Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism

pradak•iæa 140

pradak•iæa Prajäpati (‘Lord of creatures’)
See CIRCUMAMBULATION. Progenitor, in a generic sense. In the
Veda, Indra and other devas are called
pradak•iæa pätha Prajäpati. Later the title is applied to
A CIRCUMAMBULATORY pathway in a Brahmä, the creator. Most commonly
temple. the title is given to the ten mind-born
sons of Brahmä: Marïci, Atri, Aögiras,
pradhäna (‘the first’) Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasi•flha,
Primary matter, inert matter, nature as Pracetas (Dak•a), Bhøgu and Närada.
opposed to spirit. According to Different sources give different numbers
SÄßKHYA pradhäna is opposite of and different names for the Prajäpatis.
PURUÆA: it does not possess conscious-
ness, but under the influence of puru•a Prajñä-tïrtha
everything evolves out of pradhäna One of the names of MADHVA.
(prakøti). The relationship between
pradhäna and puru•a is illustrated via prakøti (‘nature’)
the simile of a blind but strong person In a general sense, matter, generative
(pradhäna) carrying a lame but sighted substance. See also PRADHÄNA.
person (puru•a) on her shoulders. They
do everything jointly, but the sighted pralaya
person directs the blind one. ŸA¢KARA The dissolution of the world at the end
(2) argues against the possibility of an of a KALPA.
eternal material principle, and against
pradhäna as the source of all things. pramäda (‘error’)
A mistake, the opposite of right know-
Pradyumna (1) ledge (VIDYÄ).
Kø•æa’s son by RUKMIŒÏ.

Pradyumna (2) pramäæa

One of the names of KÄMA, the god of A means of establishing truth; tradi-
love. tionally six pramäæas have been recog-
nized: pratyak•a (perception); anumäna
Pradyumna (3) (inference); ÿabda (verbal authority);
upamiti (analogy); arthäpatti (pre-
Another name for SANAT-KUMÄRA, son sumption); abhäva (negation). Of these
of Brahmä. the CÄRVÄKAS accept one only, the
VAIŸEÆIKAS two, the SÄßKHYAS three,
Prahläda the NAYÄYIKAS four, the Prabhäkara
school of MÏMÄßSA five, the Bhaflfla
Son of the DAITYA king Hiraæyakaÿipu. school of Mïmäƒsä and the VEDÄNTINS
As a boy he became an ardent devotee six. Pramäæas are an important part of
of Vi•æu, proclaiming Vi•æu sovereign, every Indian philosophical investiga-
and thus enraging his father who had tion.
claimed world rulership. Hiraæyakaÿipu
attempted to kill Prahläda in many dif- präæa (‘breath’)
ferent ways but failed due to Vi•æu’s
intervention. Finally Vi•æu appeared as Breath is often identified with life. (See
NÄRASIMHA (a man-lion) and killed also PRÄŒAYAMA.)
Hiraæyakaÿipu.

141 prati-sarga

praæava prasäda (‘grace’)
See AUM. FOOD that has been offered to the deity
and that is shared among devotees as
präæäyäma (‘breath-control’) God’s gift and blessing.
An important part of ritual practice and
of YOGA, a method of purification and a Praÿastapäda (fourth century CE)
way to concentrate the mind. A famous scholar of the VAIŸEÆIKA
school; author of the Padärthadharma-
prapatti (‘self-surrender’) saögraha.
A central notion in BHAKTI, especially in
VAIÆŒAVISM. It is the culmination of a Praÿna Upani•ad
long process of devotion and consists of One of the principal Upani•ads. It deals
five acts: the intention of submitting to with six questions (praÿna) which are
the Lord; the giving up of resistance to asked of the sage Pippaläda.
the Lord; the belief in the protection of
the Lord; the prayer that the Lord may prasthäna trayï
save his devotee; the consciousness of (‘the triad of proof-texts’)
utter helplessness. The oldest reference to The major Upani•ads, the Bhagavad-
prapatti may be Bhagavadgïtä XVIII, 66. gïtä, and the Brahmasütras, upon which
a founder of a school of Vedänta has to
präräbdha (karma) comment.
Residual KARMA (2), karma left over
from previous lives, which has to be prati-biƒba
lived through; fate, destiny. See BIßBA–PRATIBIßBA; MADHVA.

Prärthana Samäj pratijñä (‘acknowledgement’)
(‘Prayer Association’) A vow, promise. In NYÄYA: the state-
ment of the proposition to be proved,
Founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr the first part of the five-membered
Atmaram Pandurang (1823–98) as a Indian syllogism. The others are: hetu
Hindu reform movement. Its most (reason); udaharaæa (illustrative exam-
prominent member was Justice Mahadev ple); upanaya (corroborative instance);
Govinda Ranade (1842–1901), who was nigamana (inference: identical with the
responsible for many social reform ini- first statement).
tiatives and who exerted a major influ-
ence on the Indian National Congress, Prätiÿäkhya
of which he was a founder member. The Treatises dealing with the phonetics of
Prärthana Samäj established the Social Vedic language, for example the
Reform Movement and founded the Taittirïyaprätiÿäkhya, which belongs to
journal Indian Social Reformer. It the Black YAJURVEDA.
fought for the abolition of CASTE, the
right of widows to remarry, the aboli- prati-sarga
tion of child MARRIAGE and the educa- Dissolution of the created universe; one
tion of WOMEN. It was instrumental in of the pañcälak•ana (five topics of a
the foundation of many associations Puräæa).
dedicated to the upliftment of the
depressed classes, tribal people and
women.

prati-•flhäpana 142

prati-•flhäpana are condemned to haunt the world as
pretas. Texts such as the Pretakalpa of
The solemn installation and consecration the Garuõa Puräæa give instructions on
of an IMAGE (mürti) through which the how to meet pretas and what to do to
presence of a deity is called down and the give them release.
image becomes an object of worship.

pratyähära Pøthivï (‘the broad’)
(‘withdrawal [of the senses]’)
An important stage in PATAÑJALA YOGA. The earth, or the whole world. In the
Vedas she is personified as mother of all
pratyak•a (‘perception’) beings. Her name is derived from
The first and most important means of PØTHU, who gave her life and thus was
proof. (See also PRAMÄŒA.) considered her father.

pra-vøtti (‘progress’, ‘advance’) Pøthu
Active wordly life; projection. The
opposite of NI-VØTTI. Son of VEŒA, the first rightful
monarch on earth. He is credited with
prayaÿcitta (‘atonement’) having introduced agriculture, and
Action prescribed as penance for viola- providing his subjects with peace and
tion of precepts, such as repetition of a plenty.
formula or bathing. There are long lists
of prayaÿcittas that match specific püjä
atonements for particular breaches of
the law. Worship, especially of an IMAGE, usually
an offering of fruit, cooked food, water,
predestination incense, flowers etc. Each saƒpradäya
MADHVA teaches a kind of predestina- (sect) has elaborate rules for the perfor-
tion, by insisting that certain persons mance of püjä which have to be strictly
(nitya baddhas) never reach release. followed by the devotees. As an act of
devotion püjä is both service to the deity
premä (‘love’) and a means to win his/her favour. Püjä
In GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, a designation offered daily at the home shrine is a
of the highest form of love for Kø•æa, scaled-down version of the grand ser-
which transforms the devotee perma- vices performed at temples, especially at
nently. festive occasions. It has to include a
minimum of sixteen acts: avahana (invi-
preta (‘ghost’) tation of the deity); äsana (offering a
An evil spirit, the restless soul of a seat); svagata (greeting); padya (wash-
departed person who for some reason ing the feet); arghya (rinsing the mouth
or other could not find a way to the and hands); acamanïya (water for sip-
beyond. There is a popular belief that ping); madhuparka (offering water
people who commit suicide or people mixed with honey); snäna or abhi•eka
who have not atoned for a serious crime (bathing or sprinkling); vastra (clothing);
gandha (perfumes); pu•pa (flowers);
dhüpa (incense); dïpa (lamp); naivedya
or prasäda (offering food); nämaskära
or praæäma (prostration); visarjana
(send-off).

143 Puräæa
(a) (d)

(g) (b)

(c) (f)
(e)

Püjä implements: a) sruva (spoon for offering ghï or water to deity); b) ärati-dïpa (used
for waving burning camphor in front of deity); c) pätra (plate for prasäda – food

offered to deity and then distributed to participants in worship); d) ghaæflä (bell, rung
before deity); e) pänapätra (cup for offering water to deity); f) dïpa (oil lamp stand with

multiple wicks); g) padma (lotus; can be opened up as flower during worship).

punar-janma the Vedas. The followers of various
See REBIRTH. saƒpradäyas (sects) consider them to be
revealed scriptures. They deal with the
puæya creation of the universe, genealogies of
See MERIT. gods and patriarchs, myths associated
with various deities, rules for living and
Puräæa (‘old (books)’) descriptions of heavens and hells as well
An important class of bible-like texts of as of the end of the world. As a source
varying length and age. Their origins for popular Hinduism they ares still of
may be traced back to the stories by the utmost importance. Some, such as
which the people attending Vedic sacri- the Vi•æu Puräæa, the Bhägavata or the
fices were entertained. The Puräæas Devïbhägavata, are often recited publicly
themselves claim greater antiquity than through loudspeakers at places of pril-
grimage. (See also MAHÄPURÄŒA.)

Purï 144

Purï puru•ärtha
(‘the [four] aims of man’)
See JAGAN-NÄTHA PURÏ.
These are dharma (righteousness), artha
purity (ÿuddhi, ÿauca) (wealth), käma (sensual enjoyment),
mok•a (liberation).
A central notion in Hinduism (as in all
religions), with ritual, physical, psy- puru•ottama (‘supreme man’)
chological and spiritual dimensions. A title of VIÆŒU/KØÆŒA.
Ritual purity plays a great role in the
Vedas; special rites are prescribed, par- Puru•ottamäcärya
ticularly for brahmins to obtain ritual (13th century)
purity after being polluted. Pollution
can be effected through contact with A teacher of the NIMBÄRKA school,
corpses, certain bodily fluids and asso- disciple of Ÿrïniväsa and author of
ciation with OUTCASTES. The ÄRYA Vedänta-ratna-mañju•a. He enumerated
SAMÄJ introduced a special ÿuddhi cer- the six constituent elements of BHAKTI:
emony to readmit to the fold of treating everyone with goodwill and
Hinduism the followers of other reli- friendliness, discarding what is contrary
gions, whose ancestors had left to it; refraining from all malice, back-
Hinduism. Physical purity is part of the biting, falsehood and violence; having
religio-hygienic routine which makes strong faith in the protection of the
daily bathing also a religious obliga- Lord; praying to the Lord; discarding all
tion. Purity of the soul consists in the false pride and egotism; entrusting one-
absence of greed, hatred and other neg- self and all one’s belongings completely
ative attitudes. Purity of mind consists to the Lord, being convinced that such
in disinterestedness, ni•käma karma, complete resignation earns God’s grace
activity without any selfish involve- and mercy.
ment, the eradication of all sense of
egoity. Pürva Mïmäƒsä
(‘the earlier enquiry’)
Püræaprajñä (‘full of wisdom’)
One of the six orthodox schools of
One of the names of MADHVA. Hinduism. See MÏMÄßSÄ.

purohita Pü•an (‘nourisher’)
A priest, who conducts the prescribed A vedic deity, identified with the SUN.
rituals for a particular family.
Pu•kara (‘the blue lotus’)
Puru•a (‘man’, ‘male’) Name of a famous tank and place of
The name of the cosmic man, whose pilgrimage near Ajmer, glorified in the
sacrifice resulted in the creation of all Pu•kara Puräæa.
things.
pu•pa (‘bud’, ‘blossom’)
puru•a A flower; one of the essential ingredi-
In SÄßKHYA, spirit, the counterpart of ents of a PÜJÄ. Metaphorically used for
matter (PRAKØTI). virtues to be cultivated by a VAIÆŒAVA.

145 putra

pu•flimärga Kø•æa by suckling him on her poisoned
(‘way of nourishment [grace]’) breasts. Kø•æa killed her and thus saved
her from her own wickedness.
A school of VAIÆŒAVISM founded by
Vallabha (1481–1533) which exalts the putra (‘son’)
uncaused grace of God (pu•fli) as the According to a popular etymology ‘sav-
means of salvation. Vallabha considered iour’ (tra) from hell (put, the place to
it superior to all other forms of bhakti- which childless men were condemned),
märga, entailing complete surrender of explaining the great importance of
oneself and one’s own to the GURU. The having a son. Only a son was qualified to
pu•flimärga is open to all. The highest perform the last rites for his parents,
aim is nitya lïlä, eternal enjoyment of the without which they would not be able to
company of the Lord. The greatest mod- find rest. The son also continued the
els are the GOPÏS of Vøndävana. family line. In some cases a daughter
could be ‘declared a son’, in order to per-
Pütanä form the last rites. (See also ŸRADDHA.)

A demoness, who tried to kill the infant

R

Rädhä, also Rädhikä University, and was Spalding Professor
of Eastern Religions at Oxford
The favourite GOPÏ of Kø•æa, wife of (1931–36). He also served as India’s
Ayana Gho•a, a cowherd of Vøndävana. representative at UNESCO (1946–52),
Rädhä is seen as the earthly appearance where he took a leading role in organiz-
of LAKÆMÏ. She is the focus of attention ing important conferences. He was
in GAU¥IYA VAIÆŒAVISM, at one and the among the first to plead for dialogue
same time mediatrix and role model for among religions.
devotees. A large literature has devel-
oped around her and her worship even Radhasoami Satsang
outshines that of Kø•æa among the
Rädhä-Vallabhis. She is the epitome of Sect founded by Siv Dayal Singh in the
passionate devotion. (See also CAITANYA.) mid-19th century, who declared Radha-
soami, ‘Lord of the Soul’, to be the only
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli appropriate name of God. Its teaching
(1888–1975) consists in guiding the aspirant through
the lower reaches of the cosmos into
Born in Tirutani, Tamilnäõü and edu- higher realms of reality. Several branch-
cated in Christian schools and colleges, es split off from the original foundation,
he rose not only to the highest office in which adds the name ‘Beas’ to identify
the Republic of India (vice-president itself.
1952–62; president 1962–67) but also
became the most prominent and best- räga
known exponent of Hinduism in the
modern world. Beginning with an MA Musical mode, personified as male,
thesis on ‘The Ethics of Vedänta’, he with rägiæï as consort, often illustrated
systematially explored and explained in miniatures (Rägamälä).
Hinduism in a large number of English
publications, such as History of Indian rägänuga bhakti
Philosophy, The Hindu View of Life (‘passionate devotion’)
and Eastern Religions and Western
Thought. He had a distinguished acade- A highly emotional form of BHAKTI
mic career in India as professor of phi- developed by the CAITANYA school of
losophy at the universities of Mysore GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, in which the
and Calcutta, as vice-chancellor of passionate absorption in Kø•æa of the
Andhra University and Benares Hindu GOPÏS of Vøndävana provides the model.

147 Räma

Räghava to be present to acknowledge the sover-
Räma, a descendant of RAGHU. eignty of the newly consecrated monarch.

Raghu Räja Yoga
A king of the solar race and an ancestor See PÄTAÑJALA YOGA.
of RÄMA. KÄLIDÄSA wrote the celebrated
epic poem Raghuvamÿa, the genealogy rak•aka (‘saviour’)
of Raghu and the life of Räma. A designation of VIÆŒU, whose essence
is salvation.
Rähu
A mythical monster that consists of a räk•asa
disembodied head, and causes eclipses A goblin, evil spirit, fiend, an enemy of
by swallowing the sun and the moon. the ÄRYAS. They play a major role in
Hindu literature as disturbers of peace
Rahu käla (‘Rahu-time’) and as a constant threat to sages in their
An inauspicious time. It varies from day forest retreats.
to day, and no new or risky untertaking
should be commenced during this period. Raktadantä (‘red-toothed’)
An epithet of DURGÄ.
Räïdäs, also Ravidäs
(15th century) Räma, also Rämacandra
A BHAKTI poet from the cämär (tanner) The oldest son of king Daÿaratha, ruler
CASTE, who became the founder of a sect of Ayodhyä. According to traditional
that perpetuates his memory. He took historians he lived c. 3800–3700 BCE He
pride in showing the right way to brah- is considered to have been the seventh
mins, in spite of being an OUTCASTE. He
has become a hero of the DALITS.

räja-dharma

Rules of life for a king, prescribing a
king’s duties. There is a famous Räja-
dharma section in the Ÿäntiparvan of
the Mahäbhärata, and there are sepa-
rate works on it as well.

