INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE IN THE URBAN IDENTITY AND MEMORY AXIS

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

from the herd is especially important in tough economic times, when profit margins are
slimmest, because it allows you to compete on the strength of your product, rather than
having to get into a “race for the bottom” by price-cutting. Mass tourism has also brought
new directions in cultural exploration. For cultural and heritage tourism to be successful,
it must be authentic. However, visitors, host communities and tourism operators may all
have different perspectives on what is authentic. For most visitors, “authentic” means
genuine or sincere, something rooted in the real culture of the place. Telling our stories to
visitors helps build pride in our communities, which is then reflected in indicators such
as voter turn-out, participation in volunteer organizations and involvement in community
activities. It has been suggested that this kind of active participation can also benefit
emotional and physical health. Furthermore, participation in cultural activities can expand
awareness of sustainability issues, leading to reduced environmental impacts (Destination
BC Corp., 2014: 8, 10, 12).

Experiential tourism

As the co-creation perspective along with the prosumer perspective has gained
wide acceptance both among researchers and among industrial actors, the awareness of
the central role of the customers and other stakeholders in the experience innovation
processes has gradually been revealed. Generally, the complexity of and interdependency
between actors and resources involved in creating experiences for tourists and with
tourists, especially on the destination level, make the study of the roles of different types
of stakeholders and the way they cooperate and utilize resources a critical issue for the
increased understanding of how to improve the processes of value creation in experience-
based tourism. Initially, the understanding of key dimensions of tourist experiences is of
great importance for tourism businesses entering into the creation processes of valuable
experience for their customers. Also, tourist guides play a key role in creating value for
clients in different forms of organized tourism, such as within nature-based adventure
tourism (Jensen and Prebensen, 2015: 2-5). After analysing all these, it can be argued
that there are certain elements of the development strategy of cultural/heritage tourism as
below (Table 4):

Table 4. Ten tips for developing cultural/heritage tourism experiences

Nr Tips

1 Incorporate as much local flavour as possible in your product offerings-share local foods
and wines, showcase your best local talent, etc.

2 Make it easy for visitors to find and enjoy what the locals know.

3 Provide exclusive opportunities -for example “backstage passes”- something not available
to everyone.

Develop “hidden gems”-unique opportunities to meet and interact with local enthusiasts
4 to provide entertainment, to learn, or to immerse visitors in the lifestyle and landscape

of your destination.

149

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

Recognize you’re now in the business of crafting “great story” moments. Make sure your
5 offerings are story-worthy. Ensure visitors will be excited about sharing their experience

with friends and family.

6 Provide a hands-on and interactive experience. Don’t underestimate the value visitors
find in activities locals might take for granted.

7 Be innovative and don’t be afraid to take chances.

Work with your competitors, better known as your allies, in attracting visitors to your
8 destination. Give your visitors tips on what to see and do nearby, and where to eat.

Consider packaging your offerings and make it easy for potential visitors to buy.

9 Think about how you can provide “only available here” activities to set the stage for a
great story to happen.

10 Include something unexpected or an element of surprise, perhaps a take-away locally-
produced gift. These small things add value and enhance the overall visitor experience.

Source: Federal provincial territorial ministers of culture and heritage, 2012

In the last few decades, the tourism industry has experienced increasing competition
in markets, coupled with the enhancement of communications and interactive access to
information. This process has empowered tourists. The passive role of the tourist in market
transactions has shifted towards a more active one. The focus is now on their interaction
with the organisations and the market environment. Tourism experiences are no longer just
provider-generated but co-produced, often via social events that occur in communities.
Indeed, the transformation of tourists from a passive audience to active players is
facilitated by the digital environment and information and communication technologies.
Single exchange transactions are transforming into relationships in which value is created
through the interaction process itself. Experiences, creativity and co-creation of value are
increasingly important in tourism strategies for cultural itineraries. For many scholars, a
new era has arrived and a new kind of tourism is emerging: sustainable, and environmentally
and socially responsible. A new type of tourist is driving it - more educated, experienced,
independent and respectful of cultures (Majdoub, 2015: 115).

Experiential tourism is a way of realising and enhancing the value of heritage
and culture by offering origins and popular culture, by evoking curiosity, by signifying
meanings to visitors, by facilitating engagement and expression, and so on - the logic
of experiential tourism is that it takes the tourist outside of the conventional cultural
offerings. It needs therefore to integrate attractions fully with their surroundings, to
integrate attractions with interpretative strategies. What are the key ingredients in creating
tourism experiences for visitors? (Majdoub, 2015: 121). Table 5 presents a checklist for
memorable experiences:

150

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Table 5. Checklist for the creation of memorable experiences

Nr Works That Should Be Done

1 Choose a theme that will guide and harmonise the types of activities to be included in
the Cultural Route

2 Determine the types of experiences that the manager of the Cultural Route wants to
create for visitors

3 Find activities, attractions, places and local experts who could be part of the visit for
each destination expected to be visited

4 Determine the ideal group size (minimum and maximum) depending on the experience
that has been created and restrictions related to special places or transport

5 Determine travel providers who understand what you are trying to achieve for visitors
and whose image of travel has a positive impact on the Cultural Route

6 Assess what is needed to set the scene, prepare the visitor and ensure that activities are
consistent with the theme, and determine what information guides and experts will need

7 Evaluate and decide on the balance between planned activities and unstructured
activities, as well as between participatory and passive activities

8 Make choices about the use of souvenir items and reorganise elements that will create
and preserve memories, customer loyalty and encourage promotion by word-of-mouth

9 Use the experience to sell travel and create one unique selling proposition to differentiate
yourself from competitors

Source: Majdoub, 2015

Experiential tourism has become the current term that encompasses a variety of
tourism and traveller categories, including the following: cultural tourism, ecotourism,
educational travel, experimental tourism, heritage tourism, nature tourism etc., where
activities are environmentally sensitive, displaying respect for the culture of the host
area and looking to experience and learn rather than merely standing back and gazing.
Experiential tourism involves active participation, involvement, even immersion.
Experiential tourism draws people into local nature, culture and history. The evolving
lifestyles and interests of travellers are increasingly focused on opportunities to connect
with unique natural and cultural heritage (Smith, 2006: 5, 15, 20).

Cultural heritage may be considered a unique element of a destination, marking
the tourist experience, as it represents the identity of the destination and attracts tourists
through references to its history, cultural peculiarities and both local and global themes.
However, as Richards (2011) pointed out, the proliferation of cultural tourism and its role
for the appeal and competitiveness of destinations implies the risk of a “serial reproduction
of culture”. On the other hand, the cultural tourist market has revealed increasingly
sophisticated tastes, the demand for more “authentic” and deeper experiences as well
as more interactive experiences and co-creation opportunities. The co-creation of value
is accordingly highlighted as significantly contributing to the tourist satisfaction. As an
example of customer engagement in cultural heritage sites, the Tate Gallery proposed
the “Tate Sensorium”. This consists in an immersive display through which tourists can
experience sounds, smells, tastes, and physical forms inspired by the artworks exhibited,

151

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

while recording tourists’ physiological responses through “sophisticated measurement
devices”. According to Kastenholz et al. (2020), Kempiak et al. (2017) assert that the
availability of “information”, “communication”, “engagement” and “atmospherics” is
very important, conditioning the tourists’ experience during their visits to heritage sites
and determining the evaluation of the overall experience afterwards. As can be seen,
experiential tourism is also successfully applied in the industrial heritage fields, as it
allows to know the past lives and their economic activities, to test the heritage values on
site, and to live the historical processes “in a time tunnel”.

Creative tourism

Creative tourism is becoming more important not just because the tourists are
bored, but also because the cultural sector and destination managers are looking for new
ways to interact with tourists. Richards and Wilson (2006) explain that creative tourism
has been becoming increasingly important not just to sell the culture of a place, but also to
use tourism to support the identity of the destination and to stimulate the consumption of
local culture and creativity. According to the Discussion Report of the Planning Meeting
for 2008 International Conference on Creative Tourism (UNESCO 2006), Creative
tourism is a voyage turned towards a committed experiment and authenticates, implying
the participative training of arts, the heritage, or a specific aspect of the place. It provides
a bond with the residents of the place and creates this culture. Creative tourism means high
levels of impression, experience, and satisfaction of emotions for the tourists. Creative
tourism is therefore driven by factors emanating from the sphere of both consumption and
production. These include the increasingly skilled nature of consumption, the growing
importance of experiences, and the greater role for the intangible and everyday culture in
tourism (Majdoub, 2009: 1844-1847).

According to Richards (2013), the peculiarities of creative tourism experiences
make them particularly hard to manage and study. In fact, what is often valued most in
creative tourism is the unexpected, the unplanned, or the gap between expectation and
reality. Creative tourism is embedded in social networks and relationships that makes
it attractive to the visitor and challenging for the cities to manage. Richards also put
forwards that creativity has become a more important issue on urban agendas as cities
have developed and changed. However, although “creativity” is generally equated
with urban development, the scope of creativity has recently expanded in a way that
involves creative industries approaches, the creative city concept and the creative class
model. Moreover, creative tourism is increasingly conceived of not just as an activity for
creative tourists, but as a relationship between people. In cities this idea is embodied in
experiences that allow one to “meet the locals” or “live like a local”. On the other hand,
Richards asserts that even though the creative industries were broadly defined as sectors
including advertising, architecture, art, crafts, design, fashion, film, music, performing
arts, publishing, software, toys and games, TV and radio, and video games, they may
also include tourism (Richards, 2013: 8, 15). At this point, it is possible to find numerous
examples of creative industry sector in industrial heritage tourism as well.

152

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Creative tourism initiatives can give added value to traditions, skills, and
knowledge as well as to more contemporary creative practices. Furthermore, the creative
tourism experiences themselves can stimulate the development of new ideas, products,
and services through the interactions, conversations, and co-creation experiences. By
nature, creative tourism involves small groups of visitors directly interacting with local
residents in creative activities. This small-scale and personalized approach appears to be
particularly well suited to smaller places and rural areas. In general, a wide variety of
creative and immersive events within creative tourism are designed by the partnerships
among visitors, local people, hosts and creative agents. The creative-centred workshops
and other activities provide opportunities that enable tourists to directly participate in
activities in a creative manner. Beyond showing, sampling, and purchasing, visitors get the
chance to engage in active learning, co-creation, and self-expression through producing,
with guidance, food products, handicrafts, and/or pieces of art. These activities create
memorable experiences, (usually) tangible outcomes, and self-made keepsakes to take
home (Duxbury et al., 2020: 184, 186, 192).

According to Tresserras (2014), cultural routes as a destination can help promote
cultural and creative tourism. They can boost cultural, economic and social development
through the responsible tourist management of cultural heritage, the arts, and cultural
and creative industries. This type of tourism is one of the backbones of the cultural and
creative economy and can potentially create opportunities for the local community. It
should have a portfolio of products based on local community creativity or its interaction
with tourists. It comprises of a destination with imagery, one or more icons, a brand, a
price and a position in the market, and a hands-on, welcoming community with a strong
identity. Within the creative tourism framework, the niches marking more development
are those linked to heritage tourism, art tourism, festival tourism, and above all, cultural
and creative industries which have its own specific niches such as craft tourism, film
tourism, language tourism, literary tourism, culinary tourism and music and dance
tourism, among others (UNWTO, 2015: 70-71).

Creative tourism requires high involvement of tourists and a search for experiments
and feelings. The creative tourist wants to dissociate himself, wants to see and discover,
and especially wants to be. The creative tourist appreciates comprehension and seeks
for cultural, physical, and sports activities. Consequently, traditional cognitive designs
are not suitable anymore to the expectations of creative tourists. According to Pine and
Gilmore (1999), what the tourist is seeking in these local places is more contact with
real people and engagement with the local culture and creative practices. Co-creation
offers much more stimulating experiences and enables participants to develop themselves
through these experiences. The co-created experience becomes, then, the basis of value.
The “value” that the visitor obtains is inherent in the experience itself. Dimensions of the
experience are produced in part by the visitors themselves through their personal thoughts,
feelings, imaginations and the unique backgrounds that they bring with them to the leisure
setting. By encouraging visitors to co-create their service experience, the aspects that they
individually value are likely to be incorporated into the experience, making it unique and
personal to each individual visitor. Traditional marketing tries to sell the features and

153

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

benefits of something to the consumer, while experiential marketing allows the consumer
to experience and test it for themselves. Traditional marketing has made important
contributions in both strategic concepts (segmentation, targeting, positioning) and
tactical concepts, but its focus is mainly on features and benefits. Traditional marketing
views consumers as rational decision-makers who care about functional features and
benefits. In contrast, experiential marketers view consumers as not only rational but also
emotional human beings who are concerned with achieving meaningful experiences. That
is to say, learn something by doing something with someone who lives here. Therefore,
cultural routes strategies have to move from traditional features-and-benefits marketing
towards creating experiences for their customers. For instance, engaging all five senses
is important because the more sensory an experience is, the more memorable it will be
(Majdoub, 2015: 120-122).

Educational tourism

Educational tourism is a niche tourism. This is the reason why it is not widespread
and popular in the tourism market. Educational tourism is most often associated with
school trips and excursions. According to the World Tourism Organization, educational
tourism is considered a form of tourism that encompasses different types of tourism,
which are related to the motives of tourists to travel, participate and engage themselves
in various training, self-improvement processes, intellectual growth and the development
of different and diverse skills. Educational tourism represents a wide range of products
and services related to academic research, skills acquisition holidays, school trips, sports
training, career development courses and language courses, among others. Voleva-
Petrova argue that there are certain varieties of educational products that could together
with tourism form the product of educational tourism. In other words, the product of
educational tourism is a combination of the tourism product and the product of education.
This combination is well integrated and paired to meet the tourist and educational needs
of consumers. The combination of tourism and education products can take many forms.
It can be student mobility, training, seminar, research trip, summer camps, courses lasting
less than twelve months, one-year educational master’s programs, educational tours and
more. Today, it is important to have an innovative and creative approach to the product of
educational tourism, because new types of tourists seek authenticity and real experiences
(Voleva-Petrova, 2020: 185, 189).

Within the scope of educational tourism, student trips to industrial heritage sites
and touristic tour packages attract a lot of attention today. Outdoor museums, factory
facilities, mining and operation areas in heritage sites, cultural landscapes, etc. become
a part of non-formal and lifelong learning as the witnesses of the past. In addition, this
type of tourism is integrated with the experiential tourism and creative tourism under
the totality of purposes, methods and practices. Indeed, Tomasi et al. (2020) explain
the holism of experience and education through tourism with these words: Experiential
learning is an essential part of the experience of tourism, and consequently is particularly
significant when it comes to educational tourism, where the learning component is core.

154

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Travel necessarily involves experiential learning. The learning experience in educational
tourism involves providers, practitioners, and learners. It goes beyond the actual touristic
experience. It includes pre-travel considerations (product development, personnel
recruitment and learner preparation) and after-travel moments related to the learning
communities and the maintenance of learner social links. Citing from Richards (2011),
Tomasi et al. argues that educational tourism will also facilitate learning along with
ecotourism, cultural tourism and agricultural tourism (Tomasi et al., 2020: 6).

In former coal and steel areas, this can be an important part of the de-industrialisation
process, tourism helping to train a new type of service skill amongst workers. Within
some branches of industrial heritage tourism, special skills training linked to metal and
wood working have evolved. Discussions with FEDECRAIL, and with heritage rail and
heritage waterways operations, reveal a range of specialist skills training schemes operated
in Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK. Some have prospered. Many
have found problems in obtaining recognition from educational authorities, in working in
partnership with educational organizations, and in finding national and European contacts
with which to confer and learn (European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and
Tourism, 2013: 39-40).

