Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism

jätï 90

jätï (‘birth-group’) jïvan-mukta
Lineage, sub-caste. Each jätï consists of (‘liberated while alive’)
a number of gotras (clans). A person who has achieved ultimate
emancipation while still in a body.
jauhar
Group self-immolation in a fire, prac- jïvan-mukti
tised by Räjput women to escape cap- The state of being liberated while still in
ture by enemies. Several historical a body. Some Hindu schools, such as
instances have been recorded at Chitor ADVAITA VEDÄNTA, admit such a possi-
from the 14th to the 16th centuries. bility, others deny it.

Jayadeva (12th century) jñäna (‘knowledge’)
Pen name of the author of the Gïta- This is especially in the specific sense of
govinda, celebrating the love between spiritual wisdom, insight, realization of
Kø•æa and RÄDHÄ, which is sung at the one’s own true nature. (See also VIDYÄ.)
JAGANNÄfiHA temple in Purï as part of
the daily ritual. (Jñäna) Sambandhar
(c. 750–825 CE)
Jayantï One of the most prominent NÄYANMÄRS,
One of the names of the Goddess (DEVÏ). Ÿaivite teachers of South India. Author
of the Tevaram, which ridicules and
Jaya-Vijaya (‘victory and defeat’) attacks Jainas.
Names of the two gatekeepers in
Vi•æu’s heaven. Jñäneÿvara, also Jñänadeva
(c. 1275–1350)
Jha, Ganganatha Poet-saint from Mahärä•flra, author of
(1871–1941) the Jñäneÿvari, a lengthy commentary
Eminent Indian Sanskritist, educated on the Bhagavadgïtä.
both in the old Pandit tradition and along
modern lines, a specialist in Pürva joint family
MÏMÄßSA. He taught at Muir Central The traditional Hindu family consisted
College in Allahäbad, served as principal of groups of related families belonging
of Benares Sanskrit College and was vice- to several generations. It provided secu-
chancellor of Allahäbad University. He rity and shelter to all its members and
translated many major Sanskrit works created a strong bond between them. It
into English: Ÿabarabhä•ya, Ÿlokavärtti- allowed for little privacy and did not
ka, Tantravärttika, and his books include leave much room for individual deci-
Prabhäkara School of Pürva Mïmäƒsa sions concerning vital issues. While it is
(1909), Pürva Mïmäƒsa in its Sources still to be found in rural India, in the
(1942). He was honoured with the title Westernized large cities of India the
‘Mahämahopädhyäya’ (great teacher). norm today is the nuclear family.

Ji•æu (‘victorious’) Jones, Sir William (1746–94)
Epithet of INDRA, ARJUNA and VIÆŒU. Orientalist and jurist. He studied
Oriental languages at Oxford. Appointed
jïva, jïvätma judge at the Supreme Court in Calcutta
Individual (finite) living being.

91 jyoti•floma

in 1783, he founded Bengal Asiatick jyotir-liöga (‘liöga made of light’)
Society in 1784 (and remained its presi- Twelve LI¢GAS (3) in famous places of
dent till 1794). He studied Sanskrit, and pilgrimage (e.g. Kedarnäflh in the
produced the first translations into Himälayas), said to have come into
English of Kälidäsa’s Ÿakuntalä, existence without human agency, man-
Manusmøti, Hitopadeÿa, Gïtagovinda. ifesting special potency. (See also
SVAYAMBHÜ.)
justice
See DHARMA. jyoti•a
See ASTROLOGY.
Jye•flhä
South Indian goddess, identified with jyoti•floma
Sïtalä, the goddess of smallpox. A special Vedic SACRIFICE for the deceased.

K

Kabïr (1440–1518) kaivalya (‘aloneness’)
Famous poet-saint, composer of many The ultimate aim of PATAÑJALA YOGA.
hymns used by Hindus, Sikhs and
Muslims, author of the Bijak and founder Käla (‘time’)
of the non-sectarian Kabïr-Panth. A name of YAMA, the king of the dead.
(See also TIME.)
Kädambarï (1)
Daughter of Chitraratha, king of the Kalahasti
GANDHARVAS (1) and one of the sixteen Famous Ÿiva temple in Andhra Pradesh,
sons of KAŸYAPA and Madirä (also connected with the story of how an ele-
called Väruöï, the goddess of wine). phant, a spider and a snake gained sal-
vation by worshipping a Ÿiva LI¢GA (3).
Kädambarï (2)
Title of a Sanskrit prose work by Bäna Kälarätrï (‘black night’)
(seventh century CE). One of the names and forms of the
Goddess (DEVÏ).
Kaikeyï
A princess of the Kaikeya nation, a Kälï (1) (‘the black one’)
major figure in the RÄMÄYA¢A, one of In the Vedas the name was associated
the three wives of Daÿaratha, and moth- with AGNI, who was represented as hav-
er of BHARATA (3). When she nursed ing seven tongues to devour butter: kälï
Daÿaratha back to life after he was was his black or terrible tongue.
severely wounded in a battle, he
promised to grant her any two wishes. Kälï (2) (‘black [Goddess]’)
Prompted by her maid-servant The fierce aspect of DEVÏ, associated
Mantharä, and fearing that Daÿaratha’s with disease, death and terror. She is
eldest son, Räma, would kill his rivals, usually represented by a black image,
she used this promise to prevent Räma with a red tongue protruding from the
from ascending the throne, and to send mouth and a garland of skulls around
him into a 14-year forest exile. the neck. In former times she was pla-
cated with human SACRIFICES; today she
Kailäsa is honoured by the sacrifice of goats,
Mountain in the Himälayas, Ÿiva’s which are decapitated. Kälï and DURGÄ
heaven.

93 kalpa

Kälikä Pïflha
A special place of worship of the
Goddess, associated with a limb of the
Goddess after she took her life and was
dismembered by Ÿiva. There are 51 such
Kälikä or Ÿakti Pïflhas in India, the most
famous at KÄMÄKHYÄ in Assam.

Kälikä Puräæa

One of the Upapuräæas, dealing with
the Goddess (DEVÏ), differentiating her
worship according to the various parts
of her body.

The ancient image of Kälï being Käliya, also Käliya näga
worshipped in the famous
Kälï temple in Calcutta. A serpent king possessing five heads,
(although he is also described as ‘the
are treated as synonymous. The main thousand-headed’) who lived in the
festivity focusing on Kälï–Durgä is Yamunä near VØNDÄVANA together
Kälï/Durgäpüjä. The major feat with his retinue. He emitted smoke and
associated with her is the killing of the poisonous fumes, endangering the entire
buffalo demon Mahi•äsura. region of Braja. Kø•æa jumped into the
water, danced on Käliya’s heads and
threatened to kill him. Käliya begged for
mercy, and was allowed to live, on con-
dition that he move further downstream.
The place where this event occurred is
marked in Vøndävana by a little temple
with a sculpture depicting the scene.

Kali Yuga (‘age of strife’) Kalki (‘the white horse’)
The future and last AVATÄRA of Vi•æu,
The last and worst of the four ages of which will come finally to conquer evil
the world, the one in which we find our- and to save the good at the end of the
selves at present. It began in 3102 BCE KALI YUGA.
(with the Mahäbhärata war) and is to
last a total of 432,000 years. Kalki Puräæa
One of the Upapuräöas, describing the
Kälidäsa (fifth century CE) (future) KALKI AVATÄRA and events asso-
(‘servant of Kälï’) ciated with his appearance.

The greatest of India’s classical Sanskrit kalpa
poets and dramatists, one of the ‘nine A day and night of BRAHMAN, compris-
gems’ at the court of King Vikramäditya ing 4,320,000,000 years. Each kalpa
at Ujjaini. His most famous drama is consists of four yugas. (See also TIME,
Ÿakuntalä, one of the first Sanskrit plays DIVISIONS OF.)
translated into English (by H. H.
WILSON).

Kalpa-sütra 94

Kalpa-sütra Kämeÿvarï (‘Mistress of Käma’)

One of the VEDÄ¢GAS, dealing with ritual. A title of the goddess KÄMÄKHYÄ, whose
temple is in Kämäkhyä.
Käma, also Kämadeva
Kaƒÿa, also Kaöÿa
The god of love. The Øgveda states that
desire was the first emotion that stirred Tyrant of MATHURÄ, and a cousin of
in the One. According to one tradition, Devakï, Kø•æa’s mother. It was prophe-
Käma is the son of Dharma and Ÿrad- sied to him that a son born to Devakï
dhä. He is also sometimes called Aja would kill him; so he confined Devakï
(unborn). In the Puräöas he plays a to a prison, taking away all the children
major role: angering Ÿiva during his she bore and killing them. Her husband,
meditation, he was burned to ashes by Vasudeva, was not imprisoned and
his gaze. When Ÿiva realized that the apparently was free to visit her in
whole world was withering away, he prison. Baladeva, her seventh, was
resurrected him. His wife is Ratï (lust). smuggled out from prison and taken to
He is usually represented as a young Gokula. When Kø•æa was born his par-
man with bow and arrows made of ents fled with him and he grew up with
flowers, riding on a parrot, attended by his foster mother, Yaÿodä. Kaƒÿa gave
APSARAS. He has many names. orders to kill all young male infants.
Later Kø•æa conquered Mathurä and
Kämadhenu also Kämaduh killed Kaƒÿa.
(‘wish-fulfilling cow’)
Kaöäõa (sixth century BCE?)
A cow belonging to the sage VAŸIÆfiHA.
She emerged from the CHURNING OF THE The founder of the VAIŸEÆIKA darÿana.
OCEAN, and granted every wish present-
ed to her. She is also known as Ÿavalä, Käñcï-pura (‘the golden city’)
Surabhï or Nandinï.
City in Tami¶nädü, 50 km north-west of
Kämäkhyä Madras. It is one of the seven ancient
holy cities of India. It was the capital
The most famous of the Ÿakti PÏfiHAS, city of the PALLAVAS and later of the
near Guhävatï in Assam, where accord- COLAS, who lavished their wealth on it.
ing to tradition SÄTÏ’s YONI fell; it is It is sacred to both Vi•æu (Vi•æukäñcï)
worshipped there in the form of a cleft and Ÿiva (Ÿivakäñcï) and boasts over a
rock. In former times many human hundred large temples, some of them
SACRIFICES were offered to her. Self- going back to the ninth century. An
immolation by self-decapitation was abundance of sculptures and paintings
also practised by some devotees. illustrate myths associated with Vi•æu
and Ÿiva. It is also the seat of one of the
Kämakothi Pïflha Ÿaökaräcäryas (KÄMAKOTHI PÏfiHA) and
a centre of traditional Hindu learning.
According to a local tradition the place
of burial of ŸA¢KARA (2) and the seat of Kane, Pandurang Vaman
the Ÿaökaräcärya in KAÑCÏ-PURA, whose (1880–1971)
foundation as one of the original
Ÿaökara MAfiHAS is however disputed. One of the most knowledgeable scholars
in the area of Hindu law. He was an
Käma-rüpä advocate at the Bombay High Court,

North-eastern Bengal and western Assam.

95 Karæa

National Research professor of the root kø- to act, and the incompati-
Sanskrit, editor of many Sanskrit works bility of karma and LIBERATION (mukti,
and author of the multi-volume History mok•a). The notion first occurs in the
of Dharmaÿästra (1930–75). Upani•ads where karma is seen as
responsible for enmeshing a living being
Kangri in the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Place of pilgrimage near Hø•ikeÿa in the Attainment of VIDYÄ, or jñäna (knowl-
Himälayas; site of an ÄRYA SAMÄJ edge) is considered the only means to
GURUKULA, now Kangri Forest gain liberation from saƒsära. In addi-
University, a residential traditional tion to the karma one accumulates from
Hindu school with Sanskrit as medium one’s own actions in the present life,
of instruction. there is prärabdha karma with which a
person is born and which has to run its
Käæphata (‘hole in the ear’) course. The Bhagavadgïtä teaches that
A sect of Ÿaiva ascetics whose ears are actions performed without selfish desire
pierced with a two-edged knife as part do not yield karma. In the Puräæas the
of the initiation ceremonies. intervention of God absolves devotees
from having to suffer from their karma
Kanyäkumärï (‘virgin lady’) and God’s grace nullifies karma. On a
Epithet of the Goddess (DEVÏ) and name popular level many Hindus are inclined
of the southernmost point of India, a to attribute everything that happens to
place of pilgrimage with a large them, fortune as well as misfortune, to
Goddess temple. their karma.

Kapälika (‘skull-carrier’) karma-märga (‘path of works’)
A sect of Ÿaivites who wear garlands of
skulls, from which they also eat and One of the three traditional ways to find
drink. spiritual fulfilment. Karma in that con-
text means (prescribed) Vedic ritual
Kapila (sixth century BCE) actions, such as sacrificing an animal or
A famous sage, founder of the SÄßKHYA some other object in fire, undergoing
system. the saƒskäras (rites of passage), main-
taining the routine of prescribed daily,
karma (‘action’) (1) monthly and yearly rituals and perform-
In the Veda and Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ, a rit- ing the ceremonies required in connec-
ual act, SACRIFICE. tion with certain events in one’s life. In
later times a more metaphorical inter-
karma (2) pretation was adopted. Ritual usually
In the Upani•ads and in Vedänta, non- meant ceremonies performed to honour
material residue of any action per- the presence of God in an IMAGE and the
formed by a person, the cause of ‘path of works’ was understood to
embodiment and of SAßSÄRA. Virtually mean selfless and dedicated perfor-
all Hindu schools have developed their mance to one’s (CASTE) duties.
own karma theories. Some elements are
fairly commonly agreed upon, such as Karæa
the derivation of the word karma from
Son of KUNTÏ by the Sun, before her
marriage to PÄŒ¥U. Born equipped with
arms and armour, he was exposed by
his mother on the banks of the Yamunä

Karpatriji Maharaj 96

and found by Nandana, the charioteer Kärttikeya
of DHØTARÄÆfiRA, who brought him up God of war, the planet Mars, also
as his own child. Later Karæa became known as MURUGAN and Skanda. Son
king of Anga (Bengal). In the Great War of Ÿiva, in some traditions born without
he fought at the side of the KAURAVAS a mother. He is represented as having
and was killed by ARJUNA, who only six heads, riding on a peacock, holding
then found out that Karæa was the half- a bow in one hand and an arrow in the
brother of the PÄŒ¥AVAS. (See also other. His wife is Kaumarï or Senä. He
MAHÄBHÄRATA.) is also called Senäpati (lord of the army,
or husband of Senä), Siddhasena,
Karpatriji Maharaj (1898–1973) Kumära. In South India he is known as
VAIÆŒAVA ascetic, founder of the Subrahmaæia.
Rämaräjya Pari•ad, a Hindu political
party with a nationalist agenda. Karve, Dhonde Keshav
(1858–1962)
Kär•æa, also Kär•æajinï Professor of Sanskrit in Poona, social
A sage, reputed author of a lost reformer, founder of the Widow
BRAHMA-SÜTRA. Marriage Association, and of the
Women’s University in Poona.
Kärtavïrya
Son of Køtavïrya, patronymic of ARJUNA. kärya (‘condition of bondage’)
A knowledge of this is essential to gain
LIBERATION, according to the PÄŸUPATAS.

