INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE IN THE URBAN IDENTITY AND MEMORY AXIS

Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

was suggested that the weaving activities should be expanded in this region as Buldan
people was engaged in waving industry. This offical record is important as it indicates
the close relation between the name Buldan and the textile industry existed in the region
(BCA., 30-10-0-0, 7-43-15/6, 5.12. 1925). In addition to that, the possibility that the name
of Buldan district is related to Buldanlı or Buladanlı congregation cannot be overlooked
(Kurgun 2001, 27).

Settlement Names Influenced by Iron-Steel Industry

Certain settlement names in Turkey are based on iron-steel ores. The names
of Altınoluk village located in Kiraz district and Demircili village located in Ödemiş
district in İzmir can be given as examples (Özçelik 2015, 130). Demirciler village in
Nazilli used to provide Mastavra Castle with iron tools (Deniz 2013, 201).

In Ottoman, the metal case containing gunpowder which was hanged around
the neck and carried with was called “vezne”. The name of Vezneciler quarter in
İstanbul took its name from the workshops where vezne were manufactured. However,
the name Vezneciler is claimed to be derived from the device related to weight and
weighing called vezne and the artisans who were engaged in this practice (Sökmen
2010, 52).

The name of Şişli quarter in İstanbul is claimed to be derived from the artisans
who were once engaged in the practice of “şiş” making in this quarter. But the truth
of this claim is contradictive. According to a hearsay, the name of the Şişli quarter
is based on the assumption that the geographical area where this quarter is situated
appears a little swollen (Sökmen 2010, 51).

The name of Bakırcılar quarter in İstanbul took its name from the coppersmiths’
shops found around the quarter (Sökmen 2010, 50). In settlements such as Antalya,
Artvin, Aydın, Balıkesir, Bolu, Çorum, Erzurum, Eskişehir, Gümüşhane, Kocaeli,
Muğla, Trabzon and Zonguldak there are at least two villages named Demirciler. In
addition to that in the settlements of Afyon, Burdur, Çankırı, Diyarbakır, Eskişehir,
Kastamonu, Kırşehir, Mardin, Muğla, Samsun, Tekirdağ and Trabzon there are at
least two villages named Demirli. There is another hearsay regarding the name of
Özdemirci town. This town whose old name was Demirci took its name from a person
who came to this region in the time of the Beylik of İnançoğulları and who was a
blacksmith. Demirciler village which is 16 km in distance to the center of Kale district
in Denizli took its name from the first settlers of the region who was occupied with
blacksmithing. Özdemirci village which is 35 km in distance to Çivril district took
its name from the first settlers of the region who was occupied with blacksmithing
(Kurgun 1997, 59- 93).

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Determinations on the Effect of Industrial Heritage ... Cihan ÖZGÜN

Settlement Names Influenced by Food Industry

Certain settlement names in Turkey are based on the food industry. There were
Balıkçı Hacı village and Balcı village in the settlement are of Avşar in Eğirdir in 16th
century and eight of the villages in this region bear names related to the rice production
such as Çeltük and Çeltükci. In 16th century, the fact that there were two Değirmen, two
Demirci, one Derziler, one Gazancılar, one Yağcı and one Yağcılar village found in the
region of Isparta, Burdur and Eğirdir provide clues about the industrial activities of the
region (Sarı 2000, 142-144).

The name of Balcılar village in Bayındır district may have taken its name from
beekeeping because Ottoman financial records indicate that both the production of honey
in this village and the revenue acquired from honey trade were high (Özçelik 2015, 133).

In a researched carried out regarding the Üsküdar district of İstanbul, “Yel
Değirmenleri Sırtı” location probably named after the windmills which were once stood
there (Ceylan 2009, 468- 469).

One of these named after occupations, Tosya, is one of the important areas of rice
production. Rice is produced along the Devrez creek and sent out of the district as Tosya
rice. It is possible to acknowledge this agricultural activity and the economic structure of
this distict through the name of Çeltikçi village as it is directly related to rice production
(Topal, İbret 2020, 47).

The name of Pekmezci village of Akhisar district in Manisa also has a close relation
to the food industry. The soil in the village had been used in the making of molasses in
the region. Due to the abundance of this soil around the village, known as molasses soil,
the village was named Pekmezci, that is “molasses makers” (Akınlı, Akbaş 2019, 861).

The settlement in Batman named “Mahser” took its name from an old device
which is usally made- carved out of stone which crushes the grapes and squeezes the juice
to make molasses. The settlement names encountered in Batman, “Aş” and “Dargot(aş)”
means mill and “Cirnik” means grain grinder. The names of these settlements provide
strong clues regarding the industrial heritage of the region (Altunışık 2009, 102).

The word sugar is also found in the names of the settlements around the sugar
production centers in Turkey. The name Pancarköy is closely related to the sugar factory
in the region. Sugar is obtained from beets. After the Russian War of 1877-1878, some
Muslim Turks who immigrated from the Balkans came to Pancarköy and settled here,
where they were engaged in beet farming (Özdoğan 2016, 109). After the Alpullu Sugar
Factory was opened in 1926, the Alpullu township of Kırklareli was changed as Şeker
village for a short period of time and with M. Kemal Atatürk’s directives the village’s
name was changed back to Alpullu. Moreover, sugar is produced in the villages named
Şekerköy in Konya, Akşehir, Şanlıurfa, Birecik and Kastamonu and these settlements
took their names from the sugar production (https://www.alpullu.org/SS/seker_koy.html;
Öğüt 2008, 70).

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The names of the villages in Kırklareli such as Pekmezci, Dalakçı are closely
related to the food industry (Köksal 2019, 277). Değirmencik village in Kırklareli is the
only village among others in the region, which has a mill, and this village was named after
the mill, that is the place where grain is grinded. The Balkaya village in Kırklareli took
its name from the rocks nearby which provided a source of honey. This group of rocks
were named Balkaya since dense bee population is found in the cavities formed by these
rocks and a considerable amount of honey is extracted from these rocks (Özdoğan 2016,
46 and 59).

The name of Sübyeci street in Üsküdar, İstanbul is closely related to the food
industry. “Sübye” which comes from Greek language into Turkish is a kind of sherbet
which is made from foods such as almond, crushed garlic and melon seeds, and which
had the consistency of boza. This street must have been named Sübyeci after a person
who made and sold sübye (Seylan 2012, 388).

Likewise, the name of Helvacı neighborhood in Şanlıurfa was derived from the
skill this district had in making sweets and halva (Özçelik 2018, 116).

The village of Bulgurlu, located in Üsküdar, took its name from the residents of
this village making their living by cultivating bulghur wheat (Sökmen 2010, 57).

Macuncu was one of the settlements in İstanbul in the Ottoman world. The most
famous bazaars of old Istanbul and pharmacy shops called “Macuncular” were found in
Macuncu district (Sökmen 2010, 51).

Settlement Names Influenced by Chemical Industry

Some of the settlement names in Turkey are closely related to the chemical
products and chemical industry. The name of the Kerpiçli takes its name from the
constructions made from adobe bricks which are common in the area. Moreover, there is
no other village or settlement that bears this name in İzmir. Kerpiçlik name of a village
in Demirci district, Manisa finds its equivalent in a village called Kerpiçli in Tekkeköy
district, Samsun (Özçelik 2015, 75).

In Üsküdar district of Istanbul, Tutkalcı Bayırı must have taken its name from a
profession related to glue making in this settlement. Likewise, the Kireçocağı brook in
Üsküdar took its name from an old limestone quarry establishment located approximately
200 m north of the confluence of Çakaldağı brook and Bekar brook. Moreover, this
limestone quarry was also operated as a quarry for a certain period in the following years
(Ceylan 2009, 472 and 480).

The name of Boyalılar village in Akhisar district of Manisa is based on the
skillfulness that the folks of this village used to known for in coloring the threads used in
weaving carpets and rugs. (Akınlı, Akbaş 2019, 866)

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Katran is a dark colored, odorous viscous liquid substance undissoluble in water
which is obtained by distillation. The name of Katranca village in Kırklareli comes from
“tar”. Furthermore, it is claimed that the name of Sergen village comes from vinegar.
In Ottoman world in the village of Sergen vinegar was produced as well as wine and
molasses from the grapes grown in vineyards of the village. The village which was called
“Sirgene/ Sergene” before, is today called Sergen. When the close relation between the
words Sergen and Sirke considered, it is thought that the name of the village Sergen
was derived from vinegar. It is understood that the name of the village called Çüvenli in
Kırklareli was derived from the plant “çöven”. Çöven is a plant whose roots and branches
clean dirt like soapy water and known as soap plant (Özdoğan 2016, 90 and 114).

The name of the village of Kireçli, formerly Kireçköy in Trabzon comes from the
limekiln situated in this village. In 1835, J. M. Hamilton observed the lime production
area and stated in his voyage notes (Kılıç 2016, 34 and Yüksel 1999, 216).

The name of Kireçburnu village on European shore of the Bosphorus took its
name from old limekilns on Asian shore just across it. The name of Balmumcu quarter
in İstanbul was named after a wax production house built by a rich entrepreneur back
in the 19th century. The candles manufactured in Balmumcu quarter were used as light
source when the electricity hadn’t yet been introduced in the Ottoman world. The name
of Boyacıköy on European shore was named after the dye artisans who had been working
in this settlement. To produce the dyes used for coloring the felts of the fez in the years
when it was extensively produced, by the order of Selim III, the dye artisans working in
Kırklareli were relocated in Boyacıköy (Sökmen 2010, 51, 57 and 58).

Settlement Names Influenced by Forest Products
and Wood Industries

Some settlement names in Turkey are closely related to the tree groups which grew
naturally at certain altitudes and various in height, as well as forest products and wood
industry. The name of the Sağrakçı village in Akhisar district of Manisa comes from the
the craftsmen engaged in sağrak work. “Sağrak” means oil container, goblet, drinking
cup, pitcher, stoup and bowl made of wood. In old times, the name of the craftsmen who
were engaged in making bowls, drinking cups, plates carved out of wood were called
sağrakçı (Akınlı, Akbaş 2019, 866).