Räjanya
another name for the KÆATRIYA caste.

rajas
See GUŒA.

räja-süya (‘royal sacrifice’) Räma with Sïtä.

A great sacrifice celebrated at the instal-
lation of a king, at which all vassals had

Räma Tïrtha, Swämi 148

AVATÄRA of Vi•æu. His story is told at worldwide through the Ramakrishna
great length in the RÄMAYAŒA. He is Mission. He spent most of his life as
one of the most popular deities of India, temple priest in Dak•iæeÿvara, a new
considered the ideal ruler. Repeating his Kälï–Durgä temple outside Calcutta,
name, even wearing cloth on which his where he experienced frequent trances
name has been printed, is a favourite in front of the image of the Goddess
religious exercise. In the countryside (DEVÏ). A circle of devotees gathered
people use ‘Räm, Räm’ as a greeting. around him and one of them began not-
ing down his utterances and conversa-
Räma Tïrtha, Swämi tions held over the years. The work
(1873–1906) became known in its English translation
as The Gospel of Ramakrishna by M.
A professor of mathematics at Forman One of his disciples, Swami VIVEKÄ-
College, Lahore, he became a SAMNYÄSI NANDA, began to form a religious order,
in 1901 and went as a preacher of the Ramakrishna Mission, after his
Vedänta to Japan and the United States death, which engaged in education, dis-
(1902–04), where he gathered a large aster relief, publication of religious
following. His Collected Works, con- books and preaching.
sisting mainly of his lectures, have been
published in 12 volumes by the Rama Ramana Mahar•i (1879–1950)
Tirtha Publishing League in Lucknow.
A widely recognized modern Hindu
Ramakrishna ‘Paramahamsa’ mystic, visited by seekers from both
(1834–86) East and West. He experienced death as
a boy of fourteen while fully conscious,
Possibly the best-known modern Ben- and experientially understood the dif-
gali Hindu saint, who became known ference between the conscious, undying
self and the body, the ‘not-self’. Shortly
after he left home and went to
Tiruvanammalai to become a SAMNYÄSI.
In spite of his vow of silence, people
came to him, asking for his advice. He
set up an ashram, and a group of per-
manent followers began to form. Soon
he became a celebrity and was visited by
many important personalities. His teach-
ing remained the same: seek the true self.
After his death his followers continued
to operate his ashram and to publish
journals and books reflecting his
teachings.

Shrine at the birthplace Rämänanda (1400–70)
of Ramakrishna.
Founder of the Ÿrï saƒpradäya (sect), in
which Rämä and Ÿita are prominently
worshipped. Rämänanda accepted peo-
ple from all CASTES as well as WOMEN
into his order. His twelve principal disci-
ples formed twelve subsects, called
dvaras. The headquarters of the Ÿrï

149 Rämäyaæa

saƒpradäya, called bara sthäna, is in of Righteousness, where people fol-
Ayodhyä. As part of the initiation rites lowed the law and the country was
the Rämänandis burn the name of Räma blessed by abundance and generally
into their skin and add the word däsa favourable natural conditions. Mahatma
(slave) to their names. Their greeting is GANDHI translated it as ‘Kingdom of
‘Jay Sïtä Räma’. God’, which he wished to see realized in
India. The term Rämaräjya has been
Rämänuja (1017–1137) taken up by Hindu nationalists and
politicians as the goal of a Hindu state,
Founder of the school of VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA replacing the present secular state of
Vedänta and the most important of the India.
Ÿrïvai•æava äcäryas (teachers). Called to
YAMUNÄCÄRYA’s deathbed, he promised Rämaräjya Pari•ad
to redeem his three unfulfilled wishes: to (‘reign of Räma assembly’)
honour the memory of the sages Vyäsa
and Paräÿara, the authors of the Vi•æu A political Hindu party, founded by
Puräæa; to keep alive the hymns of Swami Karpatriji Maharaj in 1948 to
NAMMÄ®VÄR, the greatest of the Tamil promote a Hindu India.
Ä®VÄRS; and to write a commentary on
the Brahmasütras from a ŸRÏVAIÆŒAVA Rämäyaæa (‘Adventures of Räma’)
perspective. He consolidated the
Ÿrïvai•æava community, reformed wor- An ancient Sanskrit epic, ascribed to
ship at Ÿrïraögam and claimed the VÄLMÏKI, the first poet. It received its
famous temple of TIRUPATI for his com- present shape perhaps as late as the
munity. He experienced persecution second century CE, but contains much
from a Ÿaiva ruler and spent twelve older materials (Indian scholars date
years at MELKOTE, where he introduced Välmïki to the third millennium BCE). It
a new code of worship. His teaching is tells the life of Räma from before birth
known as Viÿi•fladvaita, qualified until death. It is divided into seven sec-
monism. Rämänuja held Vi•æu to be tions (käæõas), of which the first and
both the material and the efficient cause the last are considered later additions,
of the universe; the material world is with greater variations among the vari-
God’s body. The relationship between ous recensions than the rest: (1)
God and the human being is that of Bälakäæõa: the birth and boyhood of
whole and part (am•a-am•i-bhäva). Räma; (2) Ayodhyäkäæõa: description
Rämänuja taught that by following of the capital city Ayodhyä and the ban-
God’s will a person can earn God’s grace ishment of Räma; (3) Äraæyakäæõa:
and be saved. Salvation consists in being Räma’s wanderings in the forest during
transferred to Vi•æu’s heaven his fourteen-year exile and the abduc-
(Vaikuæflha), being endowed with an tion of Sïtä by RÄVAŒA; (4) Ki•kin-
incorruptible body and sharing God’s dhyäkäæõa: Räma’s sojourn in the
bliss. The Ÿrïvai•æava community later capital of the monkey-king Sugrïva; (5)
split into southern (TE¢GALAI) and Sundarakäæõa: Räma’s efforts to recov-
northern (VA¥AGALAI) schools, but both er Sïtä and his winning of allies to
recognize Rämänuja as their greatest invade Laökä; (6) Yuddhakäæõa: the
teacher. war with Rävaæa, his defeat and the
recovery of Sïtä, his return to Ayodhyä
Räma-räjya (‘the reign of Räma’) and coronation of Räma; (7)
Uttarakäæõa: Sïtä’s banishment, the
An ideal condition believed to have pre- birth of her two sons in the forest, her
vailed under the rule of Räma, the King ordeal and reunion with Räma, Sïtä’s

Räm(a)däs(a) 150

death and Räma’s merging with Vi•æu. to God in Hindi Literature (1959),
The Rämäyaæa, both in its original as Pathway to God in Marathi Literature
well as in vernacular recreations such as (1961), Pathway to God in Kannada
Tulsïdäs’s (Hindï) Rämcaritmanas or Literature (1960) and of many books in
Kambha’s (Tamil) Kambharämäyaæam, Marathi, Hindï and Kannada.
has remained extremely popular in
India and parts of it are performed in rasa (‘juice’, ‘taste’, ‘flavour’)
the yearly Rämlïläs, theatrical recre-
ations especially of the battle between In Indian aesthetics, a term for emotion-
Räma and Rävaæa, and Räma’s entry al experience in drama and poetry.
into Ayodhyä. The Rämäyaæa has been Usually nine rasas are enumerated:
edited in seven volumes in a critical edi- ÿøögära (erotic love), häsya (laughter),
tion by the Oriental Institute of the karuæa (compassion), krodha (anger),
University of Baroda (1960–75). bibhatsa (vexation), vïrya (heroism),
bhayänaka (fearfulness), adbhüta (won-
Räm(a)däs(a), Swami derment), ÿänta (tranquillity). The
(1608–81) GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVA school under the
inspiration of CAITANYA used the rasa
Maharatta poet-saint, author of the theory in the development of a religion
Daÿabodha, founder of the Rämdäsi based on emotion. Kø•æa is called akhi-
saƒpradäya, a very popular order la-rasa-amøta-mürti, the perfect embod-
which attracts mainly low-CASTE people. iment of all rasas, and devotees are
Its headquarters is in Sajjangad, near instructed to develop all emotions in
Satära. relation to Kø•æa, culminating in
ÿrögära rasa, which was most perfectly
Rameÿvaram (‘Lord Räma’) embodied in the GOPÏS, among whom
RÄDHÄ stands out as Kø•æa’s favourite.
A famous place of PILGRIMAGE on an
island between India and Ÿrï Laökä. Its Rä•tøïya Svayamsevak Sangh
17th-century Ramanathaswamy temple, (‘National Volunteer Organization’)
considered the most perfect example of
Dravidian architecture, is set on the This was founded in 1926 by K. V.
place where according to tradition Hedgewar (1889–1940), a member of
Räma established a Ÿivaliöga (see the HINDÜ MAHÄSABHÄ, to counteract
LI¢GA (3)) to atone for the killing of the perceived rising Muslim influence in
Rävaæa, a brahmin by birth, who had the Indian National Congress. It devel-
abducted his wife Sïtä. (See also oped into a tightly organized para-
RÄMÄYANA.) military movement with many branches
and front organizations attracting stu-
Ranade, R. D. (1889–1957) dents, workers and businesspeople. It
claims a membership of 5 million.
Eminent Indian scholar, professor of Members of the RSS were instrumental
philosophy at Fergusson College, Pune, in the development of the VIŸVA HINDÜ
and at Allahabad University, vice-chan- PARIÆAD. Its weekly, The Organiser,
cellor of Allahabad University and keeps pressing for the establishment of
founder of Adhyatma Vidyapith at Hindü rä•flra.
Nimbal. He was a lifelong student of
mysticism and the author of A ratha-mela (‘chariot-festival’)
Constructive Survey of Upanisadic
Philosophy (1926), The Creative Period A gathering at which the IMAGE of a
of Indian Philosophy (1928), Pathway deity is placed on an often multi-storeyed

151 Renou, Louis

chariot and taken in procession through as Hinduism. The Vedas contain the
a town. oft-quoted prayer ‘from the unreal lead
me to the real’ (asatya mä sat gamaya),
Ratï (‘desire’, ‘lust’) and the Upani•ads’ main interest is in
Personified as wife of Käma, the god of finding the ‘reality of the real’ (satyasa
love, and a daughter of DAKÆA. She is satyam). All Hindu systems are ways of
also known by other names such as ‘realization’, i.e. methods of finding
Kämi, Revä, Prïti, Kämapriyä and truth and reality. Reality is by definition
Mäyävatï. imperishable, possesses consciousness
and is blissful (sat–cit–änanda).
ratna (‘jewel’)
This is used as title of distinction, and is rebirth (punarjanma)
the name of a medal given by the Indian
government (Bhärataratna). From the time of the Upani•ads
onwards the universal belief in the end-
Raurava (‘dreadful’, ‘terrible’) less round of rebirth (saƒsära) became
One of the hells. (See also NÄRAKA.) widely accepted in India together with
the notion that it was the major task of
Rävaæa (‘crying’, ‘screaming’) a human being to break that cycle and
The demon king of Laökä, the chief of attain a state of transcendent freedom.
the RÄKÆASAS, half-brother of KUBERA, While rebirth, under the inexorable law
grandson of the ø•i Pulastya. Laökä was of karma, took place in time, LIBERATION
originally in the possession of Kubera, (mok•a, nirväöa, kaivalya) meant reach-
but Rävaæa ousted him. He had ten ing a timeless state. The major differ-
heads (he is also known as Daÿagrïva or ences between the competing traditions
Daÿavädana). He practised the most arose from differences in understanding
severe penances for 10,000 years to pro- the nature of the ultimate condition and
pitiate Brahmä, and offered one of his the means necessary to achieve it.
heads at the end of each millennium.
Thus he gained invulnerability from religious persecution
devas and asuras, but it was foretold
that he was doomed to die through a While Hinduism prides itself on toler-
woman. He is a major figure in the ance towards followers of other religions,
RÄMÄYANA, where he is the main adver- religious persecution is not unknown.
sary of Räma. He abducted Sïtä, Räma’s There are historic instances of persecu-
wife, but did not do violence to her. He tion (even execution) of Jains in South
eventually succumbed to Räma and his India under the instigation of the Ÿaivite
allies and lost his capital and his life. saint SAMBANDHAR as well as persecu-
tion of Vai•æavas by Ÿaivite kings. In
Øddhi (‘prosperity’) more recent times radical Hindus local-
The wife of KUBERA, the god of wealth. ly instigated persecutions of Muslims
Sometimes the name is also used for and Christians. Many Hindu works
PÄRVATÏ, the wife of Ÿiva. contain not only polemics against other
sects and followers of other religions,
but also a great deal of invective and
condemnation.

reality (sat/satya) Renou, Louis (1896–1966)

The quest for a ‘reality’ behind the Eminent French Indologist. He was
deceptive appearance of things is as old professor of Sanskrit at the Sorbonne

renouncer/renunciation 152

and author of the standard work L’Inde generation by means of elaborate and
classique (three volumes). complicated mnemonic devices. It was
not to be divulged to strangers or to
renouncer/renunciation low-caste people. Only brahmins were
authorized to teach and to recite it.
See SAMNYÄSA/SAMNYÄSI; TYÄGA/TYÄGI. Vedic hymns are still used in connec-
tion with SAßSKÄRAS (rites of passage),
revelation especially at weddings and funerals.
The beliefs expressed in the Øgveda
See SÄKÆÄTKÄRA; ŸRUTI. have largely been superseded by more
recent Puräæic ones. But nominally
Øgveda adherence to the infallibility of the
Veda is still the criterion of orthodoxy
The oldest of the Vedic saƒhitäs in Hinduism.
(collections), consisting of 1017 hymns
(süktas) divided into ten books (or into Øg-vidhäna
eight a•flakas or khaæõas) with an
appendix of 11 so-called Välakhïlyas, Texts that deal with magical effects of
written in an archaic Sanskrit (‘Vedic’). reciting the hymns of the Øgveda,
There are widely differing opinions attributed to ŸAUNAKA.
regarding its age: since the time of Max
MÜLLER (end of the 19th century) it has righteousness
become customary to assign to it (fairly
arbitrarily) the date of c. 1500–1200 See DHARMA.
BCE; many Indian scholars postulate a
much earlier date (c. 4000–3000 BCE) rites of passage
based on astronomical markers in the
texts. The hymns themselves are See SAßSKÄRAS.
ascribed to various ø•is (sages) and
addressed to a variety of devatas ritual (kriyä)
(deities). About a quarter are hymns to
INDRA, next in frequency come AGNI Hinduism is strongly shaped by ritual:
hymns. While early Western Indologists a brahmin’s entire life is accompanied
considered them a kind of nature poet- by ritual. Some of it is obligatory
ry, often clumsy and prosaic, modern (nitya), i.e. non-performance for one
scholars admit to not being able to year would lead to a loss of CASTE.
understand most of what the süktas are Some is optional (naimittika) and per-
about. Some contemporary Indian formed for particular purposes
scholars believe them to be an astro- (kämya). Devotional Hinduism and
nomical code, embedding the observa- tantric Hinduism have developed addi-
tions of the ancient Vedic Indians, tional rituals that are deemed essential
which were used to construct fire for their followers. Rituals are believed
ALTARS and to determine the times of to be the means of joining the spiritual
SACRIFICES (yajñas). According to many world and participating in the rhythms
Hindu schools of thought the Øgveda of the cosmos. Ritual initiation
was not created by any human nor con- (UPANAYANA) is a prerequisite for mem-
ceived by any deity but pre-existed bership in Hindu society; without it all
from eternity and was arranged in its works would be in vain. Similarly it is
present shape by the mythical scholar through ritual that a valid MARRIAGE is
VYÄSA. For many centuries it was oral- entered into, and through ritual alone a
ly transmitted from generation to person can hope to find peace after
death. (See also WORSHIP.)