Kärttikeya, the god of war, son of Kashmir Ÿaivism
Ÿiva and Pärvatï.
An important school of philosophical
Ÿaivism, which flourished from the 8th
to the 12th centuries in Kashmir. Also
known as Ÿiva Advaita, Tøka, Spaæõa-
ÿästra, Pratyäbhijñä. Its most important
representative was Abhinavagupta
(c. 1100), whose main work is known
as Tanträlokä. Its designation as ‘Ÿiva
Advaita’ reflects its doctrine that all
reality is undivided Ÿiva; it is called
Spaæõaÿästra (vibration) because it
teaches that every atom in the universe
is constantly oscillating; it is known as
Pratyäbhijñä (recognition) because it
holds that Ÿiva is mirrored in the soul
and that recognizing his image brings
about LIBERATION. There are few teach-
ers of this tradition left. Its best-known
contemporary representative was Pandit
Lak•man Joo.

97 Kautsa

Käÿï was saved from the anger of Ÿiva, whom
See VÄRÄŒASÏ. he had offended, by Vi•æu’s interven-
tion and was then known as Vi•æugup-
Käÿïkhaæõa ta, ‘protected by Vi•æu’.
Part of the Skanda Puräæa, giving a
detailed description of Ÿiva temples in kaupina
and around VÄRÄŒASÏ. A piece of cloth covering the private
parts, tied around the initiate by his
Kaÿyapa (‘tortoise’) GURU as part of DÏKÆÄ.
One of the seven Vedic ØÆIS who mar-
ried Aditi and twelve other daughters of Kauravas
DAKÆA. He is the father of Indra as well Descendants of Kuru. Kuru was the son
as of Vivasvat, whose son was MANU of Saƒvara and Taptï. The Kauravas
(2). He is also believed to be the forefa- were the sons of DHØTARÄÆfiRA and
ther of nägas (serpents), demons, birds, opponents of the PÄŒ¥AVAS in the Great
reptiles, and all kinds of living things. War. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.)
He is often called PRAJÄPATI, progenitor.
Kauÿalya
Kaflha Upani•ad (‘belonging to the Koÿala clan’)
One of the principal UPANIÆADS, famous A patronymic of several famous women
for its teaching that liberating knowledge such as the mothers of JANAMEJAYA,
cannot be earned or acquired, but is RÄMA, DHØTARÄÆfiRA and PÄŒ¥U.
freely given by the Supreme to the ‘elect’.
Kauÿïtakï (1)
Kathä-sarit-sägara A branch of the ØGVEDA.
(‘ocean of rivers of stories’)
A very large collection of tales by Kauÿïtakï (2)
Somadeva Bhaflfla of Kashmir (early A BRÄHMAŒA, an ÄRAŒYAKA and an
12th century). UPANIÆAD.

Kätyäyana (fourth century BCE?) Kaustubha
Famous grammarian, author of Värttika, A famous jewel obtained by the gods
which provides supplementary rules to from the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN and
PÄŒINÏ’s A•flädhyayï. He is also the worn on the chest by Vi•æu or Kø•æa.
author of the Kätyäyana Ÿrauta Sütras.
Kauflilya
Kaula See CÄ¢AKYA.
The highest rank in TANTRA (2), a prac-
titioner of the Kula-äcära, one who has Kautsa
overcome all inhibitions based on con- Author of Nirukta, an early etymologi-
ventional distinctions. cal lexicon of obscure words in the
Veda, one of the VEDÄŒGAS. He consid-
Kaundiæya ered the Vedas as meaningless and the
An ancient sage and grammarian. He Brähmaæas wrong.

Kauverï 98

Kauverï traditional occupations through the
Major river in South India on whose importation of foreign, machine-
banks are many famous holy places. produced textiles. Wearing khadi
The temple city of ŸRÏRA¢GAM is locat- became obligatory for members of the
ed on an island in the Kauverï. Indian Congress Party to show their sol-
idarity with the people. Gandhi himself
kavi (1) took to spinning yarn and promoted it
‘poet’, ‘sage’ among his fellow party members.

kavi (2) Khajuräho
The colour of the garment worn by SAM-
NYÄSIS (ochre orange, saffron). Former capital city of the Chandella
kings (c. 650–1150 CE), in Bundelkhand,
Kedär(a)-näflha (1) today’s Madhya Pradesh, famous for a
A name of ŸIVA. group of 85 temples, built between 950
and 1100 CE, which are amongst the
Kedär(a)-näflha (2) finest examples of North Indian temple
A place of pilgrimage in the Himälayas, architecture, such as the Kaæõarïya
location of one of the twelve JYOTIR- Mahädeo (Ÿiva) temple. Some of these,
LIŒGAS. such as the Devï Jagadambi (mother of
the universe) temple, are profusely dec-
Kena Upani•ad orated with erotic sculptures, probably
One of the major Upani•ads, beginning connected with tantric practices. Most
with the word kena (by whom?). of the temples are dedicated to the
major gods of Hinduism, but there are
also Jain temples and temples in honour
of lesser deities.

Keÿava Miÿra (14th century) kingship
Author of the Tarkabhä•a, a popular
introductory text to NYÄYA. For most of its history India consisted of
a number of kingdoms (räjya) ruled by
Keÿï (1) hereditary monarchs. Thus the notion
In the Mahäbhärata, a demon slain by of kingship is very important and a
Indra. major issue in Hindu literature. Hindu
tradition has it that in the beginning
Keÿï (2) people were virtuous and followed the
In the Puräöas: a DAITYA who appeared DHARMA spontaneously. When they
in the form of a horse, and attempted to began cheating and exploiting each
kill Kø•æa. Kø•æa pulled his jaws asun- other, it became necessary to introduce
der and killed him. punishment, the main function of the
king. The Mahäbhärata has a long sec-
khadi tion called räjadharma which lays out
Homespun and homewoven cotton the duties and rights of a king in classi-
cloth, whose production was encour- cal times. The king’s duties comprised
aged by Mahatma GANDHI to provide protection of the country, the safety of
work for villagers who had lost their its citizens, support for the socially
weak and for scholars. The Kauflilïya
Ärthaÿästra describes in great detail the
actual administration of an ancient

99 kriyä

Indian kingdom. There also was a gra- early Indian history, editor of
dation among kings: a ‘great king’ BHARTØHARI’s Ÿatakatraya.
(mahäräja or räjädiräja) usually had
several lesser kings (räjas) as vassals. Kotai
(See also CÄŒAKYA.) See ANfiÄL.

kinnaras, also kimpurusas krama-päflha
(‘what men?’) A special way of reading the Veda, in
Mythical beings with human bodies and which every word is read twice, first
horses’ heads, celestial musicians and combined with the preceding word, and
dancers, who live in KUBERA’s paradise. then with the following.

kïrtaæa Kramrisch, Stella (1898–1996)
Praising, singing, usually in the context Austrian-born scholar specializing in
of religious worship, mainly of Indian art and architecture, author of
Vi•æu–Kø•æa. The Hindu Temple (1949), and of many
groundbreaking essays: The Presence of
kleÿa (‘affliction’) Ÿiva (1981), for many years curator of
Used generally and also specifically in the Museum for Indian art in
the YOGA SÜTRAS to identify the motive Philadelphia. She influenced a whole
for seeking LIBERATION. generation of Indian art historians.

knowledge Krishna Prem (1898–1965)
See JÑÄNA; VIDYÄ.
Born Ronald Nixon in Britain, he was
Koil Olugu (‘temple history’) initiated as a Vai•æava VAIRÄGI and lived
Tamil chronicle of ŸRÏRA¢GAM, describ- and taught at a small ashram in Almora.
ing the vicissitudes of that famous tem- He wrote several popular books on
ple since the Middle Ages. It is an Vai•æavism and became well known in
important source for the history of India.
ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM.
Krishnamurti, Jiddu
Konärka (1895–1990)
Also known as the ‘Black Pagoda’, a
13th-century Sun temple on the shores Educated at ADYAR by Annie BESANT,
of the Bay of Bengal, in Orissa, famous who expected him to be the AVATÄRA of
for its architecture (it is conceived as the the 20th century, he dissociated himself
gigantic chariot of the sun, drawn by from the Theosophical Society and
seven horses) and its erotic sculpture, became a popular speaker and writer on
probably connected with tantric cults. spirituality in his own right, claiming
not to follow any system. Among his
Kosambi, Damodar works are Immortal Friend, Life, the
Dharmanand (1907–66) Goal and The Awakening of
Mathematician, author of works on Intelligence.

kriyä (‘[ritual] action’)

Personified as a child of Dharma.

krodha 100

krodha (‘anger’) race, an old pastoral tribe living on the
One of the three ‘gates to hell’, i.e. Yamunä around VØNDÄVANA on the
propensities that have to be overcome if western bank, and around Gokula on
one is to lead a religious life, personified the eastern. When he was born, KAMŸA
as child of Adharma. (See also LOBHA, had usurped rulership of Mathurä;
MOHA.) Kø•æa later killed him. The many
exploits of Kø•æa, as narrated in
køpä (‘grace’, ‘pity’, ‘compassion’) VAIÆŒAVA scriptures, are celebrated in
A key term in VAIÆŒAVISM where God’s many feasts, especially in VØNDÄVANA,
grace is the only saving agent. and have inspired numerous poets,
musicians, choreographers, painters and
sculptors.

Kø•æä
Personal name of DRAUPADÏ.

Kø•æa Dvaipäyana
See VYÄSA.

kø•æa-paksa (‘the dark part [of
the lunar month]’)

The period from the day after full moon
to new moon. Indian dating, especially
of feasts, always includes such markers.
(See also ŸUKLA PAKÆA.)

Køta Yuga

The first age of the world, also called
Satya Yuga, the golden age, when peo-
ple were virtuous and lived long lives. It
lasted for 1,728,000 years.

Women worshipping Kø•æa. Køttikäs

The Pleiades; personified as the six
nurses of KÄRTTIKEYA.

Kø•æa (‘black’) k•amä (‘forgiveness’)
One of the main virtues of Hindu ETHICS.
The most popular (eighth) AVATÄRA of
VIÆŒU, the subject of major Hindu clas- K•atriya
sics such as the Bhagavadgïtä and the Member of the second VARŒA, a warrior
Bhägavatapuräæa. He is also called or administrator.
Ÿyäma. For many of his worshippers he
is the (only) full manifestation of Vi•æu. k•etra (‘field’)
Traditional history places him at Metaphorically used (in the Bhagavad-
around 3000 BCE and considers him the gïtä) to designate the body.
ruler of Dväraka on the Arabian Sea.
He was a descendant of the YÄDAVA

101 Kürma Puräæa

K•irasägara (‘ocean of sweet milk’) around the base of the spine, whose
One of the oceans separating the DVIPÄS. awakening and movement through the
CAKRAS brings about bliss and LIBERA-
Kubera, also Kuvera TION.
God of wealth and presiding deity of the
north, king of YAKÆAS and KINNARAS. Kuntï
Represented as a deformed dwarf, with
three legs, eight teeth and one eye. She is also called Pøthä and Pärsnï. One
of the wives of Päæõu, mother of
Kumära (‘boy’, ‘prince’) YUDHIÆfiHIRA, BHÏMA and ARJUNA.
A name of KÄRTTIKEYA.
Kuppuswami, Sethurama Sastri
Kumära Sambhava (‘Birth of (1880–1943)
the war-god’)
Celebrated poem by KÄLIDÄSA. ‘Mahämahopadhyäya’ (great teacher),
outstanding Hindu scholar. He was
Kumäras professor of Sanskrit at Madras
The four mind-born sons of Brahmä: Sanskrit College, editor of many impor-
Sanatkumära, Sananda, Sanaka, tant texts and collections, founder of
Sanätana. Sometimes Øbhu is added as the Oriental Research Institute at the
a fifth. They refused to procreate. University of Madras, originator of
New Catalogus Catalogorum, founder
Kumärï (‘virgin’) of Journal of Oriental Research, and a
A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). recipient of many academic and civic
honours. In 1944 a Sanskrit research
Kumärila Bhaflfla (c. 650–725 CE) institute was founded in Madras
Famous exponent of Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ, (Cennai) and named after him.
author of the Ÿlokavärttika and the
Tuptïka, a gloss on the Mïmäƒsäsütra; Kureÿa (11th century)
a staunch opponent of Buddhism.
Faithful disciple of RÄMÄNUJA. He stood
Kumbha-mela in for Rämänuja and underwent inter-
Major religious gathering (mela) when rogation by a hostile Ÿaivite king, who
the sun stands in Aquarius (kumbha). It had his eyes plucked out for not
takes place every three years and rotates acknowledging Ÿiva as the greatest god.
between the holy cities of Hardwar, Rämänuja’s tears miraculously brought
Präyäga, Ujjainï and Nasik. It is an back his eyesight.
occasion for many members of all
Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS to gather and kürma (‘tortoise’)
decide on controversial matters or to
introduce changes in their routine. One of the forms in which Vi•æu
appeared as an AVATÄRA. The tortoise
also served as foundation for Mount
Maæõara which was used as a churning
stick when the gods and demons
churned the milk ocean. (See also
CHURNING OF THE OCEAN.)

kuæõalinï Kürma Puräæa

In TANTRA (2), the energy (ÿakti) of a One of the Mahäpuräæas, dealing mainly
person conceived of as a snake wrapped with ŸIVA.

Kuruk•etra 102

Kuruk•etra (‘the field of the Kurus’) able in many religious ceremonies.
A plain near Delhi where the
MAHÄBHÄRATA war took place. Kuÿänas
A dynasty of rulers of Scythian descent
Kuÿa (‘happy’) whose capital was MATHURÄ (first to
The elder of the twin sons of Räma and second centuries CE). The sculpture pro-
Sïtä, brought up by VÄLMÏKI, who taught duced under their patronage has a cer-
him to recite the RÄMÄYAŒA. He was made tain heaviness.
king of Kuÿävatï, and later of Ayodhyä.
Kutsa
kuÿa A Vedic ØÆI and author of several
A variety of grass considered indispens- hymns.

L

lak•aæa (‘mark’, ‘characteristic’) for all schools of thought and religion
In logic, implication. and rejected ritualism and IMAGE wor-
ship. She taught that the way to salva-
Lak•maæa tion was the disinterested performance
Son of King DAŸARATHA by his wife of one’s duties.
Sumiträ, twin brother of ŸATRUGHNA
and half-brother of RÄMA. He married language
Ürmilä, sister of Sïtä. He was very
attached to Räma and Sïtä and accom- Language was always very important to
panied them on their 14-year forest Hindus, and their greatest cultural
exile. He is seen as ideal of brotherly achievement is in the area of language.
love and loyalty. (See also RÄMÄYAŒA.) The Veda exhibits great respect for lan-
guage and treats it as a divine being
Lak•mï, also Ÿrï, Tiru from which everything originated. The
(‘good fortune’) extraordinary care with which the Veda
Personified as the goddess of fortune, was preserved and transmitted over
wife of Vi•æu and mother of KÄMA. She thousands of years again shows how
sprang fully developed from the sea at greatly language was valued. According
the time of the CHURNING OF THE OCEAN to Hindu tradition Sanskrit, their sacred
with a lotus in her hand. She is repre- language, the ‘language of the gods’, is
sented as having four arms. eternal. In the course of time Hindus
developed a variety of theories concern-
Lakulin, also Lakuli•a ing the nature of language. One of the
(second century CE) early controversies concerned the ques-
Legendary founder of the PÄŸUPATA tion whether words (päda) or sentences
system, a school of Ÿaivism. (väkya) were the basic elements of lan-
guage. The early interest in grammar
Lalla, or Lal Ded (14th century) and etymology, as shown by the
A Ÿaivite woman poet and spiritual VEDÄ¢GAS and later scholarly works,
teacher from Käshmïr, whose verses again exhibits a religious concern with
have been published under the title language. A proper study of language
Lalla-väkyäæi. She advocated openness was considered the preliminary to all
other disciplines. Cultivation of lan-
guage skills was always considered the
highest aim of education.

