D.4 tHe Heart
D-bsd qusions: Cholesterol Figure 1 7 shows the results. Each point on the
graph shows the mean blood cholesterol level for
Cholesterol and lipids are not soluble in the the two age groups in one state.
blood because blood is water-based. To solve
this problem, lipids are transported in the blood 1 State the relationship between cholesterol
in the form of lipoproteins called chylomicrons.
The concentration of cholesterol in the blood as levels in young people and adults. [1 ]
lipoproteins is a determining factor in the onset
of coronary heart disease. 2 Predict, using the data in the graph, how
In 1 998 the blood cholesterol level of 70,000 the blood cholesterol level usually changes
people in Mexico was measured. The people
were divided into two age groups: 1 to 1 9 (young over a lifetime. [2]
people) and 20 to 98 (adults) . Mean blood
cholesterol levels were calculated for the two age 3 The maximum desirable blood cholesterol
groups in each of the different states of Mexico.
level is 200 mg 1 00cm-3 of blood. Suggest the
implications of the survey of blood cholesterol
levels for the population of Mexico. [3]
220
210
Mean blood cholesterol 200
level of adults / mg 100 cm-3
190
180
170
160
150
130 140 150 160 170 180
Mean blood cholesterol level of young people / mg 100 cm-3
Figure 17 Relationship between blood cholesterol in adults and blood circulation in adolescents in diferent Mexican states
693
D Human pHysiology
D.5 Hormones nd metboism (aHl)
uderstdig applictios
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly Some athletes take growth hormones to build
into the bloodstream. muscles.
Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins Control o milk secretion by oxytocin and
in the cytoplasm o the target cell to orm a prolactin.
receptorhormone complex.
ntre of sciece
The receptorhormone complex promotes the
transcription o specifc genes. Cooperation and collaboration between groups
o scientists: the International Council or the
Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the Control o Iodine Defciency Disorders includes
plasma membrane o the target cell. a number o scientists who work to eliminate
the harm done by iodine defciency.
Binding o hormones to membrane receptors
activates a cascade mediated by a second
messenger inside the cell.
The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion
by the anterior and posterior lobes o the
pituitary gland.
Hormones secreted by the pituitary control
growth, developmental changes, reproduction
and homeostasis.
secretory blood vessel Edocrie glds
vesicles hormone
molecules Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the
endocrine cell bloodstream.
target cell
Endocrine glands are structures that secrete chemical messages, called
Figure 1 Endocrine glands secrete hormones, directly into the blood. These messages are transported
chemical messages directly into the blood to specic target cells (gure 1 ) . Hormones can be steroids, proteins,
glycoproteins, polypeptides, amines or tyrosine derivatives.
As an example, gure 2 shows a cross-section through a thyroid gland
ollicle. Thyroid hormones regulate the bodys metabolism. The ollicle
consists o a layer o cells ( pink) around a central storage chamber. The
cells produce the thyroid hormones and secrete them into the central
chamber where they are stored in a viscous fuid colloid (yellow) .
The ollicle is surrounded by blood vessels (red) , which transport the
hormones around the body.
Figure 2
694
D.5 Hormones anD metaBolism (aHl)
edcg d dfccy
Cooperation and collaboration between groups o scientists: the International
Council or the Control o Iodine Defciency Disorders includes a number o
scientists who work to eliminate the harm done by iodine defciency.
Thyroid hormone reers to two similar hormones national governments to eliminate iodine
derived rom tyrosine. Triiodothyronine defciency, mainly through a push or universal
(T3) contains three iodine atoms and iodization o salt.
tetraiodothyronine (T ) contains our iodine
Since it was created the ICCIDD has partnered
4 with academic institutions to produce reerence
works that guide national eorts to overcome
atoms. Correct unctioning o the thyroid iodine defciency disorder.
requires iodine in the diet. I there is dietary
insufciency, then there are a number o
consequences including a condition known
as goiter. The inability to produce the thyroid
hormones because o the absence o iodine
means that the hypothalamus and the anterior
pituitary continuously stimulate the thyroid
and enlargement o the thyroid results. Iodine
defciency during pregnancy can aect etal
nervous development and can lead to mental
retardation in children.
The International Council or the Control Figure 3
o Iodine Defciency Disorders (ICCIDD) is a
non-governmental organization (NGO) that is
partnered with intergovernmental organizations
such as UNICEF and the WHO as well as
The mechanism of action of lipid-soluble nucleus
steroid hormone
steroid hormones passes through
membrane receptor
Steroid hormones bind to receptor
proteins in the cytoplasm o the target protein
cell to orm a receptorhormone complex. in cytoplasm
Peptide hormones and lipid hormones dier in hormonereceptor
their solubility. This leads to dierent mechanisms complex attaches
o action. Both types o hormones act by binding to DNA
to a receptor.
DNA
Steroid hormones can cross directly through the
plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane instructions for synthesis
and bind to receptors (see fgure 4) . An example ofa polypeptide
is estrogen. The receptorhormone complex then
serves as a transcription actor, promoting or membrane of cytoplasm
inhibiting the transcription o a certain gene. target cell
polypeptide synthesized by
ribosomes and mRNA
Figure 4 Mechanism of action of steroid hormones
695
D H um an pH ysiology
696 The receptorhorone coplex
The receptorhormone complex promotes the
transcription o specifc genes.
The steroid hormone calcierol crosses the intestinal cell membrane and
binds to a receptor within the nucleus o the cell. The receptorhormone
complex eects expression o the calcium transport protein calbindin in
the small intestine which then allows or the absorption o calcium rom
the intestine.
Some steroids, such as cortisol, bind to receptors in the cytoplasm
and the receptorhormone complex then passes through the nuclear
membrane into the nucleus to eect transcription.
The hormone may have dierent eects in dierent cells and it may
even have an inhibitory eect. For example, when the steroid hormone
cortisol binds to its receptor in the cytoplasm o a liver cell and enters
the nucleus it activates many o the genes needed or gluconeogenesis;
i.e., the conversion o at and protein into glucose raising blood glucose.
At the same time, it decreases the expression o the insulin receptor
gene, preventing glucose rom being stored in the cells and also raising
blood glucose. In the pancreas, the cortisolreceptor complex inhibits the
transcription o insulin genes.
mechanis of action of peptide horones
Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma
membrane o the target cell.
Protein hormones are hydrophilic so they cannot pass through
the membrane directly. Instead they bind to surace receptors that
can trigger a cascade reaction mediated by chemicals called second
messengers.
The role of second essengers
Binding o hormones to membrane receptors activates
a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside
the cell.
Second messengers are small water soluble molecules that can quickly
spread throughout the cytoplasm and relay signals throughout the
cells. Calcium ions and cyclic AMP (cAMP) are the two most common
second messengers. A large number o proteins are sensitive to the
concentration o these molecules.
Epinephrine is a hormone that mediates the ght or fight response
when released. When under threat, an organism needs a supply o
blood glucose as an energy source. When epinephrine reaches the liver,
it binds to a receptor called the G- protein couple receptor. B inding to
the receptor activates the G-protein which uses guanosine triphosphate
(GTP) as an energy source to activate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase. This
converts ATP to cAMP. The cAMP then activates protein kinase enzymes
D.5 Hormones anD metaBolism (aHl)
which in turn activate the processes o glycogen breakdown and inhibit
glycogen synthesis.
epinephrine
binds to membrane cytoplasm
receptor of target cell (liver cell)
protein to
form a activated inactive cascade eect
receptor- G-protein protein kinase
hormone enzyme inactive
complex activated adenylyl phosphorylase
kinase enzyme inactive glycogen
cyclase enzyme phosphorylase
ATP enzyme
active
epinephrine enzyme active active
(rst messenger) enzyme enzyme glucose
cAM P
second glycogen phosphate
messenger
Figure 5 Mechanism of action of adrenaline on a liver cell
pituitary hormones
Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth,
developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis.
The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes a number o hormones
that control growth, reproduction and homeostasis. Examples include
FSH and LH. The posterior pituitary gland secretes oxytocin and ADH,
but these hormones are not produced there. Instead, they are synthesized
in unusual cells called neurosecretory cells ound in the hypothalamus.
The hormones travel down the axons o the neurosecretory cells and are
stored at the ends o the axons, until impulses pass down the axons rom
the hypothalamus, stimulating secretion.
The role of the hyothalamus neuron in
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the produces releasing
anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland. fa ct o r
Both the nervous system and the endocrine system play a role in releasing factor
homeostasis and in the control o other processes including reproduction. ows through portal
The hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via vein to anterior
the pituitary gland. There are two parts o the pituitary gland, which are pituitary gland
eectively dierent glands, with a dierent mode o operation.
cell of anterior
The role o the hypothalamus is to secrete releasing actors, which pituitary gland
stimulate the secretion o the anterior pituitary glands hormones. The
releasing actors are carried rom the hypothalamus to the anterior capillary
pituitary gland by a portal vein. This is an unusual type o blood vessel as
it links two capillary networks one in the hypothalamus which unites Figure 6 A portal vein carries
to orm the portal vein and another in the anterior pituitary gland, rom releasing factors to the anterior
which blood fows on to the rest o the body (gure 6) . pituitary
Negative eedback is involved in the control o secretion o many o
the pituitary hormones. ADH can be used as an example. Blood solute
concentration is monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. I these
receptors detect that the solute concentration is too high, impulses are sent
697
D Human pHysiology
Neurosecretory cells
Supraoptic nucleus Paraventricular nucleus
(cells secrete oxytocin) (cells secrete ADH)
Hypothalamus
I n fu n d i b u l u m Artery
Inow ofblood
Axon terminals(release
hormones into capillaries)
Anterior Capillary bed
pituitary Posterior pituitary
Vein
Outow
Figure 7 The neurosecretory cells carry the hormones to
the posterior pituitary
Figure 8 Coloured transmission electron along the axons of neurosecretory cells, causing ADH secretion to increase.
micrograph (TEM) of cells in the anterior ADH acts on the kidney, as described in sub-topic 1 1 .3. It causes blood
pituitary gland, a hormone-secreting gland solute concentration to decrease. If blood solute concentrations decrease
at the base of the brain. The cells' nuclei, too much, this is also detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
which contain their genetic information, are Fewer or no impulses are sent via neurosecretory cells, so ADH secretion
purple. The cell at centre is a somatotroph reduces or stops. This allows blood solute concentrations to rise.
cell, a secretory cell that has granules (red)
containing hormones to be secreted in its Regulation of milk secretion
cytoplasm (green) . Somatotrophs secrete
human growth hormone, which promotes Control of milk secretion by oxytocin and prolactin.
growth and controls numerous metabolic
processes A unique adaptation of mammals is the production of milk in
mammary glands for feeding offspring. The production and secretion
of milk is under hormonal control.
Prolactin is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary found in
a number of vertebrate species where it has a wide diversity of roles.
It is not limited to mammals. However, in mammals it stimulates
mammary glands to grow and it also stimulates the production of
milk.
D uring pregnancy, high levels of estrogen increase prolactin
production but inhibit the effects of prolactin on mammary glands.
The abrupt decline in estrogen and progesterone following delivery
removes this inhibition and the production of milk begins. However,
the release of the milk after it is produced depends on the hormone
oxytocin. Nursing by an infant stimulates the continued creation of
prolactin. It also stimulates oxytocin release. Oxytocin stimulates the
contraction of cells that surround the structures holding the milk
leading to the ejection of the milk.
Oxytocin is produced by the neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus
and is stored in the posterior pituitary gland.
698
D.6 transPort oF resPiratory gases ( aHl)
Ijectio of growth hormoe by thlete
Some athletes take growth hormones to build muscles.
Growth hormone is another polypeptide Because there is a correlation between muscle
hormone produced in the anterior pituitary. size and strength, competitors in sports that
One o its main targets is receptors in liver cells. require short bursts o explosive strength would
The binding o growth hormone stimulates beneft. While it is clear that it leads to greater
the release o insulin-like growth actor which muscle mass, the data is not clear that it leads to
circulates in the blood and stimulates bone and greater strength. Another claim is that it allows
cartilage growth. Growth hormone has a number tired muscles to recover more quickly allowing
o additional aects, one o which is increase in an individual to train harder and more oten.
muscle mass. For this reason, it has been used as The scientifc research on the topic suggests
a perormance enhancing drug. The availability that the benefts provided in terms o enhanced
o growth hormone has increased due to the perormance are small or non-existent compared
development o genetically modifed organisms to the risks o injecting the hormone. For this
that can produce it in large quantities. reason, use o the drug is banned by most
international sporting ederations.
