, often associated with BRAHMÄ. a symbolic self-cremation as part of
Creation stories figure prominently in their rites of initiation. LI¢GÄYATS, a
the Puräæas. The Veda has two versions reformist Hindu sect, also bury their
of a creation myth: in the first the myth- dead.
ical human, PURUÆA (1), is sacrificed and

D

Dadhïca, also Dadhyanc Dak•a also Präcetas (‘skilful’)
Vedic ØÆI, son of ATHARVAN, frequently Proper name of a son of BRAHMÄ, a
mentioned in Hindu literature. PRAJÄPATI. One of his many daughters
was SATÏ (Umä), who married ŸIVA
daily rituals against her father’s will. Dak•a
The brahmin’s entire daily routine was excluded him from a great sacrifice he
enveloped by rituals. Many of these was performing and insulted him in
rituals cannot be observed in modern Satï’s presence. Satï then took her
city life, but some are followed quite own life and Ÿiva wrecked Dak•a’s
widely, such as the thrice daily recitation sacrifice. Ÿiva decapitated Dak•a and
of the GÄYATRÏ mantra, the daily wor- burned his head, but later restored
ship of IMAGES in the home, and RITUALS him to life and gave him a goat’s
on special occasions. Members of partic- head.
ular SAßPRADÄYAS often practise extend-
ed daily rituals at home and in the Dak•a-smøti
temple, decorating their bodies with A code of law. Dak•a was one of the
markings designating their affiliation. original eighteen lawgivers and is reput-
ed to be author of the Dak•asmøti.
daityas (‘demons’, ‘giants’, ‘titans’)
Descendants of DITI and KAŸYAPA, dak•inä (‘south’)
hostile to the GODS and to SACRIFICE. Fee for a brahmin’s services, personified
as a goddess.
daiva (1) (‘belonging to the gods’)
Fate. dak•inäcära (‘right-hand way’)
One of the branches of TANTRA (2).
daiva (2)
A type of (legally recognized) marriage, Dak•iæä-mürti
in which a young woman was given to One of the saumya (auspicious) forms
an officiating priest in a sacrifice. of ŸIVA: Ÿiva as teacher of various arts,
of YOGA and of mok•a (LIBERATION).
Däkinï The images of Ÿiva NÄfiARÄJA also
Female fiend in the company of KÄLÏ belong to this category.
(2), feeding on human flesh. Also called
Aÿrapa, ‘blood drinker’.

Dak•iæeÿvara 54

Dak•iæeÿvara a pillar with a rope (däma) around his
Kälï–Durgä temple near Calcutta built belly (udära).
in the 19th century, which became
famous through RAMAKRISHNA, who däna (‘gift’, ‘charity’)
was a temple priest there for many A major concern in traditional
years. Now it is one of the major sacred Hinduism. Charity was enjoined on the
sites of the Ramakrishna Mission. rich on behalf of the poor, and on sacri-
ficers to brahmins. It was regulated by
dalit (‘oppressed’) numerous laws. Major donations of
Self-designation of former OUTCASTES, land or villages were often recorded on
untouchables, scheduled CASTES. They copper plates and stored either in tem-
have formed many organizations ples or in palaces. Reneging on pledges
according to religious affiliation. Strictly made legally was considered a major sin
speaking, most dalits were not members for which punishments in hell were
of Hindu (caste) society, but were con- foreseen.
sidered servants for impure and degrad-
ing work. Dalits today strive for Dänavas
emancipation and equal opportunities. Descendants of Danu, one of the daugh-
ters of Dak•a, and Kaÿyapa. Like the
damaru DAITYAS they were giants who fought
Ÿiva NÄfiARÄJA’s drum, shaped like an against DEVAS and SACRIFICE.
hourglass.
dance
Dämodara Ritual dance seems to have been part of
A name given to KØÆŒA on account of the Hindu traditions from the earliest
his foster-mother’s attempt to tie him to times, as the dancing figurines from the

Bhils dancing in the forecourt of the palace, Udaipur Festival.

55 daÿa-nämis

Indus civilization indicate. Creation was enthusiastically received by the German
often described in terms of a cosmic philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer
dance (LÏLÄ). One of the most famous (1788–1860 CE). Därä Shukoh was exe-
representations of ŸIVA is that of cuted by his brother Aurangzeb after
NÄfiARÄJA (king of the dance). KØÆŒA having participated in a failed rebellion
performed a dance on the heads of against him.
KÄLIYA and his favourite pastime was the
rasa-lïlä, the round-dance with the GOPÏS darÿana (1)
of Vraja. The goddess is often represent- (‘seeing’, ‘demonstration’)
ed in dance. Temple dancing, both spon- The respectful or worshipful beholding
taneously done by devotees and of a divine image or a venerable person,
organized by professionals, is one of the a central religious activity of Hindus.
routine forms of temple worship. The
Naflya-ÿästra, attributed to BHÄRATA (5), darÿana (2)
is the most important text dealing not (‘theory’, philosophical system’)
only with dance, but with drama and the Especially one of the •aõ-darÿana (‘six
principles of aesthetics. Dance, especially orthodox systems’: SÄßKHYA, YOGA,
the re-enactment of scenes from the ¢YÄYA, VAIŸEÆIKA, Purva MÏMÄßSÄ and
PURÄŒAS, is seen as a means to gain Uttara Mïmäƒsä or VEDÄNTA).
LIBERATION. In some major Hindu tem-
ples groups of professionals regularly däsa (‘slave’)
perform ritual dances in honour of the Caste name of a ŸÜDRA; from the
deity, e.g. in the Ÿiva temple at Middle Ages on, many VAIÆŒAVAS used
CIDAMBARAM (TAŒ¥AVA), or the Kø•æa it also as an affix to express their devo-
temple of Guruvayur (Kø•æattam). tion (e.g. Vi•æudäsa, Kø•æadäsa, etc.).

daæõa (‘rod’, ‘punishment’) Daÿabodha
Famous religious work (in Marathi) by
Insignia of YAMA, the god of death and Samärtha Guru Rämadäsa (written
of kings, whose duty it was to punish c. 1659).
evildoers and protect society from them.
däsa-märga (‘the slave’s way’)
daæõa nïti (‘science of punishment’) The lowest stage in ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA,
consisting of activities such as cleaning
Administration, government. a temple, weaving garlands, lighting
temple lamps, offering one’s services to
Dandin (seventh century) other Ÿiva devotees.

Classical (Sanskrit) writer, author of daÿa-nämis (‘ten names’)
Daÿa-kumära-carita, the story of the ten Ten orders of samnyäsis (sects) reputedly
princes who went out to find fulfilment founded by ŸANKARA in the ninth century
of their desires. and attached to one of the MAfiHAS
established by him. They enjoy a high
Därä Shukoh (1613–1659) reputation for their asceticism and
scholarship. One of these names is
Son of Mogul emperor Shah Jahan, who attached to the title of every member of
took a great interest in Hinduism. In one of the orders: Äraæya, Väna, Giri,
1657 he produced the first translation
of some of the Upani•ads into Persian, a
Latin translation of which (made by
Anquetil Duperron in the early 19th
century) reached the West and was

Daÿa-padärtha Ÿästra 56

Pärvata, Sägara, Tïrtha, Äÿrama, and Ÿiva. Represented as a wandering
Bhärati, Pürï, Sarasvatï. mendicant followed by four dogs (the
four VEDAS). His places of worship are
Daÿa-padärtha Ÿästra called Datta-maæõiras. Popular in
(‘science of ten word meanings’) Mahärä•flra as ‘Dattobä’. The Dattä-
Title of a sixth-century text explaining treya SAßPRADÄYA is quite strong in
the tenets of VAIŸEÆIKA, one of the six Mahärä•flra; it is engaged on behalf of
orthodox systems of Hindu philosophy. peace and mutual tolerance.

Daÿa-ratha (‘ten chariots’) Dattätreya (2)
A prince of the solar dynasty, king of
AYODHYÄ, father of RÄMA, a major fig- A brahmin saint, son of ATRI and
ure in VÄLMÏKI’S RÄMÄYAŒA. ANASÜYÄ, considered an incarnation of
Vi•æu and Ÿiva.

daÿävatäras Dattätreya (3)
See AVATÄRA.
A philosopher, the sixth AVATÄRA of
daÿa vidyäs (‘ten wisdoms’) Vi•æu. According to the Bhägavata
Ten forms of the Goddess worshipped Puräæa he achieved liberation by fol-
by Tantrikas: Kälï, Tärä, Æoõaÿï, lowing the advice of twenty-four GURUS
Bhuvaneÿvarï, Bhairavï, Chinnama•flä, in the form of forces of nature.
Dhümävatï, Bagalä, Maflaögï,
Kämalätmikä. (See also TANTRA.) Däyänanda Sarasvatï
(1824–83)
Dasgupta, Surendranath
(1885–1952) Influential Hindu reformer, founder of
One of the foremost modern scholars of ÄRYA SAMÄJ. Born Müla Ÿaökara in
Hinduism, author of the authoritative Morvi, Gujarat, into a pious Ÿaivite
five-volume A History of Indian family, Däyänanda rejected IMAGE wor-
Philosophy (1921–55), the unsurpassed ship and went in search of a GURU. After
standard work of its kind. He had a dis- fifteen years of wandering through
tinguished career as an academic India, moving from teacher to teacher,
teacher in Chittagong College, Calcutta he finally settled down in Mathurä with
Presidency College, Government Viräjänanda Sarasvatï, a blind and tem-
Sanskrit College, and the University of peramental ultra-orthodox Vedic
Calcutta, and was the recipient of many teacher. After three years of humilia-
honours and awards. tions and grammar study Viräjänanda
dismissed his student with instructions,
dasyus to teach the true ŸÄSTRAS in India again
Described in the Vedas as the enemies of and to dispel the darkness that the
the ÄRYANS, dark-skinned and evil. wrong faith had engendered.
Their identity is disputed.
His teachings, contained in Satyärtha
Dattätreya (1) Prakäÿa (‘Light of Truth’), rely on the
A deity, one of the forms of Vi•æu, par- infallibility of the Veda: all accretions to
taking of the nature of Brahmä, Vi•æu Hinduism of later times (epics, Puräæas,
Ägamas) were rejected as corruptions.
Däyänanda believed he had a mission to
lead India back to its original,
pure Vedic religion. He reintroduced
Vedic HOMA (see GHÏ). Socially he was

57 Devï

progressive: he rejected casteism, pro- related to Latin deus, Greek theos, from
moted the equality of women and men, which French dieu, Italian dio, Spanish
and insisted on social service and altru- dios, English divine). Their number is
ism as expressions of true DHARMA. given in the Vedas as thirty-three, in
later Hinduism as virtually infinite.
death (See also GOD AND GODS.)

A major preoccupation of Hinduism, as deva-däsï
of all religions. Hindus generally believe (‘female servant of the deity’)
in life after death and most believe in A woman who was dedicated to temple
rebirth (and re-death) of those who service, professional dancer, often kept
have not found emancipation. It is as temple prostitute.
surrounded by many rituals, and many
scriptures describe the fate of persons Devakï
after death. Since physical death is not Wife of VASUDEVA, mother of Kø•æa.
considered final, the Bhagavadgïtä com-
pares it with the changing of worn-out Devï (‘goddess’)
clothing and exhorts not to grieve for Used generically as well as more specif-
those who have died, because they are ically for the wife of Ÿiva, or the highest
bound to return in a new body. (See principle, imagined as female. She has
also AFTERLIFE; MØTYU-SA§SKÄRA.) many names, expressing her many func-
tions. Goddess worship is almost uni-
demons versal in Hinduism.