Lava 104

Lava care of life in all its forms and consider
it sacred. The Hindu life sciences
The younger of the twin sons of Räma (AYURVEDA) were highly developed and
and Sïtä, later King of Ÿrävastï. (See also had as their aim the preservation and
RÄMÄYAŒA.) prolongation of life.

liberation (mok•a, mukti) light
the many terms used for light (jyotis,
With the acceptance of the notions of prabhä, prakäÿa, pratibhä, dïpti, känti,
SAßSÄRA and rebirth, the major pre- ÿobhä etc.) and the appellation of the
occupation of Hindus became liberation highest experience as ‘enlightenment’
from the cycle of birth and death. The indicate the great importance that light
Upani•ads call the Vedas ‘unsafe boats’ and everything connected with it have
because they are unable to carry one to in Hindu thought. One of the oldest and
‘the other shore’. The Vedänta and best-known Vedic prayers asks to be led
most other systems are primarily con- ‘from darkness to light’ and the obliga-
cerned with teaching paths to liberation tory GÄYATRÏ mantra asks the SUN to
from rebirth. They agree on the necessi- illumine the mind. Not only was Sürya
ty to neutralize KARMA (2) and to detach widely worshipped (sun temples used to
oneself from desire. They differ in the be quite frequent in the Middle Ages),
roles ascribed respectively to ritual but Vi•æu also has a solar background.
(karma), devotion (BHAKTI) and insight All the major gods have names that
(JÑÄNA). They also disagree on the pos- express light, splendour, brightness
sibility of reaching liberation while still (Prakäÿätman, ‘self-luminous’; Bhäskära,
in a body (jïvanmukta) and on the con- ‘sunlike’, jyotis, ‘light’) and the ultimate
dition of the liberated (mukta): while condition is described in terms of a
ŸA¢KARA (2) teaches complete loss of light-experience.
individuality in the merging of the liber-
ated with BRAHMAN, RÄMÄNUJA and lïlä (‘play’, ‘sport’)
other theistic Vedäntins speak about an The creation of the world by God is
eternal individual existence in the com- described as lïlä because it does not
pany of the highest God. serve a purpose for God. Kø•æa’s deal-
ing with the GOPÏS, especially RÄDHÄ, is
life (ayus) called lïlä, divine playfulness.

Hindus have always considered life as liöga (1)
one, making distinctions in degrees only (‘sign’, ‘characteristic’, ‘token’)
between the various forms of life. In logic, the predicate of a proposition.
Rebirth could take place in any form of
life: plant, animal, human or divine. liöga (2)
Human life was always considered spe- The male organ.
cial as the only form of life in which
LIBERATION from rebirth could be liöga (3)
gained. As regards the Hindu attitude The aniconic symbol under which Ÿiva
towards life, there were two contrary is most often worshipped. The twelve
opinons: the one, represented by Kø•æa JYOTIR-LI¢GAS are supposed to have
in the Bhagavadgïtä, devalues physical
life as just a garment of the spiritual
soul, which can be changed at will. The
other, considering ahiƒsä (not killing)
as the highest duty, would take great

105 Lopä

come into existence without human own sectarian cosmologies: for Vai•æavas,
intervention. Vaikuæflha is the supreme heaven of
Vi•æu; for Ÿaivas, Kailäsa is Ÿiva’s
Liöga Puräæa abode; Ÿäktas believe that Devï resides
in MAŒIDVÏPA.
One of the Ÿaiva Puräæas, containing
many stories about Ÿiva LI¢GAS (3). Lokäloka (‘world and no world’)
The outermost ring of mountains, sepa-
Liægäyat(s) rating the visible world from the sphere
of darkness.
A sect of Ÿaivas reformed by Basava
(12th century), also called Vïra-ÿaivas loka-päla
(heroic Ÿaivas), that insists on each of its Guardians of the world; the eight deities
members always wearing a small LI¢GA that preside over the eight points of the
(3) on their body to remind them of compass: Indra (east); Agni (south-east);
their innate Ÿiva nature. Liögäyats Yama (south); Sürya (south-west),
emphasize the equality of men and Varuæa (west); Väyu (north-west);
women, do not recognize CASTE differ- Kubera (north); Soma (north-east).
ences and give great importance to pro- Each of the LOKAPÄLAS has an elephant
ductive work and social responsibility. who assists in the defence of the respec-
They bury their dead, instead of cremat- tive quarter. Indra’s elephant is
ing them, as most Hindus do. They are Airävata. (See also DIG-GAJA.)
found mainly in today’s Karæätaka.
loka-saögraha
lobha (‘greed’) (‘well-being of the world’)
Expression used by Kø•æa in the
One of the three ‘root sins’ or ‘gates to Bhagavadgïtä to explain the motivation
hell’, which must be overcome to of his activity in this world.
achieve LIBERATION. (See also KRODHA;
MOHA.) Lomahar•aæa, also
Romahar•aæa
loka (‘world’, ‘universe’) A pupil of VYÄSA who recited several
major Puräæas to ŸAUNAKA.
The Vedic TRILOKA (‘three worlds’) con-
sists of earth, heaven and hell. The Lopä, also Lopämudrä,
Puräæic universe is subdivided into a Kauÿïtakï, Varapradä
great many different lokas: the upper A girl fashioned by AGASTYA from the
regions consist of Satyaloka (the realm most beautiful parts of different ani-
of Brahmä), Tapoloka, Janaloka and mals, so as to have the most desirable
Maharloka; the middle regions, also wife. She grew up as the daughter of the
called ‘regions of the consequences of king of Vidarbha. Before consenting to
work’, are Svarloka (planets), Bhuvar- marry Agastya she demanded great
loka (sky) and Bhuloka (earth). The wealth which Agastya finally obtained
region of the netherworlds is subdivided from the demon Ilvala.
into eight lokas, below which there are
28 NÄRAKAS (hells) in which sinners
receive punishment according to their
deeds. Over and above these lokas the
various saƒpradäyas (sects) have their

M

Macdonell, Arthur Anthony components of the human body and the
(1854–1930) sacred geography of India: the Gaögä
(Ganges) was equated with the Ïõä, and
Orientalist and Sanskrit scholar. He the Yamunä with the Piögalä of the sub-
was born at Muzaffarpur, he was a tle body. Popular Hindu writings
Taylorian teacher of German at Oxford expand these parallelisms vastly and
University (1880–99), and later Boden base the process of LIBERATION on it.
Professor of Sanskrit. His works as edi-
tor and translator include Sarvänu- mada (‘intoxication’)
kramaæika of the Øgveda (1886); a
Sanskrit–English Dictionary (1892), Personified as a monster created by the
Vedic Mythology (1897), History of Vedic sage Cyavana, with fearful teeth
Sanskrit Literature (1900), and Sanskrit and long jaws. Intoxication is forbidden
Grammar (1901). by Hindu ethics, but forms one of the
‘five ms’ of tantric practices. (See also
macrocosm–microcosm TANTRA (2).)

The Øgveda assumes a close correspon- Mädhava (1) (‘made of honey’)
dence between the universe and the
individual person: the Puru•asükta Name of KØÆŒA or VIÆŒU.
depicts the creation of everything on
earth as the result of the sacrifice of Mädhava (2), also Vidyäraöya
PURUÆA, a human-shaped primeval (14th century)
cosmic being. The Upani•ads not only
equate the human ÄTMAN with the cos- An important teacher in the ADVAITA
mic BRAHMAN, but also categorize VEDÄNTA tradition. Brother of Säyaöa, a
human properties and cosmic phenome- commentator on the Veda. He was
na in corresponding pentads. SÄßKHYA prime minister at the court of
YOGA is based on the assumption of a VIJÄYANÄGARA before taking SAMNYÄSA
thoroughgoing structural parallelism and becoming ÄCÄRYA of the Ÿringerï
between human and cosmic realities. mätha. He is the author of Sarva-
The VAIÆŒAVA notion of the universe as darÿanasaƒgraha, a critical compendi-
the body of God, and Vi•æu as the soul um of all philosophical and religious
and immanent ruler of the world, gives systems, the Pañcädaÿï, a manual for
concrete expression to the micro- the study and practice of Advaita
cosm–macrocosm parallelism. Parallels Vedänta, and the Ÿaökara Digvijäya, a
were also drawn between the various summary of ŸA¢KARA’s (2) victorious

107 Maga

disputes with proponents of other Vi•æu through active love which centres

doctrines. on ritual worship of God’s image.

Madhu Madhya-deÿa (‘middle country’)
A demon slain by Kø•æa.
Described in the Manusmøti as the land
madhurasa (‘sweet love’) between the Himälayas and the
The highest stage of emotional devotion Vindhya mountains, east of Vinäÿana
(bhävana bhakti) in the teaching of and west of Präyäga. It is also called
GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM. Äryävarta, the ‘land of the Äryas’, and
its customs were considered models for
Madhusüdana (1) proper behaviour.
(‘slayer of Madhu’)
One of the VYÜHAS of Vi•æu. Mädhyandina (‘midday’)

Madhusüdana (2) An important Vedic school, a branch of
An epithet of KØÆŒA. the Vajasaneyi ÿäkhä, connected with
the Ÿatapatha Brähmana. It developed
Madhusüdana (3) (14th century) its own approach to astronomy and
A celebrated teacher of ADVAITA derives its name from its making noon
VEDÄNTA, author of the Khaöõanakhaæõa the starting-point for calculating plane-
Khädya. tary movements.

madhu-vidyä (‘honey knowledge’) Mädrï
A section in the Bøhadäranyaka
Upani•ad ascribed to Dadhïca, which Sister of the King of the Madras and
teaches a particular VIDYÄ. second wife of PÄNDU; her twin sons
were Nakula and Sahadeva. She chose
Madhva, also Änanda Tïrtha to become a SATÏ on the funeral pile of
(1238–1317) Päæõu.
Born in Udipï, Karæätaka, founder of the
school of DVAITA VEDANTA, hostile to Madurai
Jains, Buddhists and Advaitins, author
of numerous works (commentaries on Ancient temple city in South India
the Brahmasütras, the Bhagavadgïtä, (Tamilnädü), dominated by the famous
portions of the Øgveda, and indepen- MÏNÄKÆÏ temple, dedicated to the ‘fish-
dent treatises) in which he tries to prove eyed’ Goddess and her consort
that ŸRUTI, which for him also includes Sundareÿvara. Many classical texts sing
such works as the Vi•æupuräæa and the glory of Madurai and millions of
Ägamas, reveals the dual reality of pilgrims visit the Mïnäk•ï temple every
BRAHMAN and ÄTMAN. Madhva was a year. The major structures of the pre-
staunch VAIÆŒAVA. His teaching is also sent temple were built in the 16th cen-
known as biƒba-pratibiƒba, ‘image tury under the patronage of the
and reflection’, suggesting that the Nayyakas, successors to the Päæõyas.
ätman is a mirror image of God. The
way to liberation is self-surrender to Maga

An ancient people, sun-worshippers,
associated with the erection of mega-
lithic monuments in India, in the Veda
connected with the ŸAKADVÏPA and often
alluded to in the epics and the Puräæas.

Magadha 108

BCE). Until about the fifth century CE
Magadha remained the cultural heart-
land of Buddhism. Only with the rise of
the imperial GUPTAS did Hinduism
reassert itself.

Mägha Melä

A yearly gathering of SÄDHUS at the
Triveni in Präyäga during the month of
MÄGHA (January/February).

Mahabalipura
(‘the city of Mahä-Bali’)

A place near Cennai (Madras), famous
for its architectural monuments (rathas
from the seventh century, the large relief
of the descent of the Gaögä and the
shore temple).

The temple at Madurai. Mahä-bhärata
(‘the great [war of the] Bhäratas’)
MAYA, the master architect of the
ASURAS, who built mighty palaces and The longest epic ever written, it consti-
also excelled in magic, is supposed to tutes a veritable encyclopedia of
have belonged to the Magas. They are Hinduism. Its authorship is ascribed to
believed to be the founders of Kø•æa Dvaipayana or VYÄSA, the
MAGADHA. ‘arranger’ of the Vedas. The narrative of
the Great War, which provided its title,
Magadha makes up less than a fifth of the entire
work. The rest consists of lengthy sto-
One of the most ancient kingdoms of ries about the main characters of the
northern India, occupying part of mod- work, the Päæõavas and the Kauravas,
ern Bengal, Bihär and Orissa. In the ethical discourses and descriptions of
Øgveda it is associated with the (hereti- large parts of northern India. It contains
cal) VRÄTYAS. Later Vedic literature a number of fairly independent philo-
refers to it as a land where only degrad- sophical/theological treatises, such as
ed brahmins live. It became the main the Bhagavadgïtä, the Aæugïtä and oth-
staging area for Buddhism and Jainism ers. It is divided into 18 parvas whose
in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. names are somewhat indicative of their
King Bimbisära and his son Ajätaÿatru contents: Ädiparva (introductory book);
were supporters of Gautama BUDDHA. Sabhäparva (assembly book); Vana- or
The capital, Pataliputra (Patna), was the Äraæyaparva (forest book); Viräflaparva
place where the first Buddhist Council (Viräta’s book); Udyogaparva (effort
was held. Magadha was successively book); Bhï•maparva (Bhï•ma’s book);
ruled by the Nandas (364–22 BCE), the Droæaparva (Droæa’s book); Ÿalya-
MAURYAS (322–183 BCE), the Ÿuögas parva (Ÿalya’s book); Sauptika-parva
(183–72 BCE) and the Käövas (72–28 (night book); Strïparva (women’s
book); Ÿäntiparva (peace book);
Anuÿäsanaparva (rule book); Aÿva-

109 Mahä-puräæa

medhaparva (horse-sacrifice book), Taittirïya-Äraæyaka, containing many
Äÿramaparva (hermitage book); Mau- details of the daily observances of
salaparva (maces book); Mahäprasthä- Hindus. (See also TAITTIRÏYA.)
nikaparva (great journey book); Svargä-
rohaæaparva (ascent to heaven book). Mahä-nirväæa Tantra

Mahä-bhä•ya (‘great commentary’) An 18th-century text, which attempts to
A lengthy commentary on PÄŒINÏ’s reform certain aspects of TANTRA (2).
grammar, ascribed to PATAÑJALI, in
response to KÄTYÄYANA’s critique. mahant

Mahä-deva (‘great god’) Supervisor of a temple or monastery.
An epithet of ŸIVA.
mahä-pätakas (‘great sins’)
Mahadevan, T. M. P.
(1911–92?) Offences against the moral and social
Prominent Indian philosopher. He was law that are (in theory) unforgivable, or
the founder and director of the can be atoned for only by death. The
Radhakrishnan Institute for Advanced five standard mahäpätakas are: brah-
Study in Philosophy at the University of maæahatya (killing a brahmin; killing
Madras, and the author of numerous an unborn child or a pregnant woman);
books and articles, especially on sürapäna (taking intoxicating sub-
ADVAITA VEDÄNTA: Gauõapada – a stances); steya (major theft of gold);
study in Early Advaita (1952), Ten guruvaöganagana (‘violating the GURU’s
Saints of India (1961). bed’, also interpreted as incest);
mahäpätakasaƒsarga (association with
Mahä-devï (‘great goddess’) great sinners). Some sources add specific
An epithet of PÄRVATÏ. mahäpätakas for KÆATRIYAS (fleeing
from a battlefield or meting out unjust
Mahä-käla (‘great time’) punishment), for VAIŸYAS (using false
An epithet of ŸIVA, as the destroyer. scales and false weights), and for
SÜDRAS (selling meat, injuring a brah-
min, having intercourse with a brahmin
woman, drinking milk from a reddish
cow). (See also UPA-PÄTAKAS.)

mahä-mantra (‘the great formula’) Mahä-pralaya (‘great dissolution’)
Also called the ‘mantra of sixteen
names’, an invocation of Vi•æu (Hari), The total annihilation of the material
whose repetition (JAPA) is considered universe at the end of a KALPA. Also
most effective to win God’s grace: called saƒhära, k•iti.