D.6 tp f p (aHl)
udertdig applictio
Oxygen dissociation curves show the afnity o Consequences ohigh altitude or gas exchange.
hemoglobin or oxygen. pH o blood is regulated to stay within the
Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound narrow range o 7.35 to 7.45.
to hemoglobin in the blood. Causes and treatments o emphysema.
Carbon dioxide is transormed in red blood cells skill
into hydrogencarbonate ions.
Analysis o dissociation curves or hemoglobin
The Bohr shit explains the increased release o and myoglobin.
oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues.
Identication o pneumocytes, capillary
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in endothelium cells and blood cells in light
blood pH. micrographs and electron micrographs o
lung tissue.
The rate o ventilation is controlled by the
respiratory control centre in the medulla ntre of ciece
oblongata.
Scientists have a role in inorming the public:
During exercise the rate o ventilation changes scientic research has led to a change in public
in response to the amount o CO in the blood. perception o smoking.
2
Fetal hemoglobin is dierent rom adult
hemoglobin allowing the transer o oxygen in
the placenta onto the etal haemoglobin.
699
D Human pHysiology
the hemoglobin becomes saturated at Oxygen dissociation curves
very high pO2, as all the heme groups Oxygen dissociation curves show the afnity o
become bound hemoglobin or oxygen.
100
Hemoglobin is an oxygen transport protein in the blood. The
Percentage saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen 90 at low pO2, few heme at higher pO2, degree to which oxygen binds to hemoglobin is determined by
groups are bound more heme the partial pressure o oxygen (pO2) in the blood. The oxygen
groups are bound dissociation curve shown in fgure 1 describes the saturation
80 to oxygen, so to oxygen, o hemoglobin by oxygen at dierent partial pressures o
hemoglobin making it easier oxygen.
for more oxygen
70 does not carry to be picked up Note the signifcant change in saturation over a narrow range
much oxygen o oxygen partial pressure. This narrow range typifes oxygen
pressures surrounding cells under normal metabolism. At low
60 pO2, such as might occur in the muscles, O2 will dissociate rom
hemoglobin. At high pO2, such as might occur in the lungs, the
50 hemoglobin will become saturated.
normal physiological range
40 of oxygen partial pressures
30
20
10
0
5 10 15
Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
Figure 1 Oxygen dissociation of hemoglobin
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to
hemoglobin in the blood.
Carbon dioxide is carried in three orms in blood plasma:
dissolved as carbon dioxide;
reversibly converted to bicarbonate (hydrogencarbonate) ions
( HC O 3) that are dissolved in the plasma;
bound to plasma proteins.
Table 1 shows the amounts o each orm in arterial blood and in venous
blood at rest and during exercise.
Form of trnsport arteril venous
mmol-1 blood mmol-1 blood
Rest Exercise
dissolved CO 0.68 0.78 1.32
2 13.52 14.51 14.66
bicarbonate ion
CO bound to protein 0.3 0.3 0.24
2 14.50 15.59 16.22
total CO in plasma 7.4 7.37 7.14
2
pH oblood
Table 1 CO transport in blood plasma at rest and during exercise
2
700
D.6 transPort oF resPiratory gases ( aHl)
acv
1 Using the data in table 1, calculate the 3 Deduce, with reasons, which forms of carbon [2]
percentage of CO2 found as bicarbonate ions dioxide are used to transport carbon dioxide
in the plasma of venous blood at rest. [2]
(2) from respiring tissues to the lungs. [2]
2 Compare the changes in total CO2 in the three 4 Discuss which form of carbon dioxide is most
forms between venous blood at rest and venous important for transport:
blood during exercise. [2] a) at rest
b) during exercise.
Conversion o carbon dioxide into hydrogen Percentage saturation with oxygen 100 Pco2 = 3 kpa
carbonate ions 75
Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into 50 Pco2 = 6 kpa
hydrogencarbonate ions.
25
The majority o carbon dioxide produced by the body during cellular
respiration is converted to the more soluble and less toxic bicarbonate 0
(hydrogencarbonate) ion. The reaction occurs inside red blood cells and 5 10 15
is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + H C O -
3 Figure 2 The Bohr shift
The two-sided arrows indicate that the reaction is reversible. In the tissues
where carbon dioxide is generated, the reaction proceeds to the right; that
is, more bicarbonate ion is generated as are H+ ions. This lowers the pH o
the blood. In the lungs, when carbon dioxide leaves the blood, the reaction
is driven to the let and bicarbonate ion is converted to carbon dioxide.
The Bohr shit
The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen
by hemoglobin in respiring tissues.
Increased metabolism results in greater release o CO2 into the blood,
which lowers the pH o the blood. This increased acidity shits the
oxygen dissociation curve to the right, which results in a decreased
afnity o the hemoglobin or oxygen; that is, a greater release o oxygen
rom hemoglobin at the same partial pressure o oxygen (see fgure 2) .
This is known as the Bohr shit. This ensures that respiring tissues have
enough oxygen when their need or oxygen is greatest. Also, in the
lungs, pC O2 is lower, so saturation o hemoglobin can occur at lower
partial pressures o oxygen.
Efect o CO2 on ventilation rate Figure 3 Hyperventilation occurs following
vigorous exercise as a mechanism to maintain
During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in blood pH by ridding the body of carbon dioxide
response to the amount of CO2 in the blood. 701
Exercise increases metabolism and leads to an increase in the production
o C O2 as a waste product o cellular respiration. Increased CO2 causes
blood pH to decrease because CO2 dissolves in water to orm carbonic acid
D Human pHysiology
(H2C O3) which urther dissociates into H+ and HC O3. Recall that high H+
concentration means low pH. Chemoreceptors in the medulla, the aorta
and the carotid artery are able to detect a change in blood carbon dioxide.
High levels o carbon dioxide in the blood trigger an increase in the
ventilation rate in order to rid the body o the carbon dioxide build-up.
Carbon dioxide diuses into alveoli and ventilation expels the carbon
dioxide rom the body. This explains the hyperventilation that occurs in
response to exercise.
Regulation of the ventilation rate
The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory
control centre in the medulla oblongata.
The rate o ventilation is regulated by the respiratory centre in
the medulla oblongata o the b rainstem. Two sets o nerves travel
to the lungs rom this centre: the intercostal nerves stimulate the
intercostal muscles o the thorax and the phrenic nerves stimulate
the diaphragm.
When the lungs expand due to stimulation rom the nerves, stretch
receptors in the walls o the chest and lungs send signals to the
respiratory centre which triggers a cessation o the signals leading to
inspiration until the animal exhales. Then a new signal is sent.
Chemoreceptors and blood pH
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH.
I an increase in blood carbon dioxide or a drop in blood pH is detected,
the chemoreceptors in the carotid artery and the aorta send a message to
the breathing centre in the medulla oblongata. Nerve impulses are sent
rom the medulla to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles causing
them to increase the ventilation rate. This leads to an increased rate o
gas exchange. There are also chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata
that can detect in an increase in blood carbon dioxide.
Regulation of blood pH
pH of blood is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45.
I the blood pH alls below 7.35, then amounts o bicarbonate will be reabsorbed rom
chemoreceptors signal to the respiratory centre to the tubules to neutralize the acid.
increase the rate o ventilation. Hyperventilation I the blood becomes too basic, then bicarbonate
ions can be secreted into the distal convoluted
withdraws carbon dioxide rom the blood driving tubule o the kidney.
the carbonic acid reaction to the let. This withdraws
hydrogen ions rom the blood raising the pH. Chemical buers exist within the extracellular
fuid and these cant remove the acids or bases,
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + H C O - but they can minimize their eect.
3
In the kidney, H+ ions can be secreted into the
urine bound to buers to raise the pH. Greater
702
D.6 transPort oF resPiratory gases ( aHl)
anlysis o dissocition curves Percentage saturation with oxygen100 myoglobin
Analysis o dissociation curves or hemoglobin
hemoglobin and myoglobin. 50
Myoglobin is a specialized oxygen transport 5 10
protein in muscles. It has a much higher afnity Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
or oxygen and will only release its oxygen pO2 in muscle capillaries:
when the pO is quite low, or example in the myoglobin is saturated with oxygen;
hemoglobin is giving up oxygen
2 pO2 in muscle cells: myoglobin
is giving up oxygen
muscles during heavy exercise. The shapes o
the two curves in fgure 4 are dierent because Figure 4 A comparison of the O dissociation
hemoglobin has our chains with our heme 2
groups, whereas myoglobin has one. The curves of hemoglobin and myoglobin
release o each O2 rom hemoglobin triggers
a conormational change, which causes the
hemoglobin to more rapidly release subsequent
O2 molecules.
Dierences in oxygen fnity between etl Percentage saturation with oxygen1.0
nd dult hemoglobin
HbF
Fetal hemoglobin is diferent rom adult hemoglobin
allowing the transer o oxygen in the placenta onto the 0.5 HbA
etal haemoglobin.
0
Figure 5 compares the oxygen dissociation curves o adult and etal 0 2 4 6 8 10
hemoglobin. Note that etal hemoglobin has a higher afnity or O2 at all Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
partial pressures. This ensures that O2 is transerred to the etus rom the
maternal blood across the placenta. Figure 5 A comparison of the O dissociation
2
Gs exchnge t high ltitude curves of fetal and adult hemoglobin
Consequences o high altitude or gas exchange.
At high altitude there is a low pO in the air. Hemoglobin may not
2
become ully saturated and as a consequence, the tissues may not be
adequately supplied with oxygen. To some degree, human physiology
can adapt to high altitude. Red blood cell production can increase, which
increases the total amount o circulating hemoglobin. Ventilation rate
increases to increase gas exchange. Muscles produce more myoglobin to
ensure delivery o oxygen to the tissues. Populations living permanently
at high altitude have greater mean lung surace area and larger vital
capacities than people living at sea level. Their oxygen dissociation curve
shits to the right, encouraging release o oxygen into the tissue.
703
D Human pHysiology
Changing attitudes to smoking
Scientists have a role in inorming the public: scientifc research has led
to a change in public perception o smoking.
Figure 6 is a surprising picture which shows an In the 1 930s and 1 940s, smoking was common
athlete with a cigarette. in both men and women. Even a majority o
medical doctors smoked. At the same time, there
was rising public concern about the health risks
o smoking cigarettes. One response o tobacco
companies was to devise advertising that eatured
images o physicians and scientists, to assure the
consumer that their respective brands were sae.
Figure 6 British hurdler Shirley Strong As epidemiological evidence mounted, the US
Surgeon General published a report in 1 964
In the early part o the 2 0th century, there was calling upon evidence rom more than 7,000
a belie that tobacco smoking could improve scientifc journal articles to link smoking to
ventilation. Doctors even prescribed smoking o chronic bronchitis and several types o cancer.
medicine or such conditions as asthma.
The number o smokers is in steady decline in
developed nations with nearly hal o all living
adults who have ever smoked having quit. This is
a credit to public health departments pushing or
policy measures inormed by convincing scientifc
evidence.
Emphysema
Causes and treatments o emphysema.
Emphysema is a lung condition in which the walls
between individual alveoli break down leading to
an increase in their size and thereore a reduction
in the surace area or gas exchange which
restricts oxygen uptake into the blood.
Figure 8 shows a computer tomography scan
o the lungs with one o the characteristic
indications o emphysema: large areas o trapped
air that show up as transparent areas in images.
This can cause the lungs to become trapped in
inspiration position in the ventilation cycle.
This is known inormally as barrel chest.
The main cause o emphysema is long-term Figure 7
exposure to airborne irritants, most commonly
tobacco smoke, but possibly also air pollution, coal
and silica dust.