Examples of Industrial Heritage Tourism

Coal mining-related heritage tourism

Mining is central to industrial heritage. Coal mining helped launch the industrial
revolution. Europe’s greatest industrial complexes were based on coal. Iron mining came
second to coal as a major extractive activity. However, industrial heritage tourism linked
to mining is rare. The most interesting tourism mines are open to the public, underground
and deep. They are all potentially dangerous, which require stringent and expensive
safety precautions, expensive pumping systems to prevent flooding, forced air ventilation
systems to remove gas and improve air quality, plus highly qualified staff. In addition to
many small surface museums, there are a few small-scale coal, iron and other heritage
underground mines that are open to the visitation (European Parliament’s Committee on
Transport and Tourism, 2013: 46-47). Examples include:

The German Mining Museum (Das Deutsche Bergbau-Museum) in Bochum is one
of the most visited museums in Germany, with approximately 400,000 annual visitors.
Established in 1930, the museum is one of the eight research museums belonging to
the Leibniz Association. It explores preserves and teaches the history of the extraction,
processing and use of geo-resources across the ages. Alongside guided tours through the
permanent exhibition and the visitor’s mine, it also has numerous workshops, events,
and museum-related educational activities for visitors of every age. Since the summer of
2019, there have been four over-ground tours available to the visitors of the Deutsches
Bergbau-Museum Bochum: Hard Coal, Mining, Mineral Resources and Art - covering

155

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

the full spectrum of the activities of the Leibniz Research Museum for Geo-resources.
The Deutsches Bergbau-Museum’s mine and the pit descent simulator allow visitors to
glimpse the many facets of mining from an underground perspective. Along the 1.2 km
underground tunnel network, visitors can see how the everyday life underground was
like and learn about the historical development of the mining technology. Finally, there
is the headframe of the erstwhile Germania colliery, the museum’s largest exhibit, from
where the view extends far across the Ruhr Area - a region featuring a landscape stamped
by coal mines. The museum offers a special programme for kindergartens and schools.
Kindergarten and schoolchildren up to year one in secondary school can enjoy the
participative activities and experience mining-related themes at first hand. Knowledge-
sharing formats designed for adults include not only practical theme-based workshops,
but also guided tours for people with dementia (https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/en/

visitors/educational-offerings) (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The German Mining Museum (Das Deutsche Bergbau-Museum)
Source: https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/

The Big Pit at Blaenavon in South Wales is about 50 km, or an hour’s drive, north
east from Cardiff. It is part of the Blaenavon World Heritage Site (WHS). The industrial
heritage complex is a rare example of a deep (90 metres) coal mine open to the public
with underground guided tours throughout the year. The mine opened in 1860, producing
coal for the local iron works and for distribution via railway around the UK and beyond.
In 2001, it affiliated to the National Museum of Wales and got involved in the public
sector. The visitors do not pay to enter the Big Pit. A shop, a restaurant, a multi-media

156

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

virtual gallery, a blacksmith’s shop and state of the art interpretation centre compliments
the underground tours led by trained and experienced ex-miners. The Big Pit is an Anchor
Point on the European Route of Industrial Heritage, and a member of ERIH (European
Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 46-47). The Big Pit National
Coal Museum, being an award-winning national museum that still retains many features
of its former life as a coal mine stands high on the heather-clad moors of Blaenafon. The
tunnels and buildings that once echoed to the sound of the miners now enjoy the sound
of the footsteps and chatter of visitors from all over the world. With facilities to educate
and entertain all ages, The Big Pit is an exciting and informative. To sum up, the museum
is set in a unique industrial landscape, designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in
2000 with recognition of its international importance to the process of industrialisation
through iron and coal production. It is one of the few mining museums where visitors can
descend in the pit cage and visit the places where generations of coal miners worked. At
the museum, students learn about the coal mining heritage, and courses, workshops and
competitions are organized for them (https://museum.wales/bigpit/about/) (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Big Pit National Coal Museum, South Wales, UK.
Source: https://museum.wales/bigpit/

Textile industry heritage tourism

The textile heritage tourism is widespread in Europe. Today, the textile heritage
tourism is supported by an active group of artisan textile producers and enthusiasts.
It is hard to convince the public about the value textile industry heritage as a tourism
attraction, but there are many pointers which suggest that the situation can be improved
by better market knowledge and marketing, better management and better interpretation
(European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 48).

157

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

One of the prominent examples of the textile industry heritage tourism is Audax
Textile Museum (TextielMuseum) in Tilburg, Netherlands. Textile production was a
traditional industry in the eastern Netherlands. By the seventeenth century, hand-loom
weaving had already been established in Tilburg. In 1881, there were 145 mills in the
city. Mills and mill buildings deeply influenced the life and townscapes of the region and
especially in Tilburg. It employed many thousands of often highly skilled people. And
then, in the 1960s, like other textile regions in Europe, the industry declined rapidly, with
both domestic and export markets suffering price competition from low cost producers
outside Europe. The majority of mills closed; many were demolished. The museum
honours the almost totally lost history. It created a very special place, and potentially,
an ideal industrial heritage tourism resource. The museum was established in 1958 and
moved to Mommers’ former textile factory in 1982. It expanded further and a stunning
ultra-modern glass-based entrance building was added in 2008, housing a reception,
a cafe/restaurant, an expanded shop, and a range of conference and exhibition rooms.
While it has an important archive collection of textiles, machines and documents, it is
also a place where the visitor can watch artists and technicians producing exciting new
works. It buzzes, if quietly, with activity (European Parliament’s Committee on Transport
and Tourism, 2013: 48-50) (Figure 5).

Figure 5. TextielMuseum, Tilburg, NL.
Source: https://www.tilburgers.nl/

The TextielMuseum are veritable treasure for children. To them, the exhibited
objects and activities in which they participate in a museum are often new, surprising
and interesting. Because of their unlimited imagination, they experience the museum and
the collection in a completely different way compared to adults. The TextielMuseum has
developed a range of alternating programmes especially for primary school children. A

158

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

trip to the museum consists of a guided tour and a workshop. For most children, a trip
to the TextielMuseum is the first time they are introduced to the past, present and future
of textile. They find out how textile forms part of their daily lives and discover all its
possibilities. In the TextielLab, weaving, knitting, embroidering, tufting, laser-cutting and
passementerie production techniques are demonstrated using modern computer-operated
machines that transform all sorts of yarn into textile objects and artwork (https://www.
textielmuseum.nl/en/about-the-textielmuseum/).

Railway heritage tourism

Railway heritage tourism is widespread and often seen as the jewel in the crown
of industrial heritage tourism. This section examines a successful heritage railway, a rail
route that is now a cycle and walking trail but retains its heritage infrastructure, and a
brief discussion about using conventional railways as heritage routes. The world leaders
in using operational railway can be found in the USA. Trails & Rails is an innovative
partnership program between the National Park Service and Amtrak, providing rail
passengers with educational opportunities that foster an appreciation of a selected region’s
natural and cultural heritage. The programme links cities and national parks by providing
audio heritage interpretation on the selected trains (European Parliament’s Committee on
Transport and Tourism, 2013: 50, 55-56).

The West Somerset Railway in the UK is in the South West England. It was
completed in 1874, linking the seaside town of Minehead via rural communities to the
county town of Taunton and connections for London. It closed in 1971 but was re-opened
by a group of local people and enthusiasts as a heritage line in 1976. The railway is a public
limited company which enables the company to gain a licence for railway operations and
to remain connected to the national rail network. Although trains stop short of the national
network for technical reasons, the physical connection remains, allowing the summer
season charter trains to the line. The railway operates from February to November, with
additional trains in December and between Christmas and the New Year bringing extra
income. There are four daily trains each way in low season and seven in high season.
Many, but not all, trains are hauled by heritage steam locomotives. There are 200,000
passengers in the region per year, with August being the peak month with approximately
42,000 passengers. The line is ranked in the top 10 of the UK’s heritage railways and
recognised as an example of best practice management. The railway produces an annual
marketing plan for the year’s special events and the scheduled services. Both traditional
paper and internet-based marketing are used, with information/timetable leaflets
distributed to all local accommodation providers. The railway’s location is also central
to its success. The region is one of the UK’s most popular holiday areas, with in excess
of 20 million overnight visitors and 141 million day visits annually. The railway is a
working heritage experience for the important day visit market. It works closely with
other tourism providers, offering tickets packaging the railway with entrance fees for
the specific local attractions, thus broadening its market and assisting other local tourism
attractions (European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 50-52).

159

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

The railway (Figure 6, 7), a true country branch line of the old Great Western
Railway, is full of fascination whether you are looking for a nostalgic ride back in time
through lovely countryside or to study the railway and industrial heritage which line
preserves. The historic steam locomotives, coaches and wagons, and the buildings of ten
unique stations linked by a twenty mile scenic journey repay the hours of exploration.
The surrounding countryside is as varied as it is beautiful. The gently rolling Quantock
Hills and distant Exmoor, unspoilt villages and farms nestling in leafy lanes, the cliffs and
coast of the Bristol Channel with views of distant South-Wales, confident church towers,
Dunster’s imposing castle and Minehead’s seaside charm are all waiting to be discovered.
Schools programme at the Gauge Museum offers a broad range of learning sessions which
can be delivered either in the museum or in the classroom. Combining costume and role
play and using a range of real and replica objects, they offer an opportunity not only to

Figure 6. The West somerset railway’s route, UK
Source: https://www.west-somerset-railway.co.uk/

Figure 7. The West somerset railway, UK
Source: https://www.west-somerset-railway.co.uk/, https://www.somersetlive.co.uk/
160

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

explore the local and national history, but also to provide optional links (https://www.
west-somerset-railway.co.uk/) (Figure 6, 7).

Vias Verdes Spanish Greenways is another prominent example of the railway
heritage tourism. A remarkable feature of the railway heritage is that it can be valuable
for tourism even when the train service has ceased. The post-1960s reduction of the
European railway network made much rail-related industrial heritage redundant but left
a huge legacy of unused traffic-free rights of way. There began a random process of
either losing the heritage and selling off rights of way and land for development or using
the disused routes for cycle/pedestrian/equestrian leisure and tourism as Greenways with
great tourism potential. The Vias Verdes Programme in Spain was launched in 1993 to
assess and plan the use of closed railway routes for non-motorised transport. Vias Verdes
the Spanish Railway Foundation (FFE) has a wider responsibility to identify, restore and
conserve Spanish railway heritage, including cultural elements. It supports the work of
the Museo del Ferrocarril de Madrid- Delicias and the Museo del Ferrocarril de Cataluña-
Vilanova i la Geltrú in conserving the documentary heritage of the railways. Most of the
marketing for individual routes is undertaken by the regional authorities, as a common
situation with regard to the general tourism marketing in Spain. In 2000, the FFE
launched the Vias Verdes website. Vias Verdes is a good model for the preservation of
railway heritage and provides a valuable resource for local communities that has been lost
in many other countries (European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism,
2013: 53-56).

Vías Verdes (Greenways) (Figure 8, 9) is an alternative ideal for walkers and

cyclists of all ages, that respects the

environment and brings together sports

and other outdoor activities. There

are 2,900 kilometres of Vía Verdes all

over Spain. From north to south and

east to west, there are 117 itineraries

to be covered on fascinating routes that

will take the visitors to stunning spots

and reveal a great deal about Spain’s

cultural heritage. They are easy to get

to, and being flat and even, provide

no technical difficulties - ideal for all

kinds of people: adults, children, and

the elderly and the disabled as well.

The panels and signposts along the way

keep the visitors constantly informed

about interesting artistic locations and

landscapes. There are even guides

and guided visits available for certain Figure 8. Vía Verde del Maigmó (Maigmó Greenway),
areas. On the way, it is possible to Alicante/Spain
find accommodation, guesthouses and Source: http://www.viasverdes.com/en/itineraries/

161

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

Figure 9. Vía Verde de la Sierra, Spain
Source: https://www.abc.es/

restaurants where can be rested and replenished personal energy. It is worth to mention
that 98 years-old railway stations have been restored as rural hotels, restaurants, cafés,
rent a bike point, information office or small museums. All in all, Vias Verdes is an
original, varied alternative for those who want to discover Spain’s rich landscapes and
cultural sites in an easy, environmentally friendly way (http://www.viasverdes.com/en/
principal.asp).

The industrial heritage museum and tourism

Beamish-The Living Museum of the North is a good example of the industrial
heritage museums. Beamish is in the North-east England, situated between the cities of
Newcastle and Durham. Beamish was planned as a regional museum, with its catchment
area limited to the northeast. As early as 1958, the idea of a museum to commemorate
the region’s industrial past had been discussed. The museum was set up in 1970 by the
four major local government units in the region. The 120 hectare site was opened in
1972. It has over 300,000 objects in its collection. It focuses on the region’s industrial
heritage, largely the period of 1800-1940. It has a range of streets, costumed interpreters,
working exhibits, shops, and uses period buses and trams to carry visitors around the site
(European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 56-58). Beamish
was the product of Dr. Frank Atkinson’s vision, the Museum’s founder and first director.
Atkinson had visited Scandinavian folk museums by the early 1950s and was inspired to
create an open air museum for the North East. He realised that the dramatically-changing
region was losing its industrial heritage. Coal mining, ship building and iron and steel

162

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

manufacturing were disappearing, along with the communities that served them. Atkinson
wanted the new museum to illustrate vividly the way of life of the “ordinary people” and
bring the region’s history alive. Beamish remains true to his principles today and brings
history to life for hundreds of thousands of visitors each year (http://www.beamish.org.
uk/about/history-of-beamish/) (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Beamish, The Living Museum of the North, UK
Source: http://www.beamish.org.uk/

Regenerating Regions Through Industrial Heritage
Tourism: The Ruhr Tourism Region

The Ruhr Region of Germany is probably the biggest collection of industrial heritage
in Europe. It was Europe’s largest industrial region, with 300 coal mines operational by
1850. That coal was exported to other parts of Europe and the world, used locally to develop
a very major iron and steel industry, and to provide power for numerous manufacturing
plants. The population of the Ruhr metropolitan area is now over 5 million in 53 towns and
cities but only four working mines have remained. Industrial heritage tourism has become
a vital part of the regeneration process, changing attitudes, changing the image of Ruhr,
and providing jobs and financial inflows. Within the concept of Ruhr as a region capable of
attracting tourists, there are a number of key ideas. First, changing the image of a region can
help retain and attract people, enterprises and visitors. Second, the industrial past should be
understood and celebrated as a living history and as a series of art forms. Third, retaining
and re-using industrial buildings for tourism and other purposes can be both a green solution
to recycling and retaining local character and can build brand and place attachment. Fourth,
the industry-linked culture of the region should be recognised and used. Fifth, investment in
the arts and cultural industries can pay dividends in terms of image changing, regeneration
and tourism since former industrial buildings can provide a unique stage for art and culture.
Sixth, regeneration and tourism should be approached on an active regional partnership
basis, not just on a site by site basis.

163

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

The region’s massive and muscular industrial structures are now filled with art,
culture, housing, commerce and offices. Concerts are staged in the ageing steel frames
of former factories. Grassy recreational areas complete with hiking trails and climbing
walls, have been sculpted from the old hills of the coal pilings. Cycle and walking paths
through the glades of trees linking the many different components of the park follow the
former industrial roads and rail lines. Ruhr Tourismus (Ruhr Tourism) uses the concept
of the Die Metropole Ruhr (the Ruhr Metropolis) as a brand name to emphasize the
region’s importance, its new and fashionable approach to the past and the future. Ruhr
Tourismus has been successful. Much of that success come from intensive and ongoing
market research, market-linked branding policies, excellent websites, and a strong can-do
mentality (European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 58-60).