Hare Räma Hare Räma Mahä-puräæa (‘great Purana’)
Räma Räma Hare Hare
Hare Kø•æa Hare Kø•æa There are eighteen Mahäpuräæas, sub-
Kø•æa Kø•æa Hare Hare divided into sättvika or Vai•æava
(Vi•æu, Bhägavata, Näradïya, Garuõa,
Mahä-näräyaæa Upani•ad Padma, Varäha), räjasika or Brahmä
A late Upani•ad belonging to the Black (Brahmä, Brahmäæõa, Brahmavasivärta,
YAJURVEDA, the end portion of the Märkaæõeya, Bhavi•ya, Vämana) and
tämasika or Ÿaiva (Ÿiva, Liöga, Skanda,
Agni, Matsya, Kürma). Their content is

Mähär 110

supposed to be circumscribed by ‘five man’), Bøhadäranyaka II, 5, 19);
topics’ (pañcälak•ana): sarga (creation), prajñänam brahma (‘Wisdom is brah-
pratisarga (dissolution), manvantara man’), Aitareya III, 1, 13). A great deal
(world periods), vamÿa (genealogies), has been written about these
vamÿänucarita (stories about the deeds mahäväkyas in the context of the expo-
of the descendants of the dynasties men- sition of various schools of VEDÄNTA.
tioned). In fact they contain a great
amount of additional material on the Mahä-vïra (‘great hero’)
four aims of life (puru•ärthas), especial- Honorific title applied to many person-
ly DHARMA and mok•a (LIBERATION), alities in Hinduism, Buddhism and
vows (vratas), RITUALS, places of Jainism; epithet of the 24th
PILGRIMAGE (tïrthas) and other matters. Tïrthänkara, the founder/reformer of
Jainism.
Mähär
Member of a (formerly) OUTCASTE com- Mahä-yogi (‘the great ascetic’)
munity occupied with cleaning. An epithet of ŸIVA.

Maharsi (‘Great Ø•i’) Mahesh Yogi Maharishi
Honorific title applied to the mythical See INTERNATIONAL TRANSCENDENTAL
PRAJÄPATIS and to historical personalities MEDITATION SOCIETY.
(e.g. RAMANA MAHARÆI).
Maheÿvara (‘the great Lord’)
mahat (‘the great one’) An epithet of ŸIVA.
According to SÄßKHYA the first entity
produced from the interaction of Mahï-däsa (‘slave of the earth’)
PURUÆA (2) and PRAKØTI (spirit and mat- A celebrated Vedic ø•i (sage), son of the
ter), the origin of everything else in the sage Viÿäla and Itarä, a Südra girl.
universe. Also identified with buddhi, Neglected by his brahmin father, he was
intellect. taught by earth (Mahï). He became
known as Aitareya (Itarä’s son) and is
mahätma (‘great soul’) the author of the Aitareya Brähmaæa,
Honorific for highly meritorious people, Äraæyaka and Upani•ad.
such as Mahatma GANDHI.
Mahïpati (1715–90)
mähätmya Biographer of the saints of Mahärä•flra
A class of writings eulogizing a god, a from Dhyandeva onwards in the
person, a place or a text. Bhaktavijaya and Bhaktalïlämøta.

mahä-väkyas (‘great sayings’) Mahi•äsura (‘buffalo demon’)
Four brief statements considered by A mighty demon defeated by the god-
some Vedäntins to embody the gist of dess. (See also DEVÏ; DURGÄ; KALÏ.)
the Upani•ads and to convey LIBERATION:
tat tvam asi (‘That you are’), Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030)
Chändogya VI, 8, 7; aham brahmäsmi The first Muslim invader, who under-
(‘I am brahman’), Bøhadäraæyaka I, 4; took major raids into India, defeated
ayam ätma brahma (‘This self is brah-

111 Manasä

Hindu princes and annexed large areas mälä
in north-western India. He is responsi-
ble for the destruction of the famous A garland, used to honour and decorate
SOMANÄTHA temple in Gujarat and the image of a god, or a person; a string
many other Hindu sancturies, which he of beads, used to recite mantras or
plundered. His name is a symbol of names of deities, such a tulsïmälä, made
fanaticism and hostility to Hindus. of beads from the wood of the TULASÏ
plant, employed by many VAIÆŒAVAS to
Maitreya (‘friendly’) recite the MAHÄMANTRA. Mäläs usually
A ø•i (sage), the son of Kuÿarava, a dis- have a specific number of beads (often
ciple of PARÄŸARA, one of the main 108 or a fraction thereof).
interlocutors in the Vi•æu and
Bhägavata Puräæas. Malaviya, Pandit Mohan
(1861–1946)
Maitreyï
One of the wives of YAJÑAVÄLKYA, Founder and first vice-chancellor of
famous for conducting philosophical Benares Hindu University (1915). He
conversations with her husband. (See was the co-founder of Hindu Mahä-
also GÄRGÏ.) sabhä (1909), a right-wing political
party with the aim of establishing a
Maitri Hindu rä•flra (rule) in India. He was
Ancient mystical philosopher, after also editor of Hindustan Times.
whom the Maitri Upani•ad was named.
manana (‘reflecting’)
Makara
A large aquatic animal (alligator, croco- The second step in the process of medi-
dile, dolphin?), the VAHANA (vehicle) of tation (the first being ÿravana [listening]
VARUŒA, often represented on Hindu and the third nididhyäsana [contempla-
temples. tion, trance]).

Makära (‘the five ms’) manas (‘mind’)
Requisites for tantric worship (taboos for
Hindus generally): madya (wine); mäƒsa Understanding, intelligence. In Indian
(meat); matsya (fish); mudrä (a particular philosophy manas is different from
variety of parched grain); maithuna citta, caitanya (CONCIOUSNESS) and
(extramarital sexual intercourse). (See also ätman (SELF) or puru•a (spirit). Manas
TANTRA (2).) is the instrument through which sense
impressions affect the ätman. It is com-
parable to the scholastic sensus com-
munis, the faculty that mediates
between the senses and the mind
proper.

Mäl (‘great’) Manasä, also Manasä devï
Tamil name for VIÆŒU and KØÆŒA. (‘snake-goddess’)

mala (‘impurity’) The sister of ŸEÆA, the serpent king, she
Moral or physical pollution, especially is endowed with special powers to
bodily secretions, which makes one counteract the poison of serpents; also
unfit for worship. called Vi•aharä, ‘destroyer of venom’.
She is very popular in South India.

Mänasa 112

Mänasa, also Mänasa- Maæõana Miÿra (eighth century CE)
sarovara Celebrated exponent of Purva
A lake in the Himälayas on Mount MÏMÄßSÄ, whom ŸA¢KARA (2) defeated
Kailäsa, believed to be native place of in a long debate.
swans who return there every year to
breed. Mandara
The mountain that the gods and ASURAS
Mänasära used as stick during their CHURNING OF
An ancient treatise on architecture, pro- THE OCEAN. It has been identified with a
viding much detail with regard to the mountain of that name in Bhägalpur.
building of houses and temples, the
making of sculptures and the laying out Mändhätø
of towns. An ancient king after whom the
Mändhätø period (traditionally set at
Mänava Dharmä-ÿästra 2750–2550 BCE) has been named. Some
See MANU-SMØTI. peculiar myths surround him. His
father, Yuvanäÿva, having been child-
Mandäkinï less for a long time, conceived him after
The GA¢GÄ, especially the part that drinking some consecrated water and
flows through KEDARNÄTH (2). gave birth to him from his right side.
When Mändhätø grew up he had three
maæõala (1) (‘circle’, ‘orb’) sons as well as fifty daughters, all of
One of the ten sections of the Øgveda. whom were married to an old sage
called Saubhari, who had assumed a
maæõala (2) youthful form.
Complex geometric design, used in
(tantric) rituals, to involve the entire maæõira
cosmos. It is used in the ground plan of See TEMPLE.
the Hindu temple, which is seen as a
miniature cosmos. Mäæõukya Upani•ad
One of the principal Upani•ads, which
maæõala (3) teaches the four stages of CONSCIOUS-
Consecrated enclosed space, or any cir- NESS and being. Gauõapada’s Kärikäs
cular arrangements of religiously mean- (glosses) on it were the seminal text for
ingful objects, e.g. Braja-maöõala, the the development of Ÿaökara’s ADVAITA
area covered by places reminiscent of VEDÄNTA.
Kø•æa around Mathurä–Vøndävana;
rasa-maæõala, the circular platform on Maögala
which the rasa dance is performed. The planet Mars, identified with
KÄRTTIKEYA, the god of war. Son of Ÿiva
maöõala-nøtya (‘round dance’) and the earth, he is also called
The dance of the GOPÏS around Kø•æa Bhümiputra (son of the earth) and
and Rädhä, as desribed in the Lohita (red). Maögalavära (Tuesday) is
Bhägavatam. named after him.

113 mantra

Maögalä (‘the auspicious one’) the Tirukovaiar, describing the love
between Ÿiva and Pärvatï. His IMAGE is
An aspect of the Goddess (DEVÏ). worshipped in many South Indian Ÿiva
temples.
maögala (‘auspicious’, ‘benedictory’)
Maæimat
Maögala-stotra, an introductory verse
to major literary works, invoking the A demon, slain by BHÏMA (2). Followers
blessings of gods and gurus, and often of MADHVA spread the story that
summarizing in a few words the inten- ŸA¢KARA was in fact Maæimat, the ille-
tions of the author. gitimate son of a widow, dedicated to
misleading those destined to remain in
Maæidvïpa (‘island of gems’) SAßSÄRA.

The paradise of the Goddess (DEVÏ). manomaya (‘made of mind’)
Situated above Brahmäloka, also called
Sarvaloka (‘all places’), it is described in One of the sheaths of the self.
glowing terms in the Devï Bhägavata According to Upani•adic teaching the
Puräæa as of immense dimensions, con- self is ‘layered’, with a variable number
sisting of eighteen concentric enclo- of ‘sheaths’ surrounding the spiritual
sures, each made of precious metals or core, or ätman proper. The outermost
gems, filled with precious objects and layer consists of food (annamaya koÿa),
happy people. The innermost enclosure, then comes the ‘breath sheath’ (präna-
made of navaratna (nine jewels), con- maya koÿa), the ‘mind sheath’
tains the seat of the Goddess: she is (manomaya koÿa), enveloping ‘under-
seated on a throne whose legs are Vi•æu, standing’ (vijñänamaya koÿa), which
Brahmä, Rudra and Maheÿvara. She surrounds the spirit–soul (ätman). All
dispenses enlightenment and enjoyment the ‘sheaths’ are perishable and subject
and frees her devotees from the bondage to change; only the ätman (pure CON-
of the world. Maæidvïpa is described as SCIOUSNESS) is eternal and unchanging. It
being of immense dimensions, filled is the aim of the process of LIBERATION
with lakes of nectar, gem-bearing trees, to divest the ätman of these enveloping
beautiful birds and surrounded by rivers sheaths, through which it is connected
of milk, honey and juices of all sorts. with SAßSARA.
The mountains of the island are made of
a variety of gems. All inhabitants enjoy mantra (1)
the highest bliss for ever. To come to
this place, a person only has to remem- Vedic hymn, sacred text (if it is metrical
ber Devï seated in Maæidvïpa at the and to be recited loudly it is called øk; if
time of death. in prose and muttered in a low tone, it
is called yajus; if intended for chanting
Mäæikkaväcakar (c. 650–715 CE) it is called säman).
(‘the ruby-worded’)
mantra (2)
Born of brahmin parents near Madurai,
he was for a time chief minister of the The Vedic SAßHITÄS.
kingdom of Madurai. He became a
SAMNYÄSI and one of the greatest of the mantra (3)
63 NÄYAŒMÄRS. He was author of the
famous Tiruväcakam (‘Sacred words’), Spell, charm, incantation, powerful for-
a collection of Tamil hymns in praise of mula or word. Part of the initiation cer-
Ÿiva, widely used in Tamilnädü, and of emony into a saƒpradäya consists of

Manu 114

transmission of a mantra from GURU to märga (‘road’, ‘path’)
disciple, meant to be a personal inner
guide, and not to be divulged to anyone This can be both an ordinary road and
else. a spiritual path. Traditionally Hinduism
is divided into the so-called trimärga
Manu (1) (threefold path): karmamärga (‘path of
works’, ritual activity); jñänamärga
A celebrated personality representing (‘path of knowledge’, meditation); and
humankind, and ancestor of the human bhaktimärga (‘path of devotion’, wor-
race (a human being is a manu•ya, a ship of images).
‘child of Manu’).
Märkaæõeya Puräna
Manu (2) (eighth century CE?)