704
D.6 transPort oF resPiratory gases ( aHl)
The damage to lung tissue by smoke is due to enzyme alpha-1 -antitrypsin which would
three actors: normally block the activity o proteases
Oxidation reactions produced by high that degrade the proteins that maintain the
elasticity o the lung.
concentrations o chemicals known as
ree radicals in tobacco smoke. A rare genetic cause o emphysema is a deciency
Infammation due to the body responding in the enzyme alpha-1 -antitrypsin.
to the irritating particulates within smoke.
Free radicals and other components o Emphysema cant be cured, but the symptoms
tobacco smoke impair the activity o the can be alleviated and the spread o the disease
can be checked by treatment. Figure 8 shows a
Figure 8 man sitting in a chair at home, breathing oxygen
through a tube to the nose. Beside him is oxygen
administering equipment. Oxygen therapy
supplies oxygen-enriched air to emphysema
patients.
Patients are trained in breathing techniques that
reduce breathlessness and improve the ability
o the patient to exercise. Quitting smoking is
essential so sometimes prescription medications
can acilitate this process. Surgery is sometimes
undertaken to reduce the volume o the lungs by
removing damaged lung tissue. Lung transplants
are also sometimes perormed on patients
suering rom emphysema.
Interpreting micrographs of lung tissue
Identifcation o pneumocytes, capillary type 1 pneumocyte
endothelium cells and blood cells
in light micrographs and electron
micrographs o lung tissue.
The wall o the alveolus is composed o two endothelium cell
types o cells. 90% o the surace o the alveolus 100 m
is composed o cells reerred to as type 1
pneumocytes. They are extremely thin. Their
primary purpose is gas exchange. The second type
o cell orming the wall is the type 2 pneumocyte.
These cells are covered in microvilli, are thicker
and unction to secrete suractant, a substance
that reduces surace tension, preventing the
alveolus rom collapsing.
type 2 pneumocyte
capillary
Figure 12
705
D Human pHysiology
Questions b) Describe the eect o tetrachloromethane
1 A number o chemicals have been shown to injection on total glutathione and reduced
cause tissue damage due to the production
o ree radicals. Free radicals are chemicals, glutathione content in liver tissue without
such as superoxides and peroxides, which can
react to damage DNA and lipids. Antioxidants faxseed pretreatment. [2]
produced by our body, such as reduced
glutathione, combine with ree radicals and c) Predict, using the data, the eect o using
decrease tissue damage. Reduced glutathione faxseed extract in protecting liver tissue
reacts with ree radicals and in the process is rom damage due to tetrachloromethane.[3]
converted to oxidized glutathione.
glutathione content/nmol mg-1 2 B lind mole rats ( Spalax ehrenbergi) are adaptedoxygen consumption/cm3s-1kg-1
liver tissueRecently dietary antioxidants such as lignins to live in underground burrows with very low
have also been shown to protect against oxygen conditions. Scientists compared blind 1.2
tissue damage. Flaxseed is known to contain mole rats and white rats in order to determine
lignins but its antioxidant eects have yet whether these adaptations are due to changes
to be evaluated. Research was done to see i in their ventilation system.
faxseed could help prevent damage to the
liver by tetrachloromethane. Metabolism o Both types o rat were placed on a treadmill
tetrachloromethane by the liver leads to the and the amount o oxygen consumed was
ormation o ree radicals. Rats were pretreated measured at dierent speeds. This study was
by oral injection with faxseed extract (+) or done under normal oxygen conditions and
corn oil (- ) (control) or three days and then under low oxygen conditions. The results are
injected with buered saline solution (control) shown in the scatter graph below.
or tetrachloromethane. The glutathione levels
were then measured. 1.6 Blind mole rats
6 reduced glutathione 1.4
oxidized glutathione
1.2
5
1.0
4
0.8
3 0.6 normal oxygen
2 low oxygen
0.4
1
0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
treadmill speed/ms-1
0 1.6 White rats
-+-+ 1.4oxygen consumption/cm3s-1kg-1
control tetrachloromethane 1.2
pre-treatment with axseed extract 1.0
Source: Endoh, et al J Vet Medical Science, (2002) , 64, page 761 0.8
a) (i) State the reduced glutathione 0.6
content o liver tissue injected with 0.4
tetrachloromethane with no faxseed 0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
pretreatment. [1 ] treadmill speed/ms-1
(ii) Calculate the total glutathione content Source: Hans R. Widmer et al., Working underground: respiratory 1.2
(oxidized + reduced) in liver tissue adaptations in the blind mole rat, PNAS
treated with faxseed extract but not (4 March 1997) , vol. 94, issue 4, pp. 2062-2067, Fig. 1,
injected with tetrachloromethane. [1 ] 2003 National Academy of Sciences, USA
706
Questions
a) Compare the oxygen consumption o blind Graph A below shows how the composition
o saliva varies depending on the rate o fow
mole rats and white rats when the treadmill o saliva. Graph B shows the composition o
blood plasma.
is not moving. [1 ]
b) Compare the eect o increasing the
treadmill speed on the oxygen consumption Graph A Graph B
in both types o rats under normal oxygen 160 Na+ 160
140
conditions. [3] 140
c) Evaluate the eect o reducing the amount
o oxygen available on both types o rat. [2]
relative values/% 120 120
concentration/mmol L-1 Cl-
concentration/mmol L-1100
Na+ 100
The lungs o both types o rats were studied 80 80
and the eatures important to oxygen uptake
were compared. The results are shown in the 60 Cl- 60
bar chart below.
H CO -
3
40 40
HCO3- 20
160 20 K+ K+ 0
white rats
0
140 blind mole rats 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
120 rate of ow of saliva/ml min-1
100
80 Source: Jrn Hess Thaysen and Niels A. Thorn, Excretion
of Urea, Sodium, Potassium and Chloride in Human Tears,
60 American Journal ofPhysiology, 178: 160164, 1954.
American Physiological Society.
40
20 a) Using the data provided compare the
0 alveolar area capillary area concentration o ions in saliva produced
lung volume
at 4.0 ml min-1 with the concentration o
features important to oxygen uptake
those ions in the blood plasma. [2]
Source: Hans R. Widmer et al., Working underground: b) Outline the relationship between the
respiratory adaptations in the blind mole rat, PNAS
(4 March 1997) , vol. 94, issue 4, pp. 2062-2067, Fig. 1, concentration o Na+ in saliva and the rate
2003 National Academy of Sciences, USA
o fow o saliva. [2]
d) Using your knowledge o gaseous exchange c) As the saliva moves down the ducts, Na+ is
re-absorbed into the blood plasma. Deduce,
in lungs, explain how these adaptations with a reason, the type o transport used to
bring Na+ back into the blood plasma. [1 ]
would help the blind mole rats to survive
in underground burrows. [3]
e) Suggest how natural selection played an d) Suggest why the concentration o Na+
important part in the adaptations o blind varies with rate o fow. [2]
mole rats. [3]
3 In the production o saliva, the acinar cells
actively transport ions rom the blood plasma
into the ducts o the salivary gland resulting
in water being drawn into the ducts. As this
saliva moves down the duct, some ions are
re-absorbed but the amount that can be re-
absorbed depends on the rate o fow o saliva.
707
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
Introduction component o the IB biology course. The aim is
that you investigate something about the living
In this chapter you will be guided through the world that genuinely interests you so that you can
process and expectations o an independent adopt a personal approach in your assessment.
investigation. This is a task that allows you to meet
the requirements o the internal assessment (IA)
The internal assessment
Experimental work is not only an essential part o the dynamics o scientifc
knowledge it also plays a key role in the teaching and learning o science. You will
produce a single investigation that is called an internal assessment. Your teacher
will assess your report using IB criteria, and the IB will externally moderate your
teachers assessment.
Your investigation will consist o:
reading and making preliminary observations to develop curiosity
selecting an appropriate topic
researching the scientifc content o your topic
defning a workable research question
adapting or designing a methodology
obtaining, processing, and analysing data
appreciating errors, uncertainties, and limits o data
writing a scientifc report 61 2 pages long receiving continued guidance rom
your teacher.
Planning and guidance
Ater your teacher introduces the idea o an internal assessment investigation,
you will have an opportunity to discuss the topic o your investigation with
your teacher. In dialogue with your teacher you can then select an appropriate
topic, defne a workable research question, and begin to do research into what
is already known about your topic. You will not be penalized or seeking your
teachers advice.
It is your teachers resp onsibility to provide you with a clear understand o
the IA expectations, rules, and requirements. Your teacher will also provide you
with continued guidance at all stages o your work. Your teacher will help you
develop a topic, then a research question, and then an appropriate methodology.
Your teacher will provide guidance as you work and they will read a drat o
your report, making general suggestions or improvements or completeness. Your
teacher will not, however, edit your report or give you a tentative grade or your
report until it is fnally completed. Ater this you are not allowed to make any
changes.
708
It is your resp onsibility to appreciate the meaning o academic honesty,
especially authenticity and intellectual property. You are also responsible or
initiating your research question with the teacher, seeking help when in doubt,
and demonstrating independence o thought and initiative in the design and
implementation o your investigation. You are also responsible or meeting the
deadlines set by your teacher.
Academic honesty
The IA is your responsibility, and it is your work. Plagiarism and copying others
work is not permissible. You must clearly distinguish between your own words
and thoughts and those o others by the use o quotation marks (or another
method like indentation) ollowed by an appropriate citation that denotes an
entry in the bibliography.
Although the IB does not prescribe reerencing style or in-text citation, certain
styles may prove most commonly used; you are ree to choose a style that is
appropriate. It is expected that the minimum inormation included is: name o
author, date o publication, title o source, and page numbers as applicable.
Types of investigations
Ater you have covered a number o biology syllabus topics and perormed a
number o hands-on experiments in class, you will be required to research,
design, perorm, and write up your own investigation. This project, known as an
internal assessment, will count or 2 0% o your grade. You will have 1 0 hours
o class time, you will consult with your teacher at all stages o your work, and
you can research and write your report out o class. Your IA investigation cannot
be used as part o a biology extended essay.
The variety and range o possible investigations is large, you could choose rom:
Traditional hands-on experimental work. This could involve extending
some o the protocols that you undertook as part o the syllabus or you might
investigate in a practical way an experiment relevant to some o the concepts you
have learned through the course.
Database investigations. A database is a mass o inormation that can be
searched through the use o query. You may obtain data and process and
analyse the inormation or your investigation. Examples might include
GenBank, the Allele Frequencey Database (AlFreD) or the Audubon Christmas
bird count.
Simulations and Models. It may not be easible to perorm some investigations
in the classroom, but you may be able to fnd a computer simulation. The data
rom a simulation could then be processed and presented in such a way that
something new is revealed. For example the Game o Lie simulation allows the
exploration o emergent properties.
Combinations o the above are also possible. The subject matter o your
investigation is up to you. It may be something within the syllabus, something
you have or will study, or it can be related to the syllabus or outside the syllabus.
The depth o understanding should be, however, commensurate with the course
you are taking. This means that your knowledge o IB biology (either SL or HL)
will be sufcient to achieve maximum marks when assessed.
709
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
The assessment criteria
Your IA will be a single investigation and the report will be 6 1 2 pages
long. The report should have an academic and scholarly presentation, and
demonstrate scientic rigor commensurate with the course. There is the
expectation o personal involvement and an understanding o biology, and
there is also the expectation o setting your study within the known academic
context. This means you need to research your topic and nd out what is
already known about it.
There are six assessment criteria, ranging in weight rom 825% o the total
possible marks. Each criterion refects a dierent aspect o your overall
investigation.
Example Criterion Points Weight
Personal engagement 02 8%
A personal approach to Exploration 06 25%
Analysis 06 25%
design Evaluation 06 25%
Communication 04 17%
A student is interested Total 024
in diving and wants to 10 0 %
investigate the slowing o
the heart when a diver holds The IA grade will count or 20% o your total biology grade. The criteria are the
their breath underwater same or standard and higher level students. We will now consider each criterion
(bradycardia). She takes in detail.
her pulse on the surace
and then ater holding her PE RS O N AL E N GAGE M E N T. This criterion assesses the extent to which you
breath or 30 s at the bottom engage with the investigation and make it your own. Personal engagement may be
oa swimming pool. There recognized in different attributes and skills. These include thinking independently
is a reduction in the pulse and/or creatively, addressing personal interests, and presenting scientific ideas in your
rate. She takes her pulse own way.
using the simple method
oeeling her radial artery For maximum marks under the personal engagement criterion, you must provide
and counting or 30 s. The clear evidence that you have contributed signicant thinking, initiative, or insight
student wants to nd out to your investigation. Your research question could be based upon something
how rapidly the pulse alls, covered in class or an extension o your own interest.
whether it alls suddenly
or gradually and whether it For example, you may have a green thumb and you enjoyed the practicals that
stabilizes at a lower rate. She you did with plants in class. You could turn your botany talents to growing a
needs to monitor the heart number o plants or your study. Personal signicance, interest, and curiosity are
rate continuously or one expressed here.
minute or more underwater.