Ruhr Valley, Ruhrpott, Revier, Ruhr Metropolis, all of these names, refer to the
same unmistakeable region deep in the West. Around 3,500 industrial monuments reflect
the eventful past of the Ruhr Valley and have become impressive sites for leisure and
culture. High ropes climbing between disused blast furnaces, diving in a former gasometer,
or ice skating surrounded by impressive coke ovens and high chimneys, all of these, can
be done in the Ruhr Valley. Its nature is also green and people hike over hills rather
than mountains. Moreover, with around 250 festivals each year, there is almost always

something to participate in (https://www.ruhr-tourismus.de/en/index.html). (Figure 11).

Figure 11. The Zollverein Coalmine and Industrial Complex, Essen/Germany
Source: https://www.ruhr-tourismus.de/en/the-ruhr-area/cities/

164

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

The examples above show that the industrial heritage tourism has looked after
the present remains of the Industrial Revolution that started in Europe. Old industrial
sites and small-scale facilities all over the world, as well as giant industrial complexes in
Europe, have been waiting to be saved from crumbling.

Discussion and Conclusions

The industrial heritage includes the historical, scientific-technological, social
and architectural remains of the industrial sector. Tourism helped valorise and conserve
aspects of vanishing heritage, lifestyles and cultures. The industrial heritage is either
preserved as it is by being restored or revitalized and given a new function. In both
cases, heritage sites, which are opened to visits and use, are marketed in tourism together
with their natural and historical surroundings. Industrial heritage tourism conserves the
heritage in site - often in a relevant landscape or - and do not take the heritage away to a
museum. The relationship between industrial heritage and tourism is established on the
axis of industrial space and economic culture, history, architecture, as well as within the
framework of museums, industrial heritage parks, routes, renovated heritage buildings
and regions, and annual events. All of these are the sources for various tourism types such
as cultural tourism, experiential tourism, creative tourism, participation - based tourism,
education tourism in urban and rural areas. Industrial heritage tourism, on the other hand,
is the common ground of all these types of tourism.

The opening of old industrial areas to tourists also includes various purposes and
perspectives. While primarily preserving the memories of the past, important gains are
achieved by obtaining information about the past and transforming the residual industrial
areas into functional or multi-functional centres. On the other hand, industrial heritage
tourism has many benefits for local communities (host society), surrounding settlements
and tourist destinations. The development of urban and rural units, the diversification of
touristic products, the increase in regional attractiveness, recognition, touristic demand
and income are at the forefront. Thus, industrial heritage tourism is integrated not only in
a single location, but with the immediate environment, and cooperates with other tourism
types. All these strengths of industrial heritage tourism increase the competitiveness of
destinations and ensure sustainability.

165

Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

References Flognfeldt jr., T. (2005). The Tourist Route
System-Models of Travelling Patterns, Belgeo/
Al-Ababneh, M. M. (2020). Creative Cultural Revue Belge de Géographie, 1-2, 1-25. URL:
Tourism as a New Model of the Relationship Between http://journals.openedition.org/belgeo/12406
Cultural Heritage and Tourism, International Journal
of Hospitality and Tourism Studies (IJHTS), 1(1), 39- Graf, M. (2013). Industrial Cultural Routes.
44. Journal “Energy, Economy, Ecology”, Energy
Association, Belgrade, Serbia, 2 (15), 328-335.
Bayındır, A. E. (2019). Integration of Industrial
Heritage Areas Into The City Through Urban Design: Hansen, A. B. and Gronau, W. (2020). Managing
The Case of Sümerbank Nazilli Textile Factory Magic: Typologies for Managing a Good Heritage
Campus, Master of Science, Urban Design in City and Tourism Experience. In: W. Gronau (Ed.), E-CUL-
Regional Planning, The Graduate School of Natural TOURS: Managing Cultural Heritage in Tourism,),
and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical Open Source Textbook, Chapter: 4.2, pp. 148-160.
University, Ankara.
Hospers, G.-J. (2002). Industrial Heritage Tourism
Bonadei, R. and Iguman, S. (2020). Heritage and Regional Restructuring in the European Union,
Practices Today: Shifts and Impacts. In: W. Gronau European Planning Studies, 10 (3), 397-404.
(Ed.), E-CUL-TOURS: Managing Cultural Heritage
in Tourism, Open Source Textbook, Chapter: 1.1, pp. Jatuliavičienė, G. and Mačerinskienė, A. (2012).
2-16. New Concept of Tourism Product: Matching
Supply Aspects, 7th International Scientific
Bourdeau, L. and Marcotte, P. (2015). Les Routes Conference Business and Management 2012, May
Touristiques, Collection Géographie, Presses de 10-11, 2012, Vilnius, Lithuan, pp. 373-379.
l’Université Laval, Canada.
Jensen, O. and Prebensen, N. (2015). Innovation
Council of Europe. (2011). Impact of European and Value Creation in Experience based Tourism,
Cultural Routes on SMEs’ Innovation and Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 15
Competitiveness, European Commission’s (sup1), 1-8.
Competitiveness and Innovation Framework
Programme (CIP). Jie, G. (2009). The Protection and Renewal of
Industrial Heritage from a Landscape Architect’s
Destination BC Corp. (2014). Cultural and Heritage Perspective, Master Thesis in European Spatial
Tourism Development Guide, First Edition, Planning and Regional Development Blekinge
Destination British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. Institute of Technology, Sweden.

Duxbury, N., Kastenholz, E. and Cunha, C. (2020). Kastenholz, E., Carneiro, M. J. and Carvalho, M.
Co-producing Cultural Heritage Experiences Through (2020). Co-creating Appealing, Distinctive and
Creative Tourism. In: W. Gronau (Ed.), E-CUL- Memorable Cultural Heritage Experiences. In: W.
TOURS: Managing Cultural Heritage in Tourism,), Gronau (Ed.), E-CUL-TOURS: Managing Cultural
Open Source Textbook, Chapter: 5.2, pp. 183-193. Heritage in Tourism, Open Source Textbook,
Chapter: 5.1, pp. 171-182.
European Parliament’s Committee on Transport and
Tourism. (2013). Industrial Heritage and Agri/Rural Koutoulas, D. (2009). Understanding the Tourism
Tourism In Europe, (Authors: B. Lane, E. Kastenholz, Product, Interim Symposium of the Research
J. Lima, J. Majewsjki), Directorate-General For Committee on International Tourism (RC 50) of
Internal Policies Policy, Department B: Structural and the International Sociological Association (ISA)
Cohesion Policies. Brussels. on the Topic: Understanding Tourism-Theoretical
Advances, 14-16 May 2004, University of the
Federal Provincial Territorial Ministers of Culture Aegean, Mytilini, Greece.
and Heritage. (2012). Cultural & HeritageTourism:
A Handbook for Community Champions. Whyte, Lourens, M. (2007). The Underpinnings for
Bruce; Hood, Terry; White, Brian P. (Eds.) Library Successful Route Tourism Development in South
and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication. Africa, University of the Witwatersrand, School
Québec, Canada.

166

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Tomka, D., Đurić, G. and Tomka, G. (2012).
Studies, Masters of Tourism, Johannesburg. Thematic Cultural Tourist Routes of Danube Region-
Local Cultural Goods As A Global Attraction. In:
Majdoub, W. (2009). Cultural Routes: An N. J. Šarčević and E. S. Karanović (Eds.), Danube
Innovating Tool for Creative Tourism Management, Strategy-Strategic Significance for Serbia, Institute of
International Conference-MIC, 25-28 November International Politics and Economics, Belgrade, pp.
2009, Sousse/Tunisia, pp.1841-1854. 259-273.

Majdoub, W. (2015). New Tourists and New Tourism Tourism Standards Consortium. (2016). Transforming
Strategies for Cultural Routes, Cultural Routes Communities Through Tourism: A Workshop for
Management: From Theory to Practice, Step-by-step Tourism Community Champions, Tourism British
Guide to the Council of Europe Cultural Routes, Columbia, BC Handbook, Canada.
Council of Europe Publishing, pp. 115-124.
UNWTO. (2015). Global Report on Cultural Routes
Mansfeld, Y. (2015). Tourism, Community and Socio- and Itineraries, Affiliate Members Report: Volume
cultural Sustainability in Cultural Routes, Cultural Twelve, World Tourism Organization (UNWTO),
Routes Management: From Theory to Practice, Step- Madrid.
by-step Guide to the Council of Europe Cultural
Routes, Council of Europe Publishing, pp.73-83. Voleva-Petrova, I. (2020). Origin and Characteristics
of Educational Tourism, Economics and Management,
Mihic, I. G. and Makarun, E. (2018). Policy Learning XVІІ (2), 185-192.
Guidelines on Industrial Heritage Tourism, CHRISTA
Project (Culture and Heritage for Responsible, Xie, P. F. (2015). Industrial Heritage Tourism, Tourism
Innovative and Sustainable Tourism Actions), Interreg and Cultural Change: 43, Channel View Publications.
Europe. https://www.interregeurope.eu/christa/
Zillinger, M. (2007). Tourist Routes: A Time-
Morgan, N., Pritchard, A. and Pride, R. (2004). Geographical Approach on German Car - Tourists in
Introduction. İçinde: N. Morgan, A. Pritchard and Sweden,
R. Pride (Eds.), Destination Branding: Creating the
Unique Destination Proposition, Second Edition,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 1-16.

Nagy, K. (2012). Heritage Tourism, Thematic Routes
and Possibilities for Innovation, Club of Economics
in Miskolc TMP 8(1), 46-53.

Richards, G. (2013). Creativity and Tourism in the
City, Pre Publication Version of the Article, Current
Issues in Tourism. Taylor & Francis Online.

Smith, W. L. (2006). Experiential Tourism around
the World and at Home: Definitions and Standards,
International Journal of Services and Standards, 2(1),
1-14.

The West Somerset Railway, https://www.west-
somerset-railway.co.uk/

TICCIH. (2003). The Nizhny Tagil Charter for hhe
Industrial Heritage, The International Committee for
the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage (TICCIH).

Tomasi, S., Paviotti, G. and Cavicchi, A. (2020).
Educational Tourism and Local Development: The
Role of Universities, Sustainability, 12, 1-15.

167



FROM CULTURAL HERITAGE TO
INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE: TOURISM
AND CITIES

Gözde EMEKLİ1

Abstract

From past to present, the definition, meaning, scope, perception and application
forms of the concepts of culture and heritage, which have an important power between
countries and people, have changed and continue to change, cities are especially
looking for ways to evaluate their cultural and industrial heritage through tourism.
Industrial heritage, which is the main theme of the research, has traces of the historical,
technological, social, geographical, architectural and scientific values of the industrial
culture. While the Industrial Revolution was considered as a turning point that caused
radical changes in the social, economic and natural environment and radically changed
the socio-economic positions of countries, with the increase in the spatial transformative
effect of neo-liberal policies in the 2000s, it has come to the fore that multidimensional
measures should be taken to redefine, protect and ensure the sustainability of cultural and
natural values particularly in the World Heritage List. Today, “industrial heritage” consists
of old industrial structures, areas and all kinds of assets associated with them, which have
a certain historical quality and importance, and attracts the attention of tourism. It is seen
that cultural tourism, which started with the visit of cultural assets, differs with the change
of culture-tourism-industrial heritage relations.

In the process of globalization, the transformations experienced in the political,
economic, technological and administrative fields can be observed in the cities as a
whole, the cities are constantly changing, and the tourism in the cities is evaluated within
the scope of urban tourism. Today, the transition from industrial society to information
society, the relationship of nation-states with globalization, the transition from Fordist
production to post-Fordist production, from modernism to postmodernism cause the
relations and functions in cities to be reinterpreted.

1   Prof. Dr., Ege University Department of Geography, İzmir/Turkey

e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-8528-5209

169

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

Historically, it is seen that traditional urban tourism has focused on tangible
cultural heritage but today, intangible heritage and experiences related to them shine
out. Urban tourism includes all visits by tourists to cities to learn about the historical
and cultural heritage, lifestyles and ways of thinking of other societies, and the heritage
industry draws attention in this direction. The “heritage industry” sector, which emerged
in cities after 1970, helped transform the urban space for tourism purposes (Hewison,
1987), the textures of pre-modern cities were revived and given new functions, and the
buildings that were emptied and abandoned as a result of deindustrialization witnessed
different uses (Gospodini, 2001).

Introduction

Globalization and indigenization relations and the rise of cultural heritage as an
economic value, nation-state structures, transformation of cities and rural areas, debates in
conservation theory and practice, international and national conventions, new economic
order, political relations and technological developments all pave the way for the evolution
of cultural heritage, the differentiation and even diversification of the concepts and
practices related to the heritage industry. With postmodernity, the relationship between
cultural sectors and tourism has become a frequently focused research area due to its
effects on economic growth-development and creativity and culture sectors has become
prominent as tools of economic growth (Smith, 2002; Richards, 2014; 2015; 2016).

The Industrial Revolution, which started in England in the middle of the 18th
century and spread all over the world and whose effects continue to the present day,
accelerated spatial and social changes, changed the forms of production and diversified
employment opportunities. With the migration movements and the increase in urban
relations, the relationship between the concepts of the city, urbanization and being
urbanized with tourism has started to be discussed. Industrial facilities that contribute to
the economic and cultural development of countries and affect their social structures are
re-evaluated as traces of their industrial past to be used for the benefit of the city and the
public, and important studies are carried out in European countries on this subject.

While the Industrial Revolution was considered as a turning point that caused
radical changes in the social, economic and natural environment and radically changed
the socio-economic positions of countries, with the increase in the spatial transformative
effect of neo-liberal policies in the 2000s, it has come to the fore that multidimensional
measures should be taken to redefine, protect and ensure the sustainability of cultural and
natural values particularly in the World Heritage List. This development has also been
effective in the fields of industrial heritage, and the international common protection
principles and contents have been redefined and expanded. Today, “industrial heritage”
consists of old industrial structures, fields and all kinds of assets with a certain historical
quality and importance, and creates a new research area in terms of scope and application
by being influenced by the contexts of cultural geography, tourism, cultural tourism,
settlement geography, economic geography as well as creativity and innovation relations.

170

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

This situation paves the way for the updating of tourism theories and the development of
new creativity and experience models.

As it can be understood from the concrete definitions in the historical development
of the concept of culture, it is seen that the abstract contents and features that include
the behaviors and thoughts of the people are added to the definition In this direction,
the relations between industrial heritage, cities and tourism, which constitute the main
theme, are shaped according to culture and life preferences; therefore, culture is affected
by tourism and creates different cultural and geographical views by affecting tourism.
Cultural heritage, which is a bridge between the past and the future, has evolved and
continues to evolve in terms of its definition, meaning and scope, perception and practice
throughout the 20th century (UNESCO, 2013; 2015). In this context, heritage-tourism
relations differ and cities have particularly been looking for ways to evaluate their cultural
and industrial heritage through tourism.