Name of each of the 14 progenitors and One of the Mahäpuräæas, ascribed to
rulers of humankind presiding over Märkaæõeya, son of Møkaæõa, who
one manvantara, a world age lasting was remarkable for his austerities and
4,320,000 years. The first (who lived his long life (he is also called Dïrghäyus,
over 30 million years ago) was called ‘long-lived’). Most of the stories are told
Manu Sväyambhuva, ‘the self-existent’. by birds knowledgeable in the Vedas.
He is the father of the ten PRAJÄPATIS, The Devï-mähätmya is part of it.
progenitors of different races. He also is
the reputed author of the Manusmøti as marriage (vivaha)
well as a work on ritual. The present
Manu is the seventh, called Vaivasvata, According to tradition, marriage did
‘sun-born’, also called Satyavrata. He not exist in the early times. It was intro-
was saved from the great flood by the duced by the sage ŸVETAKETU, after an
intervention of Vi•æu’s fish AVATÄRA. incident involving his mother. Since
(See also FLOOD.) then it has been of utmost importance
to Hindus. Only a married couple was
Manu-smøti, also Mänava seen as a complete ‘unit’ for worship
Dharma-ÿästra (‘Manu’s Law’) and participation in socially relevant
acts. Vivaha was the most important
The most influential of all Hindu codes, SAßSKÄRA (rite of passage), the only one
ascribed to the first MANU (2) for women. Hindu law recognized eight
Sväyambhuva. It gives an elevated posi- forms of marriage (including abduction
tion to brahmins. Its twelve books deal and purchase of the bride), though the
with creation (I), the sources of DHAR- preferred mode was always the mar-
MA and the duties of a BRAHMACÄRI (II), riage arranged by the parents of bride
the duties of a householder (III and IV), and bridegroom. While traditional
the duties of women and dietary regula- Hindu law allowed Hindu men to
tions (V), rules concerning vänaprastya marry up to four wives, most Hindu
(see VÄNAPRAÆfiHA) and SAMNYÄSA (VI), marriages today are monogamous. The
the duties of kings (VII), civil and crim- HINDU MARRIAGE ACT (1955 with many
inal law (VIII), domestic laws (IX), the later amendments) provides a certain
origin, development and rules of castes uniformity of procedures and regula-
(X), general laws of morality, sins and tions concerning marriage, divorce, chil-
expiation of sins (XI), consequences of dren, property etc. Hindu marriage
good and bad actions, nature of the soul ceremonies are usually conducted by
and transmigration, the way to release brahmin priests and involve a rich and
(XII). ancient ritual. According to the Øgveda

115 matriarchy

one should not have an unmarried girl
who has reached puberty in the house.
Nineteenth-century reformers tried to
abolish child marriage. Indian civil law
prohibits it, and has set the legal age for
marriage at 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
(See also EQUALITY OF WOMEN.)

Maruts

The storm gods, sons of RUDRA, quite
prominent in the Øgveda, friends and
allies of Indra. Many legends surround
their origin and their name (derived
from Indra’s injunction ma rodih, ‘cry
not’).

mätä, also mätäjï (‘mother’)

Honorific for religious women, especially
the leaders of religious movements.

A Hindu wedding taking place in the maflha
United Kingdom. The bride is placing
a garland around the groom’s neck. A hermit’s hut, a cell, a religious centre,
‘monastery’, often combined with a
the goal of marriage is to enable a man school.
to offer to the gods and to beget a son
who will ensure the continuity of the Mathurä
sacrifice. Woman was called ‘half of
man’, and the domestic sacrifices could One of the seven ancient holy cities of
only be performed by husband and wife India, on the right bank of the Yamunä,
jointly. A son, putra, is so called about 150 km south of Delhi. It is the
because he pulls (tra) his parents out of birthplace of Kø•æa and an important
hell (pu). He is important not only for centre of Kø•æa worship for over 2,000
the continuation of the family, but also years, with many temples and maflhas.
for the spiritual welfare of his parents Mathurä was famous for its school of
and ancestors in the world beyond. The sculptors (some of the most celebrated
last rites can normally only be performed figures of Buddha came from it) that
by a male offspring (when no male rela- lasted from about 50 to 1200 CE and is
tive was available, a girl had to be ‘made also the site of an important archaeo-
a son’ to qualify for this ritual). logical museum.

In the Middle Ages the marriage of matriarchy
young children became a common cus-
tom (consummation being delayed, usu- There are several accounts in Sanskrit
ally until puberty). Since child mortality literature of realms ruled by women and
was very high, many children were mar- matriarchal constitutions of tribes. At
ried and widowed several times before present the Nairs of South India provide
puberty. The custom is believed to have the best example. Nair is a generic name
had its roots in a Hindu tradition that covering the castes of Menons,
Panikkars, Nambiars and others, mainly

Mätøkas 116

in today’s Kerala. The women own the be the author of the Maya-mata, an exten-
property, and inheritance is from mother sive handbook on architecture.
to daughter. Relationship and descent
are traced from women. Husbands mäyä
often do not live with their wives but (‘deceit’, ‘fraud’, ‘illusion’, ‘deception’)
come only to visit. (See also EQUALITY OF Personified as the bewitching power of
WOMEN; WOMEN.) VIÆŒU in the form of a beautiful woman
at the time of the CHURNING OF THE
Mätøkas, also Mätøs (‘mothers’) OCEAN, which deprived the demons of
AMØTA. In Vedänta, especially in
The divine mothers; the spouses of ADVAITA, mäyä comes to mean the uni-
Vi•æu, Ÿiva, Brahmä and other deities. versal illusion that veils the minds of
While often a large or an indefinite humans.
number of ‘mothers’ is mentioned, the
‘seven mothers’ (saptamätøkäs) Brahmï, Mäyon, also Mäyavan
Maheÿvarï, Kaumärï, Vai•æavï, (‘the one who possesses mäyä’)
Mahendrï, Varähï and Cämuöõä are Tamil names for VIÆŒU.
often found represented together as a
unit in temples.

Matsya (‘fish’) meat eating
The first of Vi•æu’s AVATÄRAS, associat-
ed with the salvation of MANU (2) from The Øgveda and later Vedic writings
the Great FLOOD. indicate that meat eating (even beef)
was common in ancient India, especial-
Matsya Puräæa ly in connection with animal SACRIFICES.
One of the older Puräæas, so called When Jainism and Buddhism protested
because it is said to have been revealed to against the killing of animals both for
MANU (2) by the MATSYA AVATÄRA of ritual and commercial purposes,
Vi•æu, although it is mostly a ŸAIVA work. VEGETARIANISM also became popular in
Hinduism, particularly among
Maurya VAIÆŒAVAS, who ceased to perform ani-
A royal dynasty founded by mal sacrifices. Beef eating must have
Candragupta (in 323 BCE) at Pataliputra ceased long before MANU (2), because
(modern Patna) in MAGADHA. Tra- the MANU-SMØTI provides for punish-
ditionally there were ten Maurya kings ments for killing a COW almost as severe
whose rule lasted for 137 years. In the as those for killing a brahmin. Ÿaivas
Vi•æu Puräæa the list reads: Candra- and Ÿäktas continue to eat meat, espe-
gupta, Bindusära, Aÿokavardhana, Suyaÿas, cially goat and chicken, but also buffalo
Daÿaratha, Sangata, Ÿäliÿüka, Soma- and deer. (See also FOOD.)
ÿarman, Ÿaÿadharman and Bøhadratha.
Medätithi (c. 825-900)
Maya
A DAITYA, considered the chief architect of Author of a celebrated commentary on
the ASURAS, the counterpart of VIŸVA- the MANU-SMØTI.
KARMAN (2) (architect of the DEVAS). The
Mahäbhärata mentions that he built a medha (‘sacrifice’)
palace for the PÄŒ¥AVAS. He is reputed to
This can be an element in words such as
aÿvamedha (horse SACRIFICE), as well as
the quality that makes an animal fit for

117 Meru

sacrifice (asses and camels, for instance, Megasthenes (fourth century BCE)
are unfit for sacrifice, because they lack Greek ambassador to the Maurya
medha). emperor Candragupta at Pataliputra
(Patna), whose book Indika remained
medicine for many centuries the main source of
information in the West about ancient
Traditional Indian medicine was India. The work is known today only
holistic, i.e. it aimed at restoring a from quotes and references in other
balance between the various compo- ancient writers.
nents of a person, believed to be dis-
turbed in sickness. Thus the medical melä (‘gathering’)
treatises by Caraka (Caraka Saƒhitä) Generic designation of all popular festi-
and Suÿruta (Suÿruta Saƒhitä) con- vals, usually with a religious back-
tain, besides physiological diagnoses ground, such as the KUMBHA-MELÄ.
and remedies, instructions concerning
the right lifestyle and the attainment Melkote
of the ultimate goal. Ancient Indian Town in Karæätaka, to which
medicine was quite advanced in its RÄMÄNUJA fled to avoid the persecu-
surgical procedures, its knowledge of tions of the Ÿaivite COLA king, and
the pharmaceutical properties of which under the HOYŸALA king, whom
plants and its understanding of psy- Rämänuja converted from JAINISM,
chosomatic diseases. (See also became an important centre of
AYURVEDA.) ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM.

meditation Menä
An APSARA sent by Indra to seduce the
A generic translation of a variety of sage Viÿvämitra to tempt him to desist
Indian notions referring to interioriza- from his austerities; she became the
ton (manana, reflecting on a text; mother of ŸAKUNTALÄ.
pratyahära, withdrawing the senses;
dhyäna, a trance-like condition; merit (puæya)
upäsana, worshipful meditation on a An important notion in Hinduism:
deity, samädhï, contemplation); often the result of good karma and the con-
Yoga is identified with meditation as dition for a good afterlife. Often the
such, although it consists of a variety aÿva-medha, the most prestigious of
of practices, whose ultimate aim, Vedic yajñas (SACRIFICES), was used as
however, is in-depth meditation a measure of merit to be gained from
(kaivalya, understood as a return of a particular religious act, such as a
the self to its own nature). Hinduism dip in a sacred river at a particular
has been associated for ages with time, or the giving of a gift to a
meditation, and contemporary GURUS brahmin.
usually establish themselves in the
West as teachers of new meditation Meru
techniques. The mountain in the centre of the
world, on whose top lies SVARGA,
megaliths Indra’s heaven.

These are found in many places in India,
and are associated with the MAGAS,
who were famous for being able to
move huge objects.

Meykaæõa(deva) 118

Meykaæõa(deva) (13th century) be performed but only describe already
existing entities.
Religious name of Ÿvetabana, a Ÿaiva
philosopher, author of the Ÿivajñana- In addition to explaining the mean-
bodha, an important source for ing of certain Vedic injunctions, the
ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, often commented Mïmäƒsakas analysed the nature and
upon by Tamil authors in later centuries. structure of LANGUAGE. They developed
principles of interpretation which found
milk application in the practice of Hindu law
up to our own times. (See also ŸABDA.)
Hindus consider COW’s milk the perfect
FOOD and drink, the most sattvik (pure) Mïnäk•ï (‘the fish-eyed one’)
of all. Milk from a kapila (brownish) cow Title of the Goddess (DEVÏ) as wor-
was reserved for brahmins and for shipped in the main shrine of MADURAI
worship. Bathing an IMAGE in milk is a in Tamilnäõü. There is an ancient belief
particularly solemn form of PÜJÄ. Advanced that fish feed their young by just look-
YOGIS subsist often on milk alone. ing at them; the Goddess is expected to
give support to her devotees through
Mïmäƒsä (‘disquisition’) her mere glance.

This usually refers to the short form of mind
Pürva Mïmäƒsä (‘earlier disquisition’)
over against Uttara Mïmäƒsä (‘later The English word ‘mind’ is the transla-
disquisition’, or Vedänta). It is one of tion of two Sanskrit terms with very dif-
the six orthodox (systems) (darÿanas), ferent meanings and connotation in
devoted to the exegesis of the karma- Hindu thought: (1) manas (which ety-
kända (the part dealing with ritual) of mologically is close to Latin mens and
the Veda, focusing on the injunctions English ‘mind’) is classified as the high-
contained in them. est among the sense organs, the
medieval sensus communis; (2) ‘higher
The earliest text is the Mïmäƒsä Sütra, mind’, i.e. spirit, consciousness, is ren-
ascribed to JAIMINI. It is a collection of dered by terms such as cit, caitanya,
aphorisms analysing the elements of Vedic buddhi etc.
commands in connection with rituals. The
Mïmäƒsä Sütras were extensively com- Mïräbäï (1547–1614)
mented on by ŸABARA in the so-called
Ÿäbarabhä•ya, which received many sub- Räjasthani princess, an early and ardent
commentaries by later writers such as devotee of Kø•æa, she was married into
KUMÄRILA BHAfifiA and Pärthasärathi a ŸAKTI-worshipping Räjput household
Miÿra (14th century). at Chitor. She refused to worship the
Goddess (DEVÏ), saying she was wedded
The Mïmäƒsakas held the Veda to to Kø•æa. She was forced to leave
be apauru•eya, i.e. not composed by a Chitor, and fled to VØNDÄVANA.
person, either divine or human, but self- Reconciled with her husband, she
existent and eternal. That gave it moved back to Chitor, but after his
supreme authority, and its WORD is the death she was mistreated by her in-laws
ultimate proof of the truth of a state- and left again for Vøndävana.
ment. They also insisted that only those According to a local tradition she was
portions of the Veda are ÿruti (revealed absorbed into a Kø•æa image while wor-
and therefore authoritative scripture) shipping there. Her beautiful poems and
that contain an injunction; the rest songs are still recited by Kø•æa BHAKTAS
(such as Upani•ads) are mere eulogy,
because they do not prescribe actions to

119 month

(devotees), and she is one of the Mitra (‘friend’)
favourite saints of northern India. (See A name of the SUN. In the Vedas Mitra
also ANfiÄL.) is usually associated with VARUŒA as
guardian of morality: Mitra rules the
miracle day, and Varuæa the night.

An essential ingredient especially of mleccha (‘barbarian’)
popular Hinduism. Apart from the People who do not speak Sanskrit and
siddhis (miraculous powers, e.g. making do not observe the rules of life of the
oneself small like an atom or big like a Äryans; a foreigner, an outcast.
mountain) ascribed to famous YOGIS
(and obtainable through methodic moha (‘delusion’)
Siddha Yoga) every temple, big and One of the ‘three gates to hell’, to be
small, boasts of miracles that happened avoided by a religious person. (See also
to worshippers, from cures from incur- LOBHA, KRODHA.)
able diseases to manifestations of life by
the mürtis (IMAGES), which are reported mok•a
to have drunk the milk offered to them See LIBERATION.
or to exude healing substances, or to
show signs of menses etc. The epics and Monier-Williams, Monier
the Puräæas, especially the Sthäla (1819–99)
Puräæas are full of stories of miracles Eminent lexicographer. Born in
and many Hindus also today claim to Bombay, he was the Boden Professor of
have witnessed miraculous events, Sanskrit at Oxford, founder of the
which they report in religious maga- Indian Institute at the University of
zines such as Kalyän. A contemporary Oxford (1883), compiler of a major
GURU such as SATHYA SAI BABA is credited Sanskrit dictionary, and the author of
with miraculous powers: he has brought several scholarly works and transla-
healing to many and is miraculously pro- tions.
ducing all kinds of objects, as reported in
many books. month
Hindus use a lunar–solar CALENDAR,
Mitäk•arä and their months do not coincide with
those used in the Gregorian calendar.
A commentary by Vijñäneÿvara (fl. The year begins in spring with the
second half of 11th century CE) on the month Caitra (March–April), followed
Yäjñavalkyasmøti which enjoyed great by Vai•äkha (April–May), Jyai•flha (May–
authority all over India. June), Ä•äõha (June–July), Ÿrävana
(July–August), Bhädra (August–Septem-
Mithilä ber), Äÿvina (September– October), Kär-
ttika (October–November), Märgaÿïr•a
Capital city of Videha, in today’s north- (November–December), Pau•a (December–
ern Bihär, the country over which King January), Mägha (January–February),
JANAKA ruled. Phälguna (February–March). All the
Hindu FESTIVALS are calculated accord-
mithyä (‘false’, ‘unreal’) ing to this CALENDAR.