For this she needs an You may also demonstrate personal engagement by showing personal input and
electronic probe, but the initiative in the design, implementation, or presentation o the investigation.
equipment that her teacher Perhaps you designed an improved method or measuring the rate o an enzyme
ofers her has to be kept dry. controlled reaction or devised an interesting method or the analysis o data. You are
Ithe student designs her not to simply perorm a cookbook-like experiment or repeat an experiment that is
own method or this, she will commonly carried out in most practical work programmes without any modications.
certainly have demonstrated
a personal approach. The key here is to be involved in your investigation, to contribute something that
makes it your own.
710
E XPLO RATIO N. This criterion assesses the extent to which you establish the scientifc Example
context or your work, state a clear and ocused research question, and use concepts and
techniques appropriate to the course you are studying. Where appropriate, this criterion also Observations and
assesses awareness o saety, environmental, and ethical considerations. questions
For maximum marks under the exploration criterion, your topic must be Two gerbils were being kept
appropriately identied and a relevant and ully ocused research question in a biology laboratory and
is described. Background inormation about your investigation must be the person who cleaned the
appropriate and relevant, and the methodology must be appropriate to laboratory started giving
address your research question. Moreover, or maximum marks, your research them a peanut each when
must identiy signicant actors that may infuence the relevance, reliability, she cleaned the lab each
and suciency o your data. Finally, i saety, environmental, and ethical morning. Ater a ew weeks,
considerations are relevant to your investigation, then your work must she noticed that when she
demonstrate a ull awareness o these issues. entered the lab the gerbils
came over to the ront othe
The key here is your ability to select, develop, and apply appropriate cage, stood on their back
methodology and produce a scientic work. legs and waited or their
peanut. When other people
ANALYS IS . This criterion assesses the extent to which your report provides evidence that came into the lab at other
you have selected, processed, analysed, and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to times they did not do this.
the research question and can support a conclusion.
This observation suggests
For maximum marks under the analysis criterion, your investigation must include some interesting questions.
sucient raw data to support a detailed and valid conclusion to your research
question. Your processing o data must be carried out with sucient accuracy. 1 Were the gerbils able to
Moreover, your report must show evidence o ull and appropriate consideration recognize the cleaner
o the impact o measurement uncertainty on your analysis. Finally, or and i they were, what
maximum marks, you must correctly interpret your data, so that completely valid were the recognition
and detailed conclusions to the research questions can be deduced. eatures?
The key here is to make an appropriate and justied analysis o your data that is 2 I clothes o diferent
ocused on your research question. colour, but the same
design were worn, was
Is there any statistical she still recognizable?
hypothesis test
you could do? 3 Was the time o day
critical to recognizing
How much do the repeats the cleaner?
vary? This indicates how
reliable your evidence is. 4 Could the gerbils predict
the arrival o the cleaner
Can the anomalous results be explained beore she actually
by mistake or are you unsure about the came into the lab?
overall trend or pattern? 5 Could sight, sound and/
or smell be used or
Are there any results or groups of results recognition?
that do not t the overall trend or pattern?
These are often called anomalous results. A simple observation can
lead to interesting and
What trends or patterns are visible in the data? worthwhile questions.
One example is a positive correlation. Can you show the
trends more clearly by adding another type of chart?
What sort of chart or graph will display your data most clearly:
a scatter graph, bar chart or pie chart, or other type of
presentation? The aim is to make it easy for the reader to
pick out the trends and patterns.
711
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
E VALUATIO N. This criterion assesses the extent to which your report provides evidence
of evaluation of the investigation and results with regard to the research question and the
wider world.
For maximum marks under the evaluation criterion, you must state a detailed
conclusion that is described and justifed, that is entirely relevant to the
research question, and ully supported by the data presented. You should make
a comparison to the accepted scientifc context i relevant. The strengths and
weaknesses o your investigation, such as the limitation o data and sources
o uncertainty, must be discussed and you must provide evidence o a clear
understanding o the methodological issues involved in establishing your
conclusion. This means not only identiying limitations, but also discussing the
implications and consequences o these limitations. Finally, to earn maximum
marks or evaluation, you must discuss realistic and relevant improvements
and possible extensions to your investigation. The key here is dierent than
the previous criterion or analysis. The ocus o evaluation is to incorporate the
methodology and to set the results within a genuine scientifc context while
making reerence to your research topic.
Your evidence is strong ifyou answer yes to Your evidence is weak ifyou answer yes to
these questions these questions
Are your results consistent enough to give you Are your results variable or are there many anomalous
reliable evidence to use to answer the results that cant easily be explained?
research question?
Were there faults in the experimental design
Was the design of your experiment successful which limited the precision or the accuracy?
so that only it gave precise and accurate results?
Were there uncontrolled variables, which
Were all the variables controlled satisfactorily so introduced uncertainties into your interpretation
that only the independent variable was varied? of the results?
Is there only one explanation that ts all the Are there alternative explanations that would also
evidence and answers the research question? t the evidence and which you cannot refute?
Can you support each part of your answer to the Are there parts of your answer to the research
research question with experimental evidence or question which are unsubstantiated or uncertain
by reference to other published data? and which need further investigation?
C O MMUNIC ATIO N. This criterion assesses whether the investigation is presented and
reported in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process and outcomes
of the investigation.
For maximum marks under the communication criterion, your report must be
clear and easy to ollow. Although your writing does not have to be perect, any
mistakes or errors should not hamper the readers understanding o the ocus,
process, and outcomes o your investigation. Your report must be well structured
and ocused on the necessary inormation, the process and outcomes must be
presented in a logical and coherent way. Your text must be relevant without
wandering o onto tangential issues. Your use o specifc biology terminology and
conventions must be appropriate and correct. Graphs, tables, and images must all
be appropriately presented. Your lab report should be 61 2 pages long. Excessive
length (beyond 1 2 pages) will be penalized under the communication criterion.
The key here is to demonstrate a concise, logical, and articulate report, one that is
easy to ollow and is written in a scientifc context.
712
INDEX
Page numbers in italics refer to data-based muscle contraction 483 erythrocytes 678, 680
questions and questions at the end of each photosynthesis 389, 390, 391 , 392, 393, 395, identifying blood vessels 294
chapter. 397 phagocytes 305, 468, 469, 470
auditory nerve 526, 531 , 532 regulation of blood pH 699, 702
abiotic environment 201 , 21 0 autoradiography 1 501 veins 2934
absorption 279 autosomes 449 blood clotting 93
autosomal gene linkage 449 coronary thrombosis 304
methods of absorption 2845 autotrophs 201 , 203, 204, 21 01 1 , 220 cuts and clots 303
plants 403, 4089 auxins 422, 424, 4245, 426, 427, 428 fibrin production 304
villi 2834, 671 , 673 axons 33, 31 9, 320, 3223, 51 3 platelets and blood clotting 303
acetycholine 31 9, 3267 active transport of sodium and potassium blood groups 465, 4667
acrosome reaction 504, 505 3940, 323 ABO blood groups 1 68, 1 745, 200
actin 476, 481 , 482, 483, 484 development of axons 51 6 body mass index 73, 80, 81
action potentials 31 9, 321 2, 341 2 facilitated diffusion of potassium 401 Bohr shift 699, 701
propagation of action potentials 31 9, 3223 growth of axons 51 6 bones 4767, 478, 479, 659, 668
activated B cells 465, 468 transport of iron to bone marrow 678, 680
active transport 33, 38, 3940 B lymphocytes 465, 4678 botox 93
active transport of minerals in roots 408, bacteria 1 1 1 , 1 21 2, 1 4950, 1 87, 1 91 , 557, 563, Bowmans capsule 485, 490, 492
4089 brain 328, 51 3, 51 8
phloem loading 41 31 4, 41 4 6 49 5 0 activities coordinated by the medulla 521
adaptations 2501 bacteriophages 575, 5789 cerebral cortex 51 8, 5223, 555
water conservation in plants 4091 0 bioremediation 575, 576, 577, 579, 580 comparing brain size 523, 523
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) 485, 4945, 495 zones of inhibition 5645 development of the brain 51 9
aerobic respiration 1 26, 1 27, 128 behaviour 533, 548 energy and the brain 51 8, 525
algae 1 , 8, 1 0, 2034, 61 1 birdsong 537, 5378 examples of brain functions 52021
alleles 1 41 , 1 434, 1 68, 439 blackcap migration 551 functions of the cerebral hemispheres 51 8,
allele frequency and evolution 455, 456 breeding strategies in salmon 54950 5 2 3 4
differences between alleles 1 44 courtship in birds of paradise 553 methods of brain research 51 8, 51 920
dominant, recessive and co-dominant alleles foraging in shore crabs 552 pupil reflex and brain damage 51 8, 522
172 innate behaviour 534, 548, 5534 roles of parts of the brain 51 8, 51 9
genetic diseases 1 779 invertebrate behaviour experiments 5345 structure of the brain 51 9
geographically isolated populations 45960 learned behaviour 533, 5367, 548, 5534 Brocas area 521
mutation 1 45 research methods in animal behaviour 534 bronchi 31 0, 31 4
new combinations 441 2 synchronized oestrus 550 bronchioles 31 0, 31 4
segregation of alleles 1 71 2 vampire bats 552 bruises 293
allergens 465, 474 benzene 575, 579
allergic symptoms 465, 466, 474 beta pleated sheets 362, 36970 calcium 659, 668