Hinduism knows many kinds of
demons, or antagonists of the gods. Not
all of them are wicked; some are
described as righteous rulers and good
kings. (See also ASURA; BALI; DAITYAS;
DÄNAVAS; RÄKÆASA.)

Deussen, Paul (1845–1919)

‘Devasena’, as his Indian friends called
him, an expert in Sanskrit and in philoso-
phy. He held university appointments in
Berlin and Kiel. In his six-volume General
History of Philosophy he devoted the first
three volumes to India, including transla-
tions of hitherto unknown texts. He trans-
lated sixty Upani•ads from Sanskrit into
German, Ÿaökara’s complete commentary
on the Brahmasütras, as well as major
portions from the Mahäbhärata (includ-
ing the Bhagavadgïtä) and wrote a mono-
graph on The Philosophy of the
Upani•ads (1899).

deva, also devatä (‘shiny’) Devï Mahj•amärdiæï: The goddess who
slays the buffalo demon; an object of
Generic name of higher beings, usually devotion at the time of Dürgä Püjä.
translated as ‘god’ (etymologically

Devï Bhägavata Puräæa 58

Devï Bhägavata Puräæa such as the Vai•æavadharma, which
prescribe the mode of worship, the kind
An Upa-Puräæa, by some considered of dress and diet etc. a member of such
one of the 18 Mahä-puräæas (replacing a community has to follow. While for
the Vai•æava Bhägavatam) eulogizing many centuries Hindu dharma was sup-
ŸAKTI. posed to be unchanging, in our time
voices are being heard that attempt to
Devï Mähätmya modernize dharma and to use dharma
(‘The Glorification of the Goddess’) as a political programme for the cre-
ation of a Hindu rule in India.
A section of the MÄRKAŒ¥EYA PURÄNA,
narrating the victory of the Goddess As sources of dharma the Manusmøti
over the buffalo-headed demon identifies the Veda in its entirety, estab-
(Mahi•amärdinï). It is recited daily in lished traditions in the heartland of
Ÿäkta temples and often publicly read Hinduism (Äryavärta), the behaviour of
out during Dürgapüjä (see DURGA) cele- exemplary citizens, and one’s own con-
brations. science (ätmatu•fli).

Dhanvantari Dharma-räja (‘King of the Law’)

The physician of the gods, teacher of Title of YAMA, the god of the dead, and
medicine, author of a text on AYURVEDA. of YUDHISfiH. IRA, his son.

dhäraæä (‘concentration’) Dharma-ÿästra

One of the stages of PATAÑJALA YOGA. The Hindu code of law in general, or a
specific work on law, such as
dharma (‘law’) Manusmøti, Yäjñavalkyasmøti and oth-
ers. These deal generally with three
Cosmic and social order and the rules major areas: rules of conduct (ÄCÄRA);
pertaining to it. It is the central concern civil and criminal law (VYAVAHÄRA);
of Hinduism, which defines itself as punishment and penances (PRAYAŸCITTA).
SANÄTANA DHARMA, eternal law. In the The number of works on dharmaÿästra
Bhagavadgïtä Kø•æa says that he is is very large, and since it covers both
assuming a human form for the sake of secular and religious law, it has always
upholding dharma, whenever it is been very important for the practice of
threatened. Dharma comprises general Hinduism.
morality (SADHÄRANA DHARMA) as well
as specific rules for members of castes Dhenuka
(viÿe•a dharma). The former consists of
five injunctions (yama) and five prohibi- A demon in the shape of an ass, killed
tions (niyama), namely firmness (dhøti), by BALADEVA, who swung it round by its
forgiveness (k•amä), charity (däna), legs and smashed it against a tree.
purity (ÿauca), not stealing (a•teya),
sense-control (indriya nigraha), pru- Dhøta-rä•flra
dence (dhï), wisdom (vidyä), truthful- (‘whose kingdom is well established’)
ness (satya), freedom from anger
(akrodha). The latter comprises the very A major figure in the MAHÄBHÄRATA
detailed and specific injunctions of story: the eldest son of Vicitravïrya,
varæäÿramadharma. Over and above brother of Päæõu, had a hundred sons,
these, there are regulations for members of whom Duryodhana was the oldest.
of religious communities (saƒpradäyas) Dhøtarä•flra was blind and renounced
the throne in favour of his brother

59 divine qualities

Päæõu. He too renounced the throne with those initiated by him.
because of a leprous affliction and this
led to a conflict between their sons, cul- dïpa (‘lamp’)
minating in the Great War. Usually fed with ghï (clarified butter); a
lamp is required in almost all forms of
Dhruva (‘firm’) PÜJÄ.
The pole star. A story in the Vi•æu
Puräæa records that as a child Dhruva Dïpävalï, also Divälï
was humiliated, became a hermit and (‘feast of lamps’)
obtained the favour of Vi•æu who raised The most popular Hindu celebration,
him to the sky as pole star for all to see. celebrated in the second half of Aÿvina,
when Hindus put up countless little
dhüma-ketu (‘smoke-bannered’) lamps on houses and temples and on
An epithet of DEATH (represented as rivers, celebrating the homecoming of
a god). Räma and Sïtä to AYODHYÄ after their
exile had ended. People offer jewels and
dhyäna (‘trance’) food to Lak•mï and wear new clothes.
One of the stages of PATAÑJALA YOGA. Dipävälï has in today’s India acquired
among Hindus the commercial status of
dig-gaja, also dik-päla Christmas in Western countries, with the
(‘supporters of the regions’) exchange of gifts and family celebrations.
Eight elephants who support the points
of the compass: AIRÄVATA, Puæõarïka, Diti
VÄMANA, Kumuda, Anjana, Pu•padan- Vedic deity, sometimes regarded as
ta, Sarvabhauma, Supratïka. counterpart, sometimes as complement
of ADITI; frequently referred to in epics
dig-vijaya and Puräæas. She is described as daugh-
(‘conquest of the regions’) ter of DAKÆA and wife of KAŸYAPA, the
The practice of major teachers of chal- mother of the DAITYAS and of
lenging exponents of other religions and HIRA¢YAKAŸIPU.
schools of thought and claiming victory
over all. Described in works such as the Divine Life Mission
Ÿaökara Digvijäya by MÄDHAVA (2). See ŸIVÄNANDA, SWAMI.

dïk•ä (‘initiation’) Divine Light Mission
Especially into a monastic order or a Founded in India in 1960 by Guru
specific SAßPRADÄYA. It is a very impor- Mahäräj Jï (Gurujï), a youthful heredi-
tant step for a Hindu and implies a life- tary teacher in the tradition of
long commitment to the mode of life of Vallabha’s PUÆfiIMÄRGA. It spread rapid-
the community. Usually it consists of a ly in the West in the seventies, but faded
number of rituals, often the complete after Gurujï had been accused of some
stripping of the candidate and a sym- improprieties and returned to India.
bolic self-cremation, the taking of a new
name and the transmission of a secret divine qualities
MANTRA (3). The dïk•a guru has to come According to VAIÆ¢AVAS God is saguæa,
from an acknowledged line of teachers i.e. exhibits six qualities that define his
(guru paraƒparä) and remains in touch essence: jñäna (knowledge), bala

Divodäsa 60

Dïpävali (Divälï) celebrations in Manchester, England.

(strength), aiÿvarya (lordship), vïrya earliest times essential rituals could only
(heroism), ÿakti (power), tejas be performed in a family setting. The
(splendour). Veda prescribes a number of ceremonies
that a brahmin has to perform daily in
Divodäsa (1) his home. They are codified in a number
A pious king in the Øgveda, for whom of Gøhya Sütras. The SAßSKÄRAS, for
INDRA demolished a hundred stone example initiation, marriage and funer-
fortresses. al rites, are also performed in the home.
Every Hindu home has either a room or
Divodäsa (2) part of a room reserved for worship,
A brahmin, twin brother of AHALYÄ, and members of the family often spend
called ‘Atithigva’ because of his gen- a considerable amount of time doing
erosity toward guests (atithi) PÜJÄ at home. Many Hindu homes are
adorned with pictures of deities and
Divodäsa (3) saints. In VAIŸŒAVA homes a TULASÏ
plant is usually kept in the courtyard
A king of Käÿï (VÄRÄŒASÏ), celebrated as and regularly tended and worshipped.
a physician, identified with DHANVAN- Vai•æavas also routinely offer their
TARI. meals to the deity in their worship room
before beginning to eat, considering their
domestic rites meal the prasäda (‘grace’, leftovers) of the
The Hindu home, usually the dwelling deity’s. The Hindus’ daily and yearly
place of an extended family, plays a cen- domestic religious routine is strongly
tral role in Hinduism. The family is the shaped by the rituals and festivities of the
basic unit of Hindu society and from the communities to which hey belong and by
specific family traditions.

61 Durgä

donkey Durgä (‘difficult of access’)
An animal that was not considered fit for
Vedic sacrifice because it lacked MEDHA. A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ), especial-
ly in her fierce form. Seen either as one
Draupadï of the forms of PÄRVATÏ, the consort of
Daughter of King Drupada and wife of Ÿiva, or as the combined ŸAKTI of all the
the five Päæõava brothers. A major fig- deities, she is one of the major figures in
ure in the MAHÄBHÄRÄTA. Her humilia- the Hindu pantheon. In her role as
tion by the KAURAVAS eventually Mahi•amärdiæï (slayer of the buffalo
brought about the great war. demon), Durgä is honoured every year
during Durgäpüjä as the saviour of the
Dräviõa (1) world from evil. Durgä celebrations are
South India, where Dravidian (non- especially elaborate in Bengal, where
Sanskritic) languages are spoken her images are set up in homes and pub-
(Tamil, Tulu, Telugu, Malayalam) and lic places and worshipped for a period
everything connected with it. of nine days (Navarätrï).

Dräviõa (2) Arjuna has a vision of Durgä the
South Indian style of architecture. night before the battle and invokes her
at the beginning of the Great War. The
Dräviõa Prabandham major text dealing with Durgä is the
Collection of (Tamil) hymns composed Devïmähätmya of the MÄRKAŒ¥EYA
by the Ä®VÄRS, especially by PURÄŒA.
NAMMÄ®VÄR, undertaken by NÄfiHA
MUNÏ and considered on par with the
VEDA in worship; the ‘Tamil Veda’.

Drona (‘bucket’)

A brahmin who according to legend
was generated by his father,
BHÄRADVÄJA, in a bucket. He was the
teacher of military arts to both the
PÄŒ¥AVAS and the KAURAVAS. In the
Great War he sided with the Kauravas
and, in spite of being a brahmin,
became commander-in-chief after
Bhï•ma’s death. He was killed by
Dø•fladyumna, Drupada’s son, whom
Drona had slain earlier in battle. (See
also Mahäbhärata.)

Dø•advatï The goddess Durgä riding on her
vahana (vehicle), the lion.
River referred to in the Øgveda, consti-
tuting the eastern and southern border
of BRAHMÄVARTA.