Description of the visible world from
the standpoint of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA:
brahma satyam, jagad mithyä (‘brahman
is real, the world is false’).

moon 120

moon near Bombay. On a world tour in 1974
The hundreds of synonyms and epithets he also found many Western disciples.
for the moon in Hindu literature (e.g. After his death Malti and Subhash
candra(mä), soma, ÿaÿï, ÿaÿäöka, rajanï- Chetty (Swami Cidvilasananda and
kara, niÿäketu, niÿäpati, tärädhipati Swami Nityananda) continued the
etc.) indicate its great importance. In ashram activities.
Vedic times the moon was believed to
be the abode of the blessed forefathers. mukti
It was also believed to be the source of
nectar, which was distilled from its rays. See LIBERATION.
New moon (ämavasya) and full moon
(pürnimä) were the occasions of the Müller, Friedrich Max
archetype of all Vedic ritual sacrifices (1823–1900)
(darÿapürnamäsa), and the moon-days
(tithis) are the basic time units for reli- Son of the German poet Wilhelm
gious observances such as fasting. The Müller, ‘Max Müller’, as he is usually
moon is worshipped in the form of the called, spent most of his working life in
god Soma in the Vedas, Candra in later Oxford. While active in many fields –
times, and has many other names. (See he is called the founder of the discipline
also CALENDAR; SACRIFICE.) of comparative religion, did ground-
breaking work in linguistics and in the
mothers study of fables, edited and translated
See MÄTØKÄS. Buddhist works – his contributions to
the study of Hinduism were so impres-
møtyu-sa™skära sive that Hindu pandits gave him the
See ŸRADDHA. title Mok•a Mülä (‘Root of
Liberation’). He published the first crit-
Mudalvan ical text edition of the Øgveda with
A Tamil god, later identified with ŸIVA. Säyaæa’s commentary in six volumes
(1849–73), initiated the 50- volume
mudrä (‘seal’) series Sacred Books of the East, to
This can also be a seal-ring, a mark, an which he contributed several volumes
impression, a gesture, a medal or of translations (Vedas, Upani•ads,
stamped coin; mystery (in Tantricism); Gøhya Sütras), published a book on
certain positions of fingers, e.g. abhaya- Ramakrishna (1898) after meeting
mudrä, gesture of reassurance. Swami Vivekananda, and a course of
lectures on The Six Systems of Indian
muhürta Philosophy (1899). While some of his
In general, a short period of time, an work has been superseded by more
instant; specifically, one-thirtieth of a day recent scholarship and some of his the-
(48 minutes). (See also TIME, DIVISIONS OF.) ories, such as the Äryan invasion of
India and the chronology based on it,
Muktananda, Swami have become controversial, his name is
(1908–83) held in high esteem in India as one of
Founder of Siddha Dham, a KUŒ¥ALIŒÏ the pioneers of Indology in the West.
Yoga meditation centre in Ganeshpuri,
Muæõaka Upani•ad

One of the principal Upani•ads, famous
for its distinction between para (higher)
and apara (lower) knowledge.

121 Murugan

muni mürti (‘embodiment’)

Someone who keeps silence, a sage, a An IMAGE used in worship, the presence
saint; also a title of honour for religious of the deity.
persons.
Murti, Tiruppatur
muñja Rameseshayyar Venkatachala
(1902–85)
A kind of grass or rush from which the
girdle of a brahmin at initiation is made. Born into a South Indian brahmin family,
educated both in the traditional and
Munshi, Kanaiyalal Maneklal modern academic ways, for many years
(1887–1971) a professor of Philosophy at the Benares
Hindu University, with guest professor-
Prominent freedom fighter and Con- ships in many prestigious Western uni-
gress politician, instrumental in re- versities, although best known for his
building and rededicating the ancient work The Central Philosophy of
Ÿiva temple at Somnäth, founder of the Buddhism (1955), one of the foremost
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, an important Hindu philosophers and exponents of
cultural institution that promotes the ADVAITA VEDÄNTA in our time. He pub-
study of Sanskrit and traditional Indian lished dozens of important papers on all
learning, and publishes a scholarly jour- aspects of Indian philosophy; some of
nal (Bhäratïya Vidyä) and a monograph these are found in H. C. Coward (ed.)
series, Bhavan’s Book University, with Studies in Indian Thought: Collected
hundreds of volumes on Hindu shrines Papers of Prof. T. R. V. Murti (1983).
and saints, Hindu literature and art,
translations and summaries of Hindu Murugan
classics. It also has branches outside
India, promoting the teaching of Tamil god of youth, beauty, divine free-
Sanskrit and Hindï. dom, the Lord of the World, war god;
also known as Sey, Vel and Neduvel.
Muräri The elephant and peacock are associat-
(‘the enemy of the demon Mura’) ed with him. Part of his cult is a frenzied
kind of dance, the Veriyadal. He is
A favourite epithet of KØÆŒA.

Music making from the Ho Tribe, Bihar.

music 122

worshipped with flowers, paddy, millet, was done not only for the entertainment
and honey. Goats are sacrificed in his of gods and humans but was also con-
honour. He became äryanized as sidered a religious exercise (sädhana).
Subrahmaæia. (See also KÄRTTIKEYA.) The professional study of music under a
master followed a prescribed routine. It
music consisted mostly of mastering the RÄGAS
and learning to develop these. There
The earliest form of Hindu music is the was no musical notation and all training
chanting of the Vedic HYMNS: Vedic was aural. Classical Indian music
recitation would have been fruitless if recitals have the atmosphere of wor-
not done according to the tunes ship, often made explicit by prayers at
(sämans) provided. The pitch is noted in the beginning of the performance and
modern editions of the Øgveda and has the character of the music played.
to be follwed by every reciter. Musical
instruments are in evidence on ancient Muyälahan (‘the man of sin’)
sculptures and were associated with
particular deities: the vïna with A dwarfish figure crushed by Ÿiva in his
Sarasvatï, the drum with Ÿiva, the flute dance, symbolizing everything wicked
with Kø•æa, and so on. Music making and evil.

N

Naciketas näda (‘sound’)
This is especially a mystical sound
A son of the Vedic ø•i (sage) Uddälaka breaking forth at the time of ecstatic
(also called Äruni) and a major figure in enlightenment.
the Taittirïya Brähmaæa and the Kaflhta
Upani•ad. The Naciketas SACRIFICE is näõi (‘channel’)
named after him. The story goes that According to tantric physiology the
one day he saw his father offering cows (subtle) human body contains 35 mil-
of an inferior quality in a sacrifice lion näõis, fine tubular vessels through
intended to attain paradise, and he which the psychic energy (ÿakti) moves.
admonished his father and offered him- Fourteen of these are of primary impor-
self as a substitute victim. He asked his tance, of which three, Ïõä, Piögalä and
father to whom he should be sacrificed Su•umnä constitute the central com-
and his father, now very angry, replied, plex. Su•umna runs through the hollow
‘Death’. Naciketas subsequently went of the spinal cord, encircled by Ïõä and
down to the underworld but Yama, the Piögalä.
god of the dead, was absent and unable
to receive him. Yama later apologized naõukal (‘hero stones’)
and offered Naciketas three boons. Large stones, often with carvings and
Naciketas asked for his father to recover inscriptions, erected by the ancient
from his anger, to be brought back to Tamils in memory of those fallen in
life, and for immortality. Yama at first battle.
tried to dissuade him from his last wish,
suggesting that he ask for riches and sen- Näga
sual pleasures instead. Naciketas, point- Mountain people, inhabitants of Näga-
ing out the transience and futility of all land, in the northeast of India.
terrestrial enjoyment, remained firm, and
eventually Yama taught him the secret of näga (1)
the immortality of the ÄTMAN. Naciketas Snake, more specifically the cobra.
then returned to earth, and was recon- Nägas are considered the guardians of
ciled with his father. Interpretations of subterranean treasures and receive
the descent of Naciketas differ: some extensive worship.
assume that Uddälaka actually killed his
son in his anger, while others say it was
a symbolic act.

näga 124

näga (2) näma–rüpa (‘name and form’)
Naked ascetics, quite often militant.
It is said that in the beginning ‘reality’
Naimi•a was one and undifferentiated: there
A forest near the Gomatï river, in were no specific things and no manifes-
which, according to tradition, the tation of anything. By obtaining ‘name’
Mahäbhärata was first recited to the and ‘form’, individual entities emerged
assembled sages by the Süta (a tradi- and became manifest. Subsequently the
tional narrator). expression näma–rüpa was used by
Indian philosophers as a shorthand for
Nai•kärmya-siddhi finiteness, individuality and particular-
Treatise by SUREŸVARA, a disciple of ity. Näma–rüpa constitutes an entity as
ŸA¢KARA (2), which expounds the final object, as opposed to consciousness as
truth (siddhi) of ADVAITA VEDÄNTA. subject.

naivedya Nambüd(i)ris
The offering of cooked food during the
daily mürti-püjä (IMAGE worship). The highest caste of BRÄHMAŒAS (2)
(brahmins) in Kerala, often referred to
nak•atra as exemplars of CASTE consciousness; in
Constellation or lunar mansion, the former times a NAYAR had to precede a
position of the moon within one of the Nambüdri when he left his house, and
27 or 28 parts into which astronomers announce his coming, to make sure that
divided the zodiac belt. The moon is no OUTCASTE was in sight, because a
seen in a different mansion each day. mere glimpse would pollute him.
For ASTROLOGERS the position of the
moon in a specific nak•atra is the basis name
for all prognostications. They are per-
sonified as daughters of Dak•a married Names are considered the expression of
to the moon. the people bearing them. Names and
name giving are consequently very
Nakula important in Hindu traditions. Hindu
The fourth of the Päæõava brothers, son parents are advised, when naming a
of MÄDRÏ, famous for his skill with child, to chose a name that is pleasant to
horses. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) hear, auspicious in meaning, and appro-
priate for their station. The revealed
Näm(a)dev(a) (1270–1350) names of God are believed to be identi-
Mahärä•flrian poet-saint, born in cal to the divine essence: ‘taking the
Pandharpur, a centre of Vi•æu worship, name’ is the equivalent of entering reli-
into a low-caste family of tailors. Con- gious life, and repeating the name
verted from a dissolute life by (näma-japa) is one of the most common
JÑÄNEŸVARA to the worship of VIfifiHOBÄ, religious exercises. There are litanies of
together with twelve members of his a thousand names (Sahasra näma) of
family, he composed a very large num- the major deities that are recited by the
ber of abhaögs (HYMNS), which are still devotees.
used in worship at Pandharpur.
Nammä¶vär (ninth century?)
(‘our saint’)

Also known as Ÿathakopa, he is consid-
ered the greatest among the Ä®VÄRS. He

125 naraka

Statue of Nandi, Chamondi Hill, near Mysore.

is the author of Tiruviruttam, Tiru- Närada (1)
vasariyam, Tiruvaymoli and Periya One of the seven ØÆIS to whom some
Tiruvandadi. His icon is placed in many Øgvedic süktas (HYMNS) are ascribed.
temples and his poems are part of the
worship in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA temples. Närada (2)
One of the PRAJÄPATIS, inventor of the
Nanda (1) vïna and chief of the GANDHARVAS (2).
A cowherd, who acted as Kø•æa’s foster He also descended to the netherworlds
father. and praised their beauty.

Nanda (2) Närada (3)
A dynasty of kings of MAGADHA, prede- Author of a Bhaktisütra.
cessors of the Mauryas.
Näradïya Puräæa
Nandi One of the Vai•æava MAHÄPURÄŒAS
A bull, Ÿiva’s VAHANA, son of KAŸYAPA (ascribed to NÄRADA).
and Surabhï (KÄMADHENU), the COW of
plenty. His IMAGE can be seen in front of naraka (‘hell’)
all Ÿiva temples, often in a separate A place of torture for sinners. The
chapel. PURÄŒAS enumerate 28 närakas, each
designed to punish a specific sin.
Nara (‘man’) Although extremely painful, the sojourn
Cosmic man; identified with ARJUNA. of sinners in these hells is limited to the

Nära-Närada 126

time it takes to atone for their crimes; supreme authority of the Veda; follower
they are not eternal. (See also AFTER- of a non-orthodox system, such as
LIFE.) Cärväka, Buddhism or Jainism.

Nära-Närada Nafla-räja (‘king of dance’)
A pair of sages who according to the
Mahäbhärata visited the Ÿvetadvïpa An epithet of ŸIVA, often represented in
(‘White Island’) where they encountered art.
a race of perfect people and their wor-
ship of Vi•æu. nätha (‘lord’)

Nara-Näräyaæa Used in titles, e.g. Viÿvanätha, ‘Lord of
ARJUNA and KØÆŒA. the World’, a title of ŸIVA.

Närasimha, also Nøsinha Nätha Muni (ninth century)
(‘man–lion’)
An AVATÄRA of Vi•æu whose lower part Son of Ïÿvara Muni, first of the äcäryas
is human, the upper part a lion. He (masters) of ŸRÏRA¢GAM who gave to
appeared to save his devotee PRAHLÄDA the Tamil PRABANDHAM of the Ķvärs
from his father, the demon king the status of ÿruti in Ÿrïraögam and
HIRAŒYAKAŸIPU. He is widely wor- established himself as supreme teaching
shipped in India. authority in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM.

Näräyana (‘the refuge of men’) Näthapanthis
One of the most exalted titles of VIÆŒU
or KØÆŒA. See GORAKHNÄfiHA.

Näräyaæïyam nationalism
A short rendition of the Bhägavatam,
composed in the 16th century by Hindu nationalism had its first propo-
Meppattur Näräyaæa Bhattatiripad, nent in the Bengali novelist Bankim
regularly recited at the Kø•æa temple in Chandra Chatterjee, who depicted the
Guruvayur, Kerala. 1770 Samnyasi Rebellion as a Hindu
uprising against foreign domination. He
Narbadä, also Narmadä had his protagonists sing a hymn to
A holy river in central India, flowing to Mother India, the BANDE MÄTÄRÄM,
the Arabian Sea, on whose banks are which subsequently became the nation-
such famous places of pilgrimage as al anthem of the Indian freedom move-
Nasik. One particularly meritorious ment. In it he identified the physical
form of pilgrimage consists of going up landscape of India and its people with
the whole length of the river on one side the Great Goddess (DEVÏ), for whose
and down on the other. liberation everything had to be done in
the spirit of a struggle to attain salva-
nästika tion. This theme was continued by pow-
A heretic, i.e. someone who denies the erful personalities such as AUROBINDO
GHOSE, Bal Gangadhar TILAK and oth-
ers. Mahatma GANDHI too saw his
efforts to free India from colonial rule
as a religious mission, though not as a
charge to establish a Hindu rä•flra.
More radical Hindu nationalists, most

127 Nïmavat(s)

of them affiliated with the RÄÆfiRÏYA the reality of brahman as compared to
SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH, and Hindu any object.
political parties have been pressing for a
long time for the establishment of a nidhi (‘treasure’)
Hindu rä•flra, claiming that HINDUTVA, Abode, receptacle, the ocean; an epithet
Hindu-ness, is the very essence of India’s of VIÆŒU.
identity. (See also HINDU JAGARAN.)

navarätrï (‘nine nights’) nidi-dhyäsana (‘contemplation’)
Third stage of process of meditation,
The main feast in honour of ŸIVA, when after ÿravaæa and manana.
a nightlong vigil is kept before the
LI¢GA (3). nidrä (‘sleep’)
Personified as the female form of
Näyaæ(m)är(s) (‘teachers’) BRAHMÄ; as Mahänidrä, ‘great sleep’, it
marks the period between two cre-
A group of 63 ŸAIVITE poet-saints, who ations, when everything is resting and
flourished between 700 and 1000 CE in hidden inside VIÆŒU.
South India, whose Tamil works,
known as Tirumurai, are recited in Ÿiva nigama
temples. The Näyaæmärs disregarded The VEDA or a Vedic text; any authori-
distinctions of sex, caste or creed and tative scripture.
among them were brahmins, oil sellers,
toddy collectors, kings and princesses. Nighaæflu
(See also APPAR, MANIKKAVACAKAR, Part of the NIRUKTA, one of the Vedäögas;
TIRUMULAR.) a glossary of obsolete and obscure Vedic
words, attributed to Yäska.
Näyar, also Näir, Näyyar
Nïla (‘blue’)
A group of jätïs in Kerala (for example A range of mountains north of Mount
Panikkar and Menon), who are consid- MERU.
ered ŸÜDRAS. They do not receive
upanayana (initiation) and must stay
seven feet away from a NAMBÜDRI brah-
min. They held various service positions
with Nambüdris.