In this research, which tries to look at the concepts and relations of culture, cultural
heritage and industrial heritage in the context of tourism, especially cultural tourism and
urban tourism, the changes experienced in different periods were tried to be analyzed by
analytical method, and an elaborate process was followed to create a thematic fiction that
includes qualitative and interpretation analyzes by making use of the existing national
and international literature. This publication will not provide solutions to the conceptual
expansions and problems of the research theme, but will prioritize to draw attention to
new approaches by looking at changing needs and diversifying research topics from the
perspective of tourism geography.

Theoretical Approach to the Concepts of Culture, Cultural
Heritage and Industrial Heritage-Tourism

Although there are many definitions in the literature of the concept of culture that
best describes human-nature relations, the approach to culture of each branch of science,
society or country is different (Williams, 1993). Sociologists agree that the term culture
covers not only the music, literature and art of a society, but also its lifestyle, architecture,
clothing, daily life habits, culinary characteristics and folklore (Smith, 2001; 2003). Even
though culture is an element formed in social life, individual attitudes and behaviors have
an important place in the cultural texture (Rodríguez, 2011). Culture has a divisive power
as well as integrating (Güvenç, 2002) and this power creates an important privilege for
tourism. Values that describe people and show intergenerational, international and cross-
border characteristics are called universal culture, and the product of the concept of nation
that emerged with the development of capitalism is called national culture (Kongar, 1989,
s.13, 32).

Cultural heritage is all of the tangible and intangible assets and values, the result
of thousands of years of life experience, mind and creativity of nature and humans
(Frey, Steiner, 2011). Monuments such as castles and palaces, archaeological sites,

171

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

historical cities and textures and cultural landscapes as well as intangible values such
as language, tradition, dance, music, ceremony, and different forms of eating, drinking
and entertainment are added to the cultural heritage, having a great meaning and value
in terms of tourism by acting as a bridge between the past and the future (Emekli, 2006).

The important change brought to the definition of cultural heritage is that the
“Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage”, which
UNESCO opened for signature in 1972, included the areas built by man as well as the works
created by nature and nature and man together. The understanding of tangible heritage, which
has dominated cultural heritage over time, has expanded intangible heritage (such as customs,
beliefs, music, eating and drinking cultures, life practices, physical texture, aura, atmosphere
and landscape areas of the place) to include industry and landscape areas (Unesco, 2013;
2015). Especially after the 1980s, while nation-state structuring, transformation of cities and
rural areas, debates in conservation theories and practices, national/international conventions,
globalization/localization relations, the rise of cultural heritage as an economic value and
its appreciation with tourism have been effective in the evolution of cultural heritage, the
importance given to cultural heritage in state policies and how it will be protected may vary
according to the countries (ETC, 2005). In this context, the Intergovernmental Committee
for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage opened a new category in 2008
in its “Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention” as
“properties with special characteristics” that can be nominated for the World Heritage List.
“Cultural Landscapes”, “Historical Landscapes”. The properties with ‘Outstanding Universal
Value’under the titles of “Cultural Landscapes”, “Historical Cities and City Centers”, “Canals”
and “Heritage Routes” were added to the list, and industrialization, which was revolutionary
in the history of humanity, and cultural geographical views related to it began to be considered
as industrial heritage (Avrupa Endüstriyel Miras Rotaları; Avrupa Komisyonu-European
Commission 2011; Avrupa Konseyi-Council of Europe, 2015)

The concept of industrial heritage, which attracts special attention in countries
witnessing industrial development today, has come to the forefront with the approach
of preserving old industrial structures gaining an international dimension, and the view
that industrial monuments and sites are actually components of an international heritage
as well as national has been adopted (Aydın, 2010). With the thought that the destruction
of industrial structures by losing their usefulness due to changing technological,
environmental, economic or social reasons will cause losses in cultural and historical
values, The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe drew attention to the issue
by stating that industrial structures are an inseparable part of cultural heritage. Industrial
Heritage is defined as “cultural heritage consisting of unique architecture in which the
activity of producing goods and/or services with mechanical tools and mechanisms takes
place” (Tanyeli, 2000,s.50). Increasing awareness of industrial structures that have lost
their priority of use, that are under various threats related to natural causes and human
uses, that have historical, technological, social, architectural and scientific value, and even
national and international meanings have paved the way for the emergence of the concept
of “industrial heritage”. And the discipline that includes the research and documentation
of this heritage is called “industrial archeology” (Barbaros Akay, Örmecioğlu, 2018).

172

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Today, “industrial heritage” consists of old industrial structures, areas and
all kinds of assets associated with them, which have a certain historical quality and
importance, and attracts the attention of tourism (Cengizkan, 2002; 2006). Including
buildings, machinery, workshops, plants, factories, mines, processing and treatment areas,
warehouses, silos, places where energy is produced, transmitted and used, transportation
and all its infrastructure, as well as places used for industry-related social activities such
as residence, worship and education; industrial heritage has created (Ajanovic, Çizel,
2015), a new research area in terms of scope and application by being influenced by the
contexts of cultural geography, tourism, cultural tourism, settlement geography, economic
geography as well as creativity and innovation relations.

The International Committee for the Conservation of Industrial Heritage (TICCIH)
was the first international institution to be established with a focus on industrial heritage.
The aim of the institution is to protect industrial monuments and artifacts, to develop an
understanding of the historical, scientific and educational value of industrial heritage and
to provide cooperation on these issues at the international level (TICCIH, 2011). In this
way, the development of an international understanding for the definition and protection
of industrial structures as cultural heritage has been achieved (Kaya, Yılmaz, 2018).
While the industrial heritage covers everything related to industry and social relations,
it is important in terms of conveying the interaction, memories, original architecture
designed according to the production of goods and services, and natural and urban
landscape with the built life in the region or city where they are located (Tanyeli, 2000,
s.50). Therefore, in the second half of the 20th century, especially after the FICCIM (First
International Conference on the Conservation of Industrial Monuments) was held in
England (Bath City) in 1973, it was defined as a cultural heritage at an international level
(Saner, 2012; Martin, 2009) and started to be the focus of tourism. With the cooperation
agreement signed between TICCIH and ICOMOS in 2000, TICCIH was appointed as the
expert committee of ICOMOS on the study and protection of industrial heritage. With
the ICOMOS cooperation agreement, TICCIH has been incorporated into a much wider
network of international organizations related to cultural heritage, and this has led to the
contribution to the protection of cultural heritage and, in this way, to an increase in its
relations with tourism.

With UNESCO’s inclusion of some industrial zones on the world heritage list
in 2001, the concept of industrial heritage has become an internationally accepted
phenomenon and has begun to be associated with tourism. It was redefined in the scope
of “Principles for the Conservation of Industrial Heritage Sites, Structures, Areas and
Landscapes” determined together with ICOMOS and TICCIH on 28 November 2011
(Gültekin, 2016). Accordingly, the industrial heritage has been updated to include
industrial buildings, machinery, workshops, plants, mines, processing and treatment
areas, warehouses, silos, places where energy is produced, and transportation systems
as well as tangible and intangible industrial cultural elements, including industrial-
related facilities such as accommodation, worship and education. Since the beginning of
industrial production (Kıraç, 2001, s.24-26), machinery or similar tools, equipment and
mechanisms (such as olive oil stone mills, water tanks) belonging to mass production

173

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

other than home-made and hand-made production, and today’s industrial areas have
been considered industrial heritage and even world cultural heritage (ICOMOS, 2016).
TICCIH groups this heritage according to industrial production types as: agriculture-
food production, hydro-electricity-electrochemical industry, mining-coal industry, paper
industry, textile industry, metallurgy, water, production in the arctic region and bridges,
communication structures, mints and railways (TICCIH, 2011). According to this,
industrial heritage is an interdisciplinary field of science such as economy, geography,
tourism, sociology, history of technology, architecture, design, conservation, urban,
regional and landscape planning, mechanical, civil and electrical engineering (Martin,
2009, s.285-297). In fact, while this relationality paved the way for the emergence of
innovations in the name of tourism and the diversification of touristic products, it also
opened the door to the evaluation of cities with decreasing tourist interest with different
approaches, especially in the context of creativity. The Culture 2000 project, which is
one of the most comprehensive programs in which the European Union indirectly deals
with the industrial heritage under cultural heritage, has been integrated with tourism.
Aiming to highlight the common European culture through cultural diversity and cultural
heritage, this program contributes to European industrial heritage and cultural tourism
by increasing the number of monuments and sites that will increase the awareness of this
culture (European Commission, 2010; Garnham, 2005; OJ-L 63, 2000). In this context,
the reason why Essen, Germany was chosen as the European Capital of Culture in 2010, is
that it ensures the reproduction of culture through industrial development (ECOC, 2006).

In parallel with these developments, while Alberts and Hazen (2010) state
that it is difficult to define the characteristics of a place as having “integrity” and/or
“authenticity” conditions and “outstanding universal value” in order to be included in
the World Heritage Site list, and that it is open to different interpretations in different
cultural environments, Frey and Steiner (2011) question whether the World Heritage List
is meaningful. On the other hand, it should be said that it is discussed whether the places
on the heritage list are really protected or not and whether there is deterioration due to
excessive tourism, terrorism, natural factors or various policies and human influence.
Commonization, the divergence of usage practices from the original function, restoration
problems, interpretation-evaluation, marketing approaches and globalization concern not
only the debates on cultural heritage, but also tourism-industrial heritage relations.

Cultural Tourism-Industrial Heritage Relations

It is seen that cultural tourism, which started with the visit of cultural assets,
differs with the change of culture-tourism-industrial heritage relations. While mass
tourism made a name for itself with the sea-sand-sun trilogy, after the Second World War
(Williams, 2009), cultural tourism began to be reconstructed with museums and ruins
visits as a complement to mass tourism. This traditional structure of tourism has started
to be shaken by concepts such as the internet, social media, network society, sharing and
experience economy or with the postmodern structure, and the historical development of

174

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

tourism has been opened to discussion again (Rodríguez, 2011). In this way, industrial
areas and structures have been included in the cultural heritage and have the chance to
find life again with tourism. It is known that the concept of mass tourism has begun
to lose its importance, new tourism trends and travel motivations have developed and
tourism has been examined in the form of premodern, modern and postmodern periods
(Roney, 2002). Culture has been a powerful actor in premodern tourism; therefore, the
development of transportation vehicles and systems and the increasing curiosity with
geographical discoveries has accelerated tourism. In the years following the Industrial
Revolution, technological innovations in the field of transportation-communication and
socio-cultural and economic improvements on a global scale created a turning point in
the history of tourism and prepared the transition from premodern tourism to the modern
period (Roney, 2011).

Tourism, which has moved away from its known definitions, has been developing
and diversifying with increasing competition, new destinations added, touristic products
and recreation as well as learning and experience motivations and its place in the
world economy has been growing. The content and importance attributed to tourism,
which has undergone a paradigmatic transformation, with the goals of globalization,
social developments, technology, change in tourist typologies, debates on protection-
conservation-sustainability and supporting urban-rural economies also differentiate
industrial heritage and tourism relations, and architectural structures and areas, which
are industrial heritage values, take their place in the tourism market with their different
thematic uses.

Although industrial heritage emerged in the 1950s, it started to make a difference
in the use of cities and tourism as a heritage in the 1990s (Pawlikowska-Piechotka,
2009). In this context, the relationship between industrial heritage and tourism, especially
cultural tourism, is explained under various headings. Transformation in the concepts of
culture-heritage-tourism, globalization (Akoğlan-Kozak vd., 2013), neoliberal structures,
changes in national and international conservation-planning approaches, new structuring
in tourism, differentiation of functions of cities, deindustrialization, rise of locality,
branding efforts and creativity, change in tourist typologies, individualized tourist
motivations and curiosity to gain experience and learn form the basis of today’s situation
and industrial structures are incorporated into life with different uses. Today, it is seen
that the production-consumption relations that started the postmodern tourism period
are integrated with other tourism types while being transformed into touristic products
of industrial heritage and are tried to be introduced and used in tourism by producing
different strategies and experiences.

The heritage-tourism relationship draws attention by making use of the spatial,
(TICCIH, 2003) cultural, historical and architectural features of industrial heritage
values, allowing museums, accommodations, exhibitions, concerts, theaters and various
events and courses to be organized in these areas and is important in terms of preserving,
maintaining and raising awareness of these heritage values(ICOMOS, 2011). Because,
while industrial areas have physical, technological and social equipment that meets the

175

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

needs of the time they were built, their functions are changing and their importance is
decreasing due to their inability to respond to developing and diversifying needs and
technology. In particular, their abandonment and dysfunction pose a danger to the
industrial heritage (Hewison, 1987). In this sense, it is of great importance that they gain
a function with tourism.

With its technology, architecture, social life, cultural and scientific activities, as
well as the spirit of place (TICCIH 2003, Nizhny Tagil Charter), the industrial heritage
and history are valuable in tourism (ICOMOS, 2011). In this context, industrial heritage,
like cultural heritage, creates a special area for itself with all its tangible or intangible
elements and structures that make up industrial production (Trinder, 1981, 2000) and
its relation with culture and tourism are getting stronger day by day. The addition of
industrial heritage to the scope of cultural heritage, which consists of intangible and
tangible values that are desired to be protected and carried to the future (Şen, 2006) , is a
more up-to-date approach and concerns cities considerably.

The fact that cultural heritage is an attractive element for many destinations has
made heritage-based tourism activities important (Vargas-Sánchez, 2015). Emphasizing
that industrial heritage tourism can be expressed as industrial culture, Hospers (2002: 398)
states that the development of touristic activities in man-made areas that occurred in the
industrial processes of previous periods can be considered within the scope of industrial
heritage tourism. Industrial heritage tourism also includes tourists visiting industrial
centers to enhance their cultural experience. In this way, a tourist profile is formed, seeking
new experiences and giving importance to the social and economic history of the places
visited (Xie, 2015; Vargas-Sánchez, 2015). The importance of industrial heritage in the
development of tourism was recognized by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
in the 2000s, and congresses on sustainable tourism and industrial heritage were held
in cooperation with ICOMOS and TICCIH. In addition, in 2011, the European Union
determined industrial heritage as the main theme within the scope of world tourism day
(European Commission-European Commission, 2011).

Today, industrial heritage and tourism relations are concentrated in Europe, and
various studies are carried out to commercialize the industrial heritage as a touristic
product. In the European Union policy and by the decisions taken by the European
Commission, the concept of industrial heritage is included under the title of cultural
heritage, and it is also seen that historical industrial centers are mentioned as “work/labour
heritage” (Falconer, 2009). The project named European Route of Industrial Heritage
(ERIH), which aims to display and promote the industrial heritage by creating network
and sightseeing routes between various points where industrial heritage structures and
ruins are located in Europe, and the routes designed for the Ruhr Basin in Germany are
among the first (Falconer, 2009).

The European Routes of Industrial Heritage (ERIH) network contributes to the
integration of unknown industrial heritage sites with other industrial destinations and
to ensure the sustainability of tourism, with its structure that produces the best working

176

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

strategies in this regard. Among the most visited industrial heritage sites in the world are;

1. Manufacturing industry areas (textile, machinery, agricultural etc.),

2. Ore, mine, etc. based production areas,

3. Integrated industry areas (metal, iron and steel, etc.),

4. Transportation infrastructures (railways, canals, bridges, etc.) (European
Commission, 2010).

Guided tours are organized within the scope of tourism to the specified areas, and
many different activities are carried out by conveying the history of the area with creative
interpretations and exhibitions. However, some points should be noted. The industrial
and immovable cultural value of these heritages, which have survived to the present day,
includes not only the material elements made by ground-land-area and human hands,
but also the human, socio-cultural life, space and functions integrated with them, and
gains value with the meaning and perception of the spirit of the place, which develops
over time on the scale of the country and the city. The destruction of the values of the
buildings, which are only registered as immovable cultural assets, by being detached
from their context, meaning and time also contradicts with the spirit and the reality of
the time and can become worthless, as well as creating problems in terms of tourism.
The addition of ties, responsibilities, actions and thoughts between the inhabitants and
the place corresponds to the principles of international protection and strengthens the
phenomenological meaning. To put it plainly, registering the buildings only as cultural
heritage and erasing the social context, meaning and spirit of the place formed by the
way of production is against protecting and maintaining the heritage values and/or
sustainability (Gültekin, 2016). This situation contradicts the concept of heritage as much
as it poses a threat to tourism.