153 Roy, Ram Mohan

Daily life by the river Ganges.

rivers (with the kürma, tortoise) flank the
entrance. Rivers were worshipped as
Rivers played a great role in early Vedic nourishers as well as purifiers: ablutions in
religion, where they were hymned as life them cleansed a person from many sins.
giving. The SAPTASINDHU, the seven
rivers, are a constant point of reference, øk
among which the (now dried out)
SARASVATÏ was praised as the greatest A hymn in general; a verse in the
and the mother of all. When the Hindu Øgveda as well as the entire Øgveda;
heartland moved eastwards, the worship, praise.
YAMUNÄ and the GA¢GÄ became the
two most important and holy rivers. Roy, Ram Mohan (1772–1833)
Many tïrthas (places of pilgrimage) are
located along them, and the confluence Early Indian religious and social
of Yamunä and Gaögä (together with reformer, founder of the Brahmo Samäj,
the invisible Sarasvatï) at Präyäga is one called ‘father of Modern India’. Born
of the holiest spots in India. In South into an orthodox Hindu family, he
India the KAUVERÏ is also called the received a liberal education that includ-
‘Southern Ganges’. The NARBADÄ in ed the study of Persian and Arabic,
Central India enjoys the unique distinc- Sanskrit and later English. He was one
tion among the Indian rivers of purify- of the first Indian employees of the
ing a person on sight. Most rivers are British East India Company. Following
treated as female (although Indus, a religious calling he left service and got
Brahmaputra, Sone, Gogra and Sutlej in touch with the Christian missionaries
are male) and personified as goddesses. at Serampore. He published many
In many temples images of Gaögä (with essays and tracts and worked towards
the makara, alligator) and Yamunä establishing a Hindu monotheism. His

Ø•abha 154

best known accomplishment is his suc- the SACRIFICE that resulted in the birth of
cessful struggle for the abolition of SATÏ, Räma. His story became very popular;
the burning alive of a widow on her it was used by SAMNYÄSIS to warn young
husband’s funeral pyre, which was ascetics against becoming familiar with
defended by many as part of the Hindu women. It can be found in the
tradition. To respond to appeals from Bhägavata Puräæa.
the pro-satï party he went to England,
where he died. He is buried in Bristol. øta (‘cosmic order’)
The eternal moral law that governs the
Ø•abha universe. It parallels øtu, the sequence of
seasons, which in their regularity
The son of Näbhi, the great-grandson of embody constancy and lawfulness.
MANU (2) Sväyambhuva, and Meru, VARUŒA and MITRA are held to be the
father of BHARATA (2). After leaving his guardians of øta.
kingdom to his son he became an ascetic
of great austerity. He is also held to be øtu
the founder of Jainism. The seasons, of which the Indians count
six: cool season (ÿi•ira); spring (vasan-
ø•i ta); hot season (grï•ma); rainy season
(var•a); autumn (ÿärada); snowy season
A sage or poet, especially one who com- (hïma). Thus the word øtu sometimes
posed Vedic hymns. The ‘seven ø•is’ stands for the number six, or any fixed
(saptar•i), the ‘mind-born sons of period of time.
Brahmä’, are proverbial. Among them
are Bhøgu, Gautama, Bharadväja, øtvik
Viÿvamitra, Vasi•flha, Atri and Aögiras A priest who officiates at a Vedic SACRI-
(the lists given in various sources are not FICE. The four chief classes of priests are
all the same). They are identified with Hotø, Udgatø, Adhvaryu and Brähmaæa.
the seven stars of the Big Dipper. There
are many ancient and modern personal- Rudra (‘terrible’, ‘howler’)
ities to whom the title ‘ø•i’ was given in Mentioned in the Veda as a god of
recognition of their wisdom. death and destruction, feared and kept
away from sacrifices. Later identified
Ø•ya-ÿøöga also Eka-ÿøöga with Ÿiva, he represents this god’s fierce
(‘deer-horned’, ‘unicorn’) side. He is also known as Bhava, Ÿarva,
Ïÿäna, Paÿupati, Bhïma, Ugra and
He was a descendant of KAŸYAPA and an Mahädeva.
ascetic from childhood. He grew up in a
forest without any other human being rudräk•a-mälä
except his father. When the country of A rosary made of the fruit of the
Aöga was threatened by a severe rudräk•a shrub, worn by ŸAIVITES
drought King Lomapäda, advised by his around the neck, used to count the rep-
brahmins, sent for Ø•yaÿøöga to marry etitions of MANTRAS (3). There are some
him to his daughter Ÿäntä, as rain was late Upani•ads that glorify it and its
promised as a result of their union. effects.
Lured out from his hermitage by some
beautiful young women, he married
Ÿäntä and the desired rain fell. Ÿäntä
was in reality the daughter of King
DAŸARATHA, and Ø•ya•øöga performed

155 Rüpa Gosvämi

Rukminï CAITANYA. He was known as Dabir
Khas, but renamed ‘Rüpa Gosvämi’ by
Kø•æa’s principal queen in DVÄRAKA, Caitanya. Through his efforts VØNDÄ-
mother of PRADYUMNA (1) as well as VANA was rediscovered and rebuilt, and
nine other sons and a daughter, called he is the author of important works on
Carumatï. GAUDÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, such as the
Bhaktirasämøtasindhu, the Ujjvala
Rüpa Gosvämi (c. 1460–1540) Nïlämaæï, and many stotras.

One of the six original disciples of

S

Ÿäbara (first century BCE) Sacred Books of the East (SBE)
(‘one who lives in the mountains’,
‘savage’) A series of 49 volumes of translations
A celebrated MÏMÄßSAKA and author of (into English) of sources of all Eastern
the Ÿäbarabhäsya, a lengthy commen- religions (Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism,
tary on the Mïmäƒsäsütra. Islam, Taoism, Confucianism, Zoro-
astrianism) planned and edited by Max
ÿabda (‘word’) MÜLLER, and originally published by
The object of lengthy treatises by gram- Clarendon Press, Oxford, from 1879 to
marians and theologians, who attrib- 1904 (reprinted 1965–6 by Motilal
uted mysterious powers to it. As ÿabda- Banarsidass, Delhi). It was also intend-
brahman, BRAHMAN in the form of a ed to include the Bible, to make the
word or a sound, the word has absolute series fully representative of all major
power. Basically there are two schools book religions. However, church
of thought as regards the nature of the authorities did not allow this for fear it
word: one believes that words are mere would make Christianity appear to be
conventional signs of communication; on the same level as all other religions.
the other holds that there is an eternally While many of the works selected have
pre-existing model (akøta) of all words, been translated again more recently,
which ensures that words are under- some of the translations have not been
stood the same way everytime they are superseded as yet. SBE contains 21 vol-
uttered. umes on Hinduism: selected hymns
from Øgveda and Atharvaveda, some
Ÿacï major Upani•ads, the entire Ÿatapatha
Brähmaæa, several Dharmaÿästra works,
The wife of INDRA. the Manu-smøti, the Bhagavadgïtä and
Ÿaökara’s and Rämänuja’s complete
commentaries on the Brahmasütra.

saccidänanda, also Sacred Books of the Hindus (SBH)
sat–cit–änanda (‘being/truth (sat)
– consciousness (cit) – bliss (änanda)’) A series of 38 volumes of texts and
translations of sources of Hinduism
The most popular designation/defini- planned and edited by Major B. D.
tion of the supreme being (BRAHMAN) in Basu, originally published from the
Hinduism. Panini Office in Allahäbad (1911–34;
reprint AMS, New York, 1974).

157 sad-äcära

sacrifice (yajña) an act of violence (hiƒsä), since it was
prescribed by the Veda and conferred
The central act of Vedic religion, con- on the victim the privilege of a higher
sidered indispensable for the continua- REBIRTH. Some animals such as the
tion of the world and the well-being of camel or the donkey were not consid-
society and individuals. The Vedas ered suitable for sacrifice: they were
describe the creation of the world in believed to be lacking medha, the sacri-
terms of a sacrifice and derive the insti- ficial substance.
tution of the four VARŒAS from the sac-
rifice of a primeval puru•a (human). In The puru•amedha (human sacrifice)
the course of time the ritual of sacrifice was ranked as the highest among the
became very intricate and elaborate, Vedic sacrifices, imitating the primor-
and the performance of sacrifices dial sacrifice of the primeval puru•a. Its
became the prerogative of brahmins, protective power was considered so
who received an extensive schooling in great that in ancient times no bridge
everything pertaining to it. The roles of was considered safe unless a human
various classes of priests were precisely being had been sacrificed and built into
defined in the sacred books. its foundations.

Besides the regular routine of sacri- Human sacrifice was a major feature
fices (such as new moon and full moon of the Goddess religions of India.
sacrifices, quarterly seasonal sacrifices, Several Puräæas have lengthy descrip-
daily oblations) there were special sacri- tions of the ritual of human sacrifice,
fices performed to obtain particular and there are historic records of regular
objectives: thus a person desirous of human sacrifices in places such as
going to HEAVEN (after death) was Kämäkhyä (Assam), a centre of DEVÏ
enjoined to perform a special sacrifice; a worship, and in Tanjore (Tamilnäõü)
king desirous of establishing his far into the 19th century.
supremacy over his realm was to per-
form a horse sacrifice (aÿvamedha), a An important aspect of all sacrifices
complex ritual stretched out over a is the intention or purpose of the sacri-
whole year. It is extensively described in fice (yajñänta) and the fee given to the
the BRÄHMAŒAS, and has received a officiating priest (dak•iæa). The gifts
great deal of attention from Western given to brahmins for their services
Indologists. The last recorded aÿva- were often considerable: cattle, houses,
medha was performed in the 18th land, entire villages.
century by a Rajput king.
Under the influence of Buddhism
Sacrifices were believed to provide and Jainism many Hindu communities
strength to the gods, on whose activities abandoned animal sacrifices and substi-
depended the maintenance of the world. tuted offerings of fruit, flowers and
They were also used to expiate sins and vegetables to honour the gods. (See also
to gain power. The sacrifice was sup- AGNICAYANA; PÜJÄ.)
posed to have a great hidden power
(prabhäva) which could become danger- sad-äcära
ous if not handled properly by brahmins. (‘ethics’, ‘right behaviour’)

Animals (especially goats), liquor Seen as an essential ingredient of all
(especially the fermented juice of the religion by Hindus. The specific
SOMA plant), plants and cooked FOOD sadäcära of various saƒpradäyas
(especially barley cakes) were the ingre- (sects) also contains dietary and liturgi-
dients of Vedic sacrifices. Killing an cal precepts, which vary from one to
animal in a sacrifice was not considered the other.

Sadä-ÿiva 158

Sadä-ÿiva references to brahman nirguæa (without
The form in which Ÿiva exercises his qualities) are interpreted by VAIÆŒAVAS
fivefold activities of attraction (anugra- and other theists as meaning the
ha), concealment (tirobhava), taking absence of evil or limiting qualities; by
away (adana), preservation (stithi) and Advaitins they are understood as signi-
creation (sø•fli), according to ŸAIVA fying a total absence of all qualities, i.e.
SIDDHÄNTA. pure CONSCIOUSNESS. Those who ascribe
qualities to the ultimate usually also
•aõ-darÿana conceive of God as having a body and
(‘six philosophical systems’) living in a special abode.
The collective designation of the
philosophies that are considered ‘ortho- sahä-märga (‘associate’s way’)
dox’, namely SÄßKHYA, YOGA, NYÄYA,
VAIŸEÆIKA, Pürva MÏMÄßSÄ and Uttara The third stage of bhakti (devotion) in
Mïmäƒsä or VEDÄNTA. Nominally all ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, consisting of yoga:
accept the authority of the Veda as withdrawal of senses from objects,
revealed. breath control, suspsension of mind
activity, recitation of MANTRAS (3) and
sädhana (‘means to realization’) directing the vital breaths through the
A generic term for the complex of six body centres.
practices recommended by the various
saƒpradäyas (sects) or individual GURUS. Sahadeva

sädhäraæa dharma The youngest of the five PÄŒDAVAS, son
(‘general law’) of MÄDRÏ. He was an expert on astron-
Moral obligations such as truthfulness, omy. (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.)
honesty, purity etc. valid for all people,
irrespective of CASTE or sect. sahaja (‘inborn’, ‘natural condition’)

sädhu (fem. sädhvï, ‘good person’) The designation for some tantric, anti-
Generic designation of those who have nomian forms of worship, which follow
renounced and who dedicate themselves ‘nature’ or ‘inborn instincts’ rather than
to the pursuit of religious aims, usually the Vedic law.
wearing garb that distinguishes them
from ordinary people. sahasra-näma (‘thousand names’)

sage Litanies of a thousand names of major
See ØÆI. deities, which are recited by the devotees.

saguæa (‘with qualities’) Ÿaiva Siddhänta
One of the major theological controversies (‘the final truth of Ÿiva’)
among Hindus is the question of
whether the ultimate is saguæa or nir- A major school of thought of South
guæa. All theist systems ascribe qualities Indian ŸAIVISM, with a large following in
to the supreme, whereas ADVAITA Tamilnäõü. Its most important text is
VEDÄNTA denies them. The Upani•adic the Ÿivajñänabodha by Meykaæõa (13th
century), based on the recognized 28
Ägamas and the teachings of the 63
Näyaæmärs. It acknowledges a triad of
principles: pati (the Lord, i.e. Ÿiva),
päÿu (the unredeemed human person);
and päÿa (the fetters, identified as

159 Ÿakas

karma, mäyä and aæava, ‘atomicity’, as Lord of Animals. Sophisticated
reduced consciousness). To gain free- Ÿaivite philosophies developed in South
dom one must practise knowledge India (ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA) and in
(vidyä), ritual (kriyä), austerities (Yoga), Kashmir (KASHMIR ŸAIVISM or Tøka).
and a virtuous way of life (cärya). The Many important figures in the history of
supreme reality is Ÿiva, whose most fit- Hinduism, such as ŸA¢KARA (2), and many
ting description is ‘grace’ or ‘love’. South Indian kings, were Ÿaivas. They
Through his form of Sadäÿiva he exer- built magnificent sanctuaries in honour of
cises his fivefold functions of attraction Ÿiva and established attractive festivals in
(anugraha), concealment (tirobhava), places such as TANJORE, CIDAMBARAM and
creation (sø•fli), preservation (stithi), and MADURAI. VÄRÄŒASÏ, the holiest city of
destruction (ädäna). Only in a human Hinduism, is sacred to Ÿiva, who is wor-
form and through Ÿaiva Siddhänta can shipped in the Golden temple as
liberation be gained. All other systems Viÿvanätha, Lord of the Universe.
lead to lower stages of reality.
Liberation consists in the appearance of Ÿaivite asceticism tended to run into
the hidden Ÿiva nature (ÿivatva) of the extremes: groups such as the Kapälikas
soul: humans then realize that their true and Kälamukhas are said to eat human
and original Ÿiva nature was hidden and corpses and to besmear themselves with
curtailed through sins. The enlightened ashes taken from cremation grounds.
person is conscious of Ÿiva’s presence They do this to demonstrate the identity
and whatever such a person does, of everything with the supreme Ÿiva and
whether the world thinks it good or their indifference towards conventions
bad, is Ÿiva’s deed. of ordinary life.