Nayäyikas Nïla-kaæflha, also Nïla-grïva
Followers of the NYÄYA school of phil- (‘blue-necked’ or ‘blue-throated’)
osophy.
An epithet of ŸIVA, whose throat dark-
netherworlds ened after drinking the poison
See PÄTÄLA. HALÄHALÄ; symbol of Ÿiva’s compas-
sion for the world.

neti-neti Nïmavat(s)

A contracted form of na iti, na iti, ‘not Followers of NIMBÄRKA, members of the
so, not so’, an Upani•adic expression Haƒsa saƒpradäya, with major centres
used to indicate the total otherness of in Braja, Bengal and Rajasthan.

Nimbärka 128

Nimbärka, also Nimäditya, ni•-käma (‘without desire’)
Niyamänanda (1125–62) Ni•käma karma: a desireless action
Telugu brahmin, founder of the does not result in karma, according to
(VAIÆŒAVA) Sanakädi (or Haƒsa) the Bhagavadgïta.
saƒpradäya, in which the role of the
GURU becomes all important. His teach- nïti
ing is known as Dvaitädvaitaväda, a Polity, ‘ethics’, the art of living.
combination of ADVAITA and DVAITA.
His commentary on the BRAHMASÜTRA Nïti ÿästra
is known as Vedäntaparijätasaurabha. Didactic works on the wisdom of life,
For Nimbärka brahman is identical usually in the form of animal fables and
with Kø•æa, who is omniscient, omnipo- parables, interspersed with verses to
tent and all-pervading. remember, such as the famous PAÑCA-
TANTRA and the Hitopadeÿa.
nime•a (‘twinkling of an eye’)
A moment. nitya (‘eternal’, ‘permanent’)
Nitya karma: rituals that have to be per-
nir-guæa (‘without qualities’) formed daily until the end of one’s life.
This expression is used with reference to
the ‘higher brahman’ by ŸA¢KARA (2), ni-vøtti (‘contraction’)
rejected by RÄMÄNUJA. The opposite of and counterpart to
pravøtti (‘creation’, ‘expansion’). In a
niøøti (‘death’, ‘decay’, ‘devolution’) cosmological context it designates the
Sometimes personified as a goddess phase in which the universe contracts
(DEVÏ). and disappears. In a personal sense it
signifies renunciation, abstinence and
Nirukta self-mortification.
One of the VEDÄŒGAS; an etymological
glossary to the Vedas, ascribed to Yäska. niyama (‘restraint’)
It consists of three parts: (1) Naighaæfluka A self-imposed or minor observance. In
(a list of synonyms); (2) Naigama (list of the YOGA SÜTRAS these are given as the
words used only in the Vedas); (3) complement to YAMA as a precondition
Daivata (words relating to deities and for meditation, and are enumerated as
rituals) with Yäska’s commentary. purity (ÿauca), contentment (saƒto•a),
self-mortification (tapas), scripture
Ni•äda (1) study (svädhyäya), self-surrender to the
A forest tribe living in the Vindhya Lord (ïÿvara praæidhäna).
mountains, the Bhïls.

Ni•äda (2) non-violence
Outcastes, the children of a Brähmana See AHIßSÄ.
father and a Ÿüdra mother.
nyäsa (‘placing’, ‘putting down’)
ni•-kala (‘without parts’) Assigning different parts of the body to spe-
Undivided, whole; a characteristic of cific deities in worship by touching them
BRAHMAN. and uttering appropriate MANTRAS (3).

129 Nyäya Sütras

Nyäya example (udahäraæa), corroborative
instance (upanaya) and inference (niga-
One of the six orthodox systems of mana).
Hindu philosophy. While best known
for its detailed treatment of logic and Some later Nyäya works offer proofs
epistemology (tarkaÿästra) Nyäya also for the existence of God, against the
deals with metaphysical matters such as assertions of Buddhists and Cärväkas.
the nature of the self and means of final The Lord is qualified by the absence
emancipation (adhyätmavidyä). The (abhäva) of lawlessness (adharma), fal-
beginnings of Nyäya may be traced to sity (mithyäjñäna), and error (pramäda),
the disputations of Vedic scholars and and by the positive presence of right-
the debates of Upani•adic sages. The eousness, knowledge and goodwill.
oldest text is the Nyäya Sütras, ascribed
to GAUTAMA (2), which were comment- nyäya
ed upon by later specialists. In the 12th Well-known maxims such as andha-
century Nava Nyäya, the ‘new school of paraƒpara-nyäya, the maxim of the
logic’, developed, focusing on the means blind following the blind.
of valid cognition (PRAMÄŒAS). The
most important text is Gaögeÿa’s Tattva- Nyäya Sütras (c. 300 BCE)
cintämaæi. The basic text of the Nyäya darÿana
(system), ascribed to GAUTAMA (2),
The Nyäya Sütras assert that a dealing with means of right cognition,
knowledge of the true character of the objects of right cognition, doubt, dis-
16 categories it deals with leads the stu- putation etc. commented upon by
dent to the attainment of the highest VÄTSYÄYAŒA (1).
good. Nyäya uses a syllogism of five
members: statement of the point to be
proved (pratijñä), reason (hetu), illustrative

O

Oldenberg, Hermann Mysticism East and West), and a broad-
(1854–1920) based comparison of Vai•æavism and
Christianity (Die Gnadenreligion
One of the pioneers of Indology whose Indiens und das Christentum). He also
works proved to have wide appeal and founded a museum for the history of
lasting value. He initially focused on religions at Marburg University and
Buddhism, translating many texts for helped to draw the attention of
the Pali Text Society and the Sacred European students to the theistic tradi-
Books of the East, and was the author tions of Hinduism.
of the classic Buddha: Sein Leben, seine
Lehre, seine Gemeinde (1881). His con- outcaste
tributions to the study of Hinduism are
equally substantial. His work on Vedic Pañcama, or ‘fifth (varæa)’, is a designa-
religion, originally published in 1894, tion of a large number of inhabitants of
was translated more than a century later India who do not belong to one of the
into English: The Religion of the Veda four VARŒAS. While many so-called out-
(1988). His translations of Vedic hymns castes never belonged to Hindu CASTE
and of some Gøhya Sütras are part of society, a large number were former
the Sacred Books of the East series. His caste members who as punishment for
studies of the Mahäbhärata were pub-
lished posthumously (1922).

Om
See AUM.

Otto, Rudolf (1869–1937) Rudolf Otto (1869–1937).

While best known for his Das Heilige
(The Holy), an attempt to articulate a
general theory of religion, he also has
done considerable work on Hinduism,
especially on VAIÆŒAVISM. He published
an anthology of Vai•æava texts (Vischnu
Narayana: Texte zur indischen Gottes-
mystik), a comparative study of Ÿaö-
kara and Meister Eckhart (in English:

131 outcaste

some serious infringement of caste reg- GANDHI called them Harijan, ‘God’s
ulations were excommunicated. Many people’, and wanted to make them part
outcastes originated from unlawful of the Ÿüdra varæa. The Indian consti-
mixed marriages, others from neglect of tution of 1950 outlaws untouchability
rituals (former Buddhists or Jains). and legally gives equal status to all
Certain professions, such as leather Indians. In practice the former
workers (cämärs) and sweepers untouchables are still widely disadvan-
(bhaögis) and attendants at funerary taged and attempts to improve their
sites (dom), were deemed hereditarily chances, such as those made by the
unclean, and could only be held by out- Mandal Commission (1989) are met
castes. Outcastes were not allowed to with violent resistance from the higher
live in villages, to use the common wells castes. Many former outcastes have
or to share food with caste people, and organized themselves as DALITS
they were often subjected to cruel pun- (‘oppressed’) and are fighting for eco-
ishment for minor offences. Mahatma nomic and social equality.

P

padapaflha Narasimhavarma II (695–722), under
The text of the Veda in which each whom the famous Kailäsanäflha temple
word (päda) stands distinct, not joined in Käñcïpura was built. Around 900 CE
to preceding or following words. the Pallava kingdom was annexed by
the COLAS.
padma
A lotus or lotus-like ornament; also a pañca-lak•ana
name of RÄMA. Padma-äsana: a lotus
seat. See MÄHÄPURÄŒA.

Padmanäbha Pañcäöga (‘five limbs’)
One of Vi•æu’s VYÜHAS, bearing five
shields as emblem. Yearly almanac, which provides astro-
nomical charts for every fortnight of a
Padma Puräæa year, indispensable for astrologers, as
One of the Vai•æava MAHÄPURÄŒAS, well as for the determination of feast
deriving its name from the period when days. (See also ASTROLOGY; CALENDAR;
the world was a golden lotus. FESTIVALS.)

pagala (‘mad’) Päñcarätra (‘five nights’)
A type of saint, whose behaviour is
abnormal, but still within certain recog- An ancient VAIÆŒAVA theological tradi-
nized religious limits. tion, which accepts the separate reality
of God, world and human being. It has
Pallavas become part of the theology of
South Indian dynasty, c. 300–888 CE, ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM. The name has also been
whose capital was Käñcïpuram; gener- explained as signifying the synthesis of
ous patrons of the arts and promoters of five hitherto divided traditions, namely
ŸAIVISM. Well-known Pallava monarchs the Ekäntika, the Bhägavata, the
are Mahendravarma I (600–30 CE), Näräyaæïya, the Vaikhänasa, and the
Narasimhavarma I (630–60 CE), under Sätvata. The first promoter of the
whose reign the seven rathas of Päñcarätra doctrine was Ÿäæõilya, the
MAHÄBALIPURA were constructed, author of a Bhaktisütra. The main
sources for Päñcarätra are the volumi-
nous Päñcarätra Ägamas, of which the
best known are the Ahirbudhnya, the
Sanätkumära and the Parameÿvara.

133 Päæinï

Pañcatantra (fifth century CE) wish, and became SATÏ. Since the five
Päæõava brothers were the sons of his
A collection of moral tales and fables in two wives, they were treated as his sons.
five (pañca) books (tantra), by They were one of the major groups of
Vi•æuÿarman, for the teaching of nïti protagonists in the Mahäbhärata.
(ethics) to young people. Its stories have
been often retold and translated into Pandharpur
many languages. Many of Aesop’s
fables are believed to be derived from it. Place of pilgrimage in Mahärä•flra,
sacred to Viflflal or Viflflhobä (a form of
pañcäyata (‘council of five’) Vi•æu) made famous by TUKÄRÄM and
his followers, the Värkarïs.
A traditional committee of five mem-
bers of the same CASTE, to oversee paæõita (‘learned’)
observance of caste rules. After inde-
pendence pañcäyats were introduced all An honorific applied to high personalities.
over India as village councils to decide
on all issues concerning the interest of Päæõu (‘the pale’)
the local population.
Brother of Dhøtarä•flra, king of
pañcäyätana püjä Hastinäpura. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA;
(‘the [simultaneous] worship of five PÄŒ¥AVAS.)
deities’)
Päæõya
The worship of Gaæeÿa, Sürya, Vi•æu,
Ÿiva and Devï was reputedly introduced A realm and a dynasty in South India,
by ŸA¢KARA (2) to reconcile the various from c. 500 BCE to c. 1700 CE. The
Hindu SAßPRADÄYAS. The practice suggests Päæõyas derive their name and origin
that all the various deities are but appear- from the PÄŒ¥AVAS. The early history
ances of the one (invisible) BRAHMAN. and the extent of the kingdom is uncer-
tain. Several Päæõya rulers invaded Ÿrï
Päæõavas Laökä, and they feuded with the
PALLAVAS, the Ceras and the COLAS,
The five putative sons of Päæõu, who whom they supplanted in the 13th cen-
was deterred by a curse from fathering tury as the leading power of South
his own children. While out hunting one India. One of their rulers, Neduvarman
day he shot an antelope that was in the (c. 700 CE) became a ŸAIVA after marry-
process of mating. The dying animal, a ing a Cola princess, and had 8,000 Jains
transformed ØÆI (sage), cursed him with killed in MADURAI. One branch of the
death during sexual intercourse. He Päæõyas, the Nayyakas (1420–1736)
therefore refused to sleep with his two became famous as builders of magnifi-
wives, and asked them to summon gods cent temples, including the Mïnäk•ï
to father children for him. Kuntï, his temple at MADURAI (1600–50), the
first wife, had YUDHIÆfiHIRA from Raöganätha temple in ŸRÏRA¢GAM
Dharma, BHÏMA from Väyu and ARJUNA (1620–89), and the huge temple at
from Indra. Mädrï, his second and RAMEŸVARAM.
favourite wife, had NAKULA and
SAHADEVA from the Aÿvins. However, Päæinï (sixth century BCE)
one day desire overcame him, and he
died during intercourse with Mädrï, The most celebrated Indian grammarian,
who ascended his funeral pyre at his author of the AÆfiÄDHYÄYÏ (‘eight-chap-
ter-work’), considered one of the greatest

panth(a) 134

accomplishments of the human mind. teachers is considered unsound and not
From ancient times Päæinï was revered as conducive to LIBERATION.
a ØÆI (sage) and his work was considered
to be inspired by Ÿiva. The study of gram- Paräÿara (14th century BCE?)
mar was undertaken as a spiritual disci- A ø•i (sage) to whom some of the Øgvedic
pline and was considered indispensable süktas (HYMNS) are attributed. He is also
for anyone aspiring to become a teacher the narrator of the Vi•æu Puräæa and the
of philosophy or religion. author of a major work on DHARMAŸÄS-
TRA, commented upon by MÄDHAVA (2).
panth(a) (‘path’, ‘following’)
This is used especially in contexts such Paraÿuräma
as Kabïr Panth, followers of the path (‘Rama with the battle-axe’)
taught by KABÏR. The sixth AVATÄRA of Vi•æu; the fifth
son of Jamadagni and Reæukä. He
päpa appeared in the TRETA YUGA to end the
See SIN. tyranny of the KÆATRIYAS, whom he is
said to have annihilated 22 times. His
päpa-puru•a (‘man of sin’) story is told in the Rämäyaæa, the
The personification of all unpardonable Mahäbhärata and some PURÄŒAS.
sins: his head consists of brahmanicide,
his arms of cow-killing, his nose of Pargiter, Frederick Eden
woman-murder, his belly of intoxica- (1852–1927)
tion, his legs of theft of gold. Officer in the Indian Civil Service, High
Judge in Calcutta, historian and student
parama-haƒsa (‘supreme swan’) of classical India who rejected the
An honorific title for a spiritual Äryan invasion theory. He was the
teacher. author of Ancient Indian Historical
Tradition (1922) and The Puräæa Text
paramärthika of the Dynasties of the Kali Age (1913).
(‘relating to the supreme reality’)
Transcendent; the opposite to vyava- Parijäta
härika, relating to empirical reality. (See The wonderful tree produced at the
also VYAVAHÄRA.) CHURNING OF THE OCEAN, whose blos-
soms perfumed the whole universe. It was
paramätman (‘supreme soul’) placed in Indra’s heaven, but when Kø•æa
The Absolute, BRAHMAN. visited it, his wife, Satyabhämä, induced
him to carry it away. In the ensuing fight
paraƒparä Indra lost and Kø•æa carried the tree to
The lineage of teacher and disciple, tra- Dväraka. After Kø•æa’s death the tree was
dition. The Upani•ads have long lines of returned to Indra’s heaven.
teachers to whom their teachings are
traced back. For members of Hindu reli- parikrama
gious orders it is important to memorize See CIRCUMAMBULATION.
their guruparaƒparä to authenticate
their tradition. A teaching not traced Parik•it
back to an acknowledged line of The grandson of Arjuna, father of