Durväsas 62

Durväsas (‘ill-dressed’, ‘naked’) nature and God; between individual
humans; between humans and inani-
A sage, son of ATRI and Anusüyä, noted mate objects; and between one inani-
for his irascibility. He cursed ŸAKUN- mate object and another.
TALÄ for keeping him waiting at the
door and thus caused her separation dvandvas (‘pairs of opposites’)
from King Du•yanta. His blessing
caused Kuntï to become the virgin For example, hot–cold, bright–dark,
mother of KARŒA by the sun. He also which characterize the world of change
cursed Kø•æa for a minor fault and fore- and impermanence, in contrast to the
told for him the manner of his death. all-oneness of the ultimate.

Duryodhana (‘hard to conquer’) Dväpara Yuga

Eldest son of Dhøtarä•flra and leader of The third of the four world ages, pre-
the KAURAVAS in the Great War of the ceded by Køta Yuga and Treta Yyuga,
Mahäbhärata. and followed by Kali Yuga.

düta (‘messenger’, ‘envoy’) Dvärakä

Messengers play a great role in classical Famous ancient city on the west coast of
Sanskrit drama. See, for example, the India, one of the seven ancient holy
famous poem by KÄLÏDÄSA, Megha- cities of India, Kø•æa’s capital. It was
düta, (‘The Cloud-Messenger’). submerged in the ocean but has recently
been partially excavated.
duties
dvi-jäti (‘twice-born’)
The Hindu ethic is an ethic of duties
rather than rights. According to Vedic Appellation of the three higher CASTES
tradition a human is born with five (Brahmin, K•atriya, Vaiÿya), whose ini-
‘debts’ (øæa) or duties which he has to tiation (upanayana) is seen as ‘second
redeem during his life: duties towards the birth’, which entitles them to participate
gods, parents and teachers, guests, other in ritual activity. (See also SAßSKÄRA.)
human beings and all living beings. Each
VAØŒA has specific duties as well. Most dvïpa (‘island’, ‘continent’)
Hindus believe that they have a lifelong
duty to perform formal worship and to In Hindu cosmography the continents
recite certain religious texts or formulae. (dvïpas) stretch out like the leaves of a
Membership in particular SAßPRADÄYAS lotus from the centre occupied by
also entails specific duties with regard to Mount MERU and are separated from
worship, mode of life, relation to fellow each other by distinct circular oceans.
members. (See also DHARMA.) There are seven such dvïpas separated
by seven oceans consisting of different
Dvaita Vedänta (‘Dualistic Vedänta’) liquids: Jambu-dvïpa, surrounded by
lavana (salt water); Plaksa-dvïpa, sur-
A school of Vedänta founded by rounded by ïk•u (sugarcane juice); Ÿäl-
MADHVA, which emphasizes the non- mala-dvïpa, surrounded by suøä (wine);
identity of humans and the ultimate. Kuÿa-dvïpa, surrounded by sarpis (clar-
Developed in direct opposition to ified butter); Krauñca-dvïpa, surounded
ADVAITA, Dvaita teaches ‘five differ- by dadhi (curds); Ÿäka-dvïpa, surround-
ences’ (pañca bhedä): the difference ed by dudgha (milk); Pu•kara-dvïpa,
between God and humans; between surrounded by jala (sweet water).

63 Gandhamandana SALT OCEAN Malyavata Dyaus
Uttara Kuru
SALT Ketu- Bhadra- SALT
OCEAN mäla Ÿøögavän var•a OCEAN
Hiraæmaya

Ÿveta
Ramayaka

Nïla
Iläv MERU rata

NNaai•isaaddhhaa
Harivar•a
Hemaküfla
Kimpuru•a
Himälaya
Bhäratavar•a
SALT OCEAN

A Puranic model of Jambu-dvïpa. In its centre rises Mount Meru.

Jambu-dvïpa contains nine var•as Dyaus (‘sky’, ‘heaven’)
(countries), the foremost of which is
Bhärata (India). Bhärata, again, is In the Vedas a male deity, called Dyaus-
subdivided into nine dvïpas, or sec- pitø, ‘heavenly father’, the earth
tions, of which Indra-dvïpa is the (PØTHIVÏ) being regarded as mother.
foremost. Father of UÆAS, the dawn. Dyava-
pøthivï are the universal parents.

E

Edgerton, Franklin Eka-ÿøæga (1) (‘one-horned’)
(1885–1963)
One of the early AVATÄRAS of Vi•æu
Orientalist, teacher of Sanskrit at Yale (often depicted as a fish with a protrud-
University, translator of the Bhagavad- ing horn) who saved MANU (2) during
gïtä. the Great Flood.

Eidlitz, Walter (1892–1976) Eka-ÿøæga (2)
Austrian diplomat who, while posted in
India, developed a deep interest in Name of a recluse who had grown up
GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM. Author of Bhakta without having seen women, and let
– eine indische Odysee (1951), Die himself be seduced by courtesans in the
indische Gottesliebe (1955), Der context of a ritual designed to end a
Glaube und die heiligen Schriften der long-lasting drought.
Inder (1957), and Kø•æa–Caitanya: Sein
Leben und Seine Lehre (1968), an ekoddi•fla
authoritative work with many transla-
tions from Sanskrit and Bengali sources. A special ŸRADDHA, performed at each
new moon, designed to secure the
ekadaæõi (‘one-staffed’) admission of the deceased into the com-
Appellation of certain orders of pany of the forefathers, transforming
SAMNYÄSIS, who carry a single staff (in him from a PRETA (ghost) into a PITØ
contrast to the tri-daæõi, who carry (ancestor).
three staffs bundled together.
elephant
ekägratä (‘one-pointedness’)
The aim of PATAÑJALI YOGA. Elephants, both mythical and real, play
a great role in Indian religious lore,
Eka-näflha (1533-1598 CE) from AIRÄVATA, Indra’s mount and the
Famous Mahratta poet-saint, author of other DIG-GAJAS, to the king of the
a commentary on Book XI of the Elephants, saved by Vi•æu from the
Bhägavata Puräæa, Bhavärtha Ramäyaæa, clutches of a crocodile (Gajendra-
and numerous abhaögas (hymns), as mok•ana), a scene often described in lit-
well as the editor of JÑÄNEŸVARA’s erature and portrayed in art. Elephants
Jñäneÿvari. were a royal prerogative, and every temple
had to keep at least one elephant for
ceremonial purposes. Elephants were
also extensively used in warfare. They

65 epistemology

are a favourite with Indian sculptors tradition waned and the country
and painters. became increasingly exploited. Overuse
of grazing areas, deforestation, saliniza-
Eliade, Mircea (1907–86) tion of the soil due to poor irrigation
Historian of religion and author of methods and overexploitation of fertile
many well-known books. General edi- land led in many areas of India to seri-
tor of the 16-volume Encyclopedia of ous problems long before the industrial-
Religions. His early studies of Hinduism ization of the country. Modern India has
culminated in his Yoga: Immortality very serious environmental problems
and Freedom (1930). caused by overcrowding, pollution,
irresponsible industrial development,
Ellora, also Elurä neglect and overuse of land. Many agen-
Famous site in Mahärä•flra, near cies are trying to deal with the problem,
Aurangabad, with Buddhist, Jain and rediscovering in the process some
Hindu caves. The best-known monu- ancient ecological wisdom.
ment, however, is the eighth/ninth cen-
tury Kailäsanäflha Ÿiva temple, the epics
world’s largest monolithic structure. It
is carved out of the mountainside with See MAHÄBHÄRATA; RÄMÄYAŒA.
numerous sculptures relating to Ÿiva
mythology. The work started under the epistemology
Rastrakuta king Krishna I and took
about a century to complete. The age-old Indian equation of emanci-
pation with knowledge and understand-
Emerson, Ralph Waldo ing led very early to questions of episte-
(1803–82) mology, especially an attempt to define
Popular American writer and philoso- the criteria of proofs for truth
pher, one of the first to show serious (PRAMÄŒAS). Hindus, basing their tradi-
interest in Indian thought, especially tion on the Veda, accepted ŸRUTI as
Vedänta. ‘true’, and Vedic propositions as proof-
texts. An early controversy arose
emotions between the MÏMÄßSAKAS, who accept-
See BHÄVA, RASA. ed only injunctions (vidhi) as ‘revealed’,
and the VEDÄNTINS, for whom the pur-
environment pose of the Veda was ultimate knowl-
Vedic Hinduism was very environmen- edge (VIDYÄ). In debates with non-Vedic
tally conscious: pollution of land and systems, such as those of the various
water was forbidden and care was taken schools of Buddhism and Jainism,
to preserve the natural fertility of the Hindus developed their own epistemol-
environment. Puräæic ideas such as the ogy. The NYÄYA (1) school especially
concept of the material world as God’s investigated questions of logic and
body sharpened the awareness of the epistemology. From the early Middle
sacredness of nature. Many large tracts Ages it became customary for Hindu
of land were kept in pristine condition scholarly writers to preface their works
as places for the gods to inhabit. With with a statement detailing which
the Islamic conquest, and later with pramäæas they embraced: all accepted
European colonial administration, that ÿabda (the word of scripture) and
pratyak•a (direct perception); some
used in addition upamäna (analogy),
anumäna (inference), arthapatti (pre-
sumption) and abhäva (absence). As a

equality of women 66

result of debates between different of independent India. Since the 1960s
schools, major works on epistemology Indian womens’ movements have grown
were written by several authors who in importance and influence. The HINDU
attempted to refute other opinions and MARRIAGE ACT of 1956 established the
to establish their own conclusions on equality of men and women in most
rational grounds. matters on a legal basis. In spite of all
these efforts old attitudes towards
equality of women women continue. Although the giving
and taking of dowries is outlawed, it is
Women and men were considered equal still widely practised, and frequently
during early Vedic times: women leads to criminal abuses. The so-called
appear as composers of Vedic HYMNS ‘dowry deaths’ are the result of failed
(ø•is), as vedic teachers (ÄCÄRYÄS) and as attempts to blackmail brides’ parents
companions in rituals. With the into providing more dowry; the often
increased specialization of brahmanic open-ended agreements concerning
ritual and the rise of urban culture the dowries expose brides to threats and
status of women has diminished. The abuse. (See also FEMALE INFANTICIDE.)
influential MANU-SMØTI (sixth century
BCE?), while giving lavish praise to the eternity
mother in the home, advises that a
woman should never be without male Concepts premised on eternity (nitya,
supervision. In childhood she was to be ananta, amarta) are central to Hinduism.
under the authority of her father, in It was always assumed that the ultimate
marrriage under the rule of her hus- principle, the supreme reality, the high-
band, in widowhood under the supervi- est God, was eternal, i.e. without begin-
sion of her son. Ritually also women ning or end. Attempts to win immortal-
were disadvantaged: they no longer ity are described in Hindu literature
received UPANAYANA, they could not from the Vedas through the epics to the
study the Veda, they were excluded Puräæas. With the Upani•ads the notion
from most religious activities. BHAKTI arose that the soul (jïvätma) was eter-
movements attempted to readmit women nal, uncreated and indestructible. As
to religious practices, sometimes even long as it was not emancipated from its
placing women higher than men, as did bodily desires, it had to transmigrate
the GAU¥ÏYA Vai•æavas, who considered from one corporeal existence to the
the GOPÏS superior to male devotees. In next. The ultimate destiny was immor-
ŸÄKTISM women were given an exalted tality and eternity.
position in rituals as embodiments of
the Goddess. With the Muslim conquest ethics (ÿïla)
of India, restrictions on the movement
of women increased: Hindus adopted The definition of Hinduism as DHARMA
the Muslim custom of purdah and did clearly indicates the primacy of ethics:
not allow women to leave their assigned while beliefs and doctrinal formulations
quarters without special permission. were largely left to individual choice,
Many Hindu reformers of the 19th and conformity with the rules of behaviour,
early 20th centuries fought for women’s including ritual, was mandatory and the
rights and women’s education. single most important criterion of mem-
Mahatma GANDHI accepted women as bership in Hindu society.
equal partners in the struggle for inde-
pendence, and expressed the wish to see evil
a Harijan woman as the first president
The conflict between good and evil is
represented in Hindu tradition in a