Ÿaivism Ÿaivism today is the second-largest
segment of mainstream Hinduism, with
The worship of Ÿiva, probably the old- several hundred million followers.
est of the Hindu traditions. Its begin-
nings go back to prehistoric times. Ÿakadvïpa
LI¢GAS (3), the most typical expressions
of Ÿiva worship, have been found in The continent of the ŸAKAS. Ÿakadvïpa
Indus civilization sites and some of the is also an alternative name for ŸVETA-
seals were interpreted as representing DVÏPA, the ‘white island continent’,
Ÿiva Mahäyogi and Ÿiva Paÿupati, fig- which is mentioned in the Mahäbhärata
ures still prominent in Ÿiva worship. as a place where perfect beings worship
Liögas were also found in South India, NÄRÄYAŒA, and which was visited by
which today is the centre of Ÿaivism. the sages NÄRA and NÄRADA (2). It is
quite often mentioned in Hindu litera-
In the Øgveda the word ÿiva (bene- ture, but has not been satisfactorily iden-
volent, gracious) is not used as a proper tified.
name but as an attribute of various
deities. However the worship of RUDRA, Ÿakas
which later became fused with Ÿaivism,
is quite prominent. Rudra, ‘the A people from the north, usually identified
Howler’, was feared rather than loved with the Yavanas. They are thought to
and his worship consisted in depositing be the Indo-Scythans described by
offerings at crossroads imploring him Ptolemy. They invaded India between
not to come or do harm. 200 BCE and 100 CE and founded a king-
dom in north-western India. The Ÿaka
The earliest known Ÿiva community era, beginning in 78 CE, still widely used
are the PÄŸUPATAS, worshippers of Ÿiva in India, derives from them.

Ÿäkafläyana 160

Ÿäkafläyana Ÿäktism
An ancient grammarian who lived (‘the worship of power energy’)
before YÄSKA and PÄŒINÏ.
Personified in a female divinity, it is a
ÿäkhä (1) (‘branch’) common feature of all forms of
With reference to the Vedas ÿäkhä Hinduism. Specifically it designates the
means a particular recension of a text as traditon in which the Goddess (DEVÏ) is
taught and transmitted by a particular identified with the supreme principle
family or school, showing some minor and worshipped in an exclusive way.
variations. One of the major differences between
Ÿäktism and other expressions of
ÿäkhä (2) Hinduism is the identification of the
The smallest unit of the RÄÆTØÏYA Goddess not only with spirit (BRAH-
SVAYAMSEVAK SANGH. MAN), but also with nature or matter
(prakøti).
säk•ät-kära
A bodily vision of the deity, the goal of Ÿäktism may be a remnant of the
many BHAKTI schools, believed to consti- prehistoric worldwide cult of the Great
tute the assurance of final salvation. Mother. In India terracotta figurines of
the Goddess, almost identical in shape,
säk•ï (‘inner witness’) have been found in prehistoric sites, in
Upani•adic notion of an immortal, the Indus civilization and in contempo-
unchanging ‘witness’ consciousness, rary villages.
which is the passive observer of every-
thing else. The Upani•ads use the simile As a form of mainstream Hinduism
of the two birds on one tree: one eats Ÿäktism is especially prominent in mod-
(ordinary consciousness) while the other ern Bengal and Assam. The main festiv-
only watches (witness consciousness). ity is Durgäpüjä, celebrated during nine
By focusing all attention on the ‘witness days in autumn, when the image of Devï
consciousness’ one can gain immortali- Mahi•amärdiæi is displayed in homes
ty. MADHVA calls the presence of Vi•æu and public places and processions take
in the soul ÿäk•ï. place in her honour.

ÿäkta The main literary sources of Ÿäktism
A follower of ŸAKTI religion. (See also are Devï Puräæas and Tantras. True to
ŸÄKTISM.) the principle that Ÿakti embodies both
mind and matter, Ÿäktism combines
Ÿakti (‘power’) theoretical reflections on the identity of
Personified in the Goddess (DEVÏ). She is Ÿakti with brahman and the unity of
either conceived as consort of a male everything with concrete forms of wor-
god, or as an independent supreme ship. The declared aim of Ÿäktism is
being, created from the united power of bhukti and mukti, enjoyment and liber-
all the gods. In the first instance she is ation in one. In Ÿäktism vidyä (knowl-
identified with the letter ‘i’ in Ÿiva: with- edge) and mäyä (delusion) are seen as
out it, he is ÿava, i.e. a lifeless corpse. one and the same.

There are two main branches of Ÿäk-
tism: ‘right hand’ and ‘left hand’. Right-
hand Ÿäktism resembles other forms of
BHAKTI: it consists of the worship of the
image of the Goddess with fruits and
flowers, the singing of hymns and the
burning of camphor and incense. Left-

161 sa™dhyä

hand Ÿäktism involves the use of the five the tunes according to which the hymns
‘ms’, the transgression of ordinary of the Øgveda are to be chanted.
morality in secret forms of worship.
(See also DURGÄ; TANTRA (2).) Sämaveda

Ÿakuntalä The third of the four vedic saƒhitäs,
Daughter of the sage VIŸVAMITRA and the dealing with sämans or melodies
APSARA MENÄ, whom INDRA had sent appropriate to the øks or verses of the
down from heaven to seduce Viÿvamitra. Øgveda. The text as it is preserved
When Menä had to go back to heaven exists in three recensions: Kauthuma,
she left the child in the care of birds Räæäyanïya and Jaiminïya. The text
(ÿakuntas), and thus she was called was commented upon by Säyaæa in the
Ÿakuntalä. She was brought up in a for- 14th century. Most of the verses are
est hermitage by a sage called Kanva. identical with the verses in the Øgveda.
King Du•yanta saw her, was charmed by The most ancient melodies have not
her and asked her to marry him. She bore been preserved; the notations which we
him a son, named BHARATA (4), who possess are of a relatively late time. (See
became a universl monarch. India was also VEDA.)
called Bhärata after him. The Ÿakuntalä
story was very popular with Indian Sambandhar, also
dramatists. One of the most famous Jñanasambandhar
plays by KÄLIDÄSA is Ÿakuntalä (translat- (seventh century)
ed into most Western languages).
A famous poet and preacher of ŸAIVISM
ÿäla-gräma in South India at a time when most had
A round ammonite, found in the turned Jainas. While the King of
Gandak river of Nepal, held sacred by Madurai had converted to JAINISM, his
VAIÆŒAVAS as an emblem of Vi•æu. chief queen and his chief minister had
Most Vai•æavas either carry a ÿälagrä- remained Ÿaivites. With their help
ma or keep one or more in their homes. Sambandhar arranged a debate with a
large number of Jain monks, whom he
samädhi (1) defeated. The king then re-converted
(‘concentration’, ‘mindfulness’) to Ÿaivism. According to tradition
The title of one of the sections of the Sambandhar persuaded the king to
Yoga Sütras. impale 8,000 Jains. In another part of
the Tamil country he brought back a
samädhi (2) large number of Jains and Buddhists to
A stage in the process of YOGA (‘con- Ÿaivism. His hymns are still widely sung
templation’). in Ÿiva temples.

samädhi (3) sa™dhyä (1), also sandhyä
A memorial chapel erected over the (‘joining’, ‘twilight’ [both of morning
tomb of a saint. and of evening])

säman (‘tune’) Personified as daughter of BRAHMÄ and
As in Sämaveda, the Veda containing wife of ŸIVA.

sa™dhyä (2)

Obligatory rituals to be performed by
brahmins at dawn and dusk.

Sa™dhyäbhä•a 162

Sa™dhyäbhä•a fold, matter is one. Matter is character-
(‘twilight language’) ized by three guæas (elementary princi-
Compositions with double meaning, ples): sattva (lightness); rajas (passion);
used by Tantrikas; their ‘surface’ mean- and tamas (darkness). These three are
ing is accessible to everybody, the sec- originally in equilibrium, but under the
ond, ‘secret’, meaning is only under- influence of spirit, evolution begins. The
stood by the initiates. (See also TANTRA first product of the process is mahat (the
(2).) great One), also called buddhi (the intel-
lect). From mahat issues ahaƒkära, the
sa™hitä (‘collection’) principle of egoity. When one suffers
An expression used to designate the under the frustrations of life one begins
mantra portion of the Vedas (e.g. a quest for freedom from misery. This
Øgveda Sa™hitä) or the later sectarian quest leads to a reversal of the evolu-
writings of VAIÆŒAVAS (e.g. Ahir- tionary process and a final separation of
budhnya Sa™hitä), to which a great spirit from matter. The ultimate stage is
amount of authority was attributed due called kaivalya (aloneness), when the
to their authors. spirit is all by himself and fully satisfied.

samïpa (‘nearness [to God]’) Säƒkhya-kärikä
One of the modalities of salvation in
theistic Hinduism. Another would be The oldest preserved text of the
SARÜPA (sameness of form). SÄßKHYA system, ascribed to Ïÿvara
Kø•æa (third century CE). It explains in a
saƒkalpa (‘intention’) brief and systematic manner the basic
A declaration of intent at the beginning principles of Säƒkhya.
of a pilgrimage. Without it, the pilgrim-
age would not earn any merit. Säƒkhya-sütra

Saƒkar•aæa Ascribed to Kapila (sixth century BCE),
One of the four vyühas (emanations) of but probably later than the Säƒkha-
Vi•æu, characterized by lordship (aiÿ- kärikä. It consists of a brief exposition
varya) and heroism (vïrya). of Säƒkhya in sütra form.

Säƒkhya (‘number’) sam-kïrtaæa
One of the six orthodox systems, found-
ed by Kapila (sixth century BCE); it Congregational singing of hymns, especi-
assumes that the whole universe con- ally among GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVAS, usually
sists of combinations of 24 elements accompanied by cymbals and drums,
(tattvas) in addition to puru•a (spirit). often also by dancing. Nägara sam-
Säƒkhya is a dualistic system: spirit kïrtaæa, popularized by CAITANYA, is
(puru•a) and matter (prakøti) have public singing and dancing on the
opposite but complementary character- streets of towns.
istics. Everything originates from a
combination of the two, and ultimate samnyäsa (‘renunciation’)
liberation is due to a separation of spir-
it from matter. Spirit is originally mani- The fourth and last ÄŸRAMA (2) (stage in
life) of a brahmin, in which all attachment
to home and possessions, including
family, are to be given up. It has become
popular to enter into samnyäsa without
going through the äÿramas of house-

163 Saögam

holder and forest dweller. Usually the (jäta-karma), initiation (upanayana,
formal entry into samnyäsa is preceded investiture with the sacred thread), mar-
by a period of instruction in the partic- riage (vivaha), and last rites (ÿraddha or
ular customs of a sa™pradäya (sect) and antye•fli). A Hindu who wilfully neglects
solemnly confirmed through an initia- the sa™skäras is no longer a member of
tion ceremony (dïk•ä) by the GURU. This the community.
includes stripping and symbolic self-
cremation, the acceptance of a new samudra manthana
name and the transmission of a MANTRA See CHURNING OF THE OCEAN.
(3), through which the initiate becomes
a member in the line of succession (guru samvat
paraƒparä). Samnyäsa, while freeing A Hindu era, beginning in 57 BCE, a
the initiate from all normal religious widely used chronological system in
and social obligations, is strictly modern India.
regulated by the rules of the yatidharma
(see YATI). samyama
In PATAÑJALI YOGA, the triad of dhär-
samnyäsi aæa, dhyäna and samädhi.
(fem. samnyäsinï, ‘renouncer’)
sanätana dharma (‘eternal law’)
Someone who has taken up SAMNYÄSA. A self-designation of ‘Hinduism’ by
Normally acceptance by a GURU from Hindus, implying either that the DHARMA
an acknowledged order is a prerequisite is eternal or that it has been promulgat-
for becoming a samnyäsi. However, ed by an eternal lawgiver. Many Hindus
there are cases of self-initiation, so- derive from this explanation the univer-
called svatantra samnyäsis. The number sal validity of Hindu dharma for the
of samnyäsis and samnyäsinïs in India is whole of humankind and for all of his-
fairly large: estimates range from 7 to tory. ‘Sanätanists’ are those who rigidly
15 million. There are associations of adhere to traditional law.
samnyäsis, such as the Akhila Bhäratïya
Sädhu Samäj, and some Hindu orders Sanat-kumära
have also begun to accept non-Indians. The most prominent of the four mind-
born sons of BRAHMÄ. (See also
saƒpradäya (‘tradition’) KUMÄRAS.)

Usage, denomination, sect. Ÿäæõilya (c. 100 CE)
The author of the Chäæõogya Upani-
saƒsära •ad, of a law book, and of a Bhakti-
sütra.
The transient world, the cycle of birth
and rebirth. Saögam (‘confluence’) (1)
The place near Präyäga (Allähabad)
sa™skära (‘sacrament’) where the YAMUNÄ flows into the
GA¢GÄ, merging with the (invisible)
A rite of passage, through which a SARASVATÏ.
Hindu of the three higher VARŒAS
becomes a full member of the communi-
ty. While in former times a great num-
ber of sa™skäras were performed, today
there are mainly four that are important
in the life of a Hindu: birth

Saögam 164

Saögam (2), also Cankam (DAŸANÄMIS). By many he is considered
An early period of Tamil literature the greatest among Indian religious
(c. 1st century BCE). thinkers. His followers consider him
either an AVATÄRA of Ÿiva or a person
Ÿaökara (1) (‘auspicious’) inspired by him. One of his immediate
Name of ŸIVA in his role of creator. disciples, Änanda Giri, wrote a
Ÿaökara Digvijäya, a report on the
(spiritual) conquest of India by
Ÿaökara, by defeating all his opponents
in debate.

Ÿaökaräcärya
The title given to the head monk of one
of the mäflhas (religious centres) reput-
edly founded by ŸA¢KARA (2).

Ÿaökara Miÿra (16th century)
A prolific writer, who produced major
works on almost all of the orthodox
systems of Hinduism.

Ÿaökara Deva (1449–1568)
A major teacher of VAIÆŒAVISM in Assam.

Ÿaökara, the founder of the school of ÿaökha (‘conch’)
Advaita Vedänta.
Used in many forms of Hindu WORSHIP;
the blowing of the conch often opens or
closes worship.

Ÿaökara (2), also san-märga
Ÿaökaräcärya (‘the way of truth and reality’)

‘Master Ÿaökara’, a great reformer of The fourth and highest stage in ŸAIVA
Hinduism (eighth century CE). Born in SIDDHÄNTA.
Kälaõi, Kerala, he entered SAMNYÄSA at
a very early age. Defeating Buddhists Sanskrit (‘refined language’)
and followers of other heterodox The language in which much of classical
movements, he established ADVAITA Hindu literature has been written, con-
VEDÄNTA through his commentaries on sidered a ‘sacred’ language, the language
the major Upani•ads, the Bhagavadgïtä of the gods. For some time it was believed
and the Brahmasütras. He also wrote to be the root language of all Indo-
numerous hymns and many smaller European languages. (See also LANGUAGE.)
treatises. He established maflhas (reli-
gious centres) in four strategic places in sant (1) ‘saint’
the east (Purï), west (Dväraka), north Generic designation of all SAMNYÄSIS
(Bädarïnätha), and south (Ÿøægerï) and (renouncers).
founded ten orders of samnyäsis

165 Sarasvatï

sant (2) Saptasindhu, also
Specific name for a group of late Saptasindhava
medieval religious poets and teachers, (‘the seven rivers’)
belonging to various denominations,
Hindus (e.g. Tulsïdäs), Sikhs (e.g. Gurü These are frequently mentioned in the
Nänak), and Muslims (e.g. Kabïr), Vedas. Their names are: Gaögä,
usually from the lower strata of society, Yamunä, Sarasvatï, Ÿutudri, Paru•æi,
but widely influential on account of the Marudvødhä, Ärjïkïyä. Not all are
appeal of their teachings. clearly identifiable today.

sant sädhana Säradä Devï (1853–1920)
The teaching of the SANTS (2), focusing As RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHAMSA’s wife
on the practice of the divine name and, after his death, his successor as
(näma), devotion to the divine guru ‘The Holy Mother’ she had great
(satguru) and the company of fellow influence on the formation of the
devotees (satsaög). Ramakrishna Mission. Ramakrishna
never consummated the marriage with
Ÿäntä Säradä Devï, worshipping her instead as
The daughter of Daÿaratha, she was Ÿakti incarnate. Her own vision of Kälï
adopted by Lomapäda, and married to set off her personal spiritual develop-
ØÆYAŸØ¢GA. ment. As long as Ramakrishna was alive
she took care of his material needs,
ÿänta (‘tranquillity’) especially cooking his food. After his
One of the eight RASAS of Hindu death she grew into the role of the ‘Holy
aesthetics. Mother’. Her picture is found in all
Ramakrishna Mission temples along-
ÿänti (‘peace’) side that of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
Often exclaimed (three times) at the end and Swami Vivekänanda. In 1954 the
of recitiations of religious texts as a Ÿäradä Maflha was founded as indepen-
kind of blessing. dent monastic institution for women
alongside the Ramakrishna Mission,
saæto•a (‘contentment’) which has only male monastics.
One of the Hindu virtues, listed in the
Yogasütras as generating inner peace ÿaraæä-gati
and happiness, a precondition for suc- (‘taking refuge [in the Lord]’)
cessful meditation. The highest act of devotion in
VAIÆŒAVISM, the last formal step in the
saptar•i process of becoming a bhakta (devotee).
The seven great ØÆIS (sages): the names One of the last works of RÄMÄNUJA is
are not the same in all the references. the Ÿaraæagatigadya, which extolls the
salvific effects of this practice. Madhva
Saptaÿatï (‘seven hundred [verses]’) wanted his followers to demonstrate
A name of the Devïmähätmya, which this self-surrender outwardly by brand-
consists of seven hundred ŸLOKAS ing their bodies with the symbols of
(couplets). Vi•æu. (See also PRAPATTI.)