The name of the village Tütenli in Akhisar district of Manisa is based on the fame
of this village for cultivating tobacco. The names of Kapaklı and Çanakçı village in
Akhisar district of Manisa is closely related to the forest products industry. In Akhisar and
its surroundings, the first well covers were made in this village and the village was named
Kapaklı. As the villagers living in Çanakçı village made wooden kitchenware, plates and
bowls from the plane trees growing on the banks of the brook near the village, this village
was named Çanakçı, meaning “bowl makers” (Akınlı, Akbaş 2019, 866).

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Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Poyralı village in Kırklareli took its name from the word “poyra”. Poyra refers to
the round area at the center of tires, water mill wheel, watering trough et cetera. In the
years when the communication was maintained by horse cars, the most durable wheels
were being manufactured by the elm trees growing on the banks of the brook in Poyralı
village. However, there are other rumors about the name of the village. One of the rumors
is that the name of the village derives from the prevailing northeastern wind in the region
throughout the year; and the other is that the name derives from the abundance of fragrant
herbs called “poy” growing in the meadows (Özdoğan 2016, 110-111).

The name of the village Nacak in Kırklareli took its name from the short axes
made of the trees in this village because “nacak” means wood chopper (Özdoğan 2016,
105).

The name of Oymacı street in Üsküdar district of İstanbul took its name based
on the woodcarving artisanship which was mainly practiced in the shops situated in this
street (Seylan 2012, 386).

The word “Bük” means dense bush, shrubbery, and forest. In fact, there are
settlement names such as Akbük (Bolu, Muğla), Akçabük (Bursa), Karabük (Antalya,
Çankırı, Çorum, Denizli, İçel, Kastamonu, Manisa, Adana, Tokat, Zonguldak). Likewise,
the existing names such as Ormancık (Rize), Ormangüzle (Bilecik), Ormanköy (Bolu,
Giresun, Samsun), Ormanlar (Kastamonu, Zonguldak), Ormanlı (Balıkesir, İstanbul,
Rize, Zonguldak) indicates the presence of forests in these regions. In fact, this situation
increases the likelihood of forest products industry in these regions (Şenel, Önal 2017,
166 and Eren 1966, 149).

The name of Kanlıca quarter in İstanbul derives from kanlı (kağnı) meaning small
vehicle in Turkish. The industrial past signified in the name of Kanlıca is related to the
tumbrel workshops that were situated in this quarter (Hut 2005, 168).

The name of Sinekçiler village in Nazilli is thought to be derived from the word
“senek”. “Senek” is the name for water jugs carved from pine wood (Deniz 2013, 200).

The name of Kâğıthane quarter in İstanbul took its name from the paper industry.
In the Ottoman world, in the time of Beyazıt II paper was produced in this quarter. The
name of this quarter remained as Kağıthane accordingly (Sökmen 2010, 58).

Consequently, Industry has a significant impact not only on the social and economic
life of a society, but also in its physical environment. Industrial areas or industrial spaces
affect both social memory and urban identity directly or indirectly in a settlement. This
effect sometimes appears in the form of place names by associating the living space of
the society with the industry. For example, when some settlement names are examined
in Turkey such as Kömürköy, Barutçuköy, Demirci, Kurşunlu, Pirinççi, Bıçakçı, Eğerci,
Sinekçiler, Katranca, Tütenli etc., it is understood that these places are named after
industrial business fields or industrial occupations.

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106

THE ADAPTIVE REUSE OF
INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE SITE AS
PUBLIC SPACES IN POST-MODERN
CITIES

Üftade MUŞKARA1

Abstract

The significance of preserving the industrial heritage has achieved significant
recognition in recent years. The adaptive reuse of former industrial sites has become a
powerful approach for conservation, providing economic, cultural, and social benefits to
urban communities. When considering the principles of sustainable heritage management,
the most distinguished adaptive reuse applications are the ones that combine the building’s
heritage significance with a contemporary layer. Industrial heritage sites that were
transformed into cultural places generally conflict with contemporary living quarters and
the social dynamics of the cities. It is especially evident for post-industrial areas where
people are negatively affected by the closure and loss of jobs and major changes in the
social structure. Therefore, preserving such complex sites for longer terms is connected
to the social aspect of sustainability. The vast areas of industrial activities should be
incorporated into the city’s landscape to rearrange the broken bond between the city center,
residential zones, and business quarters. The outdoor layout offering a meeting point
for younger generations for various activities for physical contact or resting should be
planned like the cultural activities organized inside the building. The superimposed layers
of functions integrated into the former industrial sites would expanse the dimension of
public spaces; therefore, the cultural landscape will present a more symbiotic relationship
between tangible and intangible values.

1   Assist. Prof. Dr, Kocaeli University, Department of Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Properties.

e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-4709-8821

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Public Spaces and Industrial Revolution

Public space can be defined as the areas open, free and accessible by the citizens. In
ancient cities, public places such as agora, gymnasium, bath, or theatres were areas where
people gather, meet, and communicate. As society’s transformation for economic activities
has reshaped the social and cultural functions, the integration and design principles of the
city have developed (Madanipour 2019). Therefore the importance and the central role of the
public spaces were gradually disappeared. The development of technology produced mass
production, capitalist systems, faster transportation, digital tools, and digital communication.
Social media tools such as Instagram, Facebook, or Twitter have finally created virtual public
spaces and altered environmental and social aspects of public spaces. Even for face-to-face
gathering, people have new preferences such as shopping malls, which can now be compared
to Greek agoras. However, the notable difference is that shopping malls are momentarily the
symbols of consumption culture. The other public spaces in the cities, including museums and
art galleries, are also formed according to new communication habits.

Because of its importance in urban design, public space has been subject to the growing
interest not only in architecture or city planning but also for those who study sociology,
philosophy, anthropology, and art (Deutsche, 1992; Boyer, 1993; Madanipour, 1999; Ercan,
2007; Gospodini 2007; Carmona et al., 2008, Grodach, 2009; Carmona 2010; Licari 2011;
Madanipour 2019). Here, we will discuss the evolution of public space regarding social and
cultural aspects since the Industrial Revolution because the modern city planning for organized
urban settlements recognizing its citizens’ demands emerged around this period.

The Industrial Revolution, which took place around the 18th century, was probably the
most important transition in human history after the Neolithic Revolution. The archaeological
data indicates that in the Neolithic period, the hunter-gatherer societies started to settle, and
more importantly, agricultural activities emerged as a new way of living. The villages, then
cities, and the social organizations evolved based on the new economy and production systems.
Of course, the transition took thousands of years in Neolithic and developed separately in
every region. Whereas the Industrial Revolution had spread throughout Europe in a relatively
shorter period when the steam engines were available in transportaion and manufacturing.
The people in rural areas relocated into urban settlements. The demand for labor in the new
factories has gradually created different classes in the social organization. Power and wealth
that were reshaped by industrial capital caused the rise of the bourgeois class rivaling the
traditional aristocracy. The Industrial Revolution created the fundamental change in the
economic systems because technological developments were employed for production.
Therefore, industrialization’s main characteristic was the mass production capabilities,
which influenced the whole political system and balance. Consequently, World War I caused
disappointment in society during the rise of the new era and significant conceptual changes in
the belief systems of European nations.

While industrialization created the urban settlements based on the requirements
for manufacturing, the growing population and the development of construction methods
in iron and steel, and the adoption of industrialized vehicles promoted significant changes

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in the landscape. The largest cities by the population at the beginning of the 18th century
were Beijing, İstanbul, and Tokyo; however, the population of London sharply increased
during the century. By 1874, London was far more populated than other cities, around 4
billion people, while Paris, New York City, and Berlin followed it. The growing population
created a demand for public services and infrastructures.

The London Bridge repairs were notable examples of construction operations to
meet the fast-growing cities’ constraints. Since the London Bridge was the only bridge
spanning River Thames, it was crowded with many houses and shops (Photo 1). The central
pier of the Bridge was removed in 1762 to enlarge the central arch for broader vessels.
However, this renovation caused severe erosion on the bridge, which was the origin of the
famous nursery rhyme “London Bridge is falling down” (Reidy, 2008). On the other hand,
accompanying mines and railways, transportation was probably one of the most significant
elements in reshaping the urban form (Mumford, 1961). The first railways in England and
France were opened in 1825-1831; the first international line was between Strassbourg and
Bale, introduced in 1841 (Ragon, 1986). However, the population growth and the expansion
in size in industrial cities were not intentionally organized, which created an unhealthier
environment and deficiency for appropriate dwellings. Consequently, urban planning
emerged as a new discipline because of the necessity for good urban reform against the
disorder induced by industrialization in the cities. The modernist approach founded the
urban design following new trends in the economy, society, and belief systems.

Photo 1. The oil painting of London Bridge before the renovations by Samuel Scott, 1758.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:London_Bridge_before_the_alteration_in_1757_by_
Samuel_Scott.png.

Modern city planning was influenced by new transportation systems, vehicles, and
motorcars. Along with automobiles and the necessity for healthier spaces, former public
spaces were transported to remote places, and the main streets and lots were left for cars
(Photo 2). The Athens Charter, 1933, sometimes referred to as the modernist manifesto,
described key integrants for city planning (Madanipour, 2019). Mehaffy and Low (2018)

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Photo 2. The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning, 1897 by Camille Pissarro,
the oil painting depicting Modern Paris street.
Source: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/437310.

examined the document with a focus on urban form, and public space underlined six key
elements, including “function-based zoning, functionally restricted streets and segregation
of buildings.” The special attention to the function described the approach for public space,
which was organized as relaxation areas. Since the living quarters were separated from
the working “zones,” the public spaces were installed in the proximity of residential areas.
Therefore, public space as the place for interaction and meeting lost its context. One of the
leading architects of modernism Le Corbusier declared the famous statement “we must
kill the streets,” defining the strategy for “public” and “space.” The underlying idea for the
separation of streets in favor of automobiles was developed regarding the modernist idea
of order and reason. The city was organized as a part of the mass production system. As
industrial capitalism measured the value of the labor based on the “hours,” the time without
making money was the “life” (Thompson, 1967). The concept of “time” now evolved into
two separate times: “The individual, in this discourse, is supposedly caught in a perpetual
oscillation between work in the public domain of production and leisure in the private
domain of consumption” (Ingold, 2011, 329). The divisions of cities into zones induced the
spatial and temporal segregation of the society.