alpha helices 362, 36970 bile salts 678, 679, 682 calcium carbonate 220, 2256
alveoli 31 0, 31 4 biochemical oxygen demand 649, 653 calcium ions 476, 483
amino acids 66, 68, 72, 87, 90 biodiversity 635
amino acids and origins 89 biogeographic factors 635, 639, 640, 640, calorimetry 669
codons 1 1 1 , 1 1 9 6401 Calvin cycle 389, 3901 , 395, 397, 400
diversity 889 cancers 51 , 578, 1 45, 1 68, 1 845
essential fatty acids and amino acids 661 2 components of biodiversity 639
polypeptide diversity 90 international cooperation 635, 368 lung cancer 31 0, 31 61 7
protein synthesis 6623 islands 640, 640 thyroid cancer 1 85
amino acids and polypeptides 878, 90, 362 Simpsons diversity index 639 capillaries 289, 293, 678
primary structure 369, 369 bioethanol 1 24, 1 25 carbohydrates 61 , 64, 66, 73, 74
quaternary structure 371 , 371 biofilms 575, 5778, 5789, 580, 581 , 582 imaging carbohydrate molecules 756
secondary structure 36970 biogas 557, 563, 564 production of carbohydrates 1 356, 3956
tertiary structure 370 bioinformatics 368, 373, 377, 565, 574, 591 carbon atoms 61
amniocentesis 1 59, 1 63 role of databases in genetic research 591 2 carbon compounds 48, 61 , 1 29, 1 30, 659
anabolism 61 , 67 biomagnification 625, 630, 631 2 classifying carbon compounds 64
anaerobic respiration 1 22, 1 24, 1 25, 1 256 biomass 21 3, 21 7, 21 8, 61 3, 622, 6578 energy flow 21 3, 21 5
humans 1 256 biopharming 582, 5889 carbon dioxide 1 29, 1 36, 1 378, 1 39, 220, 221 ,
yeast 1 245 bioremediation 5756, 57980 221 , 22930, 395
anaesthetics 541 , 5445 biotechnology 1 86, 557 carbon dioxide transport in the blood 699,
anorexia 659, 666, 666 cultivation of microorganisms 557, 55862 7001
anti-malarial drugs 373, 378 DNA amplification by PCR 1 87, 1 88, 1 889 carbon fixation 389, 395, 3967
antibiotics 306 DNA profiling 1 87, 1 8990, 351 3, 353 combustion 220, 225, 229
antibiotic resistance 249, 257, 257, 309, 31 0, gel electrophoresis 1 878, 200 comparing CO2 emissions 236
5 7 7 8 novel products 565, 566 conversion of carbon dioxide into hydrogen
testing penicillin 302, 307, 308 biotic indices 635, 636 carbonate ions 699, 701
viruses and antibiotics 3089 bipolar cells 526, 52930 coral reefs and carbon dioxide 238
antibody production 3056, 468, 51 1 birth 499, 5089 effect of CO2 on ventilation rate 699, 701 2
blood transfusion 465, 4667 BLAST searches 591 , 5934, 5967 global temperatures and carbon dioxide
monoclonal antibodies 465, 4745 blastocysts 499, 5056 concentrations 2323, 233, 235
anticodons 1 201 blood 68, 72, 93, 289, 2901 measuring atmospheric concentration 220,
antithrombin (ATryn) 582, 589 antibody production 3056 228, 23940
apparatus 1 6, 340, 397, 575 arteries 291 , 2923 release of carbon dioxide from cell respiration
archaeans 557, 563 blood pressure 292, 678, 691 2 222
arteries 289, 291 blood transfusion 4567 trends in atmospheric carbon dioxide 228
arterial blood pressure 292 capillaries 289, 293, 678 carbon recycling 220
artery walls 291 2 carbon dioxide transport in the blood 699, absorption of carbon dioxide 221
atherosclerosis 2978 7001 carbon cycle diagrams 226
ascorbic acid 89, 659, 6601 chemoreceptors and blood pH 699, 702 carbon dioxide concentration 221
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 38, 1 22, 1 23, 1 24, conversion of carbon dioxide into hydrogen carbon dioxide in solution 221
1 26, 1 39, 382, 3845 carbonate ions 699, 701 carbon fixation 220
double circulation 295 carbon fluxes 227, 227
713
INDEX
combustion 225 439, 565, 568 energy conversion efficiency 61 8
fossilized organic matter 220, 2245 bacterial chromosomes 1 4950 cones 526, 528, 52930
limestone 220, 2256 chromosome 21 600 conservation 635
methane 220, 2223 chromosome numbers 1 55, 1 59, 1 61 , 1 63
release of carbon dioxide from cell respiration chromosome replication 440 captive breeding 635, 6378
222 comparing chromosome numbers 1 556, 1 56 ex situ conservation 635, 637
release of carbon from tundra soils 224 comparing chromosomes of mice and humans in situ conservation 635, 6367
cardiovascular system 292 1 53 preserving habitats as conservation measure
carnitine 298 differences between chromosomes 1 52 43 3 4
catabolism 61 , 67 eukaryote chromosomes 1 51 2 consumers 201 , 204, 205, 21 5
catalysis 93 garlic chromosomes 1 53 contraceptive pill 499, 508
cataract surgery 528 homologous chromosomes 1 52, 1 55, 1 59, controlled variables 1 01 , 1 367
cell differentiation 1 1 62, 1 623, 4434, 449 coral reefs 238, 603, 61 1
gene expression 1 1 1 2 karyograms 1 578 cortical granules 505
multicellular organisms 1 1 sex determination 1 57, 334 Crick, Francis 1 05, 1 09, 1 1 0, 345, 346, 347
cell division 1 , 1 920, 456 supercoiling of chromosomes 52 crop yields 557, 565, 5667, 571 2
cyclins and the control of the cell cycle 56 citric acid 557, 562 cyclins 51 , 56
cytokinesis 55 cladistics 269 cystic fibrosis 1 68, 1 78, 282, 58990
interphase 52 analogous and homologous traits 269, 271 cytokinesis 51
mitosis 51 , 524, 55 analysis of cladograms 273 cytoplasm 33, 445, 499, 503
supercoiling of chromosomes 52 clades 26970 cytoskeletons 93
tumour formation and cancer 578 cladograms 269, 272, 5989
cell respiration 1 22, 373, 380 cladograms and falsification 269, 275 Darwin, Charles 49, 1 76, 244, 245, 247, 250,
aerobic respiration 1 26, 1 27, 128 cladograms and reclassification 269, 274 251 , 254, 255
anaerobic respiration 1 22, 1 24, 1 245, 1 25, classification of figwort family 2756
1 256 identifying members of a clade 270 databases 591 2, 600
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 1 22, 1 23, 1 24, molecular clocks 271 access to information issues 5923
1 26, 382, 3845 origins of turtles and lizards 2734 growth in information stored in databases 592
chesmiosis 380, 3845, 386 primate cladograms 272, 273 matching new sequences with those found in
electron transport chain 380, 384 classification systems 206, 258, 277 databases 594
glycolysis 380, 3823, 402 advantages of natural classification 264
Krebs cycle 380, 3834 animal phyla 267 DDT 6323
oxidation and reduction 3801 binomial system 25960 dehydration 485, 496
phosphorylation 380, 381 2, 384 classifying cartilaginous fish 262
pyruvate 380, 3823 dichotomous keys 265 cholera 671 , 677
release of carbon dioxide from cell respiration eukaryote classification 261 dendrites 31 9, 320
222 examples of classification 262 denitrification 650, 651
role of oxygen 385, 385 hierarchy of taxa 260 dependent variables 1 01 , 1 367
cell theory 1 , 2 international cooperation and classification depolarization 31 9, 321 2, 323
exceptions to cell theory 3 2 5 8 9 detritivores 201 , 204, 205
testing cell theory 78 natural classification 2623 diabetes 329, 3301 , 331 , 51 1 , 659, 6646
cells 1 , 2, 60 plants 266 dialysis tubing 279, 286, 2878
artificial cells 46 reviewing classification 2634 dicotyledenous plants 422, 423
cell adhesion 93 scientific consensus 263 diet 659, 670
compartmentalization 201 three domains 2601 dietary fibres 6767, 677
drawing plant and animal cells 45 vertebrates 268 diffusion 33, 356, 367
limitations on cell size 9 clearcutting 206
origin of cells 456, 47, 489 climate change 229 facilitated diffusion 33, 37
ultrastructure 1 6 assessing claims and counter-claims 236 digestion 201 , 205, 279
cellulose 73, 76 burning fossil fuels 235
centromeres 54, 351 comparing CO2 emissions 236 absorption by villi 2834, 671 , 673
cerebellum 51 9 global temperature and carbon dioxide digestion in the small intestine 2823, 2856
cerebral cortex 51 8, 5223, 555 concentrations 2323, 233 gastric acid in digestion 671 , 675
cerebral hemispheres 51 8, 51 9, 5234, 555 greenhouse gases 22930, 234 methods of absorption 2845
Chernobyl, Ukraine 1 68, 1 85, 1 86 industrialization 229, 235 pancreatic juice 282
chesmiosis 380, 3845, 386, 393, 394 long-wavelength emissions from Earth 231 2 peristalsis 281
chi-squared testing 201 , 2078, 209, 4534, 454 opposition to climate change science 237 regulation of digestive secretions 671
chiasmata formation 439, 440 phenology 234 regulation of gastric secretions 671 2
diagrams of crossing over 4423 uncertainty in temperature rise projections structure of the digestive system 280
Chlamydonas 1 0 237 villi and the surface area for digestion 283
chlorophyll 1 29 climographs 61 3, 61 7 diploid nuclei 1 55, 1 59, 1 601 , 1 71
drawing absorption spectrum for chlorophyll clones 1 87, 1 956 disaccharides 73, 74
133 cloning adult animals using differentiated cells discrepancies 1 , 3, 87, 89, 201 , 204
light absorption by chlorophyll 1 323 1 989 DNA profiling 1 87, 1 89, 351 3, 353
chloroplasts 22, 389, 565, 568 cloning animal embryos 1 98 analysis of DNA profiles 1 90
chloroplast envelope 398 Dolly the sheep 1 99 paternity and forensic investigations 1 87, 1 89,
diagram showing chloroplast structure estimating the size of a clone of potatoes 1 95 1 90
function relationship 399400 investigating factors affecting rooting of stem DNA 49, 61 , 62, 64, 1 05, 1 41 , 343, 463
grana 398 cuttings 1 96 analysing methylation patterns 357, 358
liquid droplets 398 natural methods of cloning 1 95 antisense strands 1 1 7
starch grains 398 CNS (central nervous system) 541 , 544 bases 1 05, 1 06, 1 078, 1 09
stroma 398 coal 220, 224, 225, 235 Chargaffs data 1 07, 345, 347
structure and function 398 cochlea 526, 531 complementary base pairs 1 05, 1 08, 1 1 1 1 2
thylakoids 398 cochlear implants 526, 532 Crick and Watsons model 1 05, 1 09, 1 1 0, 347
cholesterol 25, 323, 68, 73, 659, 668, 678, 682, codons 1 1 1 , 1 1 9, 1 20 decoding base sequences 1 20
693 codons and anticodons 1 201 differences between DNA and RNA 1 06
lipoproteins 678, 679, 683, 683 collagen 87, 91 , 94, 370 direction of replication 3501
chorionic villus sampling 1 59, 1 63 colorimetry 656 DNA amplification by PCR 1 87, 1 88, 1 889
chromatids, non-sister 439, 440 colour-blindness 1 68, 1 801 , 526, 529 DNA ligase 1 87, 1 91
chromatids, sister 444 combustion 220, 225, 229 DNA microarrays 582, 5867
chromatography 1 29, 1 303 communities 201 , 2067, 21 0, 603, 61 01 1 , 61 2, DNA packing 93, 3479
chromosomes 51 , 54, 1 41 , 1 43, 1 49, 1 54, 200, 613 DNA sequencing 354
drawing DNA and RNA molecules 1 078
functions of non-coding regions 351 , 355
helicase 1 1 1 , 1 1 3, 1 1 4
helix structure of DNA 1 08, 3457
HersheyChase experiment 344, 3445
leading strand and lagging strand 349
714
measuring length of DNA molecules 1 501 enzyme experiments 1 001 , 1 01 , 1 02, 1 03 flowering and gene expression 42930
MeselsonStahl experiments 1 1 1 , 1 1 21 3, enzyme inhibitors 3756 inducing plants to flower out of season 431
1 1 31 4 enzymesubstrate specificity 96 photoperiods and flowering 430, 4301
factors affecting enzyme activity 96, 989 fluorescence 484
open reading frames 565, 5723, 573 immobilized enzymes 96, 1 034 fluorescent antibody tagging 28, 2930
polymerases 1 1 51 6, 1 87, 1 88, 1 889, 3501 metabolism 3745, 377 food chains 21 3, 21 5, 21 7, 61 31 4
promoters 355 tRNA-activating enzymes 364 food conversion ratios 61 3, 61 6