Sarasvatï (1)

The wife of BRAHMÄ, goddess of speech
and learning, inventor of the Sanskrit

Sarasvatï 166

ÿarïra
See BODY.

Ÿarïraka-bhä•ya
The title of Ÿaökara’s commentary on
the Brahmasütras.

sa-rüpa
(‘having the same form [as the Lord]’)

One of the qualities of a released
VAIÆŒAVA, who receives an incorrupt-
ible body like that of Vi•æu.

Ÿarva

A name of ŸIVA, derived from ÿaru
(arrow). Ÿarva symbolizes the power of
Ÿiva to kill, and is often invoked togeth-
er with YAMA, the custodian of the
underworld. Ÿarva is the embodiment of
cruelty.

Sarasvatï. Sarva-darÿana-saƒgraha
(‘Synopsis of all philosophical systems’)
language and the Devanägarï script, A famous work by the Advaitin
patroness of the arts and sciences, usu- MÄDHAVA, in which he reviews and cri-
ally represented as seated on a lotus, tiques 15 different systems (besides
with a vïna (lute) in one of her hands. CÄRVÄKA and several schools of
Buddhism and Jainism, he deals with all
Sarasvatï (2) major Hindu systems).
Celebrated in the Vedas as a mighty
river, flowing from the Himälayas to Sarva-loka
the sea, it later disappeared in the sands. See BRAHMA-LOKA.
Recent satellite photography has pro-
duced evidence of its course. It is ÿästra (‘teaching’, ‘rule’)
believed to join underground the An authoritative source for Hindu
GA¢GÄ and the YAMUNÄ at the SA¢GAM DHARMA, used either as a collective term
(1) in Präyäga. As the most sacred of the or as designation of a single work, espe-
Vedic rivers, it formed the eastern cially one dealing with law.
boundary of the original Äryävarta, the
homeland of the Vedic people. sat, also satya (‘being’, ‘truth’)
As in SACCIDÄNANDA, the designation of
sarga (‘creation’) the supreme being as ‘being/truth, con-
One of the pañcälak•ana (five topics of sciousness, bliss; or in sat-guru, the ‘true
a PURÄŒA). Most Puräæic accounts of master’, i.e. the supreme.
creation speak of several creations.

167 satï

Ÿatäk•ï (‘hundred-eyed’) AVATÄRA of Ÿiva and Ÿakti. He discov-
A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). ered, as a fourteen-year-old, his miracu-
lous powers to cure illness by means of
Ÿata-rudriya an ash-like substance that formed on
(‘[invocation of] Rudra with a hundred the pictures of Sai Baba and that he
[names]’) himself is now creating freely. His fol-
A text in the White YAJURVEDA, through lowers number millions in India and
which RUDRA/Ÿiva is propitiated and abroad; hundreds of Sai Baba centres
asked to stay away from the sacrificer. have come into existence, some large
establishments with schools, hospitals
Ÿata-rüpä and other facilities. He predicted that he
(‘the one with the hundred forms’) will live to the age of 95, and that after
The first woman; daughter of BRAHMÄ, his death a third and last incarnation of
mother or wife of MANU (2). a Sai Baba will appear.

sat-guru (‘the true teacher’) Satï (‘faithful’)
Usually identified with the supreme
being. A daughter of DAKÆA and wife of ŸIVA,
who killed herself out of anger at
Sathya Sai Baba (b. 1926) Dak•a’s contempt for Ÿiva.
(‘true father of truth’)
A contemporary charismatic Hindu satï
leader, who claims to be the reincarna-
tion of the Sai Baba of Ÿirdi (Mahä- A wife who ascends the funeral pyre of
rä•flra) who died in 1918, as well as an her deceased husband. A satï was usual-
ly honoured by her community through
a memorial. Satï was declared illegal in
1829, but still occurs occasionally. (See
also WOMEN.)

Bhajan attended by the contemporary guru Sai Baba (left).

sat-putra-märga 168

sat-putra-märga Satyavatï (1)
(‘the way of the true son’) The daughter of Uparicara and the
The second stage of devotion according apsara (nymph) Adrikä. She was the
to ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA, consisting of mother of VYÄSA by the ø•i (sage)
preparing articles for Ÿiva PÜJÄ and Paräÿara, and later married King Ÿän-
meditating on Ÿiva as a form of light. tanu, and gave birth to VICITRA-VÏRYA
and Citräögada. She became the grand-
Ÿatru-ghna (‘destroyer of enemies’) mother of the KAURAVAS and PÄŒ¥AVAS.
Twin brother of LAKÆMAŒA, half-broth- (See also MAHÄBHÄRATA.)
er of Räma. He supported Räma and
killed Lavaæa, a RÄKÆASA leader. Satyavatï (2)
The mother of JAMADAGNI and grand-
sat-sang mother of PARAŸURÄMA.
(‘community of true [devotees]’)
Communal worship, usually consisting of ÿauca (‘purity’)
singing hymns (bhajan) and listening to One of the traditional Hindu virtues,
sermons. It is enjoined to devotees as a whose practice is a prerequisite to
duty and as a means to sustain their faith. PÄTAÑJALA YOGA.

sattva saulabhya (‘benevolence’)
See GUŒA. One of the (six) transcendental qualities
of Vi•æu according to RÄMÄNUJA.
satyägraha (‘truth-grasping’)
A term coined by Mahatma GANDHI in Ÿaunaka
South Africa, describing his insistence A famous sage, son of Ÿunaka, the
on claiming his rights, defined as the reputed author of the Bøhaddevatä, a
strength born of truth, love and non- major figure in the MAHÄBHÄRATA and
violence. the Bhägavata Puräæa, where he nar-
rates large portions of VAIÆŒAVA lore.
Satya-loka
See BRAHMA-LOKA. Saura Puräæas
A group of Upa-Puräæas, dealing with
Satya-nämi(s) Sürya (the SUN).
An order of SAMNYÄSIS claiming great
antiquity. Persecuted and almost eradi- sauÿilya (‘kindness’)
cated under Aurangzeb, they were One of the (six) transcendental qualities
revived in the late 18th century by of Vi•æu according to RÄMÄNUJA.
Jagjivandäs. They are found mainly in
western India. Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar
(1883–1966)
Satyärtha Prakäÿa For many years chief ideologue of the
(‘light of truth’) HINDU MAHÄSABHÄ, and founder of the
The title of the main work (in Hindï) by ABHINAV BHÄRAT SOCIETY, who
Swami Däyänanda Sarasvatï, the founder attempted to ‘Hinduize politics and to
of the ÄRYA SAMÄJ. militarize Hinduism’. His essay

169 self

‘Hindutva’, in which he advocated a second birth
distinction between Hinduism as a reli-
gion (Hindu dharma), divided into many Initiation (UPANAYANA) and investiture
saƒpradäyas (sects), and Hinduism as a with the sacred thread given to the three
culture (HINDUTVA), which is supposed upper VARŒAS (Brahmaæas, K•atriyas,
to be one, became seminal for the fur- Vaiÿyas) is called a ‘second birth’ and
ther development of political Hinduism. the initiated are called dvijatis, ‘twice-
born’.

Savitø (‘generator’) secularism

A vedic name for the SUN, to whom The Indian constitution, written under
many hymns are addressed. Also the prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s gov-
title of an epic poem by AUROBINDO ernment, declared India (Bhärat) ‘a sec-
GHOSE. ular democracy’. Many traditional
Hindus resisted ‘secularism’ and wanted
Säyaæa (14th century) India to be a Hindu rä•flra (state) and
Hinduism declared the state religion (as
Celebrated commentator of the entire Pakistan had declared Islam its state
Øgveda and author of other works. He religion). ‘Secularism’ was interpreted by
was the brother of Mädhaväcärya, and its defenders not as hostility towards
lived at the court of VIJÄYANÄGARA. religion or dismissal of religion, but as
tolerance for all religions and impartiality
säyujya (‘togetherness [with Vi•æu]’) towards all. One of the consequences of
secularism was the injunction against
One of the forms of emancipation from teaching Hinduism in public schools.
SAßSÄRA. Secularism has become the main target of
the Hindu political parties who accuse
Schrader, Otto (1876–1961) the Congress governments that ruled the
country for over four decades of having
Renowned German Indologist, who legislated against Hindu DHARMA. They
pioneered the study of the VAIÆŒAVA strive to overthrow secularism.
saƒhitäs. After studies in Indology in
several European universities, he accept- self
ed an appointment as director of the
library of the Theosophical Society at The nature of the self has been con-
Adyar (Madras) where he learnt Tamil, ceived in a great variety of ways in
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. He Hindu thought and is one of the main
travelled widely to collect manuscripts for foci of all Hindu darÿanas (philosophi-
the library. He is best known for his cal systems). Many classical Hindu
pioneering work on PÄÑCARÄTRA. His scholarly works begin with a review and
Introduction to the Päñcarätra and the critique of all major conceptions of the
Ahirbudhnya Samhita (1916), written self before establishing their own posi-
while he was interned in Ahmednagar tions. They all reject the materialist
during the First World War, became CÄRVÄKA notion that identifies the self
seminal for the study of the Vai•æava with the physical body, and the
saƒhitäs. After his return to Germany Buddhist ‘no-self’ teaching. As far as
and as professor of Indology at Kiel Hindu systems are concerned, SÄßKHYA
University he concentrated on studies on and YOGA teach a plurality of individual
the Bhagavadgïtä. He was honoured with selves (puru•a) that are immaterial and
the title ‘Vidyäsägara’ by the Bhärata eternal, uncreated and conscious.
Mahämandal in Väräæasï in 1924.

Sen, Keshub Chandra 170

According to VAIŸEÆIKA there are many split in the Samäj. Initially a great
different selves, distinguished by their admirer of Christ and Christianity, he
viÿe•as (properties, specifics), which can increasingly developed a notion that he
be perceived by YOGIS. The ÄTMANS was a superman initiating a new dispen-
themselves are eternal and not bound by sation. Socially progressive and active in
time and space, but their actions are humanitarian work, he alienated many
limited by the physical organisms with members of the Brahmo Samäj by his
which they are connected. NYÄYA idiosyncracies and by violating the
assumes the existence of a spiritual self principles he had himself established.
different from the body. MÏMÄßSÄ
postulates the existence of a soul/self service
distinct from the body, because without
it Vedic statements such as ‘the sacrifi- See SEVA.
cer goes to heaven’ would not make
sense. However, since Mïmäƒsakas Ÿe•a
only recognize the karmakäæõha of the
Veda as ‘revealed’, they must refrain A serpent with a thousand heads which
from making statements about the serves Vi•æu as couch during the inter-
nature of the self. Vedäntins, for whom vals between creations. It is also called
the jñanakhäæõa is revelation proper, ananta, infinite, as a symbol of eternity.
focus on the nature of the self. They dif- When Ÿe•a yawns, the earth trembles.
fer in their interpretation of Upani•adic At the end of each KALPA Ÿe•a vomits
statements such as ‘this ätman [self] is poisonous fire which destroys all cre-
the brahman [supreme being]’. The ation. At the time of the CHURNING OF
Advaitins understand it as an expres- THE OCEAN the gods took Ÿe•a as a rope,
sion of complete identity, the liberated looping it around Mount Mandara.
self merging without trace into the qual- Ÿe•a’s hood is known as MAŒIDVÏPA, the
ityless brahman. Dvaitins insist on a island of jewels.
categorical distinction between Vi•æu,
the Supreme Being, and the individual seva (‘service’)
souls (jïvätmas). Viÿi•flädvaitins take a
middle position. While for Advaitins the In pre-modern Hinduism this is usually
self is uncreated and indestructible, the- understood as temple service and care
istic schools of Vedänta usually consid- for the divine IMAGE. Traditional Hindu
er the selves of individuals created by saƒpradäyas (sects) have very elaborate
the Supreme God, and, together with rituals which clearly define the range of
matter, the body of God. Consequently (obligatory) seva and also list acts that
the importance of self-knowledge dif- are considered ‘sins against seva’. With
fers. For Advaitins knowledge of the self Hindu reform movements in the 19th
is identical with emancipation; for the century seva began to acquire the con-
non-Advaitins, emancipation requires notation of social service, support for
the knowledge of matter, selves and God. the needy and material as well as spiri-
tual comfort. To worship God in the
Sen, Keshub Chandra poor and to serve God in the needy has
(1838–84) become an accepted contemporary
interpretation of seva.
One of the early members of the
BRAHMO SAMÄJ, a non-brahmin who Sey, also Seyon
rose to leadership and brought about a
Alternative names for the Tamil war
god MURUGAN.

171 sin

Ÿibi ÿik•ä
An ancient tribe in north-western India, Phonetics, one of the six VEDÄŒGAS,
described as going about clad in the which teaches proper pronunciation
skins of wild animals and using clubs as and recitation of the Veda.
weapons, believed to be the original
Ÿiva worshippers. Ÿik•ä•flaka
(‘eight couplets of instruction’)
siddha (1) (‘accomplished’) A short text said to be the only written
Semi-divine beings, said to number work of CAITANYA, embodying the gist
88,000, believed to be pure and holy. of his teachings.

siddha (2) ÿïla
See ETHICS.
A person who has reached perfection
within a specific SÄDHANA.

siddha-rüpa (‘perfect form’) silence
Keeping silent for extended periods of
One’s true and original being; in time (maunasädhana) is a common
GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVISM, one of the origi- practice for Hindu ascetics.
nal characters of the Kø•æa LÏLÄ in
Braja, with which the devotees identify ÿilpa (‘skill’, ‘craft’)
and through which they engage in Artistic creation, production of some-
rägänuga (passionate) BHAKTI. thing beautiful. It can be through archi-
tecture, painting, dance or music.
siddhi (‘accomplishment’)
Ÿilpa-ÿästra, also Västu-ÿästra
Usually designates the exercise of occult The traditional teaching of temple
faculties, such as making oneself invisi- building and IMAGE making, originally
ble, understanding the languages of ani- believed to have been imparted by semi-
mals etc. They are mentioned in the divine beings to human craftsmen. The
Yogasütras as potential obstacles on the two most important manuals are the
way to KAIVALYA, but eagerly sought Mänasära and the Mayamata, supposed
after by many lesser YOGIS. The to be by the architects of the gods and
Transcendental Meditation Society the demons respectively. In addition to
offered courses in siddhis. technical detail the Ÿilpaÿästras also
contain mythological and religious
ÿikhä materials.