Another critical element of the modernist idea of the city was demolishing historic
structures except for the ones having heritage values and replacing them with healthier
buildings following the concepts of modernism. The building activities were mainly
financed by the government. The government’s involvement in public services and
large-scale urban development was another important aspect of the dynamics of modern

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city. The state’s new active role in maintaining growth was based on Keynesian ideas
developed by John Maynard Keynes as a new economic understanding after the Great
Depression in the 1930s (Weir and Skocpol, 1985; Madanipour 2019).

Considering the modernist movement pays attention to the “public space” as the
breathing spaces or the places of recreation, the actual function of the public space that
was shaped since the development of ancient cities has lost its context. Because the public
space was placed in the city’s intended centers before modernity, it was commonplace for
people to see each other and gossip on political, economic, and social issues. Furthermore,
it was also a marketplace where people from rural areas came together and exchanged
their goods. It was also an opportunity for them to visit the city. The primary distinction of
modern city planning and the public space within it was the capitalist form of living and
financial system based on labor and task-oriented time. When the separation was made as
two spheres within time and space, then the spaces in the city were also separated from
the “public” without any meaning.

While the Industrial revolution continued to evolve regarding technological
developments, the energy power used for production shifted to electricity, and
consequently, the production lines emerged. Later, the organization of manufacturing was
designed by computer technology leading to automation. Although automation implied
the increasing production rate and economic growth, it led firms to reduce workers, which
was another turning point in society. Furthermore, by the 1970s, the source of economic
income and the sectoral structure of employment have been changed throughout Europe
due to variations in the preference of goods by individuals, technology, outsourcing to
specialized service providers, and international trade (Neuss 2018). Reallocation of the
economic activity towards the service sector and the need for lower labor costs and raw
materials caused the structural transformation towards services. Later, deindustrialization
took place as the decline of manufacturing activities. Consequently, the economic shift
commenced to a synchronized shutdown of heavy industries; therefore, factories, once
the monumental symbols of the financial and political power, were abandoned and left
alone.

The Meaning of Industrial Heritage

The awareness of post-Industrial sites emerged around the 1950s when industrial
archaeology developed first in Great Britain. Industrial archaeology involves employing
archaeological methods for analyzing material remains of buildings, infrastructures,
machinery, various types of artefacts, and documents related to operation and supply chain.
Sometimes, it could be confusing to understand the meaning of industrial archaeology:
is it digging the industrial site or establishing seriation and analyzing form, style, and
functions as traditional archaeology does? It is indeed closely connected to what is now
called the contemporary archaeology approach, which has developed by the interest in
the concept of ethnoarchaeology (2010, 23). In the basic description, ethnoarchaeology
is a method for understanding and interpreting the patterns of ancient societies using

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information obtained from existing communities (Hirst 2017). Lewis Binford defined
people’s behavior as dynamics, and on the other hand, the consequences of these behaviors
to materials appeared as modifications, changes, and distribution as statics (1983, 24).
His intention to study the relation between statics and dynamics in modern societies was
for revealing a kind of code to be used to identify similar relations of the past. Such
ethnoarchaeological and modern cultural studies using ethnological models and patterns
to explain the cultural change in the past were continued until the 1980s and early 1990s
(Harrison and Schofield 2010, 27).

As the post-processual archaeological movement developed, it had a reflection on
ethnoarchaeological studies with a new focus on the relation between the meaning and the social
role of the materials (Preucel and Hodder 1996). This process created a more holistic approach
called contemporary archaeology. However, the meaning of contemporary archaeology is
also argued for the apparent reason, the oxymoron defined with now (contemporary) and the
science of past (Ruibal 2014, 272). Likewise, industrial archaeology have both meanings,
industrial relating to modern times and archaeology referring to the past. Buchli and Lucas
have described the contemporary past as a critical intervention applied using traditional
archaeological methods to reveal new orders of knowledge about the recent past (2002). To
establish a borderline between historical archaeology and contemporary archaeology, Harrison
and Schofield adopted the definition provided by Orser (Schofield 2010, 48). Orser suggested
that historical archaeology is a multidisciplinary field concerning anthropology and history,
focusing on the post-historic past and finding out more about the nature of modern life.
Various authors have defined the distinction of the archaeology for contemporary and recent
past as being about the themes rather than temporal distance. When considering this purpose
of archaeology, which is either related to the far or recent past, archaeology then itself is the
tool for understanding and interpreting the material remains to reconstruct a narrative and
genealogic history of humankind.

Archaeological methodology describing how to deal with materials or “things” could be
applied to various periods. One of the main concerns in industrial archaeology is the precision
of archaeological tools when applying for interpretation of the recent past, which is biased with
our cultural background and life experiences (Harrison and Schofield 2010, 54). As the cultural
heritage concept gains much more importance and the definition of cultural values gaining
broader sense, including intangible heritage, the growing interest in applying archaeology to the
recent past in this manner is acceptable and natural. Maybe the most distinctive characteristic
of industrial archaeology is that it is more related to sociological and heritage studies, whereas
archaeology of the past is more about reconstructing society based on material remains.

While various examples of industrial archaeological studies, including Ironbridge
Gorge in the UK, millstones from France and Germany, flour mills in Southern Australia, the
flax-spinning mill in Poland were being carried out, the rapid decline of industrialization and
large scale demolition of once-industrial areas took place around the early 1980s. Meanwhile,
the earliest examples of adaptive reuse projects were developed. However, the fundamental
methods and key concepts of Industrial Heritage were not clarified and internationally expected
until 1978 when The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage

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(TICCIH) was established. In contrast, the principles of conservation and preservation of
architectural heritage were constructed in 1964 by Venice Charter for the Conservation and
Restoration of Monuments and Site, one of the most influential texts on safeguarding cultural
heritage. After the enormous devastation and trauma of World War II, the necessity for the
reconstruction of the leading centers in Europe and the urgent precautions formed the essence
of the Charter, which is still the core of preserving cultural heritage values.

The Nizhny Tagil Charter for The Industrial Heritage was originated by TICCIH and
approved by ICOMOS in 2003 following the spirit of the Venice Charter. Both industrial
heritage and industrial archaeology were defined in the first article, along with the timeframe
for Industrial Revolution. The emphasis was made on the material remains and landscape of
industrialization areas regarding production, energy, and storage, and the structure related to
the social activities of an industrial complex. Archaeology once again mentioned under the
third article as a fundamental technique for studying heritage sites. The reason for the stress on
archaeology was probably due to the need for a specific academic discipline responsible for the
foundation of theoretical background for industrial heritage. It had been more evident for the
other integrations of cultural heritage values, such as restoration and conservation departments,
art history, and interdisciplinary material sciences.

The values of industrial heritage mentioned in the text were related to various
fields underlying the interdisciplinary characteristics of industrial heritage studies. The
first value is on the universal context of historical consequences, although it is not clearly
defined how the universal value will be determined. The second value is further related
to the contribution from people emotionally connected factory structure. Furthermore, the
aesthetic value of the architectural planning or design is also mentioned in this text. Another
significance of industrial heritage highlights the intangible records of the site contained in
memories forming a local or regional identity, a contemporary concept of heritage studies.
Authenticity in terms of historical importance is also discussed. One of the essential intents
of the Charter was its effort to provide legal protection for industrial heritage. It proposed
that industrial sites were indeed an integral part of the cultural heritage that required special
protection.

The fifth article, where the maintenance and preservation were described, introduced two
measures universal for heritage studies: integrity and authenticity. However, due to the unique
characteristics and the previous locations of post-industrial areas where the contemporary urban
planning and residential quarters of the cities usually conflict, the text referenced adaptive reuse
to ensure conservation. The text also presented suggestions for the nature of adaptive reuse as:

• Respecting the significance of material,
• Maintaining original patterns of circulation and activity,
• Being compatible as much as possible with the original or principal use,
• Recommending an area that interprets the former use.

The importance of the reuse of industrial sites was also described according to
sustainable development and “psychological stability” for the people who were faced

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with sudden shutdowns and maybe became unemployed. In terms of adaptive reuse and
recommendations for intangible values of factory complexes, The Nizhny Tagil Charter
gives essential effort to create alternative perspectives for preserving the physical and
cultural remains of the Industrial Revolution period. However, the sustainable management
aspect of preservation and the definition of stakeholders were not mentioned in the text.
The final emphasis on the regional and international routes for the presentation and
interpretation of industrial heritage was focused on the cultural interaction between the
people with similar experiences. Nevertheless, when we consider it in the management
context at the reuse sites, it would later gain a meaning more related to tourism.

Later in 2011, the joint ICOMOS-TICCIH principles, known as Dublin, were prepared
to expand the cooperation between two organizations and the use of principles relating to
documentation, protection, and conservation of industrial heritage as an integrant of the world
heritage. The comparison made between the issues defined in the two texts is listed in Table
1. As the preservation and conservation efforts for the post-industrial areas increased and the
public awareness developed, the demand for “updating” the previous principles have emerged.
We can especially follow the new conceptual approach in the broader definition of industrial
heritage, whereas it was “industrial culture” in The Nizhny Tagil Charter. The timeframe for
industrial heritage was also expanded, covering a period from Neolithic to the present. The
other significant difference in Dublin principles was the contribution of local people to the
preservation of the heritage planning process as a new stakeholder. People who were related
to the history of industrials sites were likewise mentioned in the Charter. However, the oral
and written histories introduced in the Dublin text provided a more holistic understanding of
history and consequently improved decision-making and representation.

Table 1. A comparative table for the articles

The Nizhny Tagil Charter Dublin Principles

Definition

» The industrial culture is of historical, » The industrial heritage consisting of
technological, social, architectural, or sites, structures, complexes, areas,
scientific value. and landscapes as well as the related
machinery, objects, or documents that
» The remains consisting of buildings and provide evidence of past or ongoing
machinery, workshops, mills and factories, industrial processes of production,
mines and sites for processing and refining, » the extraction of raw materials, their
warehouses and stores, places where » transformation into goods, and the related
energy is generated, transmitted, and » energy and transport infrastructures.
used, transport and all its infrastructure, Reflecting the connection between the
as well as places used for social activities cultural and natural environment.
related to the industry such as housing, Raw materials, energy, and transportation
religious worship or education. networks.
Immovable and movable material assets
and intangible dimensions.