67 experience

variety of images and notions: in the opposites in the finite sphere, ultimately
Veda INDRA represents ‘good’, VØTRA to be overcome. Hinduism does not
‘evil’; the DEVAS are opposed by the acknowledge an eternal hell or eternal
ASURAS; the Äryas fight the DAITYAS. In damnation as punishment for evil
the Puräæas Vi•æu appears in a series of actions. Even the demons are eventually
AVATÄRAS to combat evil: NÄRASIMH. A saved from their evil nature, after hav-
kills HIRAŒYAKAŸIPU to save PRAHLÄDA; ing served a cosmic purpose.
Kø•æa kills KAߟA to save his people in
Vraja; Räma kills RAVAŒA. Ÿiva drinks experience
the poison HALÄHALÄ to save human-
kind. Durgä kills the buffalo demon to Hindus have always endeavoured to
save the three worlds from demon rule. experience the ultimate rather than con-
On the level of ethics the opposition ceptualize it. Upani•adic techniques aim
between good and evil is manifested in at an experience of the oneness of
following/not following the duties ÄTMAN, and BRAHMAN and Vedäntic
imposed by one’s VARŒA, and in the sets teachers amplify and refine these meth-
of virtues/vices developed especially by ods. ŸA¢KARA (2) insists that anubhava
the Nyayaikas (see NYÄYA). True to the (experience), rather than intellectual
holistic bent of Hindu thought, howev- understanding, can bring about LIBERA-
er, the opposition between good and TION. Theistic Hindu traditions aim at
evil is not seen as a metaphysical split in SÄKÆÄTKÄRA (a direct visual experience
reality: the categories good/evil are of God), which many Hindus claim to
within the realm of dvandvas, pairs of have had.

F

faith (viÿväsa, ÿraddhä) fasting

In a general sense ‘faith’ plays a central See UPAVÄSA.
role in Hinduism: the acceptance of
ŸRUTI as ‘revealed word’ requires faith. female infanticide
Faith is also demanded from the disciple
towards his teacher, an acceptance of The religious need for a male heir, and
the teacher’s authority. Pilgrims travel- the great expense of marrying off a
ling to temples to find relief from their daughter, led in former times to wide-
suffering or help in their needs also spread female infanticide among
exhibit a great amount of faith. The Hindus, especially in Bengal. Female
crowds surrounding living manifesta- babies were either offered to Goddess
tions of the deity, such as ÄNANDAMAYÏ GA¢GÄ or exposed in fulfilment of a
MÄ or SATHYA SAI BABA, exhibit tremen- VRATA. While not as prevalent today,
dous faith. In a more specific, theologi- there are still cases of female infanticide,
cal sense, faith plays a much smaller very often following determination of
role in Hinduism than in biblical reli- the female gender of the foetus through
gions. It is seen important only as an amniocentesis.
early stage in one’s spiritual develop-
ment, not as an end in itself. Faith as festivals
such is not the cause of LIBERATION, but
only a preparatory phase, to be super- Hinduism is rich in festivals. Besides the
seded by direct experience. local temple feasts, which often attract
millions of visitors to famous places of
Farquhar, J. N. (1861–1929) pilgrimage, such as the ratha-yäträ at
JAGANNÄTHA PURÏ, there are some feasts
Scottish missionary. He worked in India that are celebrated all over India or in
(mainly in Calcutta) from 1891 to large areas. Among these the following
1923, initiated serious study of stand out:
Hinduism among Protestant missionar-
ies, and is the author of such standard Kø•æa-jayanti, Kø•æa’s birthday, cel-
works as A Primer of Hinduism, ebrated on the eighth KØÆŒA-PAKÆA of
Modern Religious Movements in India, the month Ÿravana (July–August) in
An Outline of the Religious Literature commemoration of Kø•æa’s birth at
of India, The Crown of Hinduism, midnight in the prison of Mathurä. It is
Hinduism, its Content and Value. a national holiday in India.

69 food

Ÿiva-rätrï, Ÿiva’s night, celebrated on flood (the Great Flood) that exterminated
the thirteenth kø•æa-pak•a in the month all of humankind, excepting MANU (2)
Mägha (January–February), the princi- and his family. It was preceded by the
pal feast of Ÿaivas, but also observed by appearance of Vi•æu in the form of a
Vai•æavas, who consider Ÿiva the first fish (MATSYA) whom Manu caught and
devotee of Vi•æu. The LI¢GA (3) is deco- reared and released into the ocean.
rated and bathed in honey and milk. Before parting he instructed Manu
about the coming disaster. When the
Dassera, ‘ten days’, celebrated in the whole world was flooded, Vi•æu EKA-
first half of the month Äÿvina (Septem- ŸØ¢GA (1) appeared and brought Manu
ber–October), is a string of festivals to safety. Manu, being the only survivor,
during the beautiful time after the mon- became both the progenitor of the new
soon. The first nine days, Nava-rätrï, is human race and the first lawgiver. (See
also the time of the famous Durgäpüjä also MANUSMØTI.)
in Bengal.
food (anna)
DÏPÄVALÏ or Divälï, ‘the feast of
lights’, is celebrated in the second half Food plays a major role in Hinduism.
of Äÿvina, with the lighting of countless All SACRIFICES involved food, and only
lamps on rivers and houses. the best was deemed fit for the gods.
The Upani•ads interiorize the role that
Holi, celebrated in ŸUKLA-PAKÆA of the food plays: everything is seen as arising
month Phalguæa (February–March), is a from food and becoming food again.
celebration of spring resembling a Western Preparing and consuming food is regu-
carnival. It is also New Year’s day. lated by a host of rules. Many CASTE
regulations concern commensality.
Ganeÿa-catürthi, celebrated on the While Vedic Indians seem to have had
fourth ÿukla-pak•a of Bhadra (August– few, if any, restrictions with regard to
September), is the major feast in food (apparently the animals that were
Mahärä•flra: figures of GAŒEŸA are dis- unfit for sacrifice, such as donkeys and
played in public places and homes, and camels, were also unfit for eating), later
after a festive procession through town Hinduism developed many such taboos,
immersed in the sea. which were further hightened by sectar-
ian regulations. With the ascendancy of
Nägapañcamï, a celebration in hon- Buddhism and Jainism, most Hindus,
our of cobras, is very popular in the especially the brahmins, seem to have
south. adopted VEGETARIANISM. VAIÆŒAVAS in
particular developed a whole theology
Filliozat, Jean (1906–82) of food: categorizing all foods accord-
ing to the three GUŒAS, they advised the
French Indologist. Founder of the taking of sättvik food (milk and milk
Institut Française d’Indologie at products, most grains, fruit and vegeta-
Pondicherry (1955), initiator of studies bles) and the avoidance of räjasik food
in Ÿaivite ÄGAMAS, author of Les (‘exciting’ foods such as garlic, eggs,
relations extérieures de l’Inde (1956), red-coloured vegetables and fruit) and
translator of Ajitagäma, Yogabhä•ya, tämasik (‘foul’ foods such as meat and
Yogaÿataka. intoxicating substances). ŸAIVAS and
ŸÄKTAS observe few restrictions with
fire regard to food. (See also MEAT EATING.)

See AGNI.

flood

Hindu tradition has tales of a universal

Frauwallner, Erich 70

Frauwallner, Erich proper condition of the soul. A major
(1898–1974) difference concerns the understanding
of the relationship between bondage
Professor of Indian and Iranian studies and freedom and the paths leading from
at the University of Vienna. His contri- bondage to freedom. ADVAITA VEDÄNTA
butions to the study of Hinduism are holds that freedom results from divest-
mainly in the areas of SÄßKHYA and ing oneself of ÄVIDYÄ; Theistic VEDÄNTA
MÏMÄßSÄ. He had planned to write a (2) considers freedom a gift of God’s
five-volume history of Indian philosophy, grace and an enhancement of the natur-
of which only two volumes appeared, al condition.
containing valuable information on
Säƒkhya, YOGA and VAIŸEÆIKA. Political freedom fighters in the 19th
and 20th centuries adopted some of the
freedom (mok•a, mukti, vimukti) Vedäntic notions and transferred them
to the socio-political arena. Thus
A central notion in Hinduism. It pre- GANDHI considered colonial rule ‘sinful’
supposes the condition of BONDAGE, and liberation from it an act of (reli-
whose most conspicuous manifestation gious) salvation.
is the existence in SAßSÄRA and the
KARMA(2)-induced necessity of bodily funeral rites
REBIRTH. All Hindu systems are paths to
freedom, which is understood as the See ŸRADDHA.

G

Gaja-Lak•mï (‘Elephant-Lak•mï’)

A portrayal of LAKÆMÏ being doused by
two elephants, one on each side, a
favourite motif in Hindu sculpture.

Gandharva (1)

In the VEDA, Gandharva is a deity who
knows and reveals the secrets of heaven.

Gandharva (2)

Heavenly musicians who were fond of
women.

Gandharva (3)

A form of (legitimate) marriage
designating a love union.