Industrial heritage and tourism relations are important for local people as well as
countries and regions. First of all, the importance of industrial heritage tourism emerges
in terms of economic development of urban areas, determining the positive/negative
effects that may occur with restructuring, and diversifying employment by developing
products suitable for tourist typologies. However, it is not possible for new employment
to compensate for the job loss caused by the closure of old industrial areas. In addition,
the shift of industrial areas from production centers to consumption places can cause
many cultural changes for the local people who opt for industrial heritage tourism (Scott,
1997; Sacco, vd., 2009). If the key concept is sustainable development, it is inevitable
to adopt a model that contributes to the economy, respects people and is sensitive to the
environment; however, it is sometimes impossible. In other words, the context of human
and economic development fundamentally conflicts with sustainable development, and
economic interests can preclude all kinds of heritage. In this context, supranational
institutions and treaties play an important role.

177

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

Alternative uses of industrial areas are largely associated with cultural tourism.
Because cultural tourism differs from recreational tourism in terms of understanding,
perceiving and acquiring information about the place visited, tourist motivations and
regulations (Kariptaş, Erdinç, Dinçer, 2015). While globalization, indigenization,
diversification of cultural heritage, the rise of industrial heritage as an economic value in
cultural heritage and tourism, technology-tourism relations, sharing economy, increasing
competition and cultural tourism’s role in this competition to increase the difference
and value and change in tourist motivations diversify cultural tourism, they also add
industrial heritage to tourism activities and approaches that include historical cities and
rural areas create different agendas in the exchange of cultural tourism and its relations
with industrial heritage. Especially with postmodernity, the rise and diversification of
culture as a source of new values, the differentiation of cultural production, access to new
technologies and cultural relations, the creation of economic value by culture (Scott, 1997;
Sacco et al. 2009), the desire to live like a local and the importance of the motivation to
gain experience is the source of the third period of cultural tourism. In this period, while
it was observed that individuals turned to their own wishes, their demands for creativity
increased, and the content they created together with the local attracted more and more
attention (Socco et al., 2009), touristic products related to industrial heritage were taking
their place in the competition.

The evolution of changing tourist expectations, along with the developing
transportation and technology opportunities, towards intangible cultural heritage, which
includes lifestyle, traditional architecture, eating and drinking habits, music-dance genres,
handicrafts, meetings, fairs and festivals, lays the groundwork for the re-functioning of
industrial heritage. Today, with the addition of industrial heritage sites to the context of
culture, cultural heritage, cultural geography and tourism, while the meaning of space
is strengthened by participating in the evaluation with tangible and intangible heritages
with a holistic approach, it is seen that the conceptual expansions and practices of cultural
tourism differ.

In addition to these developments, it is important to look at the relations of tourism,
which is a current and dynamic sector, with the Covid-19 epidemic, and the new contexts
emerging between tourism-heritage-culture. The global crisis caused by the Covid-19
epidemic is one of the most talked about topics (Kervankıran, Bağmancı, 2020; 2021)
and closely concerns the research theme. In this process, in which freedom of travel and
spatial relations are often discussed and even reconstructed, the structural transformation
and changes in consumer behavior caused by the epidemic have had a temporary effect
in some sectors and permanent effects in some, and the negativities and loss of life as a
result of the epidemic have shown that the functioning of tourism and tourist behavior
won’t/can’t be the same as before (Hall, Scott, & Gössling, 2020).

Today, it is clearly seen that cultural heritage-tourism relations will undergo a
paradigm shift, as is the case with tourism. While life, which is identified with social
distancing, mask, hygiene, vaccination and isolated life, has been trying to solve the
problem with isolated holiday and safe tourism, it has paved the way for the start of a new

178

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

era by taking a different approach to cultural tourism and bringing museums and ruins
to the tourist’s feet with virtual visits. In other words, while similar institutions such as
museums, archaeological sites, and galleries are closing due to the Covid-19 epidemic,
many museums and institutions are starting a new era by producing online, creative and
innovative digital solutions such as virtual tours, concerts, videos, games, courses and
conferences that can be attended from home in order to re-engage with their enthusiasts
(Iguman, 2020). In addition, conceptual expansions and applications in the form of digital
or virtual cultural tourism are starting to attract attention. It should be underlined that
the practices and strategies here should be approached carefully. In this process, tourists
prefer daily tours and more secluded destinations in order to visit cultural and historically
important assets in world heritage sites, and it is claimed that cultural tourism is affected
less by the epidemic compared to mass tourism destinations, and even that small-scale
cultural tourism destinations are more resistant to crises.

Changing Approaches to Tourism:
Cities and Industrial Heritage

In the process of globalization, the transformations experienced in the political,
economic, technological and administrative fields can be observed in the cities as a
whole, the cities are constantly changing, and the tourism in the cities is evaluated within
the scope of urban tourism. Today, the transition from industrial society to information
society, the relationship of nation-states with globalization, the transition from Fordist
production to post-Fordist production, from modernism to postmodernism cause the
relations and functions in cities to be reinterpreted (Soja, 1995). Today, cities are important
power sources that support the economic and cultural development of societies, even
though their functions have changed (Kaypak, 2013, Ashworth, 2003). Cities and their
hinterlands, which are seen as the engine of the economy in the newly shaped system,
have started to take on more roles, and the role of cities as “a means of incorporation
into the global system” necessitated the effort to be defined as a “brand” (Alvarez, 2010:
s. 172; Evans, 2009) For this reason, while planning the process and determining the
marketing strategies(Maffi, Mesgarani, 2013), that will ensure the achievement of the
targeted vision, instead of leaving the economic development of the cities to chance,
take their place among the rules of the global economy, cities lay the groundwork for
the development of tourism as settlements that incorporate more diversity, and industrial
heritage assumes a new role here (Kariptaş, Erdinç, Dinçer, 2015). While Richards (2014)
claim that traditional culture and creative industry are increasingly influenced by each
other, and creative, artistic, cultural, technological and economic tourism forms have
emerged in the urban ecosystem, they emphasize that efforts to add value to industrial
heritage are increasing (Richards, 2014; Fainstein, Gladstone, 1997)..

The fact that information, which has become an economic input today, moves
through the network with the rise of intellectual capital and creativity values, brings new
functions to cities (Lindroth, Ritalahti, Soisalon-Soininen, 2007). Cities are now losing

179

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

their function as production centers. Industry loses its character as the basic element
that defines the city, and today’s cities come forward with their opportunities of service,
shopping, cuisine, entertainment, festival, organization, communication and technology
they offer (Sanul, 2012; Jensen, Butler, 1997). In this context, it is one of the major
problems that the industrial structures in the cities lose their original functions, become
dysfunctional, turn into abandoned areas and succumb to rent. At the end of the 20th
century, attempts to evaluate industrial areas that became dysfunctional started to show
themselves with transformation projects. The Transformation of Industrial Zones includes
the re-evaluation efforts of industrial facility areas that have become dysfunctional
(Yıldırım, 2006:7). In order to make these problematic areas in the cities healthy and
livable, transformation projects are implemented, and these urban areas, which have lost
value and become obsolete, are tried to be brought back to the city in accordance with the
socio-economic and physical conditions of the day (Fainstein, Gladstone, 1997; Özden,
2008: s.257).

The reuse of industrial buildings is as important as the preservation of historical
values, as well as the evaluation of existing resources (Severcan, 2012). There are two
types of approaches, monumental and commercial, in the transformation of the industrial
area that has lost its function. In the monumental approach, the industrial facility
maintains its original function as much as possible, it is made operational and the aim
is not production, but exhibition and education (Yang, 2017). As for the commercial
approach, the most appropriate function is determined in line with the interaction of the
facility with the environment, and new functions are added to the facility apart from its
original function. With the transformation projects, the aging, abandoned, depreciated
and obsolete areas are revived and reintroduced to the city in accordance with the socio-
economic and environmental conditions of the day (Özden, 2008: s.257), thus supporting
the development of urban tourism. These initiatives that revitalize the urban economy,
create employment and increase the quality of life are seen as a means of exchange of
the city lands rather than the historical-cultural value of the heritage sites. The city and
tourism function are realized through industrial heritage.

Historically, it is seen that traditional urban tourism has focused on tangible
cultural heritage (Law, 1993), but today, intangible heritage and experiences related to
them shine out. Urban tourism includes all visits by tourists to cities to learn about the
historical and cultural heritage, lifestyles and ways of thinking of other societies, and the
heritage industry draws attention in this direction. The “heritage industry” sector, which
emerged in cities after 1970, helped transform the urban space for tourism purposes
(Hewison, 1987), the textures of pre-modern cities were revived and given new functions,
and the buildings that were emptied and abandoned as a result of deindustrialization
witnessed different uses (Gospodini, 2001). The restoration and opening of modern
structures such as factory buildings, port facilities and warehouses to new uses and the
use of the recent history of industrial capitalism as museums have attracted attention as
important investment tools of urban tourism (ICOMOS,2016). The structures reflecting
the cultural-historical heritage that have been used for different purposes in different
periods and urban spaces pointing to certain periods have been the marketed products of

180

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

the tourism industry. Urban tourism, which is seen as a means of revitalizing cities and
attracting capital and tourists, put cities in a competition for differentiation by bringing
the differentiating identities of them to light and enabled cities that lost their economic
value to be opened to national and international tourism (Harvey, 1997). Tourism is seen
here as a method of utilizing available resources, an opportunity to strengthen identity and
diversity, and a sustainable system that uses existing structure, restaurants, hotels, houses
and roads. It is considered as a strategic method used for the redesign and revitalization
of cities with economic and socio-cultural support, creating resources especially for the
local people (Richards, 2014).

Changing Tourist Typologies, Industrial Heritage and Cities

During the period when the postmodern tourism paradigm dominated, it is
known that besides the supply-based changes, tourist typologies and demand changed
(Çıracı, Kerimoğlu, 2002) , technology was utilized at the highest level and virtual
experiences and authentic items attracted attention (Urry 2009:219-220). Behavioral
changes (Evans,2009), which are perceived as people eating, shopping, spending time
and experiencing different cultures, gain importance as demand-driven differences
(European Commission, 2010). Tourists prefer trips that offer flexibility, variety, sports,
cultural and social activities and shopping, and in which they stay for a few days. While
socio-demographic changes such as technological developments, social media, smart
applications, digital marketing opportunities (Pawlikowska-Piechotka, 2009), increase
in life expectancy and disposable income and shortening of working time attract people
of different ages, languages and social groups to cities, these demand-driven changes
reshape urban tourism.

Most urban travelers have more than one reason to visit cities (Law, 1993).
However, travelers often summarize their urban tourism experience as visiting,
wandering, and integrating into people’s lives. Despite shorter stays in urban tourism,
tourists spend more. That is because visitors who are more affluent and educated prefer
cities (Ashworth, Page, 2011).

With the postmodern period, the concept of space has changed and the perceived
space has come to the fore, and cities have started to seek ways to attract tourists
again with different marketing strategies (Giddens, 2000). Cities, which are tried to be
shaped according to tourist demands, have become competitive to develop competitive
strategies. While the spatial change of cities, the transformation in economic functions,
the diversification in the content of the concept of culture, the prominence of holistic
cultural space with the liberation of cultural elements from a single structure scale,
international conservation policies and their status, and developing technology and social
changes affect the perspective on heritage and the city, the efforts to protect the industrial
heritage in cities and their use for tourism purposes have begun to increase and become
widespread.

181

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

While the cultural transformation experienced makes it necessary to benefit more
from the cultural industries in urban tourism (Çıracı, Kerimoğlu, 2002), the changing quality
of life, the increase in the time people spend for themselves and the desire to use this time
effectively and efficiently increase the demand for cultural heritage products (Giddens, 2000).
Accordingly, urban and rural dynamics are changing, and tourism in urban and rural areas
is being used with the keywords “integration, innovation and creativity” (Maffi, Mesgarani,
2013, 1110). Industrial heritage has also taken a place among these keywords in recent years.
In this context, Glasgow, which was transformed from an industrial society and became a
brand with cultural investments after the 1980s, is important as one of the first examples.

Main Problems Related to Culture and Industrial Heritage in
Urban Tourism

More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas and this rate is
estimated to reach 70% by 2050. The increasing number of tourists in cities experiencing
varying amounts of economic, environmental, political and cultural problems and
struggling with migration increases the use of natural resources, causes environmental
and socio-cultural effects, and this puts pressure on infrastructure, transportation and
other facilities (Ashworth, Page, 2011). On the other hand, the Covid-19 epidemic in
recent years has accelerated the questioning of life in cities.

In addition to a number of common problems related to the city and tourism such
as noise, garbage, transportation, pollution, destruction and misuse of natural and cultural
values, decrease in visual quality, development of a relationship dependent on tourism,
inability to manage visitors and construction booms, the problems of urban tourism are
also diversifying through new platform (Demir, 2017) tourism services (such as Airbnb,
CauchSurfing, Uber and BlaBlaCar) in cities

Being able to manage tourism both locally and for local residents is essential for
local governments and the industry. Tourism will only be sustainable if it is developed and
managed with both visitors and local communities in mind. There is a growing need to create
a sustainable roadmap for urban tourism and to position the sector on the wider urban agenda.

Environmental quality and accessibility of cities seem to be important factors
that attract and repel visitors. The absence of museums and galleries in cities can create
dissatisfaction with tourists, whether they use them or not. It is known that street noise,
urban waste and inadequate transportation network are serious threats to regional tourism
competitiveness. Taking measures for tourism and city security, which is an important
problem, is of vital importance for local people and tourists to feel safe.

In the context of tourism-heritage-city relations, it is important to draw attention
to these issues. The first things that come to mind are that the local people, local
governments and property owners do not have the necessary awareness, the cultural
heritage and industrial heritage are ignored in urban transformation, or that the heritages

182

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

are far from the mobility that creates commercial-economic value, the destruction
of urban protected areas for economic, social and political reasons, the displacement
of local people, the abstraction of these spaces by gentrification, the loss of local
neighborhoods’ characteristics, infrastructure problems such as traffic and all kinds of
pollution, implementation problems in national/international laws and regulations, and
the dilemmas between general policies and cultural policies.

As a result, it should be noted that some problems such as overcrowding, expensiveness
attributed to tourists, pollution and noise cause protests in cities and negative attitudes between
local people and visitors (Richards,2014). This situation, which is called ‘tourismphobia’in the
media, causes protests especially in cities such asAmsterdam, Barcelona, Berlin, Copenhagen,
Lisbon, Munich, Salzburg and Tallinn (Smith, 2002). For this reason, it is important to ensure
the distribution of tourism in the surrounding cities in order to reduce the pressure in the city
centers in case the carrying capacity of the city is exceeded.