Time Frame

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» From the beginning of the Industrial » Industrial process either ancient or

Revolution in the second half of the 18th modern.
century up to and including the present
day

» Including the earlier pre-industrial and

proto-industrial roots.

» The study of production activities and

production techniques encompassed by
the history of technology.

Conservation principles

» Preserving functional integrity » Original or alternative and adaptive use
» Authenticity » Integrity and authenticity
» Aesthetic value » Specialist skills to ensure sustainable use
» All former uses should be examined and » Building codes, risk mitigation
assessed requirements, environmental or industrial
» regulations, and other standards
» In-situ preservation » Preserving functional integrity
» Adaptive reuse » Reversible interventions
» Reversible interventions » Documentation including oral or written
Documentation and transition of human stories of people
skills related to industrial processes
» Documentation of people’ memories

Photo 3. St. Kinga’s Chapel Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines, Polland.
Source: https://www.wieliczka-saltmine.com/

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While the fundamental principles of conservation of cultural heritage, integrity, and
authenticity were emphasized similarly, the aesthetic value of structural design was not specified
in the Dublin text. Since the dynamics, including design features and functions of the industrial
buildings and infrastructures, are distinguished and not related to aesthetic concerns, it is
reasonable to neglect this criterion in the later text. The common suggestion was the adaptive re-
use principles in both texts; however, the Dublin principles included awareness of the modern city
planning features regarding construction engineering, building codes, and relating regulations.

The growing interest in industrial heritage can be followed in the World Heritage
List and Tentative List. By 1999, the World Heritage Center prepared the “industrial
heritage” classification in collaboration with ICOMOS for a World Heritage poster series
including industrial heritage sites (Falser 2001). As of today, 32 properties are listed under
the keywords “industrial” and “industry.” Although this is only 3.7% of all cultural sites,
the classification was made between 1978-2006. Consequently, by 2006 this ratio was 4%.
The earliest heritage-listed was Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines, Polland in 1978
according to the 4th criteria, “to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural
or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human
history.” (WHC). One of them, Pont du Grand, France, is a Roman aqueduct, whereas Canal
du Midi, France, is a waterway linking system, and Las Medulas, Spain, is an example of
roman mining technology. More than half of the listed industrial sites are located in Europe.

The tentative list of World Heritage Center is an inventory of properties that the State
Parties intents to consider as nominations for the World Heritage list. Ninety-two cultural
sites relating to industrial or economic activities are enlisted mainly between 2006 and 2021.
Contrary to the heritage list, we observed increasing attention from various parts of the world
to industrial characteristics of the cultural sites. When State Parties submit their proposal
lists, they underline the industrial heritage characteristics of the sites. For instance, seven
nomination properties submitted by Turkey included industrial features. Among them:

The Ancient City of Sardis – 2013: The capital of Lydia is well known for the
earliest gold and silver coins. Therefore, the Lydian industrial sector was developed as the
early examples for the ancient metallurgy refining of electrum into pure gold and silver.

Tomb of Ahi Evran – 2014: Although the tomb is not directly linked to the industrial
heritage concept, Ahi Evran was the founder of Ahi-order, a structural organization for
craftsmanship and trade that has lasted for seven centuries.

Yıldız Palace Complex – 2015: In addition to its architectural and historical value,
Yıldız Tile Imperial Factory for porcelain manufacturing founded by Sultan Abdulhamid
II was mentioned regarding its industrial value, the first imperial factory.

Ayvalık Industrial Landscape – 2017: In the proposal submitted to the World
Heritage Center, the industrial landscape of Ayvalık is defined as its specific geography
and climate, which provides its regional importance in olive-oil production from the 19th
century onwards. The industrial structures related to olive oil manufacturing and side
products are mentioned in texts for examples of tangible industrial heritage values.

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Historic Port City of İzmir – 2020: The emphasis is made on the city’s historical
values as it has been the port provides commercial between trade representatives from
European port cities, including Amsterdam, London, Marseilles, and Venice, and the
trade represented from the Ottoman cities, such as Isfahan, Iran, Aleppo, and Bursa.
The architectural plan and the structures in the city represent its importance as a trade
hub. The transformation during the 19th century by the industrialization process is also
mentioned in the proposal.

The suggestions in the tentative lists provide important insights for the development
of the industrial heritage concept. The tangible and intangible features of industrial
heritage are presented with a narrative especially in line with Dublin principles. The
timespan extended beyond the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
particular, Turkey is considerably successful in applying the contemporary understanding
of industrial heritage. The number of properties submitted by Turkey way more than any
other States parties. On the other hand, the total number of the sites in the tentative list
suggested by Turkey is 83 by 14/04/2020.

Industrial heritage is distinguished for its unique values characterized by
technology, energy, architectural design, engineering, machinery installation, landscape,
trade routes, human activities, public history, urban memory, and social organization.
Like Neolithic transformation, it has distinct features depending on situation and society;
therefore, it should be managed in a holistic strategy according to its specific context,
including landscape, tangible, and intangible heritage values.

Adaptive Reuse of Industrial Heritage Sites and Sustainable
Management

Adaptive reuse is the process of transforming a new function to a former industrial
structure which is other than the original purpose. Although adopting new uses to the
industrial heritage sites differs, the primary objective should involve adding new layers
without erasing the previous ones. The adaptive reuse projects should focus on preserving
industrial heritage significance.

Adaptive reuse was mentioned in The Nizhny Tagil Charter (2003) and Dublin
Principles as a tool for preservation; however, it was defined in more detail in Burra
Charter in the version 2013 adopted by Australia ICOMOS. The definition given in the
text for adaptation is “Adaptation means changing a place to suit the existing use or a
proposed use.” The emphasis was made on the preservation of cultural significance of the
properties when adaptive reuse was applied. Following basic principles and fundamentals
of conservation defined in the Venice Charter, preservation of the original design, fabric,
materials, and meanings was also suggested. The new use should be compatible with the
original use and meaning.

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Photo 4. Ghirardelli Chocolate Factory in 1936 and Ghirardelli Square in 20182018.
Source: https://www.ghirardellisq.com/history; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ghirardelli_
Square_1.jpg

The adaptive reuse projects for cultural heritage sites have a growing interest
mainly due to tourism purposes. The adaptive reuse practices were described thoroughly
in “Caring for Your Heritage Building,” the guidance kit prepared by UNESCO Office
in Jakarta and Regional Bureau for Science in Asia and the Pacific in 2015. The issues
regarding the embodied relationship between the proposed new use and the required
building codes that may harm the original design’s integrity and aesthetics were discussed.
In accordance with the contemporary codes, the necessary updates for the installation,
such as piping, lightening, and cabling, were further analyzed regarding preserving the
building’s original value. Another issue for planning the new use introduced in the text
was the timing. The adaptive reuse project should also consider how long the application
would endure, and the modifications should be reversible.

Although adaptive reuse principles were organized in the international charters
relatively more recently, the earliest examples for industrial heritage sites were gained
attention during the 1960s in the USA, then applied in European cities (Falk 2000).
Ghirardelli Square in San Francisco is generally accepted as the first successful adaptive
reuse of an industrial site (Photo 4). It is considered successful since the original fabric and
design were preserved while offering the public space for shopping and meeting when the
modifications were planned. The renovation project was also notable for incorporating
public contributions and experts on heritage preservation.

In the UK, The Albert Dock, as the central element of Liverpool’s UNESCO
Heritage status, was another early example of adaptive reuse applications. The dock and
warehouses representing the wet dock systems were registered as a conservation area to
preserve the architectural and historical values in 1976. However, until 1981 the heritage
site abounded. Then private investigators developed a plan for transforming the post-
industrial complex into a commercial, leisure, and residential area. Today the Albert Dock
housing museum, galleries, restaurants, and hotels, including Tate Modern, The Beatles
Story, and Merseyside Maritime Museum, has more than 6 million visitors a year.

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Photo 5. The swimming pool at Zollverein Mine industrial heritage site.
Source: https://www.erih.net/i-want-to-go-there/site/zollverein-mine-and-coking-plant-world-heritage-site.

Zollverein Mine in Germany, a successful application of reuse for an industrial
heritage complex, was declared as a World Heritage site in 2001 under the criteria (ii)
and (iii). With the financial support from the EU, state and local management, the whole
complex comprising 100 hectares was transformed into a cultural and social site between
2001-2007. The combined project includes the Ruhr Museum of nature, culture, history,
Red Dot Design Museum, Centre for Choreography North Rhine-Westphalia, human-made
industrial landscape, Sun Wheel, and a swimming pool installed in front of the coke oven
battery (Photo 5). In Turkey, Santral İstanbul, Cibali Tobacco and Cigarette Factory, and
SEKA Paper Mill at Kocaeli are among the significant adaptive reuse projects, whereas
many other industrial sites have undergone renovation projects for different purposes.

When we consider adaptive reuse preservation examples throughout the world, the
purpose of the new use could be classified as commercial, cultural, tourism, and museum,
although they could also have combined intentions. For instance, Ghirardelli Square
was designed as a shopping center, yet it became the most prominent tourist attraction in
San Francisco. Whereas, Cibali Tobacco and Cigarette Factory underwent a successful
restoration process and served as a campus area for Kadir Has University and a museum.
On the other hand, tourism has a growing effect on the reallocation of post-industrial sites.

Likewise, the European Route of Industrial Heritage, ERIH, the tourism information
network of industrial heritage in Europe, was founded following the idea of a shared heritage
for Europe developed in 1999-2000. More than 300 members from 28 countries have

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Photo 6. ERIH map for industrial site related to the “paper” theme.
Source: https://www.erih.net/.

contributed to the association over the years. The ERIH association defined a term known as
“The Anchor Points,” particular sites of the highest quality representing various industrial
heritage values. By 2021, over 100 heritage sites have been accepted as Anchor Points,
including Santral İstanbul in Turkey. ERIH also developed the seven theme routes to attract
more tourists to visit and explore. The themes of mining, iron and steel, textile, production
and manufacturing, application of power, transport, communication, and water are related
to the various types of industrial activities that reveal industrialization throughout Europe.
Tourists could organize a route based on the themes with subcategories, regional routes,
or countries using an interactive map. For instance, when someone wants to discover how
paper manufacturing was handled in different parts of the continent, he/she has to select the
related contents in the map and plan a visit (Photo 6). Advertising and marketing through
ERIH provide significant opportunities for the management of the member sites.