Gandharva Veda A commemorative stamp showing
the head of Gandhi.
Treatise on music and song, including
drama and dancing. Its author is youth he befriended a Jain, who had a
BHÄRATA MUNI and it is an appendix to major influence on his character. After
the Sämaveda. studies in England he practised law in
South Africa where he played an impor-
Gandhi, Mohandas tant part in the contribution of the
Karamchand (Mahatma) Indian community to the struggle
(1869–1948) against apartheid, developing concepts
such as satyägraha (truth-grasping) and
Indian nationalist leader, pioneer of techniques such as ahiƒsä (non-violent
passive resistance and advocate of non- resistance).
violence. Gandhi was born in Por-
bandhar, Gujarat. His father and his
grandfather had been premiers in small
princely states in Kathiawar. His moth-
er was a devout VAIÆŒAVA and as a

Gaæeÿa 72

Returning to India in 1915 he joined Ganeÿa, the popular elephant-headed god,
the freedom movement and quickly rose patron of scholars and scribes.
to be one of its leaders. He organized
mass civil disobedience events, marches body and an elephant’s head. He is
and protest movements. He founded an worshipped as god of wisdom and
ashram at Wardha near Ahmedabad to remover of obstacles (Vinäyaka), and
train his co-workers in ahiƒsä (non- invoked before the beginning of any
violence) and satya (truthfulness), major undertaking. He is VYÄSA’s secre-
believing that non-violence and truth tary and wrote, at his dictation, the
would prevail. To give emphasis to his Mahäbhärata. His VÄHANA is a rat. He
demands, both for concessions from the is very popular with students, clerks,
British government and for peace writers and business people, and there
between warring groups of Muslims are numerous temples in his honour.
and Hindus, he undertook lengthy fasts. His festival, Gaæeÿa catürthi, is cele-
He was a deeply religious man and con- brated very lavishly especially in
vinced that in order to do God’s work Mahärä•flra, with displays of Gaæeÿa
he had to discipline himself and earn images on public places and in homes
God’s grace. He was unable to prevent and processions through the streets.
the partition of the country which led to There are many stories explaining how
widespread bloodshed. Accused by he came to have an elephant’s head.
some of having done more for Muslims
than for his fellow Hindus, he was shot Gaögä, also Ganges
on 30 January, 1948 by Nathuram
GODSE, an extremist Hindu, during a India’s most holy river. Mentioned only
prayer meeting at Birla house in New twice in the Øgveda, it became a promi-
Delhi. nent subject of praise in the Puräæas.
Originally a heavenly river, it was
Gandhi not only helped to bring brought down to earth by the prayers of
about India’s independence from
Britain, he also did much for the uplift-
ment of the former untouchables
(whom he named HARIJAN, ‘God’s
people’) and for the equality of women.
He developed an economic programme
for India, based on his principles of
ahiƒsä and satya and emphasizing the
human element, the need to give mean-
ingful work to everyone and respect for
nature.

Gandhi considered himself first and
foremost a religious and moral reformer,
and hoped to further the Rämaräjya,
which he understood as the kingdom of
God, through his social and political
activities.

Gaæeÿa, also Gaæapati
(‘Lord of the gaæas [the hosts of minor
Vedic deities]’)

Son of Ÿiva and Pärvatï, with a human

73 gäyatri

Bhägïratha to purify the ashes of the recount his ventures. He is known by
60,000 sons of his ancestor King Sagara, many different names. Each Vi•æu
who had been burnt to death by the temple in South India has a
anger of the sage Kapila. Originating Garuõastambha, provided for Garuõa
from Vi•æu’s toe, its turbulence, which to alight upon when bringing Vi•æu
would have destroyed the earth, was down to earth.
stopped by the matted hair of Ÿiva, who
therefore has the title ‘Gaögä-dhära’. Gauõapäda (eighth century?)
The river has different names in Ÿaækara’s parama guru (GURU’s guru);
different sections: first it is called author of the famous Gauõapäda
Bhägïrathï, then Gaögä, further down it Kärikäs, a commentary on the
splits into many branches, each of MUŒ¥AKA UPANIÆAD, the first exposi-
which has a different name, for example tion of Advaita Vedänta, upon which
Jähnavï, Mandäkinï. As a goddess ŸA¢KARA (2) commented.
Gaögä is the eldest daughter of Himavat
(the personificiation of Himälaya) and Gauõïya Vai•æavism
Menä; her sister is Umä. She married (‘Bengal Vai•æavism’)
King Ÿäntanu: her son BHÏÆMA is also The term comes from Gauõa, an ancient
known as Gäögeya. She is called by name for Bengal. It is frequently used as
many names in numerous hymns synonymous with CAITANYA’s 16th-cen-
addressed to her. Her water is believed tury revival of Vai•æavism in Bengal.
to be always pure and purifying, and pil-
grims take flasks of Ganges water with Gaurï (‘yellow’, ‘brilliant’)
them for use especially in the last rites. One of the names of Pärvatï, the consort
of Ÿiva.
Gaögeÿa (12th century)
Celebrated author of the Tattvacintä- Gautama (1)
maæi, the main work of Nava Nyäya. Vedic sage, author of a work on
DHARMA-ŸÄSTRA.
garbha-gøha (‘womb-house’)
The innermost cell and most sacred part Gautama (2), also Gotama
of a temple, where the IMAGE is housed. (c. 300 BCE)
Author of the NYÄYA SÜTRAS.
Gärgï
Upani•adic sage, wife of YAJÑAVÄLKYA, gäyatrï
with whom she conducted debates. The most sacred verse from the
Øgveda, addressed to Savitø, the sun,
garhasthya (‘householder’) light, wisdom. Every brahmin must
recite it during morning and evening
A brahmin in the second stage of his prayers. Its translation is unclear but
life-cycle. (See also CATURVARŒÄŸRAMA scriptures recommend repeating it as
DHARMA; VARŒÄŸRAMA DHARMA.) often as possible because through it the
forefathers had achieved long life,
Garuõa honour, understanding and glory. It is
Vi•æu’s VAHANA, half vulture, half supposed to be a summary of the
man, the king of birds and the enemy entire Veda.
of serpents. Many Puräæic stories

ghï 74

ghï Glasenapp, Helmut von
Clarified butter, an ingredient of many (1891–1963)
SACRIFICES and PÜJÄS, such as the Vedic
sacrifice homa, in which ghï is thrown German Indologist and scholar of
into fire. religion, who taught mainly at
Königsberg and Tübingen, and promoted
Gho•ä the knowledge of Indian religions, espe-
Daughter of the ø•i (sage) Kak•ïvat. She cially Hinduism, through many scholar-
was afflicted with leprosy, but the ly and popular works: Der Hinduismus
AŸVINS cured her late in life, and (1930); Die Religionen Indiens (1943);
bestowed beauty and youth on her so Die Philosophie der Inder (1949); Das
that she could marry. Indienbild deutscher Denker (1960).

ghosts go
See BHÜTA; PRETA.
See COW.
gifts
See DÄNA. goat (aja)

Giridhara The most frequently used animal for
(‘the upholder of the mountain’) Vedic SACRIFICES. Goats are still offered
Epithet of Kø•æa, who held Mount to KÄLÏ (2) on a regular basis. Aja also
Govardhan up high in order to protect means ‘unborn’, and many interesting
the shepherds of Vraja from torrential speculations make use of the double
rains sent by Indra. meaning of the word.

Girijä (‘mountain-born’) God and gods
A name of DEVÏ.
Many outsiders are fascinated to learn
gïtä (‘song’) that Hindus worship 330 million (thirty-
A religio-philosophical text in the form three crores) gods. There is no record of
of an epic poem. The best known is the the names of all of these, of course, and
Bhagavadgïtä, which is found as an the figure serves to indicate that the
insert in the sixth book of the number of higher powers is unimagin-
Mahäbhärata. Other well-known gïtäs ably high. There are lists of gods that go
are the Upagïtä, also found in the into the hundreds and there are litanies
Mahäbhärata, and the Bhrämaragïtä. of names of major gods, such as Ÿiva or
Vi•æu, that enumerate a thousand
Gïta-govinda names.
Famous poem by JÄYADEVA, celebrating
the love of Kø•æa and the GOPÏS, influen- The English word God/gods stands
tial for the development of GAU¥ÏYA for a great many Hindu (Sanskrit) terms
VAIÆŒAVISM. that have clearly differentiated mean-
ings. The most commonly used word is
Gïtä-rahasya (‘secret of the Gïtä’) DEVA or devatä, generically applicable
A work by B. G. TILAK interpreting the to all higher powers and also liberally
Bhagavadgïtä as a ‘Gospel of action.’ used by Hindus when addressing an
important human being, who is hon-
oured by the title ‘Deva’. Deva is every-
thing that reveals something unusual or
uncommon, that exercises power and
influence, or that is helpful or harmful.

75 Gokhale, Gopal Krishna

The Vedas speak of 33 gods: 11 assigned god’ or personal deity, who becomes the
to the earth, 11 to the heavens and 11 to focus of their piety and worship. The
the region in between. They address fact that different people choose differ-
Agni (fire), Sürya (sun) and U•as (dawn) ent i•flas makes for a unique kind of
as devas; they also contains hymns to polytheism: while remaining loyal to the
Indra, described as powerful protector deity of their choice, most are convinced
of the ÄRYAN people, who is exalted that it is one of many manifestations of
above other gods as the one who creates the ultimate power (BRAHMAN) and that
and delivers. There is also the statement ultimately there is only one Supreme
that ‘although Indra is one, he is called God, whose true nature is beyond
by many names’. human powers to comprehend. Most
Hindus are worshippers of one God,
In the Upani•ads the role of the whom they consider creator, sustainer
devas recedes into the background: they and redeemer and to whom they
are not seen as important for reaching address their petitions and prayers.
the transcendental consciousness in They usually respect other gods, often
which ultimate fulfilment was seen. considering them a manifestation of
Buddhists and Jains too devalued the their own God. They will repeat
position of gods to merely innerworldly MANTRAS to a great many devatäs,
agents, useless in the pursuit of nirväæa whom they believe to be the guiding and
or kaivalya. presiding powers of natural and cultural
phenomena.
During the GUPTA renaissance, and
with the rise of Puräæic Hinduism, some Godävarï
gods emerged as major figures: Brahmä,
Vi•æu and Ÿiva (the TRIMÜRTI), Major river in South India, whose
representing the cosmic forces of cre- banks contain many sacred places.
ation, sustenance and destruction. Not
only were these ïÿvaras (‘lords’) seen as Godse, Nathuram (1912–49)
of the utmost importance for the exis-
tence of the universe and the protection Former member of the RÄÆTØÏYA
of their worshippers, they also were SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, who assassinated
seen as muktidätä, i.e. givers of Mahatma GANDHI out of a conviction
LIBERATION/salvation. Worship of gods that Gandhi had been too friendly
(PÜJÄ) became an integral part of Hindu towards Muslims and was responsible
religion. With the construction of for the great suffering of millions of
genealogies of gods and the developing Hindus after the partition of India in
belief in multiple bodily descents 1947. He was apprehended on the spot,
(AVAހRAS) the number of gods and tried, condemned to death and hanged.
goddesses increased dramatically.
Gokhale, Gopal Krishna
Along with the officially sanctioned (1866–1915)
worship of a great variety of manifesta-
tions of Vi•æu, Ÿiva and Devï, at the vil- Important early Hindu reformer and
lage level the worship of autochthonous promoter of religious nationalism. At
deities continued and was augmented the age of 19 he joined the Deccan
by the worship of local gods and god- Education Society in Poona, taking a
desses, often the spirits of departed vow of poverty for 20 years in order to
members of the village community who devote himself to educating his fellow
had revealed some extraordinary powers. countrymen, at the Fergusson College,
established by the society. In 1905 he
Most Hindus choose one of the
deities as their i•fla devatä, their ‘wish-

Gokula 76

founded the Servants of India Society, own and of other communities. For
devoted to social and economical sup- Advaitins the dichotomy of good and
port of the lower classes. At the age of evil applies only to the lower sphere of
30 he became a member of the Imperial practical life, it is one of the dvandvas
Legislative Council, working for admin- (pairs of opposites) that have no validi-
istratrive and financial reforms. He ty in the ultimate sphere, where those
took great interest in the work of M. K. distinctions are meaningless. Never-
GANDHI in South Africa, encouraging theless all Hindus would agree that the
and advising him. PURUÆÄRTHAS encapsulate what is con-
sidered ‘good’ and that mok•a (emanci-
Gokula pation) is the supreme good to be aimed
Rural area on the Yamunä, where at. There is also fairly large agreement
Kø•æa spent his boyhood with the shep- that good actions generate good karma,
herds of Braja. and bad actions result in bad karma; the
future rebirth of a person will be deter-
Goloka (‘the world of cows’) mined by the kind of karma she has
Kø•æa’s heaven. acquired in her previous lives. (See also
DHARMA; ETHICS; EVIL.)