Discussion and Conclusions

From past to present, the definition, meaning, scope, perception and application
forms of the concepts of culture and heritage, which have an important power between
countries and people, have changed and continue to change, cities are especially looking for
ways to evaluate their cultural and industrial heritage through tourism. Industrial heritage,
which is the main theme of the research, has traces of the historical, technological, social,
geographical, architectural and scientific values of the industrial culture. Industrial structures
that carry the traces of the economic, social and technological past to the present have
an important place as a heritage in the cultural history of the countries (Falconer, 2009).
Today, old industrial buildings are tried to be evaluated with conservation and renewal
approaches, industrial heritage sites that contribute to economic growth are becoming a
great resource for building new social identities and developing industrial heritage-tourism
relations (Pawlikowska-Piechotka, 2009), and more emphasis is placed on the heritage
industry in development strategies. In order to contribute to the economic development of
the countries, to strengthen the social memory and to protect the past, studies are increasing
so as to re-evaluate the industrial structures as traces of the industrial past for the benefit
of the society, the city and the public, and cultural tourism or urban tourism comes to the
fore here (Gospodini, 2001). In particular, the questions of why and how industrial heritage
should be used in tourism are asked at every opportunity and their answers are sought.

There are various discussion on the objectives such as enriching the awareness of
cultural heritage with industrial heritage, increasing the number of visitors and expenditures,
extending the length of stays, redesigning local attractions, developing the interest of
the public and private sectors in tourism, creating models of creativity, encouraging
entrepreneurship, developing joint projects and collaborations, creating advertising, digital
advertising and social media campaigns, monitoring the registration-promotion-branding
processes of cultural values and presenting different types of tourism to target audiences
(Vargas-Sánchez,2015, Xie, 2006). In addition, industrial heritage, tourism, urban and

183

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

cultural relations seem to be considered important in order to protect, use, sustain and create
economic value. Transforming industrial heritage areas into touristic products not only
increases the value of the industrial past, but also shapes the character of these areas. With
the transformation of the heritage, the industrial heritage is preserved and the economic
development of the city (Şen, 2006), employment opportunities, cultural importance and
quality of life increase. For this, first of all, some strategies are expected to be developed:

• For this, first of all, some strategies are expected to be developed and these are

among the first to come to mind:

• Investigation of industrial heritage, determination of priorities, continuous

monitoring by creating an inventory, planning national and international
registration studies,

• Designing uses that will preserve the history, culture and authenticity of the

industrial heritage,

• Evaluation of restoration, conservation, survival and planning approaches

together,

• Increasing alternative livelihoods and employment in cities through industrial

heritage, giving priority to urban people, awareness efforts to include people
from all segments of society and age groups,

• Inclusion of industrial heritage values in tourism policies and determination of

priorities,

• Following the relevant legal regulations, national and international legislations

and cooperation projects (Madran and Özgönül, 1999) and European examples
and cooperation projects,

• Creating experiences and raising awareness by organizing educational,

entertaining and creative activities in industrial heritage areas,

• Establishing industrial heritage routes and organizing guided tours on these

routes (Uysal, 2018).

The reason is that, today, industrial heritage and urban relations are given more
importance in terms of tourism, museums, concert halls, theaters, arenas and stadiums
can be built in cities, and potential tourism areas can be created by arranging industrial
heritage sites (Xie, 2015, Yang, 2017). Urban tourism attracts the attention of tourists with
increasing and changing approaches thanks to its integrative and traditional features that can
accommodate different types of tourism.

It is seen that the Covid-19 epidemic, which has changed the world agenda in recent
years, has affected tourism, culture, heritage and urban relations. This process, which
started with travel restrictions to tourism centers, heritage and urban areas, has evolved to
be remembered with social distance, mask, hygiene and vaccination, and to seek solutions
with safe tourism and digital applications. As heritage, tourism and urban relations differ
with Covid-19, the ways in which industrial heritage is used in tourism will change, and
perhaps these areas will host virtual organizations and online events. However, it should not
be forgotten that the rapid development in technology and the positive and negative aspects
of digitalization and its economic and social reflections should be discussed.

184

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

References Cengizkan, M. 2006. ‘Endüstri Yapılarında Yeniden
İşlevlendirme: ‘İş’i Biten Endüstri Yapıları Ne ‘İş’e
Ajanovic, E., Çizel, B. (2015). ‘Unesco Yaratıcı Yarar?’. Bülten 45 Dosya 03: Endüstri Mirası, der.
Kentler Ağı ile Antalya Kentinin Değerlendirilmesi. Haluk Zelef, Mimarlar Odası Ankara Şubesi, 9-13.
Mediterranean Journal of Humanities. 1: 1-16.
Cengizkan, M., 2002. ‘’Endüstri Arkeolojisinde
Akoğlan-Kozak, M., Evren, S. & Çakır, O. (2013). Mimarlığın Yeri’. Mimarlık, Sayı 308, 40.
Tarihsel süreç içinde turizm paradigması. Anatolia
Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 24(1), 7-22 Çıracı, H., Kerimoğlu, E. (2002). ‘Şehirlerde Turizm
Gelişimi ve Genel Politikalar Şehirsel Turizm
Alberts, H. C., Hazen, H. D. (2010). ‘Maintaining Kavramı’. T.C. Turizm Bakanlığı İkinci Turizm
Authenticity And İntegrity at Cultural World Heritage Şurası Bildirileri (ikinci cilt), Nisan.
Sites’. Geographical Review, 100(1), 56-73.
Demir, E. (2017). ‘Kentsel Kültürel Turizmde Ağ
Alvarez, M. D. (2010). ‘Creative cities and cultural Toplumu Ve Paylaşım Kültürünün Turizm Coğrafyası
spaces: New perspectives for city tourism’. Yaklaşımıyla Değerlendirilmesi: İzmir Örneği’.
International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Yüksek
Hospitality Research, 4, 171–175. Lisans tezi.

Ashworth G. (2003). ‘Urban tourism: still an ECOC. (2006). ‘Report of the Selection Meeting for
imbalance in attention? In: Cooper C (ed) Classic the European Capitals of Culture 2010’. issued by The
reviews in tourism’. Channel view, Clevedon, pp. Selection Panel for the European Capital of Culture
143–63. (ECOC) 2010. (erişim: Avrupa Komisyonu Web
Sitesi, Kültür Alt Bölümü).
Ashworth, G., Page, S. J. (2011). ‘Urban Tourism
Research: Recent Progess and Current Paradoxes’. Emekli, G. 2006: “Coğrafya, kültür ve turizm:
Tourism Management, (32), 1-15. Kültürel turizm”. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 15: 51-59.

Avrupa Endüstriyel Miras Rotaları-Strain Iron Evans, G. (2009): ‘Creative cities, creative spaces and
Trail. https://www.erih.net/about-erih/route-system/ urban Policy’. Urban Studies, 46: 1003–1040.
regional-routes/.
ETC- European Travel Commission (2005): City
Avrupa Komisyonu-European Commission. (2011). tourism & culture, the European experıence (CTCEE)
European Tourism Day-Industrial Heritage. http:// A Report produced for the Research Group of the
europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-11-632_ European Travel Commission (ETC) and for the
en.htm. World Tourism Organization (WTO) by LAgroup &
Interarts.
Avrupa Konseyi-Council of Europe. (2015).
European Industrial Heritage Year. http://assembly. European Commission, (2010): “Communication
coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en. from The Commission to The European Parliament,
asp?fileid=19512&lang=EN. The Council, The European Economic and Social
Committee and The Committee of the Regions”.
Aydın, E.Ö. (2010). ’Türkiye’nin Endüstri Mirası http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/pdf/
Potansiyeli ve Turizme Kazandırılması”. Turizm ve innovationunion communication_en.pdf. Erişim
Mimarlık Sempozyumu, Mimarlar Odası Antalya Tarihi: 11.02.2014.
Şubesi Yayını, 169-175.
Fainstein, S. S., Gladstone, D. (1997). Evaluating
Barbaros Akay E, Örmecıoğlu H. T. (2018). ‘Endüstri Urban Tourism (Forthcoming as Chapter 2 of
Yapılarının Kültürel Miras Olarak Değerlendirilmesi: Places to Play: the Remaking of Cities for Tourists,
Antalya-Tekirova Maden İşleme Tesisi Örneği’. Editörler: Dennis R. Judd and Susan S. Fainstein, Yale
Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi/The Journal University Press, New Haven.
of International Social Research, Cilt: 11 Sayı: 60
Volume: 11 Issue: 60.

185

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

Falconer, S., Redman, C. (2009). eds, ‘Politics Iguman, S. (2020). If visitors won’t go to Heritage,
and Power: Archaeological Perspectives on the Heritage must go to visitors. Digitisation of Heritage
Landscapes of Early States’ (Tucson: University of in time of Corona. Tourism facing a pandemic:
Arizona Press, 2009, 277 pp., 31 figs., hbk, ISBN from crisis to recovery/edited by Federica Burini-
978-0-8165-2603-1). Bergamo: Università degli Studi di Bergamo.

Frey, B. S., Steiner, L. (2011). ‘World heritage Jensen, C., Butler, R, (1997). ‘Competition between
list: Does it make sense?’. International Journal of cities, urban performance and the role of urban
Cultural Policy, 17(5), 555-573. policy: a theoretical framework’. İçinde ‘C. Jensen
et al. (Ed): European Cities in Competition’ Avebury:
Garnham, N. (2005): ‘From Cultural to Creative Aldershot.
Industries’. International Journal of Cultural Policy,
11, (1): 15–29. Kariptaş, F. S., Erdinç, J. E. ve Dinçer, B. Ö.
(2015). Endüstriyel Mirasın Kentlerdeki Kültürel
Giddens, A. (2000). ‘Modernitenin Küreselleşmesi’. Sürdürülebilirlik Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi. 2nd
Edit: Bülbül, Kudret, Küreselleşme Okumaları, International Sustainable Buildings Symposium (28-
Kadim Yayınları, Ankara, 203–214. 30 Mayıs 2015), ss.512-516, Ankara.

Gospodini, A., (2001). ‘Urban Design, Urban Space Kaya, M., Yılmaz, C. (2018). ‘Endüstriyel Miras
Morphology, Urban Tourism: An Emerging New Turizmi İçin Bir Örnek: Ayancık - Zingal Orman
Paradigm Concerning Their Relationship’. European İşletmesi (Sinop)’. Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal
Planning Studies, 9(7): 925-934. Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 44 (1), 121-162.28-30
Mayıs 2015), ss.512-516, Ankara.
Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. (2020).
‘Pandemics, tourism and global change: a rapid Kaypak, Ş. (2013): “Küreselleşme sürecinde kentlerin
assessment of COVID-19’. Journal of Sustainable markalaşması ve marka kentler” C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari
Tourism, DOI:10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708. Bilimler Dergisi, 14(1): 335-355.

Gültekin, N. T. (2016). ‘Kültürel ve Endüstriyel Kervankıran, İ., Bağmancı, M.F. (2020). ‘Bildiğimiz
Miras Olarak Ankara Şeker Fabrikası’. İdealKent . turizmin sonu mu? COVID-19’un Türkiye’deki
ISSN: 1307-9905 Sayı Issue 20, Cilt Volume 7, 906- turizm hareketliliğine etkisi’. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi,
935 © Kent Araştırmaları Dergisi (Journal of Urban 76, 19-32.
Studies).
Kervankıran, İ., Bağmancı, M.F. (2021). ‘COVID-19
Güvenç, B. (2002). ‘İnsan ve Kültür’. (9.bs.). Sürecinde Türkiye Turizminin Mekansal Görünümü:
İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Hangi İl Nasıl Etkilendi?’. Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi/
Turkish Journal of Geographical Sciences, 19(1),
Hall, C.M., Scott, D. & Gössling, S. (2020): 263-287.
Pandemics, transformations and tourism: be careful
what you wish for. Tourism Geographies, DOI:10.10 Kıraç A. B. (2001). ‘Türkiye’deki Tarihi Sanayi
80/14616688.2020.1759131. Yapılarının Günümüz Koşullarına Göre Yeniden
Değerlendirilmeleri Konusunda Bir Yöntem
Harvey, D. (1997). ‘Postmodernliğin Durumu’. Çev. Araştırması’. Doktora Tezi, Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi,
Sungur Savran, Metis Yayınları, İstanbul. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul, 2001.

Hewison, R. (1987). ‘The Heritage Industry’. Kongar, E. (1989). ‘Kültür Üzerine’. İstanbul: Remzi
London: Methuen. Kitabevi.

Hospers, G.-J. (2002). ‘Industrial Heritage Tourism Law, C. (1993). ‘Urban Tourism: Attracting Visitors
and Regional Restructuring in the European Union’. to Large Cities’. London.
European Planning Studies, 10 (3), 397-404.
Lindroth, K, Ritalahti, J, Soisalon-Soininen, T. (2007).
ICOMOS. (2016). The Industrial Heritage, A New ‘Creative Tourism in Destination Development’.
Heritage. https://www.icomos.org/18thapril/2006/1 Tourism Review, 62(3-4): 53-58.
8april2006-4.htm.

186

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Madran, E., Özgönül, N. (Ed.) (1999). ‘International Sacco, PL, Segre G. (2009). Creativity, cultural
Documents Regarding the Preservation of Cultural investment and local development: A new theoretical
and Natural Heritage’. Ankara: METU Faculty framework for endogenous growth, içinde Fratesi U &
Architecture Press. Senn L (Eds), Growth and innovation of competitive
regions. The role of internal and external connections,
Maffi, E., Mesgarani, N. (2013). ‘Criteria for Creative Springer, Berlin, 281-294.
Urban Design’. International Journal of Advanced
Studies in Humanities and Social Science, 1(8): 1103- Saner, M. (2012). ‘Endüstri Mirası: Kavramlar,
1111. Kurumlar ve Türkiye’deki Yaklaşımlar’. Planlama,
1-2, 53-66.
Martin, P. E. (2009). ‘Industrial Archaeology’. T.
Majewski& D. Gaimster (Der.), Inter-National Sanul, G. (2012). ‘Kentsel Ekonomik Kalkınma
Handbook of Historical Archaeology içinde (ss.285– Aracı Olarak Yaratıcı Endüstriler: İzmir Analizi Ve
297). New York: Springer. Öneriler’. İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü Kültür Yönetimi Yüksek Lisans tezi.
OJ-L 63. (2000). ‘Decision No: 508/2000/EC of İstanbul.
the European Parliament and of the Council of
14 February 2000 establishing the Culture 2000 Scott, A. 1997. ‘The Cultural Economy of Cities’.
programme’. Official Journal of the European Union, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
vol. 43, s. 1-9.
Severcan, Y.C. (2012). ‘Endüstri Mirasının
Özden, P.P. (2008). ‘Kentsel Yenileme’. İmge Korunması ve Yeniden İşlevlendirilmesine İlişkin
Kitapevi Yayınları, Ankara. Özelleştirme Yaklaşımları: Sorunlar ve Olanaklar’.
Planlama, 1-2, 40-46.
Pawlikowska-Piechotka, A. (2009). ‘Industrial
Heritage Tourism: a Regional Perspective (Warsaw)’. Smith, M. (2003). ‘Holistic holidays: Tourism and
Physical Culture and Sport Studies and Research, 46 the reconciliation of body, mind and spirit’. Tourism
(1), 276-287. Recreation Research, 28(1), 103-108.