proteins involved in replication 34950 epidemiology 31 6 food webs 21 9, 61 4, 61 5
recombinant DNA 451 2, 4523, 565, 568, epigenetics 3589 forensic investigations 1 87, 1 89
569 epinephrine 289, 302 fossil fuels 235
replication of DNA before meiosis 1 62 erythrocytes 678, 680 fossilized organic matter 220, 2245, 229
semi-conservative replication 1 1 1 1 2, 347 EST (expressed sequence tags) 591 , 599600 fossils 241 , 242, 243
sense strands 1 1 7 estrogen 329, 335, 499, 506, 507, 509 Franklin, Rosalind 1 1 0, 343, 3457
transcription 1 1 1 , 1 1 61 7, 355, 357, 35961 , assessing risks of estrogen pollution 508, 508 freeze-etched electron micrographs 27, 29
367 ethics 1 fungi 1 , 8, 408, 4089
translation 1 1 1 , 1 1 71 8, 1 201 , 362, 3645, animal use in respirometers 1 289
365, 367 chemical weapons 375 Galen 289, 290
dopamines 541 , 544, 547 egg donation 337 gametes 1 41 , 1 55, 1 59, 1 61 , 1 667, 1 68, 1 71 ,
Down syndrome 1 58, 1 59, 1 678, 600 embryo research 1 51 6
drug addiction 541 , 547 euthanasia 299 499, 503
genetic modification 1 91 ganglion cells 526, 529, 530
ears 524, 526 genome research 1 47 gas 220, 225, 235
middle ear 531 Jenners vaccine research 4701 gas exchange 31 0, 31 8, 403, 404
structure of the ear 530 stem cell research 1 51 6
using volunteers in experiments 84 gas exchange at high altitude 699, 703
ECG (electrocardiogram) 684, 689 ethology 548 type I pneumocytes 31 3
ecology 603 eukaryotes 1 , 1 6, 45, 1 50, 1 51 2, 261 , 306, 357 type II pneumocytes 31 31 4
drawing eukaryotic cells 21 3 ventilation 31 0, 31 1 , 31 2, 31 21 3, 31 41 5,
limits of tolerance 603, 606, 657 endosymbiosis and eukaryotic cells 4950 31 51 6
zones of stress 603, 606 eukaryotic cell structure 201 gel electrophoresis 1 878, 200
ecosystems 201 , 21 0, 61 3 interpreting eukaryotic cell structure 25 gender testing 1 58
alien and invasive species 6256, 6278, 6289 post-transcriptional modification of RNA 359 gene expression 1 1 1 2, 355
biological controls 6267 61 epigenetics 3589
cave ecosystems 21 2, 21 4 eutrophication 580, 649, 653 impact of environment 356, 3567
closed ecosystems 61 3, 624 evaporation 403 plants 422, 425, 428, 42930
energy losses 21 71 8 evolution 1 , 241 , 242 regulation of gene expression by proteins
heat energy 21 6 allele frequency and evolution 455 3 5 5 6
heat loss 21 7 convergent evolution 2445 genes 1 1 1 2, 49, 1 41 , 439
human impact 624, 625 divergence 241 , 246, 247 alleles 1 41 , 1 434, 1 45
impact of climate 61 3, 61 7 evidence from fossils 241 , 242, 243 comparing genes 1 44
preserving habitats as conservation measure evidence from homologous structures 241 , finding the loci of human genes 1 54
43 3 4 2 445 gene loci 445, 4489
pyramids of energy 61 3, 61 8 evidence from patterns of variation 247 gene pools 455, 4589
succession 620, 621 , 623, 623 evidence from selective breeding 241 , 243, 244 gene sequencers 1 41 , 1 48
sunlight and ecosystems 21 3 homology and evolution 244 gene therapy 582, 58990
sustainability 21 1 1 2 industrial melanism 2478, 2489, 278 independent assortment of genes 444
EDGE of Existence project 270 pendactyl limbs 245, 246 linked genes 4489
egestion 676 speciation 241 , 246 marker genes 565, 567
egg cells 502 see also natural selection messenger RNA and the genetic code 1 1 8
electrical impulses 31 920 exocrine glands 1 6, 24, 671 , 6723, 674 number of genes in humans 1 41 , 1 42, 1 43,
saltatory conduction 320 exocytosis 33, 35 360
electron microscopes 1 6, 1 1 81 9 exoskeletons 4767 numbers of genes in humans and other species
development 1 8 experimental design 33, 43, 96 1 41 , 1 42
invention 1 7 MeselsonStahl experiments 1 1 1 , 1 1 21 3, polypeptides 87, 901
resolution 1 71 8 1 1 31 4 sex-linked genes 1 68, 1 7981
electron tomography 388 target genes 565, 567, 574
elephant communication 556 photosynthesis 1 367, 1 378 unlinked genes 445
ELISA diagnostic tests 584 eyes 524, 526 what is a gene? 1 42
emergent properties 1 1 , 575, 577 where are genes located? 1 43
emphysema 31 0, 31 71 8, 31 8, 6997045 structure of the eye 527 genetic crosses 1 68, 1 734, 1 767
endocrine glands 694 testing predictions in cross-breeding
endocytosis 33, 34 FAD 383, 384 experiments 1 756
endometrium 499, 5056 fats 68, 73, 83, 86 genetic diseases 1 68, 582, 586
endorphins 541 , 543 fatty acids 73, 81 , 659 analysis of pedigree charts 1 81 2, 1 83
endosymbiosis 45, 4950 dominant or co-dominant alleles 1 778
energy flow 21 3, 239, 61 3, 61 5, 61 6, 622 cis or trans isomers 73, 82 genetic diseases in humans 1 83
energy conversion 21 5 essential fatty acids and amino acids 661 2 recessive alleles 1 77
energy in food chains 21 5 monounsaturated fatty acids 82 sex-linked diseases 1 78, 1 801
energy losses and ecosystems 21 71 8 polyunsaturated fatty acids 82 genetic modification 1 87, 1 901 , 565, 566
explaining the length of food chains 21 7 saturated fatty acids 66, 82 analysing risks to monarch butterflies 1 94, 1 95
food webs 21 9 unsaturated fatty acids 73, 82 assessing risks of genetic modification 1 92
heat energy in ecosystems 21 6 female athlete triad 338 assessing risks of transgenes entering wild
heat loss from ecosystems 21 7 fermenters 557, 55960 populations 571
insolation 214 biogas 557, 563 evaluating environmental impact of GM crops
pyramids of energy 21 8 deep-tank fermentation 561 2 571 2
respiration and energy release 21 51 6, 21 6 factors limiting industrial fermentation 5601 knockout mice 594
sunlight and ecosystems 21 3 monitoring and maintaining growth conditions risks and benefits of GM crops 1 924
enzymes 49, 61 , 96 561 techniques for gene transfer to bacteria 1 87,
active sites and enzymes 967 fertilization 499, 5034 1 91
calculating rates of reaction 378, 3789 fertilization in plants 432 genetic variation 1 59, 1 656, 247, 250, 445,
denaturation 96, 1 00 internal and external fertilization 505 449, 450
designing enzyme experiments 1 01 fibrin 304 fertilization and genetic variation 1 667
digestive system 281 , 282, 2823 Fleming, Alexander 306, 307, 557, 564 genomes 1 , 1 41 , 1 47, 1 66
DNA replication 34950 flowers 42930, 432 comparing genome sizes 1 534
enzyme catalysis 96, 978 drawing animal-pollinated flower 431
715
INDEX
proteomes 87, 945, 565, 566 role of hormones in parturition 5089 kidney transplant 485, 4967
techniques used for genome sequencing 1 48 role of second messengers 694, 6967 loop of Henl 4923, 4934
genomics 428 steroid hormones 694, 6956 proximal convoluted tubule 485, 491
germinal epithelium 500 Human Genome Project 1 41 , 1 44, 1 47 ultrastructure of glomerulus and Bowmans
germination 435 Huntingtons disease 1 68, 1 79 capsule 48990, 4901
Gersmehl diagrams 61 3, 61 9 hybridoma cells 465, 4745 Krebs cycle 380, 3834
gestation 51 0, 510 hydrogen bonds 689, 1 05, 1 1 1 , 1 1 4, 36970
gibberellin 435 hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances 26, 68 lactose intolerance 288
global temperatures 229, 234, 239 hypertension 659, 6646, 678, 6901 , 692 lactose-free milk 96, 1 05
carbon dioxide concentrations 2323, 233 hypothalamus 51 9, 659, 664, 694, 6978 laser scanning microscopes 575, 582
uncertainty in temperature rise projections hypotheses 98 learning 328, 533, 5394, 541 , 543
237 hypotonic and hypertonic solutions 33, 41 2, 44 leaves 403, 404, 565, 568
glomerulus 485, 48990, 492
glucagon 32930 immunity 93, 3056, 465 palisade mesophyll cells 1 6, 24
glucose 65, 68, 72, 76, 1 24 antigens in blood transfusion 465, 4667 tension in leaf cell walls 4078
control of blood concentration 32930, 3301 , clonal selection and memory cell formation leptin 329, 3323
331 468 leukemia 1 4
pyruvate 380, 3823 histamines 465, 474 life cycles 1 61 , 1 61
glycerate 3-phosphate 389, 395 persistence of memory cells 46970 light 1 29, 1 30, 1 36, 21 3
glycogen 73, 76, 77, 79, 97, 330, 341 role of antibodies 4689 growth of tomato seedlings 134
glycolysis 380, 3823, 402 role of plasma cells 468 light absorption by chlorophyll 1 323
glyphosate resistance 565, 569, 571 2 specific immune response 4678 wavelengths 1 32
Golgi apparatus 22, 678, 683 vaccines 470 light-dependent reactions 38990, 401
gradualism 460 location 3901
Gram staining 557, 5623 immunoglobulins 87, 94 NADP and ATP 389, 390, 390
gravitropism 425 implantation 5056 light microscopes 1 , 34
greenhouse gases 22930 imprinting 533, 539 calculation of magnification and actual size 6
assessing impact 230 independent variables 1 01 , 1 367 examining and drawing plant and animal cells
climate patterns 234 industrialization 229, 235 45
long-wave radiation 231 2 infections 302, 303, 3056, 582, 5845 limestone 220, 2256
growth in plants 422 ingestion 201 , 205 lipase 1 03, 1 39, 682
auxin influences gene expression 425 inheritance 49, 1 41 , 1 68, 1 69, 252, 439, 445 lipids 61 , 64, 66, 73, 778, 79
intracellular pumps 426 assessing health claims 84, 85
micropropagation 422, 4278 ABO blood groups 1 68, 1 745, 200 energy storage 789
plant hormones affect shoot growth 424, birdsong 537, 5378 lipoproteins 678, 679, 683, 683
4245 chi-squared tests 4534, 454 liver 279, 284, 2856, 678, 707
plant tropisms 425 continuous variation 450 blood supply to the liver 6789
role of mitosis 423 dominant, recessive and co-dominant alleles conversion of cholesterol to bile salts 678, 682
172 detoxification by the liver 678, 684
haploid nuclei 1 54, 1 55, 1 59, 1 601 , 1 71 environmental influence 4501 jaundice 678, 681 2
Harvey, William 1 7, 289, 2901 , 329, 33940, gametes 1 71 lipase and bile 682
genetic diseases 1 779, 1 801 , 1 81 2, 1 83, 1 83 processing of nutrients 678, 679
516 identifying recombinants 451 2, 4523 production of plasma proteins by hepatocytes
hCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) 499, implications of Morgans discovery of sex 678, 683
linkage 448 recycling of red blood cells 678, 680
505, 509 linked genes 4489 role of Kupffer cells 678, 680
health claims 84, 85, 856 making predictions using Punnett squares 447 storage of nutrients 679
heart 289, 659, 666, 666 polygenic inheritance 4501 transport of iron to bone marrow 678, 680
Punnett squares for dihybrid traits 446 long-wave radiation 229, 231 2
atrial and ventricular contraction 299 replicates and reliability in Mendels loop of Henl 485, 4923
atrioventricular node 684, 6867 experiments 1 68, 1 6970 water conservation in animals 4934
cardiac cycle 300, 301 , 684, 689 segregation and independent assortment 445 lungs 289, 295, 31 0
cardiac muscle cells 684, 685 segregation of alleles 1 71 2 interpreting micrographs of lung tissue 699,
cardiovascular system 292 sex-linked genes 1 68, 1 7981 705
coordination of contraction 684, 687 types of variation 449 lysosome 22
coronary heart disease (CHD) 83, 86, 2978, zygotes 1 71 lysozyme 90, 91 , 92
304, 659, 668, 678, 692 inorganic nutrients 201 , 21 01 1
defibrillators 678, 690 insolation 214 magnification 1 , 4, 6, 67
epinephrine 289, 302 insulin 87, 94, 32930, 370 malnutrition 659, 662, 664
heart rate 301 , 678, 688, 688, 689 production of human insulin in bacteria 1 1 1 , Malpighian tubule system 485, 4867