Golwalkar, Madhav Sadashiv Gopäla (‘protector of cows’)
(1906–73) An epithet of Kø•æa.

From 1940 to 1973 Sarasanghachalak Gopäla Bhaflfla (16th century)
(Supreme Chief) of the RÄÆTØÏYA One of the original six Gosvämis of
SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, author of Bunch VØNDÄVANA, sent there by CAITANYA to
of Thoughts and Sri Guruji Samagra revive the tradition of Kø•æa worship,
Darshana, a seven-volume collection of author of Haribhaktiviläsa, a famous
his speeches in Hindi. work of GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, which
describes the proper form of worship.
Gonda, Jan (1905–96)
gopïs
Prolific Dutch Indologist, for many Daughters and wives of cowherds in
years professor and department head at Braja, whose love for Kø•æa is consid-
the University of Utrecht, who wrote on
all aspects of Hinduism from Vedic to
contemporary. Some of his major works
are Aspects of Early Vaisnavism (1954),
Die Religionen Indiens (2 vols; 1960–3),
The Ritual Sutras (1977), Vedic Ritual:
The Non-Solemn Rites (1980), The
Indra Hymns of the Rgveda (1989).

good and evil The gopïs of Vøædävana, models of
highest bhakti to Kø•æa.
What the Veda prescribes (VIDHI) is
‘good’ and what it forbids (ni•edha) is
‘evil’. Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS, relying on
specific works that they consider revela-
tions, usually extend the range of good
and evil to include sectarian obser-
vances with regard to worship, mode of
life, contacts with members of one’s

77 grace

ered exemplary: they forsook their hus- Gospel of Ramakrishna
bands and neglected their families in English translation of a transcript of
order to be with Kø•æa. They are the discourses and conversations by
subject of numerous stories and songs. Paraƒahamsa RAMAKRISHNA record-
ed by one of his disciples, known
go-püjä (‘cow-worship’) as M.

Part of the ceremonies performed dur- gosvämi (‘Lord of cows’)
ing mattupoögal in Tamilnãdü. (See An honorific title given to the first six
also PO¢GAL.) disciples of CAITANYA designating their
authority as teachers. They were RÜPA
gopura (‘cow fortress’) and his brother Sanätana, their nephew
Jïva, GOPÄLA BHAfifiA, Raghunätha
Entrance towers to South Indian temples. Bhaflfla and Raghunätha Däsa, who all
wrote authoritative works. Their
Gorakhnätha descendants claim ownership of impor-
(between 900 and 1225 CE) tant temples in Vøndävana.

A great yogi and miracle worker about gotra (‘clan’)
whom many legends circulate in India; Important (smallest) CASTE unit, within
founder of the Näflhapanthis, a sect of which marriages are severely restricted
Ÿaivas who practise extreme forms of or forbidden. (See also JÄTÏ.)
asceticism. One branch, the Käæphatas,
derive their name from the initiation Govardhana
practice of piercing the ear-lobes with a A mountain in Braja. Kø•æa persuaded
double-edged knife and inserting an the cowherds of Braja to worship
iron ring. They have centres in many Govardhana instead of Indra. Indra,
towns in North India. Gorakhnätha’s enraged, sent a deluge, which threat-
teachings are contained in works attrib- ened to drown all people. Kø•æa sup-
uted to him: Siddha-siddhänta-pad- ported the mountain on his little finger
dhatï, Gorak•aÿataka, and Gorakh- for seven days and thus sheltered and
bodha. All teach Haflha-yoga. The aim saved the people of Braja. Kø•æa is
of the practice is to become the equal therefore called Govardhana-
of Ÿiva. dhära, the ‘upholder of Govardhana
mountain’.
Gorakhpur
Govinda (‘finder of the cows’)
Town in Uttar Pradesh, named after An epithet of KØÆŒA.
Gorakhnäflha, the headquarters of the
Näflhapanthis. It also is the home of the Govinda Bhä•ya
Gïtä Press, established in 1923 by See VIDYÄBHÜÆANA BALADEVA.
Hanuman Prasad PODDAR, the largest
publisher of Hindu religious literature
in Hindï and Sanskrit, publishing a
Hindï-language religious monthly,
Kalyäæ, with a circulation of over
200,000.

goÿälä grace
See COWS. See KØPÄ; ANUGRAHA.

grammar 78

grammar Wahid Yahya) his universal interests in
See VYÄKÄRAŒA. religious traditions also included
Hinduism, and his Introduction générale
gøha praveÿa (‘entering the house’) à l’étude des doctrines hindoues (1921)
A ceremony performed by brahmins is considered a seminal work, which still
when a family first enters a new influences the understanding of
home. Hinduism in the West.

Gøhya Sütra guæa (‘quality’)
Text dealing with the regulations of
domestic rites and SAßSKÄRAS. Several Used in a very general sense, also
collections of Gøhya Sütras are in ‘virtue’; more specifically used by the
existence, for example Äÿvaläyana SÄßKHYA system to designate the three
Gøhyasütras. principles of all material beings: sattva
(light), rajas (excitement) and tamas
(darkness).

Griffith, Ralph Thomas Gupta
Hotchkins A dynasty of rulers of MAGADHA (319–415
(1826–1906) CE) under whose reign Hinduism
experienced a cultural renaissance and
Orientalist and teacher. He was profes- royal support. It was a golden time for the
sor of English and principal at Benares arts and the traditional sciences.
College, director of public instruction in
the North-West Provinces and Oudh, guru (‘elder’)
founder-editor of Pandit, a journal ded- Teacher, especially of sacred lore and med-
icated to classical Sanskrit studies, itation, spiritual master, who initiates and
translator of the Rämäyana (1870–5), guides disciples in a particular tradition.
Øgveda (1889–92), Sämaveda (1893),
Atharvaveda (1895–6), and the White guru-dïk•ä
Yajurveda (1899). Tantrik ceremony of initiation for a
religious preceptor (both women and
Gudimally men can receive it).

Temple town in South India with what gurukula
is reputed to be the oldest Ÿiva LI¢GA (3) The gurukula system is built on a close
worshipped, dating from the second relationship between teacher and stu-
century BCE. dent. In Vedic times the student spent
twelve years in the home of his teacher,
Guenon, René (1886–1951) serving him and learning from him.
During this time the student maintained
Widely appreciated writer on spirituality strict celibacy (BRAHMACARYA), and was
and religious traditions. Although to show lifelong respect for his teacher.
Guenon became a Muslim in early adult-
hood and spent much of his life in Egypt
(under the name of Shaikh Abd’al

H

Hacker, Paul (1913–79) of vows. Keÿin, ‘the hairy one’, is an epi-
thet of Kø•æa.
Eminent Indologist. He taught at Bonn
and Münster. His main contribution hala (‘ploughshare’)
was the study of early ADVAITA, where Symbol of BALADEVA, also called Hala-
he attempted to develop criteria to bhøt, ‘bearing a plough’ and ‘Haläyudha’,
establish the authentic writings of ‘having a ploughshare for a weapon’.
ŸA¢KARA (2). In a number of papers he
examined larger concepts such as Ÿrad- halähalä
dha (1963), Dharma (1965) and Vrata The fiery poison that emerged as the
(1973), and brought out a monograph first product from the CHURNING OF THE
on Prahläda (1959). OCEAN by gods and demons at the
beginning of the world. It threatened to
Haihaya (1) engulf the world, whereupon Ÿiva swal-
lowed it. Its power darkened Ÿiva’s
Prince of the lunar dynasty, great- throat, and he is since known as NÏLA-
grandson of Yadu. (See also YÄDAVA.) KAŒfiHA, ‘the one with the blue throat’.

Haihaya (2) Halebid
Famous temple city in Karæätaka, built
Descendants of Haihaya (1), according by the HOYŸALAS.
to the VIÆŒU PURÄŒA.
Haƒsa avatära
hair Vi•æu’s descent in the form of a swan.

Many Hindu rituals concern the cutting Hanuman(t)
of hair. Part of the UPANAYANA (initia- Celebrated chief of monkeys, son of
tion) ceremony is the shaving of the Pavana (wind) and Anjanä, a major fig-
head, with the exception of the ŸIKHA, ure in the RÄMÄYAŒA. He aided RÄMA
and it remains a religious obligation for in the conquest of Ÿrï Laöka, RÄVANA’s
brahmins to shave their heads every capital. His worship is very popular and
fortnight. When a man becomes a many temples were built for him. He is
SAMNYÄSI, the DÏKÆÄ includes the shav- also known as a great scholar and
ing of all hair of the body, including the author of a grammar.
ÿikha. Similarly, a dead man’s hair is to
be shaved before cremation. In the
famous temple of TIRUPATI pilgrims
offer their hair to the deity in fulfilment

happiness 80

one of the four places where the
KUMBHAMELA is held every twelve years.
It is also the starting-point for pilgrim-
ages to Kedarnäflh and Badrïnäth.

Hari (‘the yellowish-green one’)
A name of VIÆŒU.

Hari-Hara

A combination of Vi•æu and Ÿiva in one
image.

Harijan (‘God’s people’)

Designation for OUTCASTES introduced
by Mahatma GANDHI to emphasize their
dignity and human rights.

Hanuman, the monkey ally of Räma, Hariÿcandra
conquering Laökä and liberating Sïtä An ancient king famous for his piety
and righteousness, a paradigm of liber-
from Rävaæa’s captivity. ality, the subject of many stories in
Puräæas and dramatic performances.
happiness (sukha)
This is the declared aim of all Hindu Harita-smøti
systems, spurred by the experience of A lawbook ascribed to the sage Harita.
unhappiness (duåkha).
Hari-vamÿa (Puräæa)
Hara (‘the one who takes away’) A lengthy appendix to the Mahä-
A name of ŸIVA. bhärata. Literally the ‘genealogy of
Hari’, the work conists of three parts:
Harappa (1) creation, patriarchal and regal
An ancient city in the Indus valley, exca- dynasties; (2) the life and exploits of
vated in the early 20th century. While Kø•æa; (3) future of the world and the
most scholars still consider it as part of end of the KALI YUGA.
a pre-Äryan civilization, some recent
findings suggest that it might have been Hastinä-pura
a late Vedic urban settlement. The capital city of the KAURAVAS at the
Bhägïrathï (Gaægä), about 100 km
Hardwar, also Hari-dvär(a), north-east of modern Delhi, founded
Hara-dvär(a) (‘gate of Hari/Hara’) by Hastin, a descendant of BHARATA
Famous place of pilgrimage in North (4), installed on the throne by
India where the already mighty GA¢GÄ ØÆABHA.
breaks through the last range of the
Himälayas and enters the plains. It is häsya (‘laughing’)
filled with ashrams and temples, and is One of the RASAS of Indian aesthetics.