135 Pätañjala Yoga

Janamejaya. When YUDHIÆfiHIRA retired by Ÿiva and later reorganized by
from the throne, Parik•it followed him Lakulin, the reputed author of the Päÿu-
as king of Hastinäpura. He died from a pata Sütra. The teaching is classified as
snake-bite. In the interval between the bhedäbheda (difference–non-difference)
bite of the snake and his death, the and deals with five categories: käraæa
Bhägavata Puräæa was recited to him. (the cause, i.e. the creator, maintainer
(See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.) and destroyer of the universe); kärya
(effect; created things); yoga (the way to
Parliament of Religions achieve emancipation); vidhi (regula-
A gathering of representatives of all tions and injunctions); and dukhänta
major religions, which took place in (the final bliss).
Chicago in 1893 in connection with the
celebration of the 400th anniversary Paÿu-pati (‘Lord of animals’)
of Columbus’ discovery of America.
Swami VIVEKÄNANDA, the Hindu dele- An epithet of ŸIVA, used to express his
gate, made a great impression through lordship over all living beings, collec-
his speeches and became well known tively called paÿu, ‘bovines’.
thereafter as an exponent of ADVAITA
VEDÄNTA. Pätäla (‘netherworlds’)

pari•ad Not to be confused with Western
A gathering of brahmins for the purpose notions of netherworlds or hells (NÄRA-
of studying and interpreting the Vedas. KA). The seven netherworlds, called
The term has also been appropriated by Atala (white), Vitala (black), Nitala
groups such as the VIŸVA HINDU (purple), Gabhastimat (yellow), Mahätala
PARIÆAD, giving it the more general (sandy), Sutala (stony) and Pätäla are
meaning of ‘association’. huge realms (each extending 10,000
yojanas – c. 130,000 km – beneath the
Pärvatï (‘daughter of the mountains’) surface of the earth), inhabitated by
An epithet of the consort of ŸIVA, mother DÄNAVAS, DAITYAS, YAKÆAS and great
of the six-headed KÄRTTIKEYA and the NÄGAS (1), filled with magnificent
elephant-headed GAŒEŸA. palaces and all kinds of treasures.
NÄRADA (2), after visiting them,
päÿa (‘noose’) described them as more delightful than
A designation (in certain schools of Indra’s heaven.
ŸAIVISM) of the bond that ties people to
this finite existence and hinders them Pätañjala Yoga
from reaching the Lord.
Also called Räja Yoga, the ‘royal’ path,
paÿu (‘bovine’) it is based on the YOGA SÜTRAS, ascribed
to PATAÑJALI. Making use of the terms
A designation (in certain schools of coined by SÄßKHYA and taking over its
ŸAIVISM) of the unenlightened and un- worldview, the Yoga Sütras describe the
emancipated human condition. practice of the process of discriminative
knowledge that leads to the liberation
Päÿu-patas of the embodied spirit. Yoga is not mere
A Ÿaivite sect, said to have been founded theory, it also implies physical training,
willpower and decisions. It deals with
the human situation as a whole and
aims at providing real freedom, not just
a theory of liberation. Although much

Pätañjala Yoga 136

Pätañjala Yoga in practice.

of its concern is psychological, it differs taking the transient, impure and evil
radically from contemporary Western non-self for the eternal, pure and blissful
psychology: it assumes the reality of a self’. This avidyä is both the root of our
spirit-soul, it has a strong ethical orien- unhappiness and also the cause for our
tation, and it focuses on states of con- search for liberation.
sciousness that presently are not recog-
nized in modern Western thought. The practice of precepts and virtues
is preliminary to Yoga but considered
The second sütra defines Yoga as indispensable. Without ethical ground-
citta-vøttinirodha, ‘the quieting of all ing, the powers acquired through Yoga
fluctuations of the mind’. Citta, mind, is practices proper could be used for evil
the first evolved entity and its fluctua- purposes. The practice of virtues also
tions, vibrations, irritations (vøttis) cause produces many helpful side-effects.
the multiplicity of thoughts and material Thus the Yoga Sütras assert that in the
objects. If they cease, the mind is free. presence of a person grounded in
The impulse to seek that freedom is ahiƒsä, non-violence, others will give
given by the experience of kleÿas, ‘afflic- up their enmity and that even wild ani-
tions’ that beset life. They are identified mals become tame. The Yoga Sütras
as avidyä (‘ignorance’, illusion), asmitä offer practical advice on how to gain
(‘mine-ness’, egoism), räga (passion, these virtues and how to counteract
attraction), dveÿa (aversion, hatred) and opposite trends. They analyse the root
abhiniveÿa (fear of death, attachment to of all evil tendencies as contained in the
life). While most of these terms may be triad of lobha (greed), moha (delusion),
self-explanatory, it is interesting to and krodha (anger) and offer advice on
examine what the Yoga Sütras mean by how to counteract these root vices in
the term avidyä. It is explained as ‘mis- order to eradicate all sins.

137 päflha

While the Yoga that is taught in the The central feature of Pätañjala
West usually concentrates on the learn- Yoga is samyama, ‘effort’, consisting of
ing of a variety of postures supposed to the triad of dhäraæa–dhyäna–samädhi,
be beneficial to health, Pantañjali says ‘concentration–contemplation–trance’.
that any posture can be taken that is They are not seen as flowing from a
agreeable and allows a practitioner to special ‘psychic’ capability but as result-
sit in meditation for a length of time. ing from strenuous effort. They com-
The aim of Räja Yoga is neither self- pletely interiorize consciousness and
mortification nor physical exercise, but separate self-consciousness from every-
the achievement of inner freedom. Some thing that is not self, i.e. the body and
YOGIS focus on the extraordinary facul- sense-objects. By applying the technique
ties connected with Yoga, such as mak- to a number of dimensions of reality the
ing oneself small like an atom or large yogi both identifies with and transcends
like a mountain, understanding the lan- each realm. The detail in which the
guages of all peoples and even of ani- Yoga Sütras describe the process is high-
mals, reading other people’s minds, ly technical and must be studied under
making onself invisible etc., but the the guidance of an experienced teacher.
Yoga Sütras discourage the practitioner From a certain point onwards in the
from cultivating them. They are more of practice of Yoga the process becomes
a hindrance than a help on the path to irreversible: kaivalya, complete intro-
freedom. There are certain dietetic rules version, becomes the ‘natural’ goal of
to be observed as well: a yogi is to avoid the practitioner’s mind. The state of
spicy food, everything pungent, sour or mind shortly before reaching the final
salty. While the use of drugs, especially condition is defined as dharma-
bhaög (hashish), is widespread among meghasamädhi, ‘dharma-cloud trance’
Yogis in India, Patañjali discourages in which the finite, elementary nature of
this practice. Kaivalya is a state of mind all things becomes experientially appar-
that should be reached without any ent to the yogi. A kind of zero-time
involvement of foreign substances. experience precedes the entering into
timelessness. Kaivalya is described as
Breath control, präæäyäma, is a cen- the spirit ‘finding its own true state of
tral practice in Yoga. The Upani•ads nature’, the coming home of the soul
contain many speculations on präæa, from the exile of involvement in the
life breath, and controlling one’s breath process of material evolution.
is an ancient and widely practised
method of purification. Some yogis suc- Patañjali (second century BCE)
ceed in controlling their breath to such
an extent that they can reduce the A celebrated name, the reputed author
metabolism to a point where it becomes of a treatise on Yoga (Yoga Sütras), on
possible for them to be buried for days medicine (Carakasaƒhitä) and on
or even weeks and emerge alive. The grammar (Mahäbhä•ya), healer of
Yoga Sütras do not encourage such body, mind and soul.
extraordinary feats, but they consider
breath control basic. Similarly, the ability päflha (‘reading’)
to withdraw one’s senses, pratyahära, is
essential. The senses, no longer occu- This applies especially to the reading of
pied with transmitting impulses from a Vedic text. There are three päflhas:
the body, cease to hinder the mind from samhitäpäflha (words read with sandhi,
functioning according to its own rules for combining vowels and con-
‘mental’ mode. sonants), padapäflha (words read

patita 138

independently, without sandhi), and promise specific benefits (phala) from
kramapäflha (each word read twice, first reading all or part of the book, or keep-
combined with the preceding, and then ing a copy or part of it in one’s home.
with the succeeding word).
pilgrimage (yäträ)
patita (‘fallen’)
Someone who is not qualified to parti- One of the most popular Hindu reli-
pate in (Vedic) rites. gious activities is visiting the countless
holy places that dot India’s landscape.
Pauravas For SAMNYÄSIS it is a duty to spend most
Descendants of Puru of the lunar of their time on pilgrimage. Pilgrimages
dynasty. See MAHÄ-BHÄRATA. are undertaken to have certain rites,
such as ÿraddha (the last rites), per-
pavitra (‘holy’, ‘sacred’) formed, to redeem vows or to gain
The sacred thread of upper CASTES. merit. Hindu ŸÄSTRAS regulate pilgrim-
age by defining the mode of travel, the
peacock (mayüra) resolve to be undertaken, the rituals to
The peacock is frequently employed in undergo. The more arduous the pilgrim-
Indian art as a symbol both of vanity age, the more meritorious it is deemed
and wealth. The peacock is KUBERA’s to be. Pilgrimage can also be undertak-
VAHANA (vehicle) and peacocks are often en by proxy in certain circumstances. At
associated with Kø•æa and his dalliance any given time millions of Hindus are
with the GOPÏS. The peacock is also asso- on pilgrimage, and most of the sacred
ciated with Ÿiva in the famous Ÿiva places are crowded by pilgrims from far
temple at Mylapur (Mayürapura) in and near all year long. Over the cen-
Madras. turies pilgrimage has certainly helped to
create a bond among Hindus, notwith-
penance standing sectarian differences. (See also
See PRAYAŸCITTA. TÏRTHA.)

Pesh(a)was, also Pesh(a)vas Pillai Lokäcärya
Originally a title (comparable to prime (1205–1311)
minister). The Peshvas of Mahärä•flra,
towards the end of the rule of Aurang- A sixth-generation successor of
zeb, asserted themselves as independent RÄMÄNUJA as head of the Ÿrïvai•æavas
rulers and founded a Hindu dynasty in ŸRÏRA¢GAM and author of Tattva-
(with its capital in Pune) that seriously traya, a compendium of Ÿrïvai•æava
threatened first the Mogul and then the thought, arranged according to the
British rule of India. (See also ŸIVAJÏ.) three principles (tattva), ïÿvara (God),
jïvätma (soul), and acit (nature). Several
phala/phalaÿloka other works, such as Mumuk•upatti,
(‘fruit’/‘verse of promise’) Tattvaÿekhara and Ÿrïväcanabhü•ana,
According to Hindu tradition each reli- are also attributed to him. Pillai
gious act, performed properly, carries Lokäcärya recommends PRAPATTI (self-
its reward or ‘fruit’ (phala). Many relig- surrender) as the means to salvation. He
ious texts end with verses (ÿloka) that became the main theologian of the
Teögalai branch of ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVISM.

piæõa

A small ball of cooked rice, offered to

139 präcärya

the ancestors in connection with the last erature in Sanskrit, Hindï and English.
rites by the nearest (male) relation. By He was the founder-editor of Kalyäæ, a
connotation it then means (close) degree Hindï religious monthly, and Kalyäæa
of relationship, such as in sapiæõa, for- Kalpätaru, an English-language religious
bidden to marry. Hindu monthly, with large circulations.

piÿäca (fem. piÿäcï) Poögal
Fiend, evil spirit. It is the most malig- The greatest festival of Tamilnäõü, and
nant of ghosts, often mentioned in a public holiday. It is a combination of
Vedas, Brähmaæas and epics. (See also New Year and harvest/thanksgiving cel-
BHÜTA; PRETA.) ebrations. One day is called maflflu-
poögal, when COWS and oxen are decor-
pitämaha ated and worshipped as an expression
Paternal grandfather. A title of of thanks for their work.
BRAHMÄ, especially in the Mahäbhärata.
Pope, George Uglow
Pitäƒbara (‘dressed in a yellow (1820–1908)
garment’) Christian missionary, educator and
A name of VIÆŒU/KØÆŒA. scholar of Tamil. He taught at
Tinnevelly, Tanjore and Ootacamund,
Pïflha, also Pïflha sthäna and lectured in Tamil and Telugu at
The 51 places where the limbs of Satï Oxford University; author and editor of
fell, when scattered by Ÿiva after his many Tamil works, translator of the
destruction of DAKÆA’s sacrifice. Also Tamil classic Tirukkural and the Tiru-
called ÿakti-pïflhas, they are important vacakam by MÄŒIKKAVÄCAKAR.
places of pilgrimage for Tantrikas. (See
also KÄLIKÄ PÏfiHA.) power
See ŸAKTI.
pitøs
Prabandham
Fathers, forefathers, ancestors, to whom Also known as the ‘Tamil Praban-
PIŒ¥AS are offered. dham’, the collection of hymns by the
Ä®VÄRS, undertaken by Näflha Muni,
planets which is used in ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA worship
Hindus knew and observed the move- alongside Sanskrit hymns.
ments of the planets (Jupiter, Saturn,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, together with Prabhäkara Miÿra
the sun and the moon) from ancient (c. 600–50 CE)
times and used constellations to deter- A famous MÏMÄßSAKA scholar, founder
mine auspicious and inauspicious times. of the Prabhäkara school, author of
HOROSCOPES were based on planetary Bøhati and Vivaraæa, and commentaries
astronomy. (See also ASTROLOGY.) on the Ÿäbarabhä•ya.

Poddar, Hanuman Prasad präcärya
(1892–1971) A guru’s GURU.
Journalist, religious leader and founder
of the Gïtä Press in Gorakhpur, the
largest publisher of Hindu religious lit-