The tuft of hair kept at the back of the ÿilpin
head after tonsure. It is also called chofli. Traditional craftsman, architect, sculptor,
It had to be worn by Hindu house- artist.
holders (supposed to cover the Brahmä-
randhra, the place at which the soul sin (päpa, pätaka, do•a)
leaves the body at the time of death). It Offences against the moral and ritual
is shorn off during the initiation (dïk•ä) law, which require penances (praya-
of a SAMNYÄSI. ÿcittas). Vedic religion used the distinction

ÿikhara

The ‘spire’ of a Hindu temple (of the
Northern or nägara type).

Sïtä 172

between upapätaka (‘lesser sins’), such Ÿiva Näflaräja, King of the Dance.
as teaching the Veda for money, adul-
tery, killing a woman or a man from a philosophical reflection. Some seals
low caste, and MAHÄPÄTAKA (‘capital found in Harappa–Mohenjo Daro were
sins’) which were difficult to atone for. interpreted as Ÿiva Paÿupati (Lord of the
The latter were brahmaæahatya (killing Animals) and Ÿiva Mahäyogi, motifs
a brahmin), sürapäna (intoxication), found in later Ÿaivism. LI¢GAS were also
steya (stealing gold from a brahmin), found in the Indus civilization; these
guruvaöganagama (variously interpreted have always been associated with
as incest or cohabitation with the guru’s ŸAIVISM. The oldest myth associated
wife), mahäpätakasaƒsarga (associa- with Ÿaivism – the destruction of
tion with great sinners). The number of DAKÆA’s sacrifice by Ÿiva at Kankhala,
sins was greatly augmented by the vari- near Hardwar – suggests initial hostility
ous saƒpradäyas (sects), who declared towards Ÿaivism from the side of Vedic
infringements of their ritual as sins. religion. Other myths, such as Ÿiva’s
Thus the GAU¥ÏYA VAIÆŒAVAS enumer- drinking the poison HALÄHALÄ, which
ate 32 offences against worship (which threatened to engulf the world, are seen
can be atoned for) and 10 offences by Ÿaivites as proof of Ÿiva’s willingness
against the name, which are virtually to save the world at personal risk. The
unpardonable. Sins which are not best-known iconic representation of
atoned for lead to ‘downfall’, i.e. loss of Ÿiva is that of the Näflaräja (King of
CASTE in this life and punishment in the Dance), symbolizing the creative, salvif-
next. ic and destructive functions of Ÿiva.
Ÿaivism has been a major component of
Sïtä (‘furrow’) Hinduism since at least the fifth century
CE and has inspired its followers to
The daughter of King Janaka of Videha, magnificent temple buidings and rich
wife of Räma, a principal figure in the poetry. VÄRÄŒASÏ, for millennia the
RÄMÄYAŒA. She was found in a furrow most sacred city of Hinduism, is Ÿiva’s
by her father while he was ploughing his
field, and was also called Ayonijä, ‘not
born from a womb’. As Räma’s only
wife she embodied all the virtues of a
traditional Hindu woman and was held
up as model for Hindu girls to follow
throughout the ages. This notion has
come under attack by Indian feminists.

Ÿïtalä

The goddess of smallpox, widely wor-
shipped in rural India.

Ÿiva (‘graceful’)

A deity, whose followers represent one
of the ancient mainstream traditions of
Hinduism. Early on identified with the
Vedic RUDRA, Ÿiva appears in some late
Upani•ads and in the epics and Puräæas
as the focus of a vast mythology and

173 Ÿloka-värtika

abode: the ‘Golden temple’ is a Ÿiva studied medicine and practised as a doc-
sanctuary. ŸA¢KARA (2), the founder of tor for many years in Malaya before
Advaita Vedänta, was a Ÿaivite and so becoming a SAMNYÄSI in Hø•ikeÿa in
were many luminaries of India. Ÿiva is 1924. As a medical doctor he selflessly
also known as Maheÿvara (‘Great attended to the poorest and most down-
God’), Gaögädhära (‘Bearer of the trodden, and continued to do so after
Gaögä’), Iÿäna (‘Ruler’) and Viÿvanätha founding the Ÿivänanda Ashram in
(‘Lord of the Universe’), among other 1932 and the Divine Life Society in
names. Among the philosophical 1936. In 1948 he established the Yoga
schools based on Ÿaivism are ŸAIVA Vedänta Forest Academy. He continued
SIDDHÄNTA and KASHMIR ŸAIVISM. taking an interest in medicine, especial-
Ÿaivism is a vigorous and active Hindu ly in AYURVEDA, and opened a dispen-
tradition today. sary and clinic. He also gave discourses
on spiritual matters and began publish-
Ÿiväji (1627–80) ing pamphlets and books. The Ÿivänanda
Ashram has an international following
The son of Shahji Bonsle, a PESHWA, he and both in letter and spirit promotes
rose up against the Mogul emperor universalism in religion. It is one of the
Aurangzeb, and became the founder of major establishments in Hø•ikeÿa and
the last great Hindu empire. From his well known all over India. The activities
capital city Pune he conquered large of the ashram have been continued and
tracts of north-western India and the broadened by Ÿivänanda’s successor,
Deccan. He forced the Mogul emperor Swami Cidänanda (born 1916).
to conclude a treaty conceding his
suzerainty over the conquered land. He ÿivatva (‘Ÿiva-ness’, Ÿiva nature)
was just and took care of the weaker
sections of society, especially of women, ŸAIVA SIDDHÄNTA teaches that the true
and was much admired and loved by his nature of all humans is ÿivatva, Ÿiva
people. He was very respectful towards nature, which is hidden and curtailed
brahmins, but as he came from a ŸÜDRA through sin. When sin is removed, the
background they denied him coronation Ÿiva nature reveals itself, bringing truth
according to Vedic rites. In later cen- and happiness.
turies he acquired almost legendary sta-
tus and a Mahratta nationalist political slavery
party established itself in 1962 under
the name of ‘Siv sena’, Ÿivajï’s army. It Slavery did exist in ancient India, and
has become the ruling party in under the form of indentured labour it
Mahärä•flra and is becoming an all- continued into the 20th century.
India party now.
ÿloka (‘couplet’)
Ÿivaliöga
The smallest literary unit of the EPICS.
See LI¢GA (3).

Ÿivänanda, Swami Ÿloka-värtika
(1887–1963)
Celebrated work by Kumärila Bhaflfla of
Founder of Ÿivänanda Ashram and the MÏMÄßSÄ school, a commentary to
Yoga Vedänta Forest Academy in the first part of the Mïmäƒsä Sütras,
Hø•ikeÿa. Born into the illustrious family containing critiques especially of various
of Appaya Dik•ita in South India, he Buddhist schools.

smaraæa 174

smaraæa (‘remembering’) demands for equality by women, and
The second stage in the process of abandonment of many old caste regula-
MEDITATION. tions have seriously challenged the
Hindu social order. Hindu political
smärta (‘pertaining to smøti’) parties are concerned with re-establish-
A designation of ultra-orthodox tradi- ing a Hindu social order. (See also ÄRYA
tional brahmins in South India. SAMÄJ; BHÄRATÏYA JÄNATÄ PARTY;
HINDU MAHÄSABHÄ; RÄÆTØÏYA SVAYAM-
smasäna SEVAK SANGH; VIŸVA HINDÜ PARIÆAD.)
Burning place, crematorium.
social reforms
smøti (‘what has been remembered’)
Tradition, as opposed to ŸRUTI (revela- Like Ram Mohan ROY, who succeeded
tion). In a generic sense, all authoritative in 1828 in having SATÏ banned, many
writings pertaining to Hindu tradition Hindus have felt the need for reforming
that are not ÿruti, i.e. all works com- aspects of Hindu society, such as
posed after the Veda, such as epics and untouchability (Mahatma GANDHI),
Puräæas. In a specific sense, works deal- widow remarriage (RANADE, R. D.),
ing mainly with law ascribed to inspired FEMALE INFANTICIDE, education for
lawgivers, such as the Manusmøti, women and others. There have been
Yäjñavalkyasmøti. demands to abolish caste and to estab-
lish gender equality. (See also EQUALITY
OF WOMEN.)

snake Soma
See NÄGA. A name of the MOON.

social order soma

The Hindu social order is circumscribed The fermented juice of a not yet satis-
by CATUR–VARŒA–ÄŸRAMA-DHARMA, i.e. factorily identified plant, which was one
the division into four ‘classes’ (VARŒA) of the main ingredients of Vedic SACRIFICE.
and four ‘stages of life’ (ÄŸRAMA (2)). A whole section of the Øgveda contains
Theoretically all rights and duties are hymns that were used in soma libations.
defined according to this schema. In Indra is described as lover of soma, and
practice each varæa is subdivided into a the intoxication caused by soma con-
very large number of jätïs (‘sub-castes’), sumption is frequently referred to.
each with its own rules, and most peo-
ple no longer follow the progression of Som(a)näth(a),
the stages of life. CASTE is still a power- also Someÿvara
ful factor in social life in India, and for (‘Lord of the moon’)
many the ideal of SAMNYÄSA is still alive.
Besides the caste society, which is large- A celebrated Ÿiva sanctuary in Gujarat.
ly identical with Hindu society, there It was destroyed and plundered by
are a large number of ‘outcastes’ or Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025, rebuilt by
‘untouchables’ (nih•priya), who began Kings Bhima and Bhoja, several times
organizing under the name of DALIT thereafter destroyed and rebuilt. Its
(‘oppressed’) and are actively fighting final restoration took place through the
for their rights. Modernization of soci- initiative of K. M. Munshi, governor of
ety, the exigencies of industrialization, Bombay Presidency, and the original
Ÿivaliöga (see LI¢GA (3)) was installed

175 Ÿrïkaæflha

by Rajendra Prasad, president of India, spirit

in 1951. See SELF.

son ÿraddhä
See FAITH.
A son was considered essential to the
continuation a family line, and his birth ÿräddha, also antye•fli,
was an occasion of joy. A married møtyu-sa™skära
woman without a son was considered The last rites, the whole complex ritual
unlucky and only a son was entitled to (sometimes lasting a full year) required
light the funeral pyres of his parents, after the death especially of a brahmin.
ensuring a good afterlife. In recent years
it has often happened that pregnant ÿrauta (1)
women, after learning about the sex of Belonging to ŸRUTI.
the future child, would abort female
foetuses. FEMALE INFANTICIDE – by ÿrauta (2)
drowning, poisoning, starvation, expo- One of the VEDÄ¢GAS, dealing with
sure – was quite frequent. ceremonial occasions: the Kalpasütras
or Ÿrautasütras contain the ritual for
Sontheimer, Günther-Dietz (public) SACRIFICES.
(1934–92)
ÿravaæa (‘listening’)
Scholar of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi and The first of the three steps in MEDITATION.
Hindu law. He was professor of the
history of Indian religion and philoso- Ÿrï (‘good luck’, ‘fortune’, ‘prosperity’)
phy at the Süd-Asien Institut Heidelberg A name for Vi•æu’s consort (LAKÆMÏ).
(Germany), author of The Concept of The Sanskrit sign ÿrï is used as an aus-
Daya and The Joint Hindu Family, picious emblem on the covers of books,
studies of tribal deities (Khandobha) of the front of houses, and added as a hon-
Mahärä•flra, and producer of several orific to names of eminent persons or
films on tribal religions. books. In ordinary life today used as the
equivalent to ‘Mister’.
soul
Ÿrï-bhä•ya
See ÄTMAN; SELF. The title of RÄMÄNUJA’s commentary on
the BRAHMASÜTRA.
Spaæõaÿästra
Ÿrïkaæflha (13th century)
One of the two branches of KASHMIR An exponent of Ÿiva-viÿi•flädvaita,
ŸAIVISM. author of the Ÿrïkaæflhabhä•ya, com-
mented upon by Appaya Dïk•ita, a
sphofla (‘boil’) 16th-century Advaitin who belonged to
the so-called Bhämatï-school. (See also
A term used by grammarians and VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA.)
philosophers of language, such as
BHARTØHARI, to illustrate the sudden
appearance of the meaning of a WORD
after the individual letters have been
enunciated. Also identified with the
cause of the world, BRAHMAN. (See also
ŸABDA.)

Ÿrïraögam 176

Ÿrïraögam ship of Vi•æu and the principle of salva-
tion through Vi•æu’s grace alone, he
Situated on an island in the Kauverï ascribed to Ÿrï the important role of
river, near Tirucirapalli, it houses the mediatrix. Ÿrï is the prototype of the
famous Raöganätha (Vi•æu) temple, GURU who leads forgetful souls back to
surrounded by seven concentric walled- Vi•æu. She is also the embodiment of
in enclaves, arguably the biggest temple grace and mercy whose endeavours win
complex in India. It became famous as the forgiveness of Vi•æu for the devotee.
the seat of the Ÿrïvai•æava äcäryas
(teachers), of whom RÄMÄNUJA is con- Ÿrï-vatsa
sidered the greatest. He reordered tem-
ple worship and gave shape to the faith A mark on Vi•æu’s or Kø•æa’s chest,
of the Ÿrïvai•æava community. The indicating the presence of ŸRÏ.
history of the temple has been recorded
in the Ÿrïraöga Mähätmya and the Koil ÿøögära (‘erotic love’)
Olugu, which traces its origins back to
the Saögam period (first century CE). One of the RASAS of traditional Indian
Rämänuja had to flee from Ÿrïraögam, aesthetics.
and spent twelve years in a neighbour-
ing country because of persecution of Ÿøögerï
Vai•æavas by the ruling Ÿaiva king.
Later the temple was attacked several A mountain retreat in Karæätaka. It was
times and occupied by Muslim troops, named after Ø•yaÿønga, who according
but left largely untouched. Today it is a to tradition had his abode there. It
major place of pilgrimage and the centre became famous as the main centre of
of the southern branch of ŸRIVAIÆŒAVISM. Ÿaökara’s DAŸANÄMI samnyäsis. Since
the eighth century it has been occupied
Ÿrïvai•æavism by an uninterrupted succession of
Ÿaökaräcäryas, called jagad-gurus,
One of the four major Vai•æava many of them of great fame, such as
saƒpradäyas (sects), so called because SUREŸVARA, a direct disciple of ŸA¢KARA
of the role that Ÿrï (Vi•æu’s consort, (2), Vidyäÿaökara (13th century) and
LAKÆMÏ) plays in it. Ÿrïvai•æavism, MÄDHAVA (2). It contains, besides the
although representing an age-old tradi- ashram, a temple dedicated to Ÿäradä,
tion, received its doctrinal and ritual the goddess of wisdom, and a residen-
codification through the work of the tial school for instruction in Sanskrit
äcäryas of ŸRÏRA¢GAM: NÄfiHA MUNI; and traditional Hindu studies, especially
YAMUNÄCÄRYA; and RÄMÄNUJA. Later ADVAITA VEDÄNTA.
Ÿrïvai•æavism split into a northern
school (VA¥AGALAI) with its centre in sø•flhi
KÄÑCÏPURAM, and a southern school
(TE¢GALAI) with its centre in See CREATION.
ŸRÏRA¢GAM. The most renowned teacher
of the former was Pillai Lokäcärya ÿruti
(1205–1311), of the latter Vedänta (‘what has been heard’, ‘revelation’)
Deÿika (1269–1370).
The most sacred part of the scriptures of
The universally acknowledged greatest Hinduism. All Hindus consider the
Ÿrïvai•æava theologian was Rämänuja, Veda (Sa™hitäs, Brähmaæas, Äraæyakas,
through whom Ÿrïvai•æavism received Upani•ads) as ÿruti. Depending on affil-
its own Brahmasütra commentary, the iation, Puräæas, Ÿaiva Ägamas,
Ÿrïbhä•ya. While emphasizing the lord- Vai•æava Sa™hitäs and Tantras would

177 sukha-du.hkha

be considered ÿruti by the followers of ÿuddhi (‘purification’)
these saƒpradäyas (sects) as well. Ÿruti
is the ultimate authority in matters of A ceremony introduced by the ÄRYA
faith and practice: it can be interpreted, SAMÄJ to readmit (Indian) Muslims and
but not superseded or bypassed. Christians into the Hindu fold. (See also
PURITY.)

stotra (‘[Sanskrit] hymn’) Ÿüdra(s)
A large genre of religious composition, The fourth and lowest VARŒA (class),
usually in verse form, that is used in whose members do not receive
public and private worship. Many UPANAYANA or wear the sacred thread,
stotras were composed by famous are not entitled to recite or listen to the
people such as Ÿaökara, Rämänuja and Veda, and whose duty it is to serve the
Vivekänanda, or are part of Puräæas three higher varæas, the ‘twice-born’.
and other scriptures. Collections of such (See also CASTE; SOCIAL ORDER.)
hymns (Stotramäläs) are quite popular.
suffering
strï-dharma (‘women’s law’) This is unavoidably associated with a
That part of the Hindu lawbooks that bodily existence. Birth in SAßSÄRA is
deals specifically with the duties of indicative of a karmic necessity to atone
WOMEN. (through suffering) for past misdeeds.
Self-imposed suffering (TAPAS) is more
study effective than that imposed by others.
Daily study of scriptures (svädhyäya) is All Hindu systems of thought have been
a duty for all brahmins. Study is called devised to bring an end to suffering by
the ‘hightest austerity’ in the Upani•ads providing LIBERATION from the cycle of
and has always been considered a reli- rebirth.
gious necessity by Hindus. The support
of students and teachers was one of the suicide
sacred duties of Hindu kings. Many While suicide is normally condemned
temples maintain schools and the ‘gift by Hindus as a heinous crime, whose
of knowledge’ is considered the highest punishment consists in remaining a
charity. ghost (PRETA) and not finding rest after
death, under certain circumstances and
Subrahmaæia in certain places, for example at the
Äryan name for the Tamil god SA¢GAM in Präyäga, ‘religious suicide’
MURUGAN, introduced in the SA¢GAM was permitted or even commended.
(2) period.
Ÿuka-deva (1760–1838)
Sudäs The author of several works on YOGA
A Vedic king, famous for his SACRIFICES. and founder of the Cäraæadäsis, a
The ØÆIS (sages) VIŸVAMITRA and branch of YOGIS.
VASIÆfiHA lived at his court.
sukha–duåkha
ÿuddha (‘pure’) (‘enjoyment and pain’)
Especially in a ritual sense. (See also A necessary conjunction of states for
PURITY.) everyone living in SAßSÄRA.