Richards, G. (2014). “The New Geographies of Smith, N. (2002). ‘New Globalism, New Urbanism:
Tourism: Space, place and locality”, Paper presented Gentrification as Global Urban Strategy’. Antipode
at the Wageningen Geography Lectures, 13th January Cilt. 34(3):sf. 434-457. (Yeniden yay.) Neoliberal
2014. Urbanism, Neil Brenner and Nik Theodore(Der),Basil
Blackwell, Malden, MA.
Richards, G. (2015). ‘Creative Tourism: New
Opportunities for Destinations Worldwide?’. Smith, P. (2001). ‘Cultural theory: An introduction’.
Presentation at the World Travel Market Conference Blackwell: Oxford University Press. York:
on ‘Creaötive Tourism: All that you need to know Harper&Brothers.
about this growing sector’, November 3rd 2015.
Soja, E. (1995). Postmodern Urbanization: The Six
Richards, G. (2016). ‘The Development of Creative Restructrings of Los Angeles.
Tourism in Asia”. Paper presented at the Artepolis
VI. International Seminar in Bandung, Indonesia, 5th Şen B. (2006). ‘Ekonomik Gelișmenin Kültürel
August, 2016. Stratejileri: İstanbul Kent Merkezleri ve Tarihi
Kentsel Alanların Yeniden Yapılandırılması’.
Rodríguez, M, R. M. (2011). ‘Transmodernity: A new Planlama Dergisi, Ankara, S: 2006/2.
paradigm’. Transmodernity: Journal of Peripheral
Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World, 9. Tanyeli, G. (2000). Endüstri Arkeolojisi Yapılarının
Korunması ve Yeniden İşlevlendirilmesi. Domus m,
Roney, S. A. (2002). ‘Fordizmden Post Fordizme s. 50-51.
Geçiş Sürecinin Turizme Yansımaları: Kitle Turizmi
ve Alternatif Turizm’. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Tanyeli, G., İkiz, D. (2009). İstanbul’da Bir
Dergisi, 13(1): 9-14. Endüstriyel Miras Örneği: Bomonti Bira Fabrikası.
TÜBA-KED, 7:109-121. TICCIH. (2018).
Roney, S. A. (2011). ‘Turizm: Bir Sistemin Analizi’.
Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara.

187

From Cultural Heritage to Industrial Heritage: Tourism and Cities ... Gözde EMEKLİ

TICCIH Congresses and Regional Meetings. http:// Yang, X. S. (2017). ‘Industrial Heritage Tourism
ticcih.org/activities/congresses/ TICCIH. (2003). Development and City Image Reconstruction in
‘The Nizhy Tagil Charter for the Industrial Heritage’. Chinese Traditional Industrial Cities: A Web Content
https://www.icomos.org/18thapril/2006/nizhny-tagil- Analysis’. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12 (3), 267-
charter-e.pdf. 280.

TICCIH. (2011). ‘Dublin Principles’. http://ticcih. Yıldırım, A.E. (2006). ‘Güncel Bir Kent Sorunu:
org/about/about-ticcih/dublin-principles/. Kentsel Dönüşüm’. Planlama Dergisi, S: 2006/2
Ankara.
Trinder, (1981). “IndustrialArchaeology in Britain”,
Archaeology, vol. 34, no. 1, s. 8-16.

Trinder, 2000. “From FICCIM to TICCIH 2000:
reflections on 27 years”, TICCIH Bulletin (October
2000). ZELEF, H. (der.).

UNESCO (2013). “Creative Cities Network”
Applicant’s Handbook http://www.unesco.
org/ new/fileadmin/Multımedia/Hq/Clt/
images/CreativeCitiesNetwork_Handbook_
Final_26Nov2013_01.pdf, Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2014.

UNESCO, (2015). Transforming our World: The
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Urry, J. (2009). ‘Turist Bakışı’. (Çev. E. Tataroğlu, İ.
Yıldız), Bilgesu Yayıncılık, İstanbul, (Orijinal Basım
Tarihi 2002).

Uysal, M. (2018). ‘Endüstriyel Miras ve Turizm
İlişkisinin Türkiye Turizm Planlaması Kapsamında
Değerlendirilmesi’. I. Uluslararası Turizm ve
Mimarlık Konferansı 1st International Conference on
Tourism and Architecture 24-27 Ekim/October 2018
ISBN: 978-605-9554-33-6.

Vargas-Sánchez, A. (2015). ‘Industrial Heritage and
Tourism: A Review of the Literature’. In: Waterton
E., Watson S. (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of
Contemporary Heritage Research (pp.219-233).
London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Williams, S. (2009). Tourism Geography A New
Synthesis. Londra: Routledge.

Williams, R. (1993). Kültür. (Çev. E. Başer). Ankara:
İletişim Yayınları.

Xie, P. F. (2006). ‘Developing Industrial Heritage
Tourism: A Case Study of The Proposed Jeep
Museum in Toledo, Ohio’. Tourism Management, 27
(6), 1321-1330.

Xie, P.F. (2015). ‘A Life Cycle Model of Industrial
Heritage Development. Annals of Tourism Research’.
55, 141-154.

188

THE REVITALIZATION OF THE
EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE
THROUGH THE “ROUTE” APPROACH

Füsun BAYKAL1

Abstract

Industrialization took place and spread in Europe about 200 years ago as one
of the most important cultural revolutions in human history. Industrialization in the
continent has left indelible marks on the history, memory, natural and cultural geography
of the countries. The idea of recognizing and publicising this heritage by creating routes
and itineraries has emerged in the early 2000s. Thus, the European industrial heritage
sites which are revived with route studies and opened to visitors have turned into places
where the past about products, production techniques, knowledge level of engineering,
and the socio-economic profile of the employees is learned. Therefore, the routes are
very valuable in terms of knowing the effect of the industrialization on the European
identity and interpreting the cultural diversity. Especially since the establishment of
the ERIH (European Route of Industrial Heritage) in 2001, awareness of the industrial
heritage has increased. In addition to connecting the industrial areas in different places
with a network of routes, ERIH also has an educational function in terms of teaching
the evolution of the industrial technology and products. Since the industrial heritage
is also a cultural heritage, some examples are included in the cultural routes certified
by the Council of Europe. In short, the industrial heritage of Europe is protected by
institutional and legal regulations, and the route studies provide a great support to these
efforts. The purpose of this study is to reveal the importance of the routes related to
the industrial heritage in Europe. The study starts with the explanation of the basic
concepts and relations. Then, the subject is made dynamic and applied by grouping the
routes, listing and giving examples. According to the findings, the idea of benefiting
from the routes in the embracement and protection of the industrial heritage has reached
its purpose; moreover, it has also enabled the development of tourism. As a result, if
the heritage-conservation-route integrity is managed through a successful organization,
as seen in Europe, both the sustainability of the industrial heritage is guaranteed and
regional development is supported.

1   Prof.Dr., Ege University, Department of Geography.

e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-4599-4235

189

The Revitalization of the European Industrial Heritage ... Füsun BAYKAL

Introduction

The Industrial Revolution is a turning point that leads to radical changes in people’s way
of thinking and life styles with its economic and socio-cultural dimensions. In the years following
the revolution, the leading places, infrastructures and equipment of the industrialization process
lost their productivity and were abandoned in the face of new Technologies (Köksal, 2012,
18). Workshops having historical, technological, sociological and architectural value, factories,
machinery, mines, warehouses, ports, railways etc. are assessed within the scope of industrial
heritage. These heritage remains were opened to scientific discussions after the second half of the
20th century. In this context, The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial
Heritage (TICCIH), which would ensure the admittance and protection of the industrial buildings
as archeological heritage, was established in England in 1973 and provided. After that, industrial
heritage sites started to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The list includes 50
industry heritage sites as of 2020. Another organization related to the industrial heritage is the
European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH). By connecting industrial heritage sites in a region
with a route study, ERIH creates a network and identifies the stopover points. In the creation of
the routes, the attractiveness, the historical richness, the symbols and authenticity of the region,
the tourist infrastructure, public transportation network, the usability of bicycles etc. are taken
into account (Manisa and Yerliyurt, 2013: 51-51). Thus, ERIH, with more than 1,800 locations
in the European countries, has undertaken an important mission in preserving and promoting the
milestones of the European industrial heritage history. Routes that teach the industrial heritage
to the new generations, create nostalgia and encourage protectionism also contribute greatly
to the development of the industrial heritage tourism. Another top level institution related to
the routes is the Council of Europe. Launched by the Council of Europe in 1987, the cultural
routes demonstrate, by means of a journey through space and time, how the heritage of the
different countries and cultures of Europe contributes to a shared and living cultural heritage.
There are 40 routes in the Council of Europe Cultural Routes Network as of 2020, and the
theme of some routes is based on the industry heritage. The cultural routes of the Council of
Europe are an invitation to travel and to discover the rich and diverse heritage of Europe by
bringing people and places together in networks of shared history and heritage. The Council
registers cultural routes by certifying them. The certification is a guarantee of excellence and
gives visibility to European initiatives which bring the values defended by Council of Europe
to life, such as cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and mutual exchanges across borders
(Council of Europe, Cultural Routes).

In this book chapter, various aspects of route studies that contribute to the evaluation
of the industrial heritage are discussed. First, the underlying concepts are introduced and their
relationship to the industrial heritage is established. Then, the historical process of routing,
which is accepted as one of the methods or models of conservation of the industrial heritage in
Europe, is discussed. Followingly, some information is given about the route works of ERIH
and Council of Europe, which put the route idea into practice and enable the industrial heritage
to be restored and opened to visitors in a network order. Finally, the richness of industrial
heritage, which has a very important place in the cultural identity of Europe, is revealed
through the route examples, and it is emphasized once again that it must be protected.

190

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Conceptual Framework: Cultural Heritage, Cultural Route,
Industrial Heritage, Industrial Archeology,
Industrial Landscape

Cultural heritage and cultural route

The word heritage has taken on different and varying connotations across languages
and ages. While some scholars rightly point out that the term defies simple explanations,
it is still possible to pin down a core meaning. The most common understanding of
heritage is that it represents something that previous generations have created, preserved
and left, in the presumption that it would be passed on to future generations. The most
prominent and globally influential international organization that safeguards heritage is
UNESCO, whose official documents and recommendations have enormously impacted
on the debate of conservation and preservation, enhancing a former distinction between
cultural and natural heritage. The convention for the protection of cultural and natural
heritage from 1972 defines heritage in terms of universal values to be preserved and
promoted. Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artefacts and intangible attributes
of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present
and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. In order to understand the idea of
heritage in this holistic perspective, it is necessary to reconsider the matter of typology
and level, as stated by a considerable number of scholars and practitioners. Hall and
McArthur (in Timothy and Boyd 2003) list four different types of heritage significance:
Economic, social, political and scientific. Another interesting view in terms of values of
heritage is given by Sable and Kling (2001): Historical value, symbolic value, spiritual
value and social value (Bonadei and Iguman, 2020: 3-6).

The concept of cultural heritage has clearly meant different things to different groups
of scholars and the public interested in reclaiming traditions and landscapes presented as
part of shared, remembered pasts. The cultural heritage is not renewable, because it cannot
be rebuilt once it has been destroyed. However, the changes associated with urban growth
have caused the destruction of built characteristics and natural elements, eradicating the
physical expression of former indigenous ways of life that are a very important part of
people’s culture. This fact was particularly evident after the Second World War, when
industrial landscapes faced deep transformations which, in several cases, contributed to
its dereliction and to the disappearance of numerous industrial values, commonly known
as industrial heritage (Loures, 2008: 687, 689). In the face of these developments, a firm
embracement, documentation and protection of cultural heritage have entered the agenda.
Why is cultural heritage important? Berti and Mariotti (2015) approaches to this question
by arguing that cultural heritage could be both perceived as a direct economic resource
(e.g. for tourism) or as an indirect source of well-being for the community. It is a typical
relational resource within the cultural ecosystem. Culture and cultural heritage also
have a great impact on local development. The scientifc literature on the role of culture
and cultural heritage as an asset for local development is immense and it includes the

191

The Revitalization of the European Industrial Heritage ... Füsun BAYKAL

works of scholars from diferent disciplines, e.g. anthropology, geography, management,
economics, architecture, etc. For geographers, cultural studies represent a specifc branch
of research and have given rise to a large (and still active) debate and different schools
of thought. Besides, cultural landscapes where cultural heritage is displayed is the visual
identity of that region. The visual perception of the heritage clearly reveals the value
of cultural landscapes, thus how important it is to preserve the heritage that creates the
landscape become crystal clear (Berti and Mariotti, 2015: 49-50).

Another concept that is as important as heritage is “conservation”. Timothy and
Boyd (2003) provide a thorough description of the managed conservation process as
consisting of several stages: identification of the site/object, research and classification,
policy setting, designation and protection, restoration and development and the final
phase (management and interpretation). In addition to conservation stages, types of
conservation also have a distinct impact on the sustainability of heritage. Conservation
types are generally divided into four. (ı) Preservation (maintaining the site in the existing
state); (ıı) Restoration (reconstructing the site to a previous condition); (ııı) Renovation
(changing the site while preserving some of its original character); (ıv) Regeneration (a
combination of the three types of the conservation above) (Bonadei and Iguman, 2020: 8).

Cultural route refers to a new and innovative concept for the travel experience.
One of the main reasons for the emergence of the concept of cultural routes is to introduce
and reuse the historical ways that will provide the presentation of various values. Thus,
the main purpose of cultural routes is to convey the necessary information and values
about historical roads and to offer travel, recreation, observation, sports, entertainment
and exploration routes by connecting them to each other (Durusoy, 2013: 16). In definition
of Council of Europe, cultural route is presented as a cultural, educational heritage and
tourism co-operation project aiming at the development and promotion of an itinerary or
a series of itineraries based on a historic route, a cultural concept, figure or phenomenon
with a transnational importance and significance for the understanding and respect of
common European values (Graf and Popescu, 2016: 25). From this definition, a cultural
route is to be understood not in the restricted sense of physical pathways. Cultural route is
used in a more conceptual and general sense, expressing a network of sites or geographical
areas sharing a theme. Majdoub (2009), on the other hand, asserts the following sentences
as a concept and approach to culturel toute: Cultural routes represent a new approach in
the currently evolving and quickly expanding process that affects the cultural heritage,
and cultural routes offer new perspectives and tools for preserving cultural heritage.
In this context, cultural routes introduce and represent a new approach to the notion of
conservation of the cultural heritage. Cultural heritage and moreover the intercultural
links are a dynamic, interactive evolving process; the cultural routes then constitutes a
new concept approaching the heritage from a multidimensional perspective by revealing
the heritage content of a specific phenomenon, human mobility and exchange through
communication routes. In this context, the concept of cultural route is innovating,
complex and multidimensional. It introduces and represents a qualitative contribution
with the notion of the heritage and its preservation. A cultural route can be expressed on
a theoretical plane defined by the spatial axis and the temporal axis as a geographical

192

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

representation of the continuity based upon the dynamics of movement or the concept
of exchange; on the other hand, the actual size and density of tangible and intangible
elements of the property that remain physically vary from case to case as well as the
degree to which their authenticity can be verified. In addition, among cultural routes,
there will be many examples that spatially expand on extremely large scales ranging from
the regional level to international, multi-national and even intercontinental levels. The
setting in network of the territories is thus the principal force of the cultural routes. The
route is segmented in sub-networks and networks of sites having a common coherence
(Majdoub, 2009: 4-5).