On the other hand, sustainability is the key aspect for planning, preserving, and
managing an industrial heritage site. Since the foundation of TICCIH, sustainability, the
effort to balance preserving the integrity and the heritage values and the enduring process,
has remained the main instrument for heritage authorities. The reason for emphasizing
sustainability is the location of industrial properties in the city and, consequently, urban
development after the deindustrialization process. Abounded industrial heritage sites are
generally placed within the modern city’s boundaries; therefore, they are now surrounded
by contemporary residential zones and public spaces designed following new social
trends. Consequently, a preservation plan and reuse model should be developed based on
a sustainable management strategy that would connect heritage integrity and modern life.

Various authors have described sustainable development’s meaning and discussed
sustainability fundamentals regarding heritage studies, although the terms were initially
associated with ecology and environment. Chris Landorf (2009) provides two key

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principles “the use of a long-term and holistic planning process, and the participation
and empowerment of multiple stakeholders.” He developed a methodology based on
four code dimensions to measure the sustainability of a conservation plan for industrial
heritage sites with a broader perspective:

• Situation analysis to evaluate trends and their impacts on sustainability
• Strategic orientation to develop an understanding for holistic and long term

planning, including qualitative measures for sustainability

• Stakeholder values for increasing the community value for longer terms
• Stakeholder participation in supporting community benefits with minimal

rules and voluntary partnership

The codes suggested by Landorf reflect the general contemporary approach
for cultural heritage management. Developing sustainable management compromise
three aspects, a three-pillar model, according to new cultural heritage management
courses. The economic component has gained growing attention rather than isolating
heritage properties for preserving. Consequently, any heritage preservation planning
should include the public demand for long-term success and financial sustainability.
Economic sustainably depends more on service sectors relating to tourism. Therefore
heritage management should meet stakeholder’s expectations for sustainable tourism.
However, two other aspects of sustainability require social and environmental aspects.
Recent studies suggest another perspective underlining the importance of cultural
perspectives for sustainable heritage management. The cultural aspect is considered
a roof stretched over the three-pillar model, emphasizing the importance of cultural
heritage values.

Adaptive re-use should be recognized as an alternative method of preserving
the site. However, the need and expectations of stakeholders are not always in the
same direction as heritage conservation core principles. Moreover, each industrial
heritage site has its unique situation related to local and regional dynamics. The
SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats) analysis allows identifying
the strong and weak points of an organization and opportunities and threats to
maintain the sustainability of the organization. This method is used in all areas of
strategic planning as a universal tool in the first stage of analysis. Strengths and
weaknesses involve events related to the subject of analysis, while opportunities and
threats are external conditions. A SWOT analysis is a strategic analysis algorithm
that summarizes the overall assessment of the current condition and development
potential. SWOT analysis has been extensively used in market research but has also
been successfully applied to tourism and cultural projects. A SWOT analysis before
applying adaptive reuse projects and during the management after conservation could
improve the measures for evaluating suitability following heritage principles.

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Table 2. SWOT Analysis model for industrial heritage sites

STRENGTHS-WEAKNESS

» The historical value relating to industrial activities
» The impact on the formation of the city’s identity
» The significance of adaptive reuse
» The social impact of adaptive reuse
» The cultural impact of reuse
» Location of the industrial heritage site
» The size of the heritage area
» The landscape
» The value among other public places
» Creating alternative social areas
» Visitor profiles
» Indoor and outdoor design for public
» Souvenir shops and food services
» Consistent signs marking the site
» Social media management
» Potential for tourism (ERIH)
» Personnel with experience
» Designated routes for visitors
» Use of technological applications

OPPORTUNITIES- THREATS

» Awareness of industrial archaeology
» The increasing interest in academic studies
» The financial support
» Public support
» The attitudeof younger generations to the value of the environment.
» Awareness in the society of the value of post-industrial sites
» Distant from the domestic tourism routes
» The economic activities in the city
» Reclamation and revitalization trends in the region
» Development of cultural tourism
» The architectural, aesthetic, and heritage values of adaptive reuse
» Trends in the development of industrial heritage tourism
» Growth of domestic tourism
» Globalization of worldwide tourism
» The possibility of obtaining financial support from EU funds for joint financing project

regarding the standard policies

In Table 2, a proposed model for SWOT analysis, including items for measurements,
are listed. The items are suggested within the scope of industrial heritage preservation
and conservation principles and represent cultural, social, environmental, and economic
aspects. While we are still experiencing the Industrial 4.0 stage, the accomplishment

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of mass production with digital technologies, the digital revolution has also influenced
multiple financial, social, and cultural dimensions. Consequently, the items to evaluate
the successful contribution of digital tools are also provided here.

The Public Spaces in Post-modern Cities and
Industrial Heritage Sites

The deindustrialization process in terms of Industry 1.0 and 2.0 broadly
corresponds to the period known as post-modernity. However, the relation between
post-industrial and post-modern does not necessarily reflect the relation between
modernity and industrialization. It is because the post-industrialization merely
refers to Industry 1.0 and 2.0 stages. We are still experiencing the fourth industrial
revolution, Industry 4.0, accompanied by technological inventions in numerous
directions. Therefore, the transition to a post-industrial culture has not been
completed. In urban planning, Industry 4.0 reflected as the transformation from
production economies to service economies in Western Countries resulted in huge
abounded spaces associated with previous industrial activities in the cities. On the
other hand, the post-modernist approach deals with the city regarding the idea of
“less is more” and re-organization of unconnected zones developed by modernist
architectural strategy. The first intentions of post-modern architectural movements
emerged between 1975 and 1979. In 1980 at Venice Biennale, the installation
called “Strada Novissima” (the new street) by Paolo Portoghesi reflected the new
understanding of post-modern architecture (Photo 7).

Strada Novissima suggested the streets and buildings of the post-modern city should
have a playful design. It also proposed that integrated elements previously separated by
connecting structures with culture and history. “Biennale asserted the role of the streets
as essential urban form and heralded what Portoghesi called the end of prohibitions –

Photo 7. Twenty facades and Hans Hollein façade representing the post-modern city embodied in Strada
Novissima installation by Paolo Poroghesi, 1980 Venice Bienalle.

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an emancipatory return to ornament, historical quotations, and monumental or playful
gestures.” (….) Consequently, post-modern cities focused on creating new public spaces,
including streets, attractive parks, museums, and shopping centers. However, the striking
difference for the public space in post-modern urban planning is how management and
financial support are provided. During industrial transformation, public spaces in fast-
growing cities were organized and maintained by local governments.

In the following period after deindustrialization, the balance between public and
private sectors has shifted, when many public services in the cities, including transportation,
sewerage, waste, and utilities produced and managed by private developers. Therefore,
public spaces have also been influenced by the trend of privatization due to the structural
changes in the economy. In the meantime, the post-modern approach had increasing
impacts on the growing importance of public space. When Roman Cybriwsky analyzed
and compared the public spaces in New York and Tokyo in 1999, he underlined common
trends as:

Although we still define them as “public,” public spaces are increasingly controlled
by private domains,

• To ensure the security, the public spaces are increasingly under surveillance,

• The playful designs to attract people are sometimes overused, and employing

the “themes park” approach splits the connection between historical texture
and public space.

• The controlled public space makes accessibility hard for the “public.”

The change in economic activities and political systems are also revealed in the
re-organization of urban centers and public spaces in the post-modern discourse. Bárbara
Barreiro León (2017) recently described post-modern urban theory being an anti-modern
movement, which escapes everything the modernist architecture represented:

The creation of the Postmodern city primarily depends on the association between
symbols and signs, and which follow the demand of society itself. Postmodern cities are
not intended to accommodate the individual, but instead, aim to distract the society. The
succession of different Postmodern, dream-like, unreal spaces distract society, making
them believe that individuals are living in a utopia created in their image and likeness.

She argued that the signs and symbols referring to consumption provoked the
construction of shopping malls covered with various service sectors like food, clothing,
fun, and entertainment. Two spatial spheres, work and leisure, created during the
industrialization process, have disappeared during the formation of post-modern cities,
mainly due to the change in employment. Furthermore, the separation of time and place
has been decreased since leisure also means money for the corporations, which supports
spending free time by activities depend on giving money. Consequently, the meaning of
public space once again transformed while post-modernist discourse paid more attention

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to public space in this sense. The contradiction with the name and the function resulted
in a re-evaluation of the definition of public space. Bárbara Barreiro León defined new
public space as amnesiac non-place depending on consumption.

On the other hand, Matthew Carmona classified critiques for the contemporary
public spaces into ten subtitles: Neglected space, Invaded space, Exclusionary space,
Consumption space, Privatized space, Segregated space, Insular space, Invented space,
Scary space, Homogenized space. The basis of the critiques emphasizes the overcomes
of privatization and social class due to capitalist economic systems. However, the new
trends in economic activities are not the only determinant in the changing role of public
spaces. Indeed, the post-modernist strategy for urban planning reflects the social and
cultural change in the society depend on various factors, including technology and digital
media. Nowadays, the inclinations in social media tools or the “influencers” are now the
primary agents to decide where to go, meet and spend time. The main factors that shaped
the city and public space can be summarized as

• Post-modern architecture

• Privatization

• Tourism

• Social media

All are also interconnected and developed accordingly within the scope of the
conceptual frame of post-modernity. Museums, like other cultural institutions, also
modified their design aspects regarding sustainable management principles. Architectural
manipulation by contemporary design elements replaced the building as an object to
visit with the art and historical collection of the museum on some occasions. The most
outstanding examples of this trend are the Louvre Pyramid by Ieoh Ming Pei in 1989,
The Niteroi Contemporary Art Museum by Oscar Niemeyer in 1996, The Guggenheim
Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry 1997, and Royal Ontario Museum by Daniel Libeskind
in 2007. Many authors discuss the new constructions at the Louvre Pyramid and the
Ontario Museum concerning the principles of preservation of architectural heritage. The
focal point in these designs was to bring forward and integrate the buildings into the
touristic destinations. On the other hand, a meeting point and an alternative public space
where people meet and rest while visiting were other intentions. Therefore, the static
and conservative perspective of conservation and restoration transformed following the
requirements of contemporary societies.