•ukla-pak•a 178

ÿukla-pak•a (‘bright part’) Tiruttondattogai (part of the Tiru-
mulai), famous for his many miracles
The fortnight of a lunar month begin- and his practice of worshipping the
ning with the new moon (ämavasya). Its deity as a friend (sakhi).
opposite is KØÆŒA-PAKÆA.

Ÿukra (1) superimposition
The son of Bhøgu and a priest of BALI See ADHYÄSA.
and the DAITYAS, author of the Ÿukra-
nïti, a law code. (See also BHÄRGAVAS.) supreme reality
See BRAHMAN.
Ÿukra (2)
The planet Venus. Ÿukravar, Friday, is sura (‘god’)
named after it. The opposite of ASURA (demon).

sük•ma ÿarïra (‘subtle body’) Sürdäs (1479–1584)
The body formed of subtle matter that Born blind, he achieved great fame as a
does not disintegrate at the time of singer and composer of songs glorifying
death and that as the carrier of KARMA Kø•æa, collected in the Sürsägar, ‘The
is responsible for rebirth. (See also Ocean of Sürdäs’. He was a follower of
BODY.) VALLABHÄCÄRYA and celebrated the
Rädhä Kø•æa LÏLÄ. Emperor Akbar is
sükta said to have visited him incognito to lis-
A Vedic HYMN. ten to his songs.

Sumiträ Sureÿvara (ninth century)
The wife of Daÿaratha and mother of A direct disciple of ŸA¢KARA (2) and
Ÿatrughna and LAKÆMAŒA. author of such influential works of
ADVAITA VEDÄNTA as Nai•karmyasiddhi,
sun Bøhadäraæyakabhä•yavärttika and
The sun plays a major part in Hindu Taittirïyabhä•yavärttika. One of the
mythology. It was worshipped in the points where he disagrees with other
form of Sürya and glorified as one of Advaitins is his positing of the locus of
three chief Vedic deities in the Saura avidyä (ignorance) in brahman (the uni-
Puräæas (sun worship was supposed to versal), not in the jïvätmas (individual
bring relief from leprosy). Vi•æu has consciousness).
also been connected with the sun, and
his three strides have been associated Ÿurpa-nakhä
with the journey of the sun from morn- (‘one with nails like winnowing fans’)
ing through midday to evening. One of A sister of RÄVAŒA. She fell in love
the most celebrated temples of India is with Räma and offered to marry him.
the sun temple at Konärak in Orissa, He referred her to Lak•maæa, who cut
built in 1287. off her nose and ears, thus provoking
the enmity of Rävaæa, who subse-
Sundaramurti, Sundarar quently abducted Sïtä. (See also
(ninth century) RÄMÄYAŒA.)
One of the 63 NÄYAŒMÄRS, author of

179 svayam-bhü liögas

Sürsägar collections of them, e.g. Vedänta-
See SÜRDÄS. sütra(s), Kalpasütras etc. There are
sütras on virtually every traditional sub-
Sürya ject of study. They had to be memorized
See SUN. by students and were commented upon
by teachers.

sva-dharma (‘one’s own duty’)

Specific obligations for a member of a
particular VARŒA (social unit).

svädhyäya
See STUDY.

svapna sthäna (‘dream state’)
The second state of CONSCIOUSNESS.

Svarga (‘heaven’)

This refers especially to INDRA’s heaven,
the abode of blessed mortals, situated
on Mount MERU. In later Hinduism it is
usually considered a lower form of ulti-
mate bliss, as compared to Vi•æu’s
Vaikuæflha or the absorption in BRAH-
MAN. (See also INDRALOKA.)

Svarloka
See INDRALOKA.

Sürya, the sun. svastika
From svasti (hail), an ancient solar sym-
sustenance (sthithi) bol often found in Hindu temples as
One of the three divine cosmic functions well as on the first pages of books. It is
ascribed to the Supreme Being. Within thought to be auspicious.
the trimürti (Brahmä–Vi•æu–Ÿiva) Vi•æu
is called the ‘preserver’. He is immanent sva-tantra sädhus
in everything, and under particular cir- Ascetics who do not belong to one of
cumstances descends to earth as an the recognized saƒpradäyas (sects) and
AVATÄRA to save it from peril. (See also have not received initiation through an
ANNIHILATION; CREATION.) acknowledged guru.

su•upti (‘deep [dreamless] sleep’) svayam-bhü liögas
The third mode of CONSCIOUSNESS. (‘self-existent liögas’)
A number of LI¢GAS (3) believed to have
sütra (‘thread’, ‘string’) originated without human agency, and
Short formulaic statements as well as

svayam-vyakta 180

which are considered especially power- Ÿvetaketu
ful, such as the liöga formed of ice at A son of UDDÄLAKA, he received instruc-
Kedarnäflh. tion in the Chäæõogya Upani•ad
regarding the identity of ÄTMAN and
svayam-vyakta (‘self-revealed’) BRAHMAN. In the Mahäbhärata he is
mentioned as a ø•i (sage) who intro-
IMAGES that appear in dreams and are duced the law of marital exclusivity.
believed not to be artificially made.
They are considered more powerful Ÿvetäÿvatara Upani•ad
than artificial ones. One of the principal Upani•ads, belong-
ing to the YAJURVEDA, containing a fair-
Ÿveta-dvïpa (‘white island’) ly systematic discussion of Ÿiva Advaita.

Mentioned in the Näräyaæïya section of Ÿyäma (‘black’)
the Mahäbhärata as lying to the north A name of KØÆŒA.
of Bhärata, inhabited by a race of white
wise beings, worshippers of NÄRÄYAŒA,
who communicated to NÄRA and
Näräyaæa a doctrine of salvation.

T

Tagore, Debendranath authority referred to by PÄŒINÏ reputed
(1818–1905) to be the founder of a Vedic school of
the Black YAJURVEDA. He is the author
Religious and social reformer. Founder of the Taittirïya Saƒhitä, the Taittirïya
of Sädhäran Brahmo Samäj and of the Brähmaæa and the Taittirïya Upani•ad.
forest retreat Ÿantiniketan, near
Calcutta. Known as ‘Mahar•i’, he dis- tamas
carded the sacred thread and claimed to See GUŒA.
receive direct messages from the
Almighty, which he communicated to tämasa-ÿästras
his disciples. He compiled the Brahmo- (‘scriptures of darkness’)
dharma, an anthology from the The designation of all non-Vai•æava
Upani•ads, the Mahäbhärata and scriptures by VAIÆŒAVAS.
Manusmøti.
täæõava
Tagore, Rabindranath The dance of world destruction, per-
(1861–1941) formed by ŸIVA in Cidambaram. Its ety-
mology is derived from Taæõu, one of
Son of Debendranath Tagore, poet, Ÿiva’s attendants, who invented the
painter, playwright, essayist, founder of dance.
the forest university Ÿantiniketan and
the women’s university Ÿrïniketan. He Tanjore
received the Nobel Prize for Literature A city in Tamilnäõü, famous for the
in 1913 for his collection of poems Bøhadïÿvara (Ÿiva) temple, built by the
Gïtäñjalï and a knighthood in 1915. He COLA king Rajaraja I (985–1013), one
was fond of the Baul songs of Bengal of the largest in India. According to
and wrote poetry and plays both in tradition the king built this temple in
Bengali and English. Among his major the hope of being cured from
prose works are Sädhana and Creative leprosy.
Unity. He lectured and travelled widely
all over the world, and received many
honours.

Taittirïya Tantra (1) (‘ritual’, ‘rule’)
(‘relating to Tittiri [the partridge])’
The designation of a class of works con-
A Vedic sage, the pupil of YÄSKA, an nected to goddess worship.

Tantra 182

Tantra (2) Tärä (‘star’)
The wife of BØHASPATI. She was abduct-
A form of Hinduism in which ÿakti, the ed by Soma, the moon, and recovered
energy of Ÿiva, is worshipped. ‘Right- by Brahmä. She was delivered of a child,
hand’ Tantra (daksinäcära) is a form of fathered by Soma, whom she called
Goddess worship similar to that of Budha (Mercury).
Vi•æu. ‘Left-hand’ Tantra (vämäcära)
involves the worshippers in secret ritu- tarka-ÿästra
als that are characterized as pañca- (‘the science of reasoning’)
makäras (the ‘5 ms’), namely madya Formal logic, part of NYÄYA.
(intoxicating drinks), mäƒsa (meat),
matsya (fish), mudrä (parched grain and Tarka-bhä•a
gestures), and maithuna (extramarital See KEŸAVA MIŸRA.
sexual intercourse).
tarpaæa
Tantra-värttika Libation, the sprinkling of water as part
of certain rituals, especially connected
A subcommentary by KUMÄRILA with the commemoration of ancestors.
BHAfifiA on part of the Ÿäbarabhä•ya.
tat tvam asi (‘that you are’)
tapas (‘heat’) One of the MAHÄVÄKYAS (from the
Chäæõogya Upani•ad) teaching the
Self-mortification. This is an important unity of self (tvam) and absolute (tat).
notion in Hinduism from the earliest
times to the present. According to wide- tattva
spread belief, self-mortification leads to (‘principle’, ‘element’, ‘that-ness’)
an accumulation of power which can be True or essential nature.
used to summon the gods to be of ser-
vice. Many stories in the epics and Tattva-cintä-maæi
Puräæas tell of attempts by Indra and A celebrated work by GA¢GEŸA, consid-
other gods to prevent ascetics from accu- ered the basic text of Navya NYÄYA,
mulating too much power through tapas, dealing with the PRAMÄŒAS.
by either having them seduced or pro-
voked to anger, through which all power tattva-jñäna (‘knowledge of
was annihilated. Hindu scriptures enu- principles, or of truth’)
merate a great variety of forms of tapas: Metaphysics.
besides fasting or not lying down to
sleep, they recommend standing in water Telang, Käÿïnäth Trimbak
up to the neck, holding one arm up high, (1850–93)
looking into the sun etc. One of the most Professor of law at Bombay University
celebrated forms is the ‘five-fire’ tapas: and notable Sanskrit scholar, as well as
an ascetic is to build four blazing cow- social reformer, editor of Bhartøhari’s
dung fires, in each direction of the com- Nïti-ÿätaka and Vairägya-ÿätaka and
pass. With the midday sun overhead (as Viÿakhadatta’s Mudrä-räk•asa. He
a fifth fire) he is to spend some time wrote important essays on the
exposed to the heat of all these fires.

Tapo-loka
The second-highest of the worlds in the
Hindu universe, below Satyaloka (see
BRAHMÄ-LOKA).

183 time

Mahäbhärata and the Rämäyaæa and also more tolerant with regard to CASTE
entered into polemics with Western affiliation of teachers. (See also PILLAI
Indologists on several issues. He trans- LOKÄCÄRYA.)
lated the Bhagavadgïtä for the Sacred
Books of the East (1880). Thibaut, Georg (1848–1914)

temples (maæõira) Prominent German Indologist. After
studying Indology in Heidelberg and
While the Vedas do not mention tem- Berlin, concentrating on Vedic studies,
ples (yajñas (sacrifices) were performed he became assistant to Max MÜLLER in
on temporarily established sites) these Oxford in editing the Øgveda. In 1875
have been a hallmark of Hinduism since he moved to India, first as Anglo-
the fifth century CE. Hindu temples are Sanskrit professor and principal at the
not primarily places of meeting for a Benares Hindu College, then as profes-
congregation to worship as community, sor and principal of Muir Central
but palaces for the god who is present in College. His work on Indian mathemat-
an IMAGE (mürti) and who is wor- ics and astronomy was pathbreaking.
shipped individually by an appointed He was co-editor of the Benares
priest. In the course of centuries Hindus Sanskrit Series and translated a number
have developed a great variety of archi- of important works into English, e.g.
tectural styles for temples, the chief ones ŸA¢KARA’s (2) and RÄMÄNUJA’s commen-
being the nägara or North Indian, and taries on the Brahmasütras, which
the dräviõa, or South Indian styles. All appeared in the Sacred Books of the East.
details of temple construction are laid
down in the texts on västuÿästra. A vil- Tilak, Bal Gangadhar
lage or a town was not deemed com- (1856–1920)
plete and habitable unless it had a
temple. Some of the major temples are Poona-based lawyer, revolutionary,
veritable temple cities and attract mil- educator, founder of Fergusson College,
lions of worshippers every year. The editor of newspapers and author of sev-
major temples have Sthäla Puräæas eral important, if controversial works:
which record their histories and major Orion or Researches into the Antiquity
events that took place at the site. To of the Vedas (1893), and The Arctic
have a temple built has been a time- Home in the Vedas (1903), in which he
honoured activity among Hindus, still postulated prehistoric origins of the
much in evidence in modern India and Vedas. He wrote a Mahratti commen-
also among Hindus in the diaspora. (See tary on the Bhagavadgïtä, Gïtä Rahasya
also ARCHITECTURE.) (1915), subtitled The Gïtä as a Gospel
of Action, which became very popular.
Teögalai Forbidden by the British authorities to
organize political mass rallies, he used
Southern school of ŸRÏ VAIÆŒAVISM, giv- the local GAŒEŸA festival as an occasion
ing equal weight to Sanskrit and Tamil for huge protest demonstrations. Since
scriptures (Ubhäya Vedänta) with its then GAŒEŸA CATÜRTHI has become a
seat in Ÿrïraægam. It is also known as major religious festival in Mahärä•flra.
the cat school, because it believes that
God’s grace saves without human time
effort, as a cat carries its kitten from fire
without the kitten’s active co-operation Most Hindu systems distinguish
(märjaranyäya). The Teögalais were between divisible and indivisible time:
the first is identified with empirical time