Bonadei and Iguman (2020), citing from Canova (2012), explain the aims of the
cultural itineraries as follows: The main purposes of cultural itineraries are spreading visitors
across the territory and consequently distributing the income coming from the visit to
different stakeholders. In addition, in a perspective of sustainability, it is crucial to encourage
transformation of less known attractions into new market products, as well as reducing the
negative environmental impacts, increasing the appeal of certain destinations, increasing the
sustainability of tourism products, attracting new tourists and creating loyalty with repeated
ones, etc. Itineraries are thus potential and powerful tools for the local development, both
for public and private sector (Bonadei and Iguman, 2020: 12). On the other hand, Berti’s
(2015a and 2015b) perspective on cultural route is shaped within the scope of its relationship
with the EU, partnerships and spatial levels (e.g. local, national, multinational, European,
continental level). The cultural routes act primarily as an open air laboratory of the European
structure and they provide to European citizens the tools to read a complex Europe, not only
to move towards unification, but also to search for the foundations of the European identity
and citizenship, answering to the necessity of a more real and concrete sense of Europe.
Cultural routes are based on a process of cultural cooperation which is constantly evolving,
thus necessitating constant action, research and evaluation, and the installation of European
partnerships within the network. The cultural routes are truly a global hypertext which can
be read step by step, in time with a slower form of travel, with its sounds, colours, shapes
and smells, helping us find the links between the elements and characters we come across
during our journey. The process of cooperation on a common subject, involving partners
from different countries, constitutes one of the most important pillars of the cultural routes
programme. The routes also represent concrete tools for the implementation of charters,
conventions and recommendations on cultural heritage and sustainable tourism, enacted
through an educational approach aimed at raising awareness of the importance of protection
and sustainability. Each cultural route project has to follow a series of criteria (Berti, 2015a: 16;
Berti, 2015b: 35-36, 38-39). In order for cultural routes to be established on a legal basis and to
be followed, the Council of Europe gives certificates to the routes. Benefits of being a certified
cultural route of the Council of Europe are visibility and communication, networking, capacity
building, funding opportunities, advocacy, sustainability, sustainable cultural tourism, scientic
research, community involvement, network development, access to Council of Europe events
and trainings, certication and quality assurance (Council of Europe, 2020a: 2-5). In order to
obtain a certificate and the following procedures, the following must be fulfilled (Conseil de
l’Europe, 2020a: 2-5), (Table 1):

193

The Revitalization of the European Industrial Heritage ... Füsun BAYKAL

Table 1. Steps to obtain a certificate and after certification

Step 1 Steps of Obtain a Certificate Steps After Certification
Step 2 Defining a theme Reporting
Step 3 Identifying heritage elements Evaluation
Step 4 Creating a European network with legal status Communication
Step 5 Co-ordinating common actions Participation
Creating common visibility Information

Source: Conseil de l’Europe, 2020a

The Council of Europe provides up-to-date key highlights on cultural routes: 40
certified cultural routes of which 90% are in rural areas, over 60 countries criss-crossed
by cultural routes, over 2500 network members, over 1500 local authorities. Moreover,
12% of local employment is linked to tourism. The great contribution of tourism to local
employment through cultural routes requires a close look at the relationship between
the two. For example, Graf (2013) asserts that cultural routes pose, in general, a great
challenge and opportunity for culture, science, tourism, and economics, because
they better allow for the branding of a territory and its promotion than isolated travel
destinations do. A brand, furthermore, guarantees quality. Tourists can be sure that every
stop on the map -down to the restaurants and hotels- will be a special encounter with
some form of local heritage. Different events which are tied to the theme of the cultural
route are organized for the tourists along the journey, and include festivals, conferences,
exhibitions, poetry evenings, concerts, theatrical plays, fairs, workshops, etc. By
participating in one cultural route, tourists are able to return into the past and become
acquainted with the characteristics of the historical or cultural epoch of the country in
which they sojourn, have some good time and learn about its customs, gastronomic
specialties, and people (Graf, 2013: 336-337). Y. Perdomo from UNWTO mentions the
importance of cultural routes through tourism: The establishment of cultural routes and
itineraries along different regions as a tourism product has opened up vast opportunities
to enhance the dynamics of tourism by offering more valuable visitor experiences while
spreading benefits throughout the tourism value chain and its linked sectors. Creating a
cohesive strategy of small business involvement for the cultural routes and establishing
strong partnerships with different authorities as well as stakeholders are vital to ensure
more sustainable long-term economic and cultural benefits. This stimulates socio-
economic development and entrepreneurship at the community level along the routes,
protecting and promoting tangible and intangible cultural products while providing
economic returns which remain in the community. The benefits of joining alliances in
the form of inclusive community participation and in the interpretation of heritage, as
well as the development of competitive tourism products create a unique and authentic
experience, one where all involved stakeholders serve as cultural ambassadors (Perdomo,
2015: 12-13). Indeed, UNWTO recognizes the important role played by cultural routes
in tourism. This recognition was reflected in many recent initiatives. In September 2014,
UNWTO Themis Foundation and the European Institute of Cultural Routes designed and

194

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

offered the Council of Europe Cultural Routes’ (CoE CR) partners an executive training
course on Cultural Routes Tourism Development Strategy. The aim was to provide the
participants with knowledge, skills, tools and a forum for discussion and reflection that
will enable them to design a Cultural Route Tourism Development Strategy, with unique
emphasis on collaboration with other cultural routes. It is of an utmost importance, for the
development of tourism, to have a better understanding of the benefits of cultural tourism
and cultural routes and a better comprehension for their management. Going beyond
economic benefits, tourism has the ability to help communities value their unique cultures
and traditions, building their sense of place in the world. It is evident, therefore, that
for tourism to be an effective tool in empowering local communities, inclusion and full
integration into the tourism value chain is fundamental for the successful development of
cultural route and itinerary tourism products and experiences (UNWTO, 2015: 14, 16).

Industrial heritage and industrial archeology

With the advent of the Industrial Revolution starting around the middle of the
18th century, new technology spread rapidly across Europe. Manufacturers built
factories, thousands of workers migrated to the emerging urban industrial areas and
the trade unions fought for social progress throughout Europe. Today, industrialisation
plants open to visitors and modern technology museums tell the exciting story of the
European industrialisation and its cultural, social and economics legacies. The history
of the industrialisation of Europe is an essential part of the European heritage, shaping
continent’s history, landscape and the lives of Europeans for the last 200 years since
the Industrial Revolution. Today, thousands of industrial sites, monuments and museums
bring this period of shared European history to life (Council of Europe, Cultural Routes).

Industrial heritage is the concrete and intangible witness of industry since
the Industrial Revolution. Generally, industrial heritage refers to the industrial space
which includes buildings, equipment and lands carrying the history and culture of the
industrial production. According to Jie (2009) who cites from Dongjun (2008), industrial
heritage is a kind of materialization of the human industrial culture. From the perspective
of cultural heritage, the industrial heritage can be divided into tangible heritage and
intangible heritage. Tangible heritage includes movable industrial heritage, immovable
industrial buildings and industrial sites. Intangible heritage includes craftwork process,
traditional craftsmanship and so on. Also, the industrial heritage has the following five
values: historical, technological, economic, educational and psychological. The industrial
heritage resources, which constitute a part of the cultural heritage, must be preserved as a
relic of the past, and various studies have already been being carried out on this subject.
Jie (2009) summarizes the industrial heritage conservation efforts from past to present
as follows: The United Kingdom was the first country in the world which paid attention
to the protection of industrial heritage. Studies on industrial heritage protection began
to be officially carried out in the 1950s. After 1960s, the studies on industrial heritage
experienced fast development. Later on, with increasing awareness of environmental
protection, people had an entirely new understanding of industrial sites renewal. The

195

The Revitalization of the European Industrial Heritage ... Füsun BAYKAL

issues on industrial heritage were no longer only limited to simple protection but also
to discover better ways to give these sites new lives. Both the development of science
and technology and advances in ecology and biotechnology provided the feasibility
for the transformation of industrial waste, taking industrial sites renewal in a wider,
more diversified and integrated direction. In Europe, the studies of industrial heritage
protection have mainly been concentrated in the United Kingdom (UK), Germany,
Spain, France, Belgium, Sweden and the Netherlands. In 1991, Pat Yale (2004) reviewed
the study of British industrial archeology and also worked with the industrial heritage
tourism resources in the document titled as “From Tourist Attractions to Heritage
Tourism”. He took Canyon Bridge as an example. It was the first British industrial site
to be redeveloped for tourism and become a World Heritage site. Yale’s document is a
representative achievement which systematically introduces the protection and tourism
development of industrial heritage (Jie, 2009: 4-7, 7-9, 14).

As it can be seen, the history of industrial resources, which have reached the
present as a legacy from the industrial revolution, is not very old (maximum 200 years).
Also, the awareness that they have heritage value and should be preserved has only
recently developed. Therefore, it is a very young member in the heritage family. In fact,
the concern for a fast-disappearing industrial heritage was expressed in Britain in the
1960s by the establishment within a few years of five open air museums concerned with
the industrial past, by the re-opening by voluntary groups of railways on which steam
locomotives could work, by a recognition that canals had a future as cruising waterways,
and by the preservation of mills, mill engines, collections of artefacts by countless groups
of concerned individuals. From the 1970s this concern for the industrial past was echoed
across Europe. However, The Open Air Museum, part of the Romantic Nationalism
movement of the late nineteenth century, was born in Scandinavia. In 1891, A. Hazelius
(1833-1901) opened the collection of historic buildings from all over Sweden that took
the name Skansen (fortifications) because it was built on a fortified island in Stockholm
Harbour. From the 1960s on, some Open Air Museums, such as those at Hagen (D),
Beamish (GB) and Zaanse Schans (NL), came to be concerned with the industrial past,
although critics argued that buildings should not, where possible, be moved, but that they
should remain in place and be interpreted. An alternative approach was proposed in 1967
by the French ethnologists G. H. Rivière (1897-1985) and M. Evrard, founder of the
Écomusée de la Communauté Le Creusot Montceau-les-Mines. The project at Le Creusot
proved influential, and the term “Ecomusée” or its English equivalent “Ecomuseum”
has since been applied to the industrial conservation projects across Europe (ERIH,
2017a: 66-67).

As mentioned above, according to many, the conservation of industrial heritage
through tourism seems an ideal solution. It is particularly important to adopt a holistic
approach to industrial heritage and its use in tourism; that is, the sustainable development
of entire regions in accordance with economic, ecological, scientific, and social features
and characteristics (Graf, 2013: 331, 333). Nonetheless, Watson and Waterton (2010)
have the following concern: the act of visual consumption and the focus on experiential
authenticity that make industrial heritage a viable and increasingly popular form of

196

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

tourism may also contribute to the distortion of industrial landscapes, transforming them
into aestheticized spaces of leisure and entertainment. Despite the growing interest in
the industrial heritage worldwide, the analysis of industrial products for the purposes of
tourism development and policy evaluation is still an underdeveloped research field (Xie,
2015: 122-123).

Industrial archeology, in the 1970s, in industrial heritage emerged under the
influence of Britain and toward urban renewal spread to the rest of Europe, where the
structure of the urban fabric was maintained and prioritized. Hence, the collective nostalgia
in the post-industrialization era revives dying industries as the urban renewal becomes a
social norm. The founding of the Club of Rome in 1968 as an informal association for
political movements also pushed the preservation of the industrial heritage sites. Zuidhof
(2009) suggests the demolition of the textile factory Pieter van Doorn in Tilburg, the
Netherlands, in 1975 as the starting point for the emergence of industrial archeology
(Xie, 2015: 34-40). The research track of the Western industrial heritage protection and
development could also be referred to as industrial archeology. Pat Yale (2004) reviewed
the study of British industrial archeology and also worked with the industrial heritage
tourism resources in the document From Tourist Attractions to Heritage Tourism (Jie,
2009: 8-9). Industrial archeology is also accepted as one of the methods of preserving
industrial heritage and Saner (2012) defines it as an interdisciplinary method that examines
all documents, stages, works and structures, settlements, natural and urban landscapes
that are material and intangible evidence for or as a result of industrial processes (Saner,
2012: 56; Köksal (2012) underlines that industrial archeology is closely related to many
disciplines as follows: architecture in terms of structural research; archeology in terms of
the topography of the heritage site, transportation characteristics and development stages;
sociology in terms of the study of the places where officials live and their lives; political
economy in terms of the economic and political processes (Köksal, 2012, 17).

Industrial landscape

Carl Sauer’s seminal research about the morphology of landscape (1925) explains
that the cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group.
Sauer’s work was grounded on geography as a unity formed by physical and cultural
elements of landscape. These elements are complex and even considered to have an
organic quality. This is particularly interesting if we think of landscape as a dynamic
context, changeable in time and space, and in the interaction with other landscapes. In
fact, time and space are crucial in understanding the concept of landscape especially if we
look at the transformation of some areas, measuring human impacts and appropriations
for their use. It is currently very hard to find a piece of land in its presumed genuine form.
Humans have practically reached all the corners of the planet and have left marks. These
land transformations have brought to the creation of landscapes definable as cultural
(Bonadei and Iguman, 2020: 7).

197

The Revitalization of the European Industrial Heritage ... Füsun BAYKAL

The European Landscape Convention defines landscape as an area, as perceived
by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or
human factors. The convention also emphasises that landscape is an important part of the
quality of life for people everywhere: in urban areas and in the countryside, in degraded
areas as well as in areas of high quality, in areas recognised as being of outstanding
beauty as well as everyday areas. The definition of the European Landscape Convention
signifcantly begins with the premise that landscape is a product of the perception of
people. Landscape in other words is not simply another word for environment-it is created
in the eyes, minds and hearts of beholders with the materials, the real components of our
environment, being seen through the filters of memory and association, understanding
and interpretation. The European Landscape Convention describes a vision of landscape
centred on the point of view of the observer (if there is no observer, the landscape does
not exist), founded on a holistic and dynamic system. All forms of landscape are covered
by this definition. Landscape, therefore, is not just the natural framework by which we
identify and admire natural beauty; it is also the context in which people live their daily
lives, including the decline of disadvantaged areas and factors leading to environmental
confict. Furthermore, as a reactive and formative element of the land system, it is also an
essential element of the traveller’s experience: landscape is an object of observation and
consumption, and an essential element of regional policies relating to the construction
and marketing of cultural routes (Berti and Mariotti, 2015: 43).

Jacques (1995), by bringing the concept of landscape together with industry,
argues that the notion of industrial landscape serves to describe and classify the
remnant materials of the industrial culture in order to attribute them to a new implication.
The purpose of territorialization is to highlight diversity rather than universality
by emphasizing in the conceptualization of industrial history, cultural inheritance
and idealized conceptions of the world. This diversity enhances the possibilities of a
creative practice in the preservation, design and planning of an industrial landscape
(Xie, 2015: 177) because at the height of its power, industry played a significant role in
the transformation of landscapes, especially in facilitating their deterioration, but, with
time, many industrial complexes have become an integral part of their surroundings, and
have played a formative role in the development of regions’ environments, customs, and
languages (Graf, 2013: 338).

Industrial landscape is strongly linked to the landscape architects. Landscape
architects often try to use historical knowledge in a site or landscape element design.
Therefore, when facing an industrial heritage site, landscape architects have the
responsibility to understand the significance of the site for the whole city and its citizens.
Industrial heritage sites are special indeed. The buildings and machines are huge and
solid, and the soil and water may be polluted because of chemical productions. It is such
a problematic field that landscape architects should be aware of the problems before they
design (Jie, 2009: 1). Besides, Loures (2008) advises landscape architects who will work
on industrial landscapes: When analyzing and re-developing these landscapes, landscape
architects, architects, designers and other planning professionals need to realise that
post-industrial, typically part of ordinary or vernacular landscapes, incorporate the

198