By the end of the 20th century, when digital technologies, especially the Internet,
started to develop rapidly, museums adopted themselves to increase the online access to
museum collections and to expand the diversity of audiences. However, experts questioned the
effectiveness and provided strategies and actions for museums to utilize modern communication
tools. Some museums opened various exhibitions for online access; others preferred to use the
websites to give information to the visitors for on-site tours and activities. Some museums,

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including the J. On the other hand, Paul Getty Museum and Metropolitan Museum of Art (The
Met) took a different approach as they increased online education by providing free materials
on the collections. A study on the museums in the UK demonstrates that online activities have
gained increasing importance as the number of online visitors almost doubled the number of
physical visitors and grew compared to 2001 and 2002 (Loran 2005, 25-28).

Although museums are non-profit institutions, attracting sponsors and keeping
their role as public spaces in urban life, the number of physical visitors is still essential.
Therefore, museums need to discover new ways and attractions to be distinguished
among their counterparts. Likewise, they also focused on providing temporary
exhibitions and entertaining organizations to make people re-visit the museum. Because
the communication tools of the new generation are now strikingly different and largely
depend on visual recognition and social media, museums need to consider how they
manage to attract significantly younger visitors. Like the #MuseumSelfie day trend took
over social media, the museums have been examining technological tools to maintain
publicity and provide functional public spaces in the new digital era.

Photo 8. Seka Paper Factory in 30s.

Since March 2020, we have faced the COVID-19 pandemic, declared by many
countries as modern history’s gravest health emergency (UNESCO 2020). The United
Nations cultural agency reported, “nearly 90 percent of the treasured cultural institutions
have had to close their doors, while almost 13 percent are under serious threat of never
reopening” (UN News 2020). During the lockdowns, many museums have adapted to
the situation and kept their activities through social media accounts, including podcasts,
Instagram, and Facebook, to remain engaged with the public who was forced to stay
at home. Many opened their collection to free online access through virtual tours and
offered new content such as online workshops. Consequently, they offered new digital
public spaces, although the interaction between the online visitors was still required.

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Photo 9. Seka Paper Factory in 90s.

Like other architectural heritage structures, preserving the original fabric of
former factories is the fundamental issue. Whereas the industrial sites also combine
several heritage layers representing industrial activities, including machinery, setting,
infrastructures, technology, and people. In the preservation planning, to represent the
heritage values, all these layers should be reflected. Moreover, the conservation or adaptive
reuse projects should respect the original function mentioned by related international
charters. The size of the industrial sites is generally extensive when compared to other
civil or official buildings of heritage values. In this respect, conservation works at
industrial heritage sites require particular expertise. Many post-industrial complexes
have undergone conservation by adapting compatible reuse, which is often a museum or
equivalent cultural space.

The industrial heritage sites were once located outside the center of the cities,
although they promoted significant changes in the landscape (Photo 8). However, as the
population increased, the urban areas developed rapidly and expanded. Accordingly, post-
industrial sites are generally surrounded by new residential zones and inferred to the new
city axis (Photo 9). In order to plan the cities in a holistic view, urban planners and architects
should also consider heritage site areas. In post-modern cities where recreational areas and

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Photo 10. Seka Paper Factory after the renovations.

parks gained importance as a type of public space, the vast territories of post-industrial
lands would increase the number of alternative meeting and resting places.

As proposed measures indicated in the SWOT analysis, to provide an alternative
public space, the location of the heritage area should be analyzed. The solid and isolated
heritage preservation will further separate industrial sites with adaptive reuse even though
the new function involves cultural activities. Like in the adaptation of Zollverein Mine
and SEKA Paper Mills, the vast areas of industrial activities should be integrated into the
city’s landscape by providing sightseeing tour routes or green areas (Photo 10). This way,
the broken bond between the city center, residential zones, and business quarters could be
rearranged. The organic connection within the city could be maintained without leaving
disturbed and neglected spaces.

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Industrial Heritage in the Urban Identity and Memory Axis

Instead of purely focusing on tourism, industrial heritage management should
respect the citizens. The outdoor layout offering a meeting point for younger generations
for various activities such as skateboarding, dancing, and resting should be considered
just like other cultural activities organized inside the building. So young people who live
in the city will recognize these areas as alternative public spaces along with shopping
centers or social media.

On the other hand, the conservation planning of industrial heritage areas should respect the
original use and maintain its integrity with machinery installations. However, merely displaying
them does not tell the whole story. New media tools such as augmented reality, touch screens,
and short videos showing oral histories and memories would increase the perception of the
public. Regular organizations for activities relating to original industrial function to various age
groups would be exciting. Consequently, it would provide an option for a space for entertaining.
Other services such as a library, study areas, free internet connection, and computer labs would
increase the structure preference and the value. So considering outdoor design integrated into the
city’s landscape, applying digital tools for exhibitions and employing cultural activities inside the
building will be beneficial for the citizens since this type of arrangement increases the function of
public space in post-modern cities.

Various authorities have discussed the long-term impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on culture and public spaces. The emergence of a new era, or the Third Wave,
as defined by Alvin Toffler (1980), have accelerated by the pandemic:

The First Wave of changes, the agricultural revolution, took thousands of years
to play out. The Second Wave, the rise of industrial civilisation, took a mere 300 years.
Today, history is even more accelerative, and it is likely that the Third Wave will sweep
across history and complete itself in a few decades. We who happen to share the planet
at this explosive moment will therefore feel the full impact of the Third Wave in our own
lives.

The use of closed public spaces such as shopping centers may gradually decline
due to the change in social behavior, while the public spaces with open and large areas
where emphasize identity and sense of belonging could afford alternative re-gathering
domains along with digital public spaces. The industrial heritage sites with a new function
should be evaluated following the change in perspective of society.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE AND TOURISM

Füsun BAYKAL1

Don’t forget! The cultural/heritage experience is2:
Authentic - the real story

Quality - professional presentation
Unique - something different

Abstract

Today, culture is one of the main motivations for participating in tourism for
tourists. Cultural heritage is the legacy of tangible and intangible attributes of a group
or society that are inherited from past generations and bestowed for the benefit of future
generations. Industrial heritage, which constitutes one of the elements of cultural heritage,
encourages creativity and participation by turning it into a touristic product, and provides
education and experience opportunities. The utilization of various industrial heritage
resources in tourism with the “route” approach paves the way for interregional social
interaction and cultural exchange. Industrial heritage tourism may improve a region’s
image and play a role in the development of relations between the public and industrial
areas. Also, international tourists can get “a true” experience at industrial heritage sites.
The main purpose of this study is to document the importance of industrial heritage
tourism by revealing its relationship with other tourism types. In this direction, relations
have been established with cultural tourism, experiential tourism, creative tourism and
educational tourism. In addition, examples of industrial heritage tourism within the scope
of coal mine, textile, railway, museum and the region are given. Thus, it is concluded that
tourism, with its various types, supports the protection of industrial heritage. The data of
the study have been obtained from e-publications and official institution websites. The
data have been compiled according to the subject treatment design and the practical part
of the study has been created with examples.

1 Prof.Dr., Ege University, Department of Geography.

e-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-4599-4235

2 Federal Provincial Territorial Ministers of Culture and Heritage, 2012, BC/Canada.

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Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

Introduction

One of the occurrences on a global level, which enabled an unbounded dispersion
of various ideas and offered new models of active involvement of individuals in their
political, economic and cultural environment, is tourism- especially the cultural and
creative tourism. Similarly, it can be said that tourism is the phenomenon of our
times (Tomka et al., 2021: 261). By the 2000s, as a particular period in the long
development process of tourism, there has been a shift from passive entertainment to
active learning while the quality and genuineness of visitor experiences have become
crucial for future success in a competitive market. Changkai (2010) characterises the
new trends of tourism consumption (Majdoub, 2015: 116) through these words: “The
tourist’s rational consumer demand shifted to the emotional; the standardisation of
travel content in consumer demand shifted to the individual; the tourism value of the
content of consumer demand shifted to experience; passive consumer demand became
active; tourism consumption demand became greener in outlook; the material content
of consumer demand turned to culture; travel consumer demand for entertainment
became motivated by beauty”.

According to Timothy and Boyd (2003), the relation of heritage with the tourism
industry is regarded as one of those niches that is growing most rapidly. Moreover,
due to the modernization and globalization, heritage applied to tourism has increased
the interest and respect for natural resources and material and immaterial culture.
However, we need to be careful since heritage as the product of the past can be,
and often is, used in ambiguous contexts and in its dissonant forms. In this manner,
a great responsibility lies in the hands of various stakeholders, cultural agencies,
organizations and governments. In short, the relation between heritage and tourism
is extremely complex and entails academic research (Bonadei and Iguman, 2020: 3).

The development of industrial heritage tourism should be one of the strategic
goals of the cultural development of any country. The multiannual progress in the
direction of better valorisation of industrial heritage may be followed within the
European borders. A systematic development of the strategies of valorisation and
promotion of industrial heritage for the purpose of enriching the cultural tourism
enables us to make a large step forward in the touristic and cultural sectors. Recently,
“Industrial Archaeology” has developed as a responsible branch of science in the
research, evaluation, preservation, restoration and transformation of the industrial
heritage. Industrial archaeology examines concrete and abstract evidence, verbal
statements, documents, elements, machines and architectural remains with an
interdisciplinary approach (Mihic and Makarun, 2018: 3-4, 44).

The roots of the industrial heritage tourism can be found in the UK, the
birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, where the decline in manufacturing started
earlier than in the rest of Europe. In this country, the relicts of the period of
industrialization were already explored after the World War II. According to Hosper
citing from Soyez (1986) and Harris (1989), the interest in what was called ındustrial

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archaeology spilt gradually over other stagnating industrial areas in Europe. In the
1980s, the concept of industrial heritage tourism was occasionally promoted and
applied as a strategy of regional restructuring, but only notably in the UK. During
the 1990s, however, its potential was highlighted widely. This was mainly due to the
experiences with the industrial heritage tourism in the Ruhr area, which culminated
in the opening of a complete regional “route of industrial heritage” in 1999 (Hosper,
2002: 398).