time, divisions of 184

and its divisions, the second is an uncre- but these differences are not related to
ated principle of the universe. The different ideological conceptions of
Øgveda speaks of the rotating wheel of time. The major divisions of time are
time as having 12 spokes, it connects effected by the revolutions of moon, sun
the seasons with the ingredients of the and Jupiter (Bøhaspati). The lunar
all-important SACRIFICE. The Maitri month is divided into a dark half
Upani•ad contains the famous passage: (KØÆŒAPAKÆA) and a bright half
‘Time cooks all things in the great self. (ŸUKLAPAKÆA); each half is divided into
He who knows in what time is cooked fifteen tithis (each with a specific name).
is the knower of the Veda.’ In the The solar movement divides the year
Mahäbhärata time appears as fate into six seasons (determined by entry
(daiva) or even death. Time is seen both into certain constellations) and twelve
as giver of happiness and misery; its solar months. The seasons are vasanta
effects are considered inescapable. In (spring), grïÿma (hot season), var•a
the Puräæas time (käla) is often intro- (rainy season), ÿaräd (autumn), hemän-
duced as one of the uncreated principles ta (winter), ÿiÿira (cool season). The
on a par with pradhäna (matter) and months (beginning with Caitra in
puru•a (spirit), emerging from the spring) are neither identical with the
unmanifested being (avyäkta). The months of the Western calendar nor
Yogaväsi•flha Rämäyaæa has a large sec- with the lunar months. Every now and
tion devoted to käla: time is said to be then an intercalary month is required to
the cause for both the creation and the realign the beginning of spring with the
destruction of the universe. Käla is com- beginning of the month Caitra (or
pared to an actor, who appears on the Me•a). Different schools of astronomers
stage, disappears and reappears again to issue yearly calendars/almanacs (pañ-
perform his play. In the Bhagavadgïtä cäöga) which are followed by different
Kø•æa says about himself: ‘Time am I, groups of people. Major feasts are
world-destroying, grown mature, sometimes celebrated on different days
engaged in subduing the world.’ In one (even a month apart) because of dis-
of the last sections of the Mahäbhärata, agreements between the calendars. For
the Mauÿalyaparvaæ, which is charac- astronomical/astrological calculations
terized by a deep sense of doom, the the nak•atras (‘houses’) are important:
speaker tells us that his heroes ‘met with there are 28, each measuring 13º20’ of
destruction, impelled by time.’ Time (in the ecliptic. Each nak•atra is subdivided
an embodied form) is described as wan- into 4 pädas of 3º20’ each. Over and
dering around the earth: ‘He looked like above the lunar and solar cycles, the 12-
a man of terrible and fierce aspect’ and year and 60-year cycles of Jupiter are
was ‘none else but the Destroyer of all important.
creatures’. The evil deeds the protago-
nists commit and which earn them their The 24-hour solar day is subdivided
fate are ascribed to ‘the perverseness of into 30 muhürtas (48 minutes each). A
the hour that had come upon them’. muhürta is subdivided into two ghati
(of 24 minutes each). Each ghati is sub-
time, divisions of divided into 30 käla (of 48 seconds
each). Each käla is divided into 2 pala
Regardless of philosophical differences (of 24 seconds each), and each pala into
Hindus throughout the ages accepted 6 präæa (of 4 seconds each). Each präna
certain divisions of empirical time is divided into 10 vipala (of 0.4 seconds
which were used both in daily life and in each) and each vipala into 60
astronomical/astrological calculations. prativipala (0.000666 seconds each).
Different systems were and are used, One month in human terms is consid-

185 time, philosophies of

ered to be one day and night of the pitø all pervasive. Time is an instrument in
(deceased forefathers); one human year the cosmic sport of God. In his ‘sport
is equal to one day and night of the deva manifestation’ God functions as depen-
(gods); one thousand years of the deva dent on time.
is equal to one day of Brahmä. History
is reckoned in manvantara, ‘ages of Relativistic notions of time: for the
patriarchs’ of which there are fourteen, Advaitin ŸA¢KARA (2) brahman, which
each presided over by a specific MANU is timeless, is the only reality. Time does
(2). The largest time-frame are the not possess an independent reality of its
kalpas (eons) equal to 4,320,000 years, own; it is only associated with events in
and subdivided into 4 yugas, each suc- time.
cessively shorter and more wicked.
(Køta Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dväpara Yuga Momentariness vs. temporality:
and Kali Yuga). We are at present living PATAÑJALI defines the end and purpose
in a Kali Yuga (age of strife) which will of YOGA to be ‘the cessation of all mod-
end with a pralaya (total dissolution of ifications of consciousness’ and endeav-
the world) before a new age arises. As ours to lead the practitioner to a
regards details of these calculations transcendence of time and space. Since
there is a certain amount of discrepancy the ultimate condition is one of time-
among various authors. But the notion lessness, time cannot be an aspect of
of a devolution of history, a gradual and reality. ‘Temporality’ is a figment of the
irreversible worsening of the world situ- imagination; however, the moments
ation is common to all, as is the idea of that cause the perception of time are
a cyclic destruction and creation of the real. The Yogasütra says that one gains
universe, whether attributed to the metaphysical knowledge by concentrat-
action of a deity or to an impersonal ing on the sequence of moments. As the
process. (See also CALENDAR; FESTIVALS.) commentator VYÄSA explains: ‘Just as
the atom (paramäæu) is the smallest
time, philosophies of particle of matter (dravya) so a moment
(k•aæa) is the smallest particle of time
Substantialist notions of time: In the (käla).’ Physically a k•aæa is the amount
VAIŸEÆIKA system, time is one of nine of time an atom in motion takes to cross
substances (dravya). It is described as a space equalling the space it occupies.
‘of three kinds, being characterized by The sequence of such moments cannot
creation, sustention and destruction’. be combined into a ‘thing’. Notions
NYÄYA accepts the Vaiÿe•ika notion of such as ‘hours’ or ‘days’ are mental
time as a substance and attempts to combinations. Time (käla) is not a real
work out the epistemological implica- thing, but is based on changes in the
tions. It holds that ‘perception and the mind. The moment, however, is a real
rest cannot be regarded as instruments thing in itself and constitutive of the
of cognition on account of the impossi- sequence. The sequence is constituted
bility of connecting them with any of by an uninterrupted succession of
the three points of time.’ VIŸIÆfiÄDVAITA moments. Past and future can be
considers the physical universe to be explained on the basis of change. The
‘the body of God’ and thus invests world that exists in this moment under-
nature with a degree of reality hardly goes instant change. Patañjali accepts
parallelled anywhere else. Consequently the notions of present, past and future.
time also acquires a substantiality of its Unlike the present, however, past and
own as the manifestation of God’s eter- future do not exist in manifest form.
nity and omnipresence. It is eternal and When the mental condition called dhar-
mamegha is reached, the sequence of
changes comes to an end and the

tïrtha 186

sequence can no longer sustain even a declared the image to be Vi•æu and
k•aæa. In dharmameghasamädhï the introduced a mode of worship follow-
YOGI reaches a zero-time experience ing the example of ŸRÏRA¢GAM. One
before merging his consciousness in the peculiar custom at Tirupati is the offer-
timeless KAIVALYA. ing of one’s hair. Veökafla also has the
reputation of fulfilling all the desires of
tïrtha (‘ford’) his devotees, who deliver large dona-
A place of PILGRIMAGE. There are thou- tions of money and valuables into a
sands of places of pilgrimage in India, huge hundi (chest). The temple complex
visited every year by millions of people. is under the administration of the
Each tïrtha offers something special, be Tamilnäõü Devasthänam Board and its
it a particular blessing, the favour of a enormous income is used, among other
deity or a natural peculiarity. Usually things, to support the Veökafleÿvar
pilgrims arriving at a tïrtha are being University and a temple museum.
taken care of by local paæõas (guides)
who for a fee show the pilgrims around Tiru-väcakam (‘sacred utterances’)
and tell them what ceremonies to per-
form. The title of a celebrated collection of
hymns in honour of Ÿiva, by
Tirukkural (first century CE?) MÄŒIKKAVÄCAKAR, one of the 63
Ancient collection of aphorisms, in Näyaæmärs.
Tamil, often called the ‘Tamil Bible’
because of its popularity and wisdom. tithi (‘day’)

Tirumal The thirtieth part of a lunar month, the
Tamil name for VIÆŒU. basic unit of the Hindu calendar,
according to which sacred days and fes-
tivals are calculated. (See also TIME,
DIVISIONS OF.)

Tirumular Tolkappiam (second century CE)
An ancient Tamil grammar, considered
The legendary author of the 3,000 verse the oldest Tamil text.
Tirumaæõira, an importance source for
Ÿaiva Siddhänta. According to the tradition
Periya Puräæa he was born in Kailäsa, See SMØTI.
entered the body of a dead cowherd,
and spent 3,000 years composing the transmigration
Tirumaæõira, one verse per year. The See REBIRTH.
Tirumaæõira, one of the earliest works
of Tamil Ÿaivism, is believed to have trees
been written in the seventh or eighth Trees are considered models of generos-
century CE. ity and patience. Some trees are sacred
to specific deities: the TULASÏ is sacred to
Tirupati (‘Holy Lord’) Vai•æavas, the bilva to Ÿaivites. Major
trees in or near a village often become
Arguably the most popular and richest objects of worship, or shrines are built
Hindu temple, in Andhra Pradesh, beneath them. There is also a ceremony
sacred to Veökafla, assumed to be
HARI–HARA, i.e. a combination of Vi•æu
and Ÿiva. While it functioned as a Ÿaiva
shrine for several centuries, RÄMÄNUJA

187 tri-märga

The wedding of trees.

called ‘marriage of the trees’, when two Trilocana (‘three-eyed’)
close-standing trees are united in a ritu- A designation of Ÿiva, who has a third
al not unlike that of vivaha (MARRIAGE). eye in the middle of his forehead that is
very destructive. He burned KÄMA to
Tretä Yuga death with a glance from it.
The second of the four world ages. (See
also TIME, DIVISIONS OF.) triloka (‘three worlds’)
Variously understood as either compris-
trident (triÿula) ing netherworlds (näraka), earth
Ÿiva’s weapon. It is also carried by (bhümi) and heaven (svarga), or earth
Ÿaivite NÄGAS (3) both as a symbol and (bhurloka), sky (bhuvarloka) and plan-
a weapon. ets (svarloka). The great gods are often
called ‘rulers of the three worlds’.
triguæa (‘[possessing] three qualities’)
The designation of matter (prakøti) as tri-märga (‘three ways’)
composed of sattva (light), rajas (excite- The triad of karmamärga (path of
ment) and tamas (darkness), affecting action), bhaktimärga (path of devotion)
all material entities. (See also GUŒA.) and jñänamärga (path of knowledge).

tri-mürti 188

tri-mürti (‘three forms’) artificer, to construct three aerial
fortresses – one each of gold, silver and
The designation either of the triad of iron – of immense dimensions, and
Brahmä (creator), Vi•æu (sustainer) and wonderfully equipped with all conceiv-
Ÿiva (destroyer), or of the three aspects able amenities. They terrorized the pop-
of either Vi•æu, Ÿiva or Devï, each exer- ulation of the earth from their triple
cising these three functions. city, and so humans and devas (gods)
asked Brahmä for help. Brahmä told
them that only Sthänu (an aspect of
Ÿiva) could pierce all three cities with
one shaft. Ÿiva accordingly had an
armoured car made, with the help of all
the gods, and shot a fiery arrow into
Tripura, destroying it.

A replica of the famous Tri-mürti in the Triÿaöku (‘three arrows’)
caves of Ganapuri (Elephants) near
Mumbai (Bombay). A mythical king of the solar dynasty, he
was first called Satyavrata but later
tripunõøa called Triÿaöku because he had ruined
A mark on the forehead consisting of his reputation through the three
three parallel lines, made with ashes ‘arrows’ of adultery, cow killing and
from cowdung, which Ÿaivites have to beef eating. He tried to persuade his
apply before worship. Without wearing family priest, VAŸIÆfiHA, to perform a
this sign all prayers would be fruitless. SACRIFICE through which he would be
(See also ŸAIVISM.) able bodily to ascend to heaven. Tri-
ÿaöku was condemned by Vaÿi•flha to
become a caæõäla (OUTCASTE), but
VIŸVAMITRA, who had been helped by
Triÿaöku in times of famine, performed
the ritual. Rejected by INDRA at the
entrance to heaven, Triÿaöku remained
suspended from the vault of heaven,
head downwards, and can be seen as a
star. Triÿaöku is often referred to in
India as an example for a task only half
accomplished.

Tri-purä tri-sthalï (‘three places’)
A name of the Goddess (DEVÏ). A The most sacred places of PILGRIMAGE
famous tantric text is called for Hindus: Väräæasï, Gayä and
Tripurärahasya. Präyäga. There is a famous work by
Naräyaæabhaflfla, Tristhalïsetu (‘Bridge
Tri-pura (‘triple city’) of Three Places’), which describes them
An aerial tri-tiered phenomenon, which in detail.
was destroyed by Ÿiva. The story
according to the Ÿiva Puräæas, is that tri-varga (1) (‘three states’)
three ASURAS (demons), desirous of The three aims of life: ARTHA (1)
immortality, asked MAYA, the divine (wealth), KÄMA and DHARMA (law).

189 twice-born

tri-varga (2) in a family that worshipped VIfiHOBA
(Vi•æu). Neglecting his family business,
Three conditions: loss, stability and he spent his days composing abhaögs
increase. (songs) in the temple. His life is sur-
rounded by many miraculous events.
tri-varga (3) He is one of the most popular of all
poet-saints, and his memory is kept
The three qualities of nature: sattva, alive by the Värkarïs, a group of devo-
rajas, tamas. tees of Viflhoba at Dehu, who meet
every fortnight to spend hours singing
tri-varga (4) Tukäräm’s abhaögs.

The three higher VARŒAS: Brähmaæas, tulasï
K•atriyas and Vaiÿyas.
The sacred basil, a shrub identified with
Tri-vikrama the presence of Vi•æu, kept by each
pious VAIÆŒAVA household in a pot,
A name of VIÆŒU, referring to the three worshipped and used in rituals. Beads
strides he took at BALI’s sacrifice. made from its wood (tulsïmälä) are
worn by many Vai•æavas around the
truth arm and neck, and also carried along to
count JAPA of the holy names.
The Sanskrit word satya means both
truth and reality; it is the central notion Tul(a)sïdäs(a) (1511–1637)
of Hindu ethics and philosophy/theolo- (‘servant of the tulasï’)
gy. Truthfulness is the highest and most
inclusive virtue; the search for reality – Celebrated author of the Rämcarit-
satyasya satya, ‘the reality of the real, manas, a Hindï (Avadhï) recreation of
the truth of truth’ – is the ultimate aim the Rämäyaæa, which has become the
of VEDÄNTA. The ‘golden age’ of most popular religious book of North
humankind was called satyayuga, the India, and of many hymns and poems
age of truth when people were honest celebrating the greatness of Räma.
and did not need any laws. In Hindu
philosophy much effort was spent on turïya (‘the fourth [state]’)
definining criteria for truth (PRAMÄŒAS).
SAMNYÄSA is meant to be an uncompro- A designation of the highest stage of
mising search for truth/reality not hin- CONSCIOUSNESS, when subject–object
dered by the necessities of conventions duality disappears.
and the burden of everyday occupations.
Mahatma GANDHI prided himself in Tvastø
reversing the adage ‘God is Truth’ into
‘Truth is God’ and he called his political In the Øgveda he is the ideal artist and
method satyägraha, ‘truth- grasping’. His artisan, manufacturer of many wonder-
autobiography bears the title My ful contraptions, nourisher of all beings.
Experiments with Truth. The Indian His son Viÿvarüpa, three-headed and
government adopted the Upani•adic for- six-eyed, became an enemy of Indra and
mula satyam eva jayate (Truth will be was killed by him. In the Puräæas Tvastø
victorious) as the crest on its official seal. is identified with VIŸVAKARMA (2), the
architect of the gods.
Tukäräm(a) (1608–49)
twice-born
Mahratta poet-saint. Born into a ŸÜDRA
family in Dehu, near Pune, he grew up See DVIJÄTI.