81 Hindu jägaran

Haflha-yoga (‘forced yoga’) tion. The Puräæas, with their sectarian
bias, present a different heaven for each
A system of physical exercises designed of the major gods: Vi•æu’s heaven, for
to increase bodily strength and health. example, is Vaikunflha; Ÿiva’s Kailäsa;
The Haflhayoga pradïpikä by Svatma- Devï’s Maæidvïpa. (See also AFTERLIFE;
räma Yogïndra is a standard manual. SVARGA.)

Haya-ÿiras (1), also Haya-ÿirsa, Hedgewar, K.V.
Haya-grïva (‘horse-head’,
‘horse neck’) See RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH.

The eighteenth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu, hell
revealer of sacred lore.
See NÄRAKA.
Haya-ÿiras (2)
Himälaya, also Himäcala,
A demon who stole the Veda and was Himädri (‘abode of snow’)
slain by Vi•æu in the form of the
MATSYA AVATÄRA. Immense mountain range in the north
of India with great religious signifi-
Hazra, Rajendra Chandra cance. Ÿiva is supposed to reside on
(1905–82) Mount Kailäsa; Devï is called Pärvatï,
the ‘daughter of the mountains’.
Professor at Sanskrit College Calcutta, Countless ascetics have withdrawn to
author of many authoritative works on the Himälayas since time immemorial
Puräæas: Studies in the Puranic Records and there are famous places of pilgrim-
on Hindu Rites and Customs (1940); age visited by many thousands of pil-
Studies in the Upapuräæas (2 vols, 1958 grims every year, such as Hardwar,
and 1963). Hø•ikeÿa, Badrïnäth, Kedarnäth. The
mountain range is personified as
heart (hødaya) Himavat (husband of Menä, father of
Umä and Gaægä).
The seat of feeling and emotions, of
thought and intellectual operations. hiƒsä
Metaphorically it designates the best or
the essence of a thing. Hindu writings See VIOLENCE.
speak of the presence of ‘an eternal
monitor in the heart’, i.e the conscience; Hindu jägaran
of ‘heart fetters’ or ‘heart knots’, the (‘Hindu awakening’)
hindrance to attaining freedom; of a
‘cave of the heart’ (hødaya guha), the Collective designation of efforts that
place where one encounters the ulti- began at the end of the 19th century to
mate. The activity most eminently con- ‘raise Hindu consciousness’. Persons
nected with the heart is love. (See also active in this process were DÄYÄNANDA
BHAKTI.) SARASVATÏ, AUROBINDO GHOSE, Bal
Gangadhar TILAK and others.
heaven Movements contributing to it were the
Ärya Samäj, the Rä•flrïya Svayamsevak
The ultimate human aim, according to Sangh, the Viÿva Hindü Pari•ad, and
the Veda, to be obtained through political parties such as the Hindu
appropriate sacrifices. This concept was Mahäsabhä, the Jana Sangh and the
superseded by the Vedäntic notion of Bhäratïya Jänatä Party.
mok•a, a completely spiritual emancipa-

Hindu Mahäsabhä 82

Hindu Mahäsabhä (‘Great Hiraæyakaÿipu (‘golden dress’)
Hindu Assembly’)
A powerful demon king, father of
Political party founded by Pandit PRAHLÄDA, whom he persecuted for his
Mohan MALAVIYA in 1909 to counter- devotion to Vi•æu. He was killed by
act a perceived pro-Muslim bias in the Vi•æu in the form of NÄRASIMHA.
Indian National Congress. It advocated
a Hindu rä•flra (rule according to tradi- hita–ahita
tional Hindu law) and demanded, after (‘wholesome–unwholesome’)
independence, a reunification of divided
India. It had in Vir SAVARKAR its most Matters relating to LIBERATION and
articulate ideologue, whose notion of BONDAGE. Hita comprises all acts con-
HINDUTVA has become the mainline pol- sidered a requirement to attain libera-
icy of the right wing Hindu parties. tion, the way to salvation as outlined by
Savarkar wanted to ‘Hinduize politics individual masters. Ahita designates all
and militarize Hinduism’. contrary acts. (See also BHAKTI; JÑÄNA;
KARMA; PRAPATTI.)
Hindu Marriage Act
hlädinï-ÿakti
The government of India in 1955 passed (‘power of enjoyment’)
the Hindu Marriage Act, which, with
several amendments, became official One of the three ÿaktis (powers)
law for Hindus, replacing earlier regula- ascribed to Kø•æa in GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAV-
tions based on DHARMA-ŸÄSTRAS and ISM, the other two being sandhini-ÿakti
regional custom. It unified Hindu mar- (power of existence) and samvit-ÿakti
riage law and brought it closer to (power of consciousness). They collec-
Western law by recognizing civil mar- tively correspond to the definition of
riage and allowing divorce at the BRAHMAN as SACCIDÄNANDA.
request of the wife. Its enactment creat-
ed a great deal of controversy in India. Holikä

Hindutva A demoness, who every year demanded
(‘Hindudom’, ‘Hindu-ness’) a child to devour from a certain town.
When the lot fell on a poor widow’s
A concept created by Vir SAVARKAR, only son, the woman consulted a holy
spokesman for the Hindu Mahäsabhä, man. He advised that all the children
in the 1930s, to distinguish Hindu cul- should gather, shouting abuse and
ture from Hindu dharma, ‘Hindu reli- throwing filth at the demoness, when
gion’. Hindu Political parties demand she came to town. Holikä died of shame
that Hindutva become the criterion for and embarrassment, and the children
citizenship in a Hindu nation. It were saved. This incident is remem-
includes an emotional attachment to bered at Holï, a very popular kind of
India as ‘holy land’ and participation in Hindu carnival celebrated in spring,
Hindu culture. It has become a very with everybody squirting coloured
controversial issue in today’s India. water on everybody else, and telling rib-
ald jokes.
Hiranyagarbha
(‘golden womb’ or ‘golden egg’) horoscope (janmapatrikä)

Principle and lord of all creation, identi- It is an old Hindu tradition to have a
fied with BRAHMÄ; a major motif in horoscope established by a professional
Vedas, Upani•ads and Puräæas. astrologer (jyoti•a) shortly after the

83 hymns

birth of a child, entering the precise Hø•ikeÿa (2), also Rishikesh
astronomical coordinates. All important
events in the life of a person are decided Mountain and place of pilgrimage 30 km
upon after consultation of the horo- north of HARDWAR.
scope. (See also ASTROLOGY.)
human sacrifice
hospitality
Offering a meal or shelter for the night See SACRIFICE.
to a stranger who asked for it was one
of the traditional duties of a Hindu. If a humility (dainya)
person was refused hospitality he could
‘unload’ his sins on the unwilling host. One of the virtues to be cultivated by a
Hospitality was especially important VAIÆŒAVA who, according to an old
towards brahmins and SAMNYÄSIS. On verse, is supposed to be ‘more humble
the other hand, hospitality was not to than a blade of grass’. It is further spec-
be abused, and strict limits were set. ified as the effort to put oneself down in
Hindu literature is full of stories about comparison to others, not to mention
hospitality refused and punishments fol- one’s own merits, to serve one’s spiritual
lowing, as well as about poor people master and all other devotees.
sacrificing their last possessions for a
guest, who turns out to be God in the hymns
guise of a poor man (daridra Näräyaæa)
who amply rewards his hosts. (See also The Øgveda is a collection of hymns
ATITHI.) (süktas) that are essential components
(MANTRA (1)) of Vedic rituals; they are
hotø still used and recited by brahmin priests.
A Vedic priest whose task it was to Besides these, another genre of hymns,
recite the hymns of the Øgveda. called stotras (praise), has become very
important in connection with the wor-
Hoyÿalas ship of deities such as Vi•æu, Ÿiva and
Dynasty of rulers in Karæätaka Devï as well as Gaæeÿa, Hanuman and
(1006–1346), great warriors and other lesser devas, and humans deemed
administrators as well as defenders of to be manifestations of a deity. Epics
the Hindu faith and builders of temples and Puräæas contain many such hymns,
distinguished by a unique style, a kind and great äcäryas (masters) such as
of Indian roccoco (Belur, Halebid, ŸAŒKARA (2), RÄMÄNUJA and MADHVA
Somnathpur). (2) composed hymns that are used in
worship. Most of the works of the poet-
Hø•ikeÿa (1) (‘lord of the senses’) saints of the Indian Middle Ages are
An epithet of Vi•æu or Kø•æa. hymns in vernaculars (Tamil Prabhanda,
Hindï bhajans, Mahratti abhaögas).
Much of popular Hindu religious prac-
tice consists of singing such hymns.
There are many popular collections,
such as the Stotramälä and Stotrarat-
nävalï, which contain hymns to many
different deities.

I

icchä (‘desire’, ‘wish’) image
This usually has a negative connotation (mürti, lit. ‘embodiment [of God]’)
as longing for some finite object and
therefore a hindrance to the ultimate Usually a three-dimensional representa-
end, which requires desirelessness. tion of a specific deity according to an
established canon. Worship requires an
Ïõä, also Ïlä image of some kind, conceived as the
Subject of a number of different stories presence of the deity. Image making is
concerning sex-change either from male governed by a set of rules that deter-
to female, or female to male. mines the material, the way the deity is
to be represented, the paraphernalia
ignorance given to it. A human-made image
See AVIDYÄ. becomes a vessel for the presence of
God through the act of consecration
Ïk•väku (1) (prati•flhäpana, abhi•eka); either perma-
Son of MANU (2) Vaivasvata, descended nently or for the duration of the time of
from the sun, founder of the solar race, worship. Non-human-made images are
who reigned in Ayodhyä in the TRETA those that have been found, usually
YUGA. He had a hundred sons. revealed in a dream which do not need
a special act of consecration. If an image
Ïk•väku (2) suffers major damage, it can no longer
Founder of the dynasty of the Purus. serve as an object of worship. Hindu
temples are primarily homes for the
Ïk•väku (3) images of gods, whose worship consists
Dynasty that ruled in both North India in caring for the needs of the deity by
(Koÿala), and South India (Madupüra) bathing, feeding, clothing and fanning
as well as in Ÿrï Laöka. it. Most Hindu homes keep images of
gods and regular worship is performed
Illakumi before them.
Tamil name of goddess LAKÆMÏ, also
known as Tiru (ŸRÏ). immortality

The search for immortality is a major
theme in Hindu mythology. When the
gods and the demons churned the ocean
at the beginning of time, one of the most
prized items that emerged was a pot

85 International Society for Krishna Consciousness

with AMØTA, nectar providing immor- seded by worship of Vi•æu–Kø•æa and
tality. By a ruse the gods appropriated it Ÿiva–Devï. In the Puräæas Indra is often
and gained immortality thereby. The depicted as rival of Kø•æa. Feasts in
Upani•ads also teach a way to immor- honour of Indra are still celebrated in
tality, based on the insight into the Nepal.
immortal nature of consciousness
(ätman). They hold indefinite existence Indrajit (‘conqueror of Indra’)
in a body to be an impossibility: every- Epithet of Meghanäda, a son of
thing that is born must die. Puräæic RÄVAŒA, who captured Indra and
Hinduism promises bodily immortality brought him to Laökä. He refused to
to the devotees of Vi•æu, who after surrender to the assembled gods until
reaching VAIKUŒfiHA are endowed with they had made him immortal.
incorruptible bodies. Some systems of
YOGA also aim at making the practi- Indraloka
tioner physically immortal. (See also Indra’s heaven. Also known as Svarloka
AFTERLIFE.) or Svarga, it is situated north of Mount
MERU, and is the epitome of sensual
impurity delight, inhabited by apsaras (nymphs)
and gandharvas (heavenly musicians). It
Ritual impurity is usually caused by is the home of KÄMADHENU, the ‘cow of
contact with what are considered plenty’, and of the PÄRIJÄTA tree, which
impure substances: generally contact grants all wishes. The capital city is
with corpses, with blood (especially Amarävatï, which contains Indra’s
menstrual blood) or other bodily fluids, palace, Vaijayanta. Indra’s heaven is
or with ‘untouchables’ (persons belong- associated with the highest pleasure and
ing to the Atiÿüdras, often dealing with enjoyment of all kinds.
carcasses, faeces etc.). This impurity is
removed through religious practices Indräæï
such as bathing, repeating mantras and INDRA’s wife, also called Ÿacï and Aindrï,
fasting according to a well-established mother of Jayanta and Jayantï
canon.
Indraprastha
incarnation The capital city of the PÄŒ¥AVAS, locat-
ed in what is today Delhi.
See AVATÄRA.
initiation
Indra See DÏKÆÄ, UPANAYANA.