The views of William (2005) on industrial heritage tourism are as follows:
Industrial heritage tourism is loosely and variously defined, but whether a touristic trip is
“industrial heritage” should be determined by the tourist’s intent and the drawing power
of the heritage or event, not by the activity alone. To simply put, industrial heritage
tourism refers to tourism in which industrial milieus provide tourists with venues and
attractions. Xie (2015), on the other hand, argues that industrial heritage tourism should
be viewed as an attempt at reclamation by adding a contemporary twist and attracting
tourists to experience industrial sites and modes of production. It brings the industrial
past to life and engages the tourists with the present where manufacturing processes
are explained and equipment is demonstrated. In the meantime, the particularity of the
industrial histories becomes subordinated to the thematic demands of a touristic mode
of consumption. From a marketing perspective, cities draw tourists by differentiating
themselves from other cities, and one way to achieve this is to link industrial heritage
sites to local history and collective memories. Furthermore, industrial heritage tourism
is associated with the semiotic approach to place identity and attachment. Physical
industrial buildings, objects and past events, together with their interpretive markers,
create a distinctive identity while the preservation of physical relics and ruins from
the past serve to conserve their accumulated messages. Industrial heritage sites are
best understood using a postmodern theoretical framework. It is a series of historical
and economic shifts associated with postmodernism, such as deindustrialization,
gentrification, and commodification, which make industrial heritage tourism viable
(Xie, 2015: 41-42).

Industrial heritage tourism was initiated not by enthusiasts seeking to develop
tourism but by enthusiasts seeking to conserve the industrial heritage. Tourism was a
way of financing conservation through entrance or user fees and an advantage when
seeking public money to conserve heritage. Tourism has increasingly funded, and could
further fund, industrial heritage conservation (European Parliament’s Committee on
Transport and Tourism, 2013: 45). Thus, the protected industrial heritage areas have
also become a destination for cultural tourism, experiential tourism, creative tourism
and educational tourism. At the same time, this is also a proof that tourism is a set of
multidimensional relationships and how strong its integration feature and multiplier
effect are.

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Main Concepts in the Relationship Between Industrial
Heritage and Tourism

Industrial heritage

Traditionally referred to sites and manufacts, heritage has traditionally been
perceived and defined as the refined expression of civilizations or the art of genius.
More recent trends significantly refer to territories and to products, where relations
and experiences are at the core of the practice. This is mostly applied through
dynamic concepts of landscape, itineraries and paths. The relation between heritage
and territory is being therefore perceived from a fresh perspective - the spotlight
has been moved from single to integrated heritage sites in the form of regional and
transnational networks. Heritage elements can be divided into two main groups:
cultural and natural heritage; and cultural heritage can be divided into two sub-groups
as tangible and intangible elements. Natural heritage is mentioned much more rarely,
though it appears as a World Heritage category. On the other hand, cultural heritage
has several definitions. In general, it involves the most characteristic dimension of
an area and its population. According to Czene (2002), it is a complex heritage kept
together by culture, but they are not equivalent with each other; culture becomes
heritage by the character of accumulating traditions. Tóth-Trócsányi (1997) says that
cultural heritage is a continuously transforming phenomenon. Natural and cultural
heritage are in close relationship with the socio-economic space, which is a result of
certain processes and also a starting point for future development (Nagy, 2012: 47).
Cultural heritage is a part of the social life, cultural identity and societal pride. It has
a broad meaning that expresses intangible and tangible heritage with cultural content
inherited from ancestors to nations. With the development of new economic policies
and information technologies, cultural heritage has attained a special place in the
economy, especially in the context of tourism. Conservation and sustainability can
be considered as important parameters of the cultural heritage economy (Bayındır,
2019: 20-21, 24).

The fact that the industrial revolution started destroying the identity of the
city by causing urban transformations revealed the importance of the concept of
cultural heritage. The European countries emphasized the importance of industrial
structures in terms of cultural identity and pioneered the emergence of the concept
of industrial cultural heritage. The borders of the concept gradually expanded and
a new cultural heritage dimension developed. As a result of these developments, it
was understood that regardless of the legacy, each one must be protected by different
methods (preservation, restoration, renovation, regeneration) (Bonadei and Iguman,
2020: 3, 8).

The most recent and acknowledged scope of the industrial heritage was stated
in The Nizhny Tagil Charter for Industrial Heritage: Industrial heritage consists
of the remains of industrial culture, which are of historical, technological, social,

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architectural or scientific value. These remains consist of buildings and machinery,
workshops, mills and factories, mines and sites for processing and refining, warehouses
and stores, places where energy is generated, transmitted and used, transport and all
its infrastructure, as well as places used for social activities related to industry such
as housing, religious worship or education (TICCIH, 2003).

Industrial heritage includes any tangible remains from the technological and
industrial past of the human civilisation. Besides the architectural heritage like
abandoned factories and machines, this category includes auxiliary warehouses,
means of transport and infrastructure, as well as workers settlements. Intangible
heritage represents very valuable evidence and a historical resource witnessing the
industrial take-off. A valid valorisation of industrial heritage started in the 1950s and
from then on it is possible to follow the progress of industrial archaeology, a science
dealing with the study of industrial heritage. The protection of monuments is certainly
the first and the most important step in treating the heritage, but the ultimate tourist
presentation is also indispensable in the process of emphasizing their importance. By
including the industrial heritage into the lists of protected cultural goods of a certain
country, the heritage gains a completely new status. Its items and buildings with
specific functional characteristics, made in the original industrial stage, gain a new
role. The experts estimate the historical significance and the aesthetic characteristics
of a certain location and provide guidelines for future conversion. The conversion
is preceded by a systematic research, the analysis of comparative material, the
conservation of the existing condition, and the procedure of restoration. A detailed
analysis of industrial heritage conversion procedures connected to tourism showed
three main models of performing the conversion: reuse as a culture monument or
site, reuse for tourism purpose and reuse with secondary tourism effect. These are
the cases of the conversion of individual abandoned industrial facilities or the entire
industrial zones. It is very important to emphasize that no conversion should influence
the basic stylistic characteristics of a certain monument, whose authenticity should be
maintained as much as possible (Mihic and Makarun, 2018: 1, 5-7).

Culture, culturel routes and tourist routes

According to Williams (1976), culture is considered as one of the most complex
words, and therefore it is difficult to define the concept of “culture”. Herder (1974)
describes the culture as distinctive ways of life rather than a universal value, and each
people have their distinctive ways of life including traditions, lifestyle, and common
customs. More recently, cultural theorists have defined culture as a plural concept which
recognises the diversity among the different cultures. For example, Hannerz (1990) define
the culture as follows: The word culture is created by interconnecting of varied local
cultures, and these are all becoming sub-cultures among locals, and therefore everyone
can participate in many cultures (Al-Ababneh, 2020: 1).

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Route - whether on land, sea and air - is closely related to travel and is also inherent
in tourism. Routes allow movement outside of the daily life environment. Therefore,
they serve to reach a destination, and may even be the reason for the trip itself. The
terminology for trails, routes and tours is variable and sometimes interchangeable. These
concepts and definitions can change according to the metaphorical understandings or the
historical processes in the fields of geography, philosophy or linguistics. The trail is a
narrow public road whose width allows only foot traffic or small vehicles. “Dirt road”,
“railway”, “forest road” are used for a particular mode of transport. On the other hand,
the passage of a tourist route through interesting landscapes provides an opportunity to
enjoy the landscapes and a pleasant journey of reaching a destination takes place. Over
time, these roads can become a itinerary and a network of various components. Themed
itineraries mean a “touristic product”; they form a route model according to the purpose.
According to Bourdeau and Marcotte, roads are grouped as follows (Bourdeau and
Marcotte, 2015: 1, 3-5) (Table 1).

Table 1. Typology of routes

Criteria Types Features
Learning, community involvement, health, community
Social Preservation and enhancement of heritage, enhancement
identity, cultural development (product offerings and cultural
Cultural services)
Economic benefits, economic diversification, development or
Goals Economic regeneration of new products tourism or territory, territorial
marketing
Geographical Environmental Sustainable development, protection of fauna, flora, landscapes,
the built environment
Political Recognition of groups or communities, tool political and economic
Territorial scale inclusion or exclusion
Length Local, regional, national, continental, intercontinental
Configuration From a few kilometers to several hundred
Setting Linear, circular, radial, network
Terrestrial, aquatic, aerial, mixed
Arrangement Minimal (none) to sustained (signposted, landscaped)
Dedicated to tourism or tolerated tourism
Duration Risk management and security
Modalities Age of the road or recent development, ground cover
Pedestrian, cycle, motorized, equestrian, nautical, mixed

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Visitors and Passengers Genre Religious, cultural, natural, sporting
Visitors Tourists or residents; Destination (starter) or spontaneous
Management Motivations Social, aesthetic, playful, learning, escape, tranquility,
complementary immersion
Interpretation Interpretation tools developed (guided tour, artistic
installations, etc.)
Modalities of
experience Senses solicited, narration, immersion

Governance Individual (private), associative (voluntary), institutional (state
level)
Partnership Number and diversity of partners associated with the road,
Marketing formalization of partners
Derivative Diversity and scope of promotional tools
products Interpretation offers, promotional items, services complementary
Funding
Clientele State, sponsorship, foundation, donation, fees entry or access
Seasonality permit
Assessment Local, national, international
One-off, seasonal, continuous offer
Ability to assess the impact (number of visitors, economic
benefits, brand image, improved quality of life)

Source: Bourdeau ve Marcotte, 2015 (This table is the partially altered version of the original)

Cultural routes represent a new approach in the currently evolving and quickly
expanding process that affects the cultural heritage. They offer new perspectives and tools
for preserving cultural heritage. Over time, the notion of “monument” -originally seen
as an artefact in isolation from its context- has gradually evolved and expanded with the
recognition that a historic site or historic ensembles can be considered as cultural heritage
properties. In this context, cultural routes introduce and represent a new approach to
the notion of conservation of the cultural heritage. Cultural heritage and moreover the
intercultural links are a dynamic, interactive evolving process. Thereby, the cultural
routes constitute a new concept approaching the heritage from a multidimensional
perspective by revealing the heritage content of a specific phenomenon, human mobility
and exchange through communication routes.