heart sounds 301 , 684, 687, 688 1 21 2 mature follicles 500
heart structure 2957 integrin 91 MDMA (ecstasy) 541 , 544
pacemakers 299, 689 interphase 51 , 52 medulla (brain) 51 8, 51 9, 521
sinoatrial node 289, 2989, 684, 6856 interstitial cells 500 medulla (kidneys) 485, 4924
heat 21 3, 21 6, 21 7 intertidal zone 6056, 658 meiosis 1 41 , 1 59, 1 71 , 439, 463, 499
helicase 1 1 1 , 1 1 3, 1 1 4 iodine deficiency 694, 695
Helicobacter pylori 671 , 675, 677 iron 680 bivalents formation and crossing over 1 62,
hemodialysis 485, 4967 isoleucine 373, 377 166
hemoglobin 91 , 1 41 , 371 , 602, 680, 699, 700, IVF (in vitro fertilization) 1 6, 329, 337, 339, 341 chiasmata formation 439, 440, 4423
701, 703 chromosome replication 440
hemophilia 1 68, 1 81 jaundice 678, 681 2 crossing over 1 62, 1 66, 439, 440, 441 2,
hepatocytes 678, 679, 681 , 683 Jenner, Edward 465, 4701 442 3
heterotrophs 201 , 203, 204, 205, 21 01 1 jet lag 329, 334 diagrams of stages of meiosis 1 645
Hiroshima, Japan 1 68, 1 845, 1 86 joints 479 discovery of meiosis 1 60
histamines 465, 474 exchange of genetic material 440
homeopathy 70 synovial joints 476, 478 halving the chromosome number 1 63
Hooke, Robert 3 meiosis and genetic variation 1 59, 1 656, 250
hormones 93, 694 karyograms 1 578 meiosis and sexual life cycles 1 61
growth hormones 694, 699 karyotypes 1 58, 159 meiosis I 4434, 444
mechanism of action of peptide hormones meiosis II 444
694, 696 obtaining cells from fetus 1 634 meiosis in outline 1 601
ovarian hormones 329, 3368 kidneys 485 non-disjunction 1 678
pituitary hormones 329, 3368, 694, 6978 random orientation of bivalents 1 623, 1 66
plants 424, 4245, 428 annotation of diagrams of the nephron 492 replication of DNA before meiosis 1 62
release of hormones by placenta 507 blood composition in renal artery and renal
vein 4879, 488
drawing the human kidney 487
716
melanism, industrial 2478, 2489, 278 identifying molecules 66 nitrogen 229, 230, 240
melatonin 329, 3334 synthesis of urea 623 denitrification 650
membrane structure 1 , 25, 60 monosaccharide monomers 73, 74 nitrogen fixation 64950
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 439, 441 , 445, 447, 448, summary of nitrogen cycle 6501
cholesterol 25, 323 449
DavsonDanielli model 278 mRNA 1 1 1 , 1 1 6, 1 1 8, 1 41 , 343 nitrogenous wastes 485, 4956
drawing fluid mosaic model 31 2 codons 1 1 1 , 1 1 9, 1 201 nitrous oxide 230
membrane proteins 25, 301 mRNA splicing 361 nomograms 73, 80, 81
membrane proteins, structure 278 mucous membranes 302, 303 normal distribution 450
models of membrane structure 267 multicellular organisms 1 , 1 01 1 nuclear explosions 1 68, 1 845
phospholid bilayers 25, 26, 49 muscles 476, 51 1 1 2, 524, 694, 699 nucleic acids 61 , 64, 1 05, 1 06
Singer-Nicolson fluid mosaic model 25, 28 antagonistic muscles 31 51 6, 477, 4778 nucleosomes 3478, 349
membrane transport 33, 39, 93 bones and exoskeletons anchor muscles 4767
active transport 38, 3940 cardiovascular system 289, 291 2, 295, 297, regulating transcription 357
digestive system 2845 298, 304 visualizing nucleosomes 348
endocytosis 34 control of skeletal muscle contraction 483 nucleotides 1 05, 1 06, 1 08, 354, 372
exocytosis 35 determining state of skeletal muscle nucleus 21
facilitated diffusion 37, 401 contraction 482 nucleus accumbens 521
osmosis 378 digestive system 279, 281 nutrient cycling 201 , 21 1 , 61 3, 61 9, 620
simple diffusion 356, 367 mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction 482 disruptions 624
vesicle movement in cells 345 muscle contraction 93 nutrients 659, 670
memory 328, 533, 539, 541 , 543 myofibrils 4801 , 481 essential and non-essential nutrients 660
memory cells 465, 468, 46970 respiratory system 31 0, 31 51 6 nutrition 201 , 204
Mendel, Gregor 1 43, 1 68, 1 6970, 1 72, 439, 444 role of ATP in sliding of filaments 483 autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition 203
exceptions to Mendels rules 447 striated muscle 1 , 7, 481 identifying modes of nutrition 206
explaining discrepancies in Mendelian ratios structure of muscle fibres 480 trends in plant and algal nutrition 2034
441 use of fluorescence to study contraction 484
menstrual cycle 329, 3368, 338 mutagens 51 , 57 obesity 80, 329, 3323
mercury pollution 575, 580 mutation 1 41 , 1 45, 1 46, 1 68, 1 85, 250 oil 220, 225, 235
meristems 422 causes of mutation 1 84
mesocosms 201 , 21 2 myelination 31 9, 320 oil pollution 575, 576, 580
metabolism 61 , 67, 373 myofibrils 4801 olfactory receptors 527
brain 525 myoglobin 699, 703 oncogenes 51 , 57
effects of enzyme inhibitors 376 oogenesis 499500, 5034
end-product inhibition 373, 377 NAD+ 383, 384 open reading frames 565, 5723, 573
enzymes and activation energy 373, 3745 NADP 389, 390, 391 operant conditioning 533, 539
metabolic pathways 372, 373, 377, 401 organelles 1 6, 1 8, 201 , 21 , 22, 23, 24, 25, 366
respiratory quotient (RQ) 402 reduction of NADP 3945, 395 osmoconformers 485, 486
types of enzyme inhibitors 373, 3756 Nagasaki, Japan 1 68, 1 845, 1 86 osmolarity 33, 41 2, 44, 485, 486
metabolites 557, 55860, 582, 583 natural selection 249, 277 osmoregulators 485, 486
metastasis 51 , 57 osmosis 33, 378, 403, 408
methane 68, 71 , 229, 230 adaptations 2501
measuring atmospheric concentration 220, antibiotic resistance 249, 257, 257, 309, 31 0, designing osmosis experiments 434
228 5 7 7 8 preventing osmosis in excised tissues and
methanogenesis 220, 2223 differential survival and reproduction 252 organs 445
oxidation of methane 220, 223 Galpagos finches 2545, 2556 osteomalacia 659, 668
microorganisms 557, 55860 inheritance 252 ovaries 499, 501
biofilms 575, 5778, 5789, 580, 581 , 582 mechanism of natural selection 549 overhydration 485, 496
bioremediation 575, 576, 57980 natural selection and animal behaviour 549 overweight 659, 6646
microscopes 329, 340 overproduction of offspring 251 oxidation 3801
see electron microscopes; laser scanning patterns of natural selection 456, 4567, 457, oxygen 68, 72, 435
microscopes; light microscopes 458 biochemical oxygen demand 649, 653
milk 96, 1 05, 694, 698 progressive change 2523, 253 cell respiration 385, 385
minerals 659, 663 simulations of natural selection 252 differences in oxygen affinity between fetal
mitochondria 22 variation 250 and adult hemoglobin 699, 703
annotating diagram of mitochondrion 387 see also evolution oxygen dissociation curves 699, 700, 703
cell respiration 380, 384, 385 neonicotinoids 31 9, 3267 photosynthesis 1 29, 1 34, 140
images of active mitochondria 388 nephron 492 oxytocin 499, 5089, 694, 698
structure and function in the mitochondrion nerve impulses 31 9, 3223, 51 6, 541
380, 3867 local currents 31 9, 323 painkillers 541 , 543
mitosis 51 , 54, 499 threshold potentials 327 pancreas 1 6, 24, 32930
leaf and stem development 423 nervous system 51 3, 541 , 544 papain 139
mitotic index 55 autonomic nervous system 521 paradigms 74
phases of mitosis 524 plasticity 51 7 Paramecium 1 , 9
model organisms 591 , 595 neural tubes 51 3, 51 41 5, 51 6, 51 8, 51 9 Pasteur, Louis 45, 478, 1 03, 1 04, 1 72
models 25, 1 05, 1 09 neurulation in Xenopus 51 5 paternity investigations 1 87, 1 89, 190
animal models in neuroscience 51 4 neurons 31 920, 51 3 pathogens 465, 4689, 4734, 582, 5845
computer models 247 action potentials 31 9, 321 2, 3223, 341 2 pathway engineering 557, 5589
Crick and Watsons model of DNA structure analysing oscilloscope traces 324, 324 Pavlov, Ivan 538
110 development of neurons 51 41 5 PCR (polymerase chain reaction) 1 1 1 , 1 1 51 6
DavsonDanielli model of membrane structure migration of neurons 51 6
2 7 8 myelinated nerve fibres 320 DNA amplification by PCR 1 87, 1 88, 1 889
ecological models 606, 6078 neural pruning 51 3, 51 7 PCR as diagnostic tool 582, 585
homunculi 5245 post-synaptic neurons 541 peat formation 220, 2234
induced-fit model 97 resting potentials 321 pedigree charts 1 68, 1 81 2, 1 83
lock and key model 97 sea anemone and anemonefish 323 pendactyl limbs 245, 246
modelling physiological processes 286, 2878 neurotransmitters 541 penicillin 302, 306, 307, 308
modelling water transport 4045 excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters penicillin production 557, 561
Singer-Nicolson fluid mosaic model of 541 2 pentoses 1 05, 1 06, 1 078
membrane structure 25, 28, 31 2 slow and fast neurotransmitters 5423 peptide bonds 87
molecular biology 61 , 62 summation 542 drawing peptide bonds 88
carbon compounds 64 niches 603, 608 peristalsis 281
drawing molecules 656 competitive exclusion principle 6089, 6091 0 pH
fundamental and realized niches 609 blood pH 699, 702
data-logging pH in an aquarium 222
enzyme activity 96, 99
oceanic pH 238
717
INDEX
rock pools 221 pollination 432, 4323, 4378 receptors 93
phagocytes 305, 468, 469, 470 pollution 508, 508, 5756, 580, 630 recombinants 451 2, 4523, 565, 568, 569
phenology 234 reduction 3801
phenotypes 445, 446, 447, 450, 451 , 456, 464 DDT 6323 reflexes 533, 535
phenylketonuria (PKU) 659, 6678 plastics in the ocean 6334, 635
phloem 403, 41 21 3 polypeptides 87, 889, 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 1 9, 362 neural pathways in a reflex arc 536
elongation 365 reflex arcs 535
aphids 41 8 genes and polypeptides 87, 901 reflex conditioning 533, 538
experiments using aphid stylets 41 7 polypeptide diversity 90 reflex speed 536
identifying in light micrographs 4201 protein and polypeptides 91 withdrawal reflex 536
phloem loading 41 31 4, 41 4 polypeptides and amino acids 878, 90, 362 renal artery and renal vein 485, 4879, 488
phloem sieve tubes 41 2, 41 51 6 primary structure 369, 369 repolarization 31 9, 321 2, 323
phosphates 1 05, 1 06, 1 078 quaternary structure 371 , 371 reproduction see plant reproduction; sexual
phospholid bilayers 25, 26, 49 secondary structure 36970 reproduction
phosphorus 649 tertiary structure 370 respiration 21 3
agriculture 652, 6545 respiration and energy release 21 51 6, 21 6
peak phosphorus 653 polyploidy 455, 460, 461 respiration rates 61 3, 622
phosphorus cycle 649, 652 Allium 462 respiratory quotient (RQ) 402
phosphorylation 380, 381 2 respirometers 1 22, 1 27, 1 28, 1 289
oxidative phosphyloration 384 polysaccharide polymers 73, 74 resting potentials 31 9, 321
photactivation 391 2 polysomes 3678 restriction endonucleases 1 87, 1 91
photolysis of water 1 2, 1 34, 392 polyspermy 499, 5045 retina 526, 529
photophosphorylation 392 population size 642, 646 rhodopsin 87, 94
cyclic photophosphorylation 395 ribose 65
photoreceptors 526, 528 carrying capacity 642, 646 ribosomes 87, 889, 1 1 71 8
photosynthesis 61 , 1 29, 21 3, 21 5, 373 estimating commercial fish populations 642, bound ribosomes 362, 3667
carbon fixation 389, 395, 3967 6445 free ribosomes 22, 362, 366
chloroplasts 389, 398, 3989, 399400 factors that influence population growth 647 structure 3623
drawing action spectrum for photosynthesis factors that influence population size 6456 ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) 389, 395, 397