The first among the Vedic gods, to International Society for
whom most of the hymns of the Øgveda Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
are devoted. He is described as warrior, A branch of the GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVA
as fond of SOMA (2), as destroyer of tradition, with an international mem-
forts and as enemy of the DASYUS. His bership, founded by A. C. Bhakti-
most important aspect is vøtraha, slayer vedanta Swami (Abhay Charan De) in
of VØTRA. Several hymns are devoted to 1966 in New York. It is also known as
this event, through which the waters the ‘Hare Krishna Movement’ from its
were released, the sky cleared and
Indra’s supremacy established. Indra
has many features of the Supreme Being
and his activity is both creative and
salvific. Worship of Indra was super-

International Transcendental Meditation Society 86

Mahesh Yogi Maharishi also set out to
teach SIDDHIS (miraculous higher powers).
He established the Maharishi International
University in Fairfield, Iowa which aims
at integrating modern Western science
with ancient Hindu traditions. Mahesh
Yogi Maharishi developed various plans
to give worldwide coverage to his ideas.

Ïÿa, also Ïÿäna (‘lord’)

Title of ŸIVA, ‘maheÿa’ (‘Mahä’ + ‘ïsä’:
Maheÿa – Great Lord).

Swami A. C. Bhaktivedänta, called Ïÿa(vasya) Upani•ad
‘Prabhupäda’, founder of ISKCON.
The shortest of the principal Upani•ads,
said to contain the essence of all. It is read
out to a dying person to ensure a good
passage. It has been commented upon by
ŸA¢KARA (2) and other Vedäntins.

public chanting of the Hare-Kø•æa i•fla devatä (‘deity of choice’)
MAHÄ-MANTRA. It is by now established The form of the divine most appealing
in all Western countries and has a size- to a person and therefore singled out for
able presence in India. Among the inno- worship, without denying the existence
vations that ‘Prabhupäda’ Bhakti- of others.
vedanta Swami introduced is the award-
ing of brahmin status to all initiates, the ïÿvara (‘Lord’)
accepting of non-Hindus into SAM- A generic title given to the creator of the
NYÄSA, and the establishment of a great world.
number of temples under the care of
non-Indian devotees. ISKCON is very Ïÿvara Kø•æa (third century CE)
active in publishing, in relief work and Author of the Säƒkhyakärikäs.
in maintaining authentic traditional
image worship. Ïÿvara Muni (tenth century CE)
A great PÄÑCARÄTRA teacher, father of
International Transcendental NÄfiHA MUNI, the first of the ÄCÄRYAS
Meditation Society (TM) of Ÿrïraögam.

Founded by Mahesh Yogi Maharishi in itihäsa (‘so it has been said’)
the late 1950s, it initially attracted a A generic term for traditional history,
very large number of people in all specifically applied to the RÄMÄYAŒA
Western countries by its teaching of and the MAHÄBHÄRATA.
Transcendental Meditation, a simplified
form of Yoga. Followers of TM claim
that it relieves tension and worries.

J

jaõa-patha (‘braided text’) visited by millions of Hindus every year.
A form of recitation of the Veda involv- A pilgrimage to Purï is believed to liber-
ing a reverse reading. ate a person from the round of rebirths.
The focus of attention is the huge Jagan-
jagad-guru (‘world teacher’) nätha (‘Lord of the World’) temple
Title assumed by the Ÿaökaräcäryas, the dedicated to Vi•æu, built during the
ruling heads of the Ÿaökara maflhas. reign of Anantavarman Choda Ganga
(See also ŸA¢KARA (2).) (1076–1148), in which 6,000 priests
and attendants serve. The most popular
jaga-mohan feast is the ratha-yäträ in June. A huge
Place of assembly of worshippers at a canopied car (15 m high, 12 m square)
Hindu temple. on which Kø•æa is enthroned, is pulled
through the streets on thick ropes by
Jagan-nätha Purï hundreds of pilgrims. (The English
One of the four holiest places of India, word ‘juggernaut’ is a corrupt form of
on the east coast in the state of Orissa, Jagan-nätha.) The feast commemorates
Kø•æa’s journey from GOKULA to
MATHURÄ. The main chariot is followed

The famous ratha (car) festival in Jagan-nätha Puri: The images of the deities are
carried in huge, temple-shaped chariots through the town.

jägarita sthäna 88

by two smaller ones, carrying Kø•æa’s cism). Jains produced many works of
sister Subhädrä and his brother art, were active as scholars in the fields
Baladeva. After seven days Kø•æa of grammar and lexicography, and
returns from his summer house in an established schools and charitable insi-
equally spectacular procession. tutions. By the 13th century the last
Jain kingdoms had disappeared and
jägarita sthäna (‘waking state’) Jains are today a small minority in
India, counting only about 2 million
The first (and lowest) stage of CON- followers. Since they are successful in
SCIOUSNESS according to Vedänta. banking and business, they exert
considerable influence.
Jaimini (c. 600 BCE)
Jamadagni
A celebrated sage, said to be VYÄSA’s
disciple. According to tradition he One of the SAPTARÆIS, author of a Vedic
received the Sämaveda from Vyäsa, hymn and the subject of stories in epics
which he then taught. He is the author and Puräæas.
of the Jaimini sütras, also called
Mïmäƒsä Sütras, the basic text of the Jambu-dvïpa
school of MÏMÄßSÄ. (‘rose-apple continent’)

Jainism One of the seven DVÏPAS. It consists of
nine parts: Bhärata, Kiƒpuru•a, Hari-
While claiming prehistoric origins for var•a, Ïlävøta (containing Mount Meru),
their first teacher Ø•abha (c. 30,000 Ramyakä, Hiraæmaya, Uttara-Kuru,
BCE) the Jains acknowledge the last of Bhadräsva, Ketumäla.
the 24 Tirthäökäras, Mahävïra (sixth
century BCE) to be the historical founder Jana Sangh
of the form of religion they are follow-
ing. Jainism does not accept a creator or Also Bhäratïya Jana Sangh, founded in
a saviour god. It holds the universe to be Bengal in 1950 as ‘People’s Party of
eternal and the task of humans to India’, in the wake of alleged maltreat-
redeem themselves from entanglement ment of Hindus in East Pakistan (now
in the material world by strict ascetical Bangladesh), when millions of Hindus
practices. fled to India. The founding members
were former high-ranking Congress
Originally an order of naked ascetics ministers such as Shyamprasad Mook-
who had no fixed abodes and who lived erjea, John Matai and K. C. Neogy. It
by what was given to them freely. had a clear anti-Muslim and pro-Hindu
Jainism developed into a mass religion orientation. It later merged with other
with lay followers, and became one of Hindu parties to form the JÄNATÄ Party
the dominant religions of India from in 1977.
the third century BCE onwards. There
were famous Jain kingdoms in South Janäbäï (14th century)
India and the Jain leaders enjoyed high An orphan girl, adopted by a tailor fam-
prestige. In the first century CE the Jain ily, she became one of Mahärä•flra’s
order split into two groups: Digambara most popular composers of abhaögas,
(‘heaven-clad’, i.e. naked, following the which are recited in kïrtans to this day.
older, stricter tradition) and Ÿvetäm- One of the sons of the family she grew
bara (‘white-clad’, whose followers up with was NÄMDEV, who later
wore white dresses, and also made became one of Mahärä•flra’s famous
other concessions with regard to asceti-

89 Jafläyu

poet-saints. Asked by him to help him Janärdana Sw– ami (1504–75)
compose a large number of abhaögas Militant sage from Mahärä•flra, the
she excelled in this task. According to teacher of EKANÄfiHA.
legend she was blessed by the company
of Viflhobä, who often came and took janëu
his meals with her. The holy thread which members of the
three upper CASTES receive at the time of
Janaka upanayana (initiation) and which they
Major figure in the RÄMÄYAŒA, King of have to wear throughout their lives as a
Videha. He was the father of Sïtä, mark of distinction. It is made out of three
famous for knowledge and good works. times three strands of cotton fibre and is
worn at all times directly on the body.
Jänakï
Patronymic of SÏTÄ, the heroine of the japa
RÄMÄYAŒA. Repetition of a sacred name or MANTRA
(3), one of the most popular religious
Jana-loka practices of Hindus. It is often done with
The abode of BRAHMÄ. the help of a MÄLÄ, a rosary consisting of
beads made from the wood of the TULASÏ
Janamejaya plant. It can be performed audibly,
The king to whom the Mahäbhärata inaudibly or mentally. It is supposed to
was recited by Kø•æa VAIŸAMPÄYANA. bring about a union of the devotee’s
He was the great-grandson of ARJUNA, mind with God, revealed in the name.
and was also known as Sarpasattrin
(serpent-sacrificer). After his father jafla
PARIKÆIT died from a snake-bite, Jana- Matted hair, a sign of mourning and of
mejaya was determined to exterminate renunciation.
all snakes in a great sacrifice, but was
persuaded by the sage Astika to desist Jafla-dhära (‘the one with a crown
when all snakes but one (Tak•aka) had of matted hair’)
been burnt. An epithet of ŸIVA.

Jänatä Party jäta-karma
Formed in 1977 from a variety of Ritual performed by a father immedi-
Hindu parties to succeed Indira ately after the birth of a child, before the
Gandhi’s Congress government which severing of the umbilical cord, to guar-
was defeated in elections after the so- antee long life and health.
called ‘emergency’. It fell apart, largely
over the question of connections Jafläyu
between some of its leaders and the King of the vultures, son of GARU¥A,
Rä•tøïya Svayamsevak Sangh, and the Vi•æu’s VAHANA. As an ally of RÄMA he
former JANA SANGH formed the attacked RÄVAŒA, when he carried away
BHÄRATÏYA JÄNATÄ PARTY. Sïtä. Although mortally wounded, he was
able to tell Räma about the incident. Räma
Janar-dana (‘giver of rewards’) and LAKÆMANA performed his funeral rites
Epithet of VIÆŒU. and he rose to heaven in a chariot of fire.