133 J shaped population growth curve 645 rickets 659, 668
effects on Earth 1 29, 1 345 limiting factors 642, 648 RNA 49, 64, 1 05, 35961
electron transport chain 392 Lincoln index 643 differences between DNA and RNA 1 06
excited electrons 389, 391 2, 392, 393, 3945 modelling population growth 647 drawing DNA and RNA molecules 1 078
glycerate 3-phosphate 389, 395 random number generators 6423 messenger RNA and the genetic code 1 1 8
light-dependent reactions 38991 populations 202, 2067 rods 526, 528, 52930
limiting factors 1 36, 1 378 reproductive isolation 45860 roots 403, 409
oxygen production 1 29, 1 34, 140 potassium channels 33, 401 active transport of minerals in roots 408,
production of carbohydrates 1 356, 3956 potato blight 264 4089
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) 389, 395, 397 potometers 405 rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) 21 , 678, 683
separating photosynthetic pigments by pregnancy 499, 500 rubisco 87, 94
chromatography 1 29, 1 303 pregnancy test kits 465, 475
triose phosphate 389, 3956 primary follicles 499 saliva 672, 708
what is photosynthesis? 1 30 progesterone 329, 335, 499, 506, 507, 508, saprotrophs 201 , 204, 205
Photosystem I 389, 391 2, 3945 5089, 509 sarcomeres 481
Photosystem II 389, 391 2, 393 prokaryotes 1 , 1 6, 1 4950, 306, 35960 saturated fats 73, 83, 86
phototropism 425 cell division in prokaryotes 1 920 scientific research
phylogenetics 591 , 598 coupling of transcription and translation 367
phylograms 5989 drawing prokaryotic cells 1 9 alerting public to risk 235
pineal gland 329, 3334 other names for prokaryotes 1 9 data availability 574
pituitary gland 337, 338, 339, 51 9, 694, 6978 prokaryotic cell structure 1 81 9 diseases 582, 583
placebo effect 706 prolactin 694, 698 drug testing 541 , 545, 664
placenta 499, 5067, 507 proteins 61 , 64, 66, 87, 659 funding bias 238
plant reproduction 429 amino acids and protein synthesis 6623 improvements in apparatus 340, 397
fire and seed dormancy 436 denaturation 87, 92, 93 invisible phenomena 231
flowers 42930, 430, 4301 , 431 examples of proteins 94 motivation 1 1 0
germination experiment design 435 production of plasma proteins by hepatocytes pursuit of truth 604
mutualism between flowers and pollinators 678, 683 regulation 592
432 protein and polypeptides 91 role of chance 440
pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal protein conformations 91 2 role of expectation 460
432, 4323 protein functions 93 senses 528
structure of seeds 434 protein tracking experiments 582, 588 serendipity 557, 564, 560, 675
plants 266, 403, 437, 438 proteins involved in replication 34950 technology 388
deserts and saline soils 403, 4091 0 regulation of gene expression by proteins use of animals 489
factors affecting rooting of stem cuttings 1 97 3 5 5 6 scurvy (ascorbic acid deficiency) 89, 659, 6601 ,
guard cells 404 therapeutic uses 582 667
insectivorous plants 649, 651 proteomes 87, 945, 565, 566 secondary oocytes 500, 503
leaves 1 6, 24, 403, 404, 4078, 565, 568 proton gradient 393 sedatives 541 , 546
natural methods of cloning 1 96 proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) 767 seeds
phloem 403, 41 21 3, 41 31 4, 41 4, 41 51 6, protoplasts 565, 568 drawing internal structure 434
41 7, 41 8, 4201 proximal convoluted tubule 485, 491 , 492 fire and seed dormancy 436
preserving habitats as conservation measure psychoactive drugs 541 , 543 germination experiment design 435
43 3 4 Punnett grids 1 68, 1 73, 446, 447 seed dispersal 432
roots 403, 408, 4089, 409 pupil reflex 51 8, 522 semicircular canals 526, 533
seeds 432, 434, 435, 436 pyramids of energy 21 3, 21 8, 239, 61 3, 61 5, 61 6, seminiferous tubules 500, 501
transpiration 403, 404, 405, 4056, 4078, 618 sensory receptors 524, 5267
409 pyruvate 380, 3823 sequence alignment 591 , 5956, 598
trends in plant nutrition 2034 serotonins 541 , 544
uptake of mineral ions 403, 4089 quadrat sampling 201 , 2078, 209 Sertoli cells 500
xylem 403, 4067, 407, 41 1 quorum sensing 575, 578 Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
plasma cells 465, 468, 678, 683 582, 590
plasmids 1 50, 1 91 R-groups 370 sewage treatment 575, 580, 601 , 654
Ti plasmids 565, 569 radiation 1 68, 1 84 sex determination 1 57
pneumocytes 31 0, 31 31 4 sex determination in females 335
Chernobyl 1 85, 1 86 sex determination in males 334
Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1 845, 1 86
radioisotopes 41 2, 41 9, 41 920
718
sex linkage 448, 449 T lymphocytes 465, 4678 vitamins 659, 6634
sexual reproduction 250, 251 , 252, 253, 33940, taxonomy see classification Vitamin C 6601 , 664
teleology 436 Vitamin D 659, 668
499 telomeres 54, 351
diagrams of seminiferous tubule and ovary temparature waste products 485, 4956, 557
501 water 61 , 435
diagrams of sperm and egg 502 enzyme activity 96, 98
gestation 51 0 photosynthesis 1 29, 1 36 adhesive properties 69, 403, 4078
implantation of blastocyst 5056 tensile strengthening 93 cohesive properties 69, 403, 4067
internal and external fertilization 505 testes 329, 3345 comparing water and methane 71
male and female reproductive systems 3356 testosterone 329, 3345 cooling the body with sweat 72
materials exchange by placenta 5067 theories 3 hydrogen bonding in water 689
oogenesis and spermatogenesis 499500, thorax 31 0, 31 41 5 hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances 701
5 0 3 4 threonine 373, 377 photolysis of water 1 2, 1 34, 392
preventing polyspermy 5045 threshold potentials 327 solvent properties 70
release of hormones by placenta 507 thrombosis 304, 678, 6901 thermal properties 6970
role of hCG in early pregnancy 506 thylakoids 38990, 391 , 392, 398 transport in blood plasma 72
role of hormones in parturition 5089, 509 thyroid gland 329, 331 2 water potential 41 41 5, 41 5
sizes of sperm 503 thyroxin 329, 331 2 water systems 575, 5789, 601
sickle-cell anemia 1 41 , 1 46, 1 78 tissues 1 , 3, 1 1 water vapour 229, 230
Silphium 46, 47 medical procedures 33, 445 Watson, James 1 05, 1 09, 1 1 0, 345, 346, 347
sinoatrial node 289, 2989 trachea 31 0, 31 4 wavelengths 1 29, 1 32
sinusoids 678 tracking experiments 582, 588 Wilkins, Maurice 1 1 0, 343, 3467
skin 302, 303, 511 trans-fats 73, 83 World AIDS Day 307
small intestine 279, 2823 transects 603, 6045
modelling the small intestine 2878 transferrin 582, 588, 680 X-ray diffraction 343, 3457
starch digestion in the small intestine 2856 transgenic organisms 565, 566, 571 xylem 403
structure of the wall of the small intestine 281 translocation 41 21 3
smallpox 465, 469, 4701 , 471 pressure and water potential 41 2, 41 41 5, 41 5 drawing xylem vessels 41 1
smoking 51 , 578, 59, 1 45, 31 7, 31 8, 699, 704 radioisotopes 41 2, 41 9, 41 920 identifying in light micrographs 4201
sodium chloride 68, 72 transpiration 403, 404 xylem structure 4067, 407
sodiumpotassium pumps 33, 3940, 401 , 31 9, effects of humidity 4056 yeast 1 03, 1 245, 560
321 replacing losses from transpiration 409
soil testing 655 tension in leaf cell walls 4078 zona pellucida 504
sound perception 526 using potometers 405 zoonoses 4734
speciation 241 , 246, 455, 4634 trends 1 , 3, 87, 89, 201 , 2034 zooxanthellae 61 1
gradualism 460 triglycerides 73, 778 zygotes 1 71 , 1 956
polyploidy 455, 460, 461 , 462 triose phosphate 389, 3956
punctuated equilibrium 461 tRNA 1 1 1 , 1 1 8, 3623
reproductive isolation 4589, 459 anticodons 1 201
species 201 , 202 tRNA-activating enzymes 364
autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition 203 trophic levels 21 3, 21 71 8, 61 3, 61 31 4, 61 4
biological controls 6267 tropisms 422, 425
distribution affected by limiting factors 603, tropomyosin 476, 483
604 troponin 476, 483
Galpagos tortoises 203 tumours 51 , 57, 582, 588
indicator species 635, 636 twins 1 96, 356, 358, 450
interspecific interactions 61 01 3, 657 ultrafiltration 485, 48990, 4901
introduced species 6256, 6278, 6289, 628, unicellular organisms 1 , 8, 1 0
629 functions of life 91 0
keystone species 61 2 urea, synthesis of 61 , 623
populations 202, 2067 urinary tests 485, 4978
spermatogenesis 499500, 5034
spermatozoa 500, 502, 503 vaccines 465, 470, 4701
spider silk 87, 94 hepatitis B vaccine 565, 570
spina bifida 51 3, 51 5 vaccines and epidemiology 471 2, 473
spontaneous generation 45, 478
starch 73, 75, 767, 2856 vacuoles 22
modified potatoes 5701 van Helmont, Johannes Baptista 396
Stargardts disease 1 , 1 31 4 variation 1 59, 1 656, 1 667, 247, 250, 445
starvation 659, 666
statistics 453 continuous variation 450
statistical significance 201 , 2091 0 types of variation 449
stem cells 1 , 1 21 3 vegetative structures 429
therapeutic uses 1 , 1 31 4, 1 51 6 veins 289, 293
stethoscopes 687 valves in veins 289, 294
stimulants 541 , 546 ventilation 31 0, 31 1 , 312, 341, 699
stimuli 526, 531 airways for ventilation 31 4
stomach 671 , 676 antagonistic muscle action in ventilation 31 5
stomach ulcers 671 , 675, 677 16
strokes 51 3, 51 8 effect of CO2 on ventilation rate 699, 701 2
substrates 96, 978, 99 pressure changes during ventilation 31 41 5
succession 620, 621 , 623, 623 regulation of ventilation rate 699, 702, 7078
sugars 1 05 ventilation experiments 31 21 3
sustainability 21 1 1 2 vertebrates 268
mesocosms 21 2 vesicles 22, 33, 345
sweat 68, 72 villi 279, 2834, 671 , 673, 674
symbiosis 603, 61 1 viruses 305, 306, 3089, 5789
synapses 31 9, 3245, 51 3 gene therapy 582, 58990
acetycholine 31 9, 3267 HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) 306
development of synapses 51 7 influenza virus 582, 585
elimination of synapses 51 7 tobacco mosaic virus 565, 570
synaptic transmission 325, 3256 visual cortex 5201 , 524, 526
vision in right and left fields 530
vitalism 61 , 63, 1 034
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BIOLO GY 2014 EDITION
Supporting the latest syllabus at SL and HL, this 2014 edition was developed Authors
with the IB to most closely embody the IB way of teaching. The holistic Andrew Allott
approach to all aspects of the syllabus, including Nature of Science, encourages David Mindorff
an inquiring, active approach to learning whilst integrated data-based questions
support exceptional achievement.
Oxford course books are the only DP resources developed with the IB.
This means that they are:
The most accurate match to IB specifications
Written by expert and experienced IB examiners and teachers
Packed with accurate assessment support, directly from the IB
Truly aligned with the IB philosophy, challenging learners with fresh and
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approach to learning
Online Course Book
978 0 19 830771 6 Kerboodle Online Resources Study Guide
978 0 19 839072 5 978 0 19 839351 1
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978 019 830774 7
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Biology - Course Companion - Andrew Allott and David Mindorff - Oxford 2014
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