As a new approach to the “cultural itinerary” concept, the Council of Europe
has developed a “cultural corridor” scheme, initially in the South Eastern Europe. The
Council of Europe defines cultural corridors as the networks of interaction and economic
exchange based on culture and creativity, incorporating principles of sustainability,
fairness and inclusion, based on wide stakeholder partnerships which are rooted in solid
institutional frameworks that stimulate regional socio-economic development. Links and
corridors imply “multi-destination itineraries” and can be defined by a tourist as a visiting
sequence of regions across one or more countries during a trip. This requires co-operative

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strategies among the considered regions. In its ultimate form, “multidestination tourism”
involves many touristic regions (Majdoub, 2009: 1844, 1848-1849).

As Graf indicated (2012), by participating in one cultural route, tourists are able
to “return into the past” and become acquainted with the characteristics of the historical
or cultural epoch of the country in which they sojourn, as well as learn about its customs,
gastronomic specialties, and people - and, of course, have a good time. Different events
tied to the theme of the cultural route are organized for the tourists along the journey and
include festivals, conferences, exhibitions, poetry evenings, concerts, theatrical plays,
fairs, workshops, etc. Through branding different regions and areas of a country, cultural
routes are able to favourably position themselves on the market for tourism. The entire
economy reacts to this by creating a chain that thematically links together different products
and services. This is fertile ground for innovation: It encourages small businesses to
create particular goods (crafts, souvenirs, ambient hotels), bolsters the employment of the
local population (entertainers, interpreters), and supports the development of gastronomic
specialties that fit the theme of the cultural route. The theme of the route is, indeed, a
decisive factor, but it is not sufficient for the creation of a cultural route as a product of
cultural tourism. Building up capacities, branding, advertising, managing networks of
stockholders, and evaluating outcomes are among some of the main preconditions that
precede the creation of cultural routes (Graf, 2013: 336-337; Council of Europe, 2011: 8).
With tourists increasingly searching for authentic experiences, cultural routes create a pull
factor that attracts new market segments, particularly higher-yield spending ones such as
special-interest segments and individual tourists. Both of these segments embody the new
market trend of the modern traveller who seeks enriching experiences, which entail more
flexibility, discovery, learning and contact with local people and their traditions. Perhaps
even more importantly, cultural routes represent a way to foster tolerance and respect
between persons and nations (UNWTO, 2015: 33).

The mobility of tourists in time and space is influenced by both external and
internal factors. Whereas the external aspects cannot be influenced by the travellers, the
internal factors are connected with the individual tourist. Regarding external factors,
a key factor in determining the course of the tourist routes is the geography of tourist
amenities. It is clear that the existence of an attraction is fundamental to a journey to that
place, whatever the attraction may be. According to Jansson (1994) cited by Zillinger
(2007), concerning internal factors, there are five motivations for tourist travels, some of
which are overlapping: activities, relaxation, status, personal motives and sun lust. Some
visitors prefer to stay in one place during major parts of their holidays, possibly going on
day trips from there. Others travel from place to place along a travel route. In principle,
the more time tourists have at their disposal, the further they can travel. However, what is
possible in theory is the case in practice only rarely, and the reason for this is the existence
of constraints. It could be argued that tourists travel according to a travel rhythm, rather
than using all the time that is at their disposal simply for covering distance (Zillinger,
2007: 67-69).

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Tourism route concept is seen as a very effective method of tourism distribution,
especially of tourists travelling by road (driving, hiking and cycling) within a given
geographic area. Routes tourism, in particular those with specific themes such as, wine,
castles, food, museum, and arts and crafts, seem to be a particularly good opportunity for
less mature areas with high cultural resources that appeal to special interest tourists, who
often not only stay longer, but also spend more to pursue their particular interest. Meyer
(2004) identified several factors as particularly significant ingredients for a successful
route tourism development. These are (ı) cooperation networks, regional thinking
and leadership; (ıı) product development, infrastructure and access; (ııı) community
participation, micro-enterprise development and innovation; (ıv) information and
promotion; and (v) an explicit pro-poor focus (Lourens, 2007: 7, 9, 20).

Tourism, tourism product and destination

Tourism is the business of attracting and serving the needs of people travelling and
staying outside their home communities for business or pleasure. People are motivated
to be tourists for a wide range of reasons, such as reuniting with family, escaping a
cold winter, rejuvenating at a spa, or experiencing a different culture or cuisine. The
tourism economy includes everything from a visitor’s mode of travel to meals, lodgings,
and activities they participate in during their trip. With so many products and services
catering to the needs of tourists, it’s not surprising that tourism is now considered the
largest industry in the world. Tourism offers many benefits. It creates jobs, helping keep
community members in the local area, and draws visitors who spend money that otherwise
wouldn’t be circulating through the community - helping to support local businesses.
Compared to many economic sectors, tourism can be a “clean” industry and, if developed
and managed in a sustainable manner, can have minimal impacts on the environment and
a community’s quality of life. Unlike many other industries, tourism has the ability to
connect different parts of a community, relying on the cooperation of local government,
entrepreneurs, non-profit organizations and private citizens alike. Working together to
offer a positive experience to visitors usually includes steps to beautify a community and
often leads to increased community pride. The following diagram illustrates the powerful
influence tourism can have on an entire economy. As tourism dollars flow through a
community, businesses that are not usually thought of as tourism businesses benefit as
well. This is known as the multiplier effect. The jobs generated directly within the travel
and tourism industry are considered primary jobs, whereas the jobs generated in the larger
economy as a result of travel and tourism are considered secondary jobs. The multiplier
effect means that part of each dollar spent by a visitor can end up in the pocket of a local
fisherman, farmer, or hardware store employee (Tourism Standards Consortium, 2016: 6,
8, 10) (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. The multidimensional effects of tourism on economy
Source: Tourism Standards Consortium, 2016

It is difficult to measure the potential and actual effects of tourism on the host
community. According to Mansfeld’s (2015) quotes from Page (2009) and Kunaeva
(2012), this is one of the biggest obstacles to understand the society’s attitude towards
tourism. This fact also leads to a range of practices with respect to policies on the possible
impact of tourism on the community. Those practices range from an approach that totally
ignores the community in the tourism planning and development process to implementing
community policies based on so-called community participation by locals who have not
been able to adequately represent the common attitude of the community towards the
consequences of tourism (Mansfeld, 2015: 74-75).

The increasing integration of culture as a basic element in the tourism consumption
is a change that represents, for many authors, the sign of a “new tourism”, different in
quality and quantity from the cultural tourism. For example, according to Prentice (2006,
2007), cultural routes belong to this new type of tourism, known as “creative” within
the meaning. At the same time, the traditional tourist type (passive visitors, consumers,
observers) who visit a country to learn about other cultures has started to lag behind
in the new tourism concept. According to Majdoup, the “new tourists” are seen to be
environmentally sensitive and respectful of the culture of local communities, and they are
looking to sensations and learning. New tourists are, first of all, participants; they are no
longer spectators. Majdoup compares the old and new types of tourist as below (Majdoub,
2009: 1845-1846; Majdoub, 2015: 115-116) (Table 2):

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Table 2. Comparison of the old and new tourist

Old Tourist New Tourist
Group Individual
Search for the sun Experience nature
Follow the masses Affirm individuality
Just to show you had seen something Just for the fun of it
Having Being
Escape Fulfilment
Source: Majdoub, 2015

Tomka et al. (2021), on the other hand, describe the present-day tourists in this
way: Today, everyone is a potential tourist -the elderly and the toddlers, the disabled, the
visually and mentally challenged, the poor and the rich, countryside, and city-dwellers-
and special services have been created for them in the following areas: the spaces,
information, accommodation, transport etc. The profile of a new tourist is as follows:
He/she is independent, experienced, active, technologically-minded, seeks value for
money, wishes to learn from other cultures, takes more and more short breaks and is
environmentally and socially sensitive. He/she is not anymore a rich nobleperson who
wishes to enjoy under the warm rays of sun, while the servants attend to him/her in the
opulent seaside mansion. The new tourist wishes to be active, to study, research, hear and
becomes increasingly involved in creating a story about a cultural space, thematising his/
her own experience (Tomka et al., 2021: 261-263).

Products are those activities where a direct financial transaction is involved (like
a guided tour or a restaurant meal). Experiences usually require no direct payment by the
visitor (like outdoor public art). Products are direct revenue generators, and experiences
contribute to the mood that enhances existing trips or motivates travellers to book new
ones. Some tourism groups also refer to the “visitor experience” - as how they feel about
themselves as they interact with the host community (pre, during and post visit) and the
memories they take away. The following list, derived from the Heritage Tourism Alliance
in BC (Canada), offers a sense of the scope of activities to consider (Federal Provincial
Territorial Ministers of Culture and Heritage, 2012: 7, 11). (Table 3):

Table 3. Tourism products according to the classification made by the heritage tourism alliance

Classification TourismProducts
Culture and Heritage Art galleries and exhibitions; Interpretive centres; Museums;
Sites Theatres; Ranches and farms; Historic sites; Wineries; Aboriginal
and cultural centres; Historic forts, lighthouses, and homes; Outdoor
Routes public art and sculpture
Cultural/Heritage Historic driving routes; Scenic driving routes; Scenic/historic walking
Themed Services trails
Accommodation; Retail; Antiques and collectables; Dining; Far stays;
Other visitor services

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Events Community fairs; Local markets; Historic re-enactments; Feast-of-
fields meals; Music/theatre/film festivals; Interpretive programs;
Cultural/Heritage Street entertainment; Pow-wows
Tours (Guided, Group) First Nations, Métis and Inuit cultural tours; Regional driving tours;
Historic sightseeing tours; Factory tours; Farm, wine and brewery
Cultural/Historic tours; Military site tours; Historic walking tours; Guided archaeology
Districts hikes and digs
Cultural or Heritage Intact and preserved neighbourhoods; Architectural features
Landscapes (buildings, bridges, signs, etc.); Main streets, parks, and squares;
Local Products/ Historic districts
Services Parks, trails, and lookouts with interpretation; Monuments and
historic markers; Gardens and landscapes
Authentic arts and crafts; Artisan food and wine; Heritage-inspired,
hand-crafted souvenirs; Demonstrations, including Aboriginal art/
crafts

Source: Federal Provincial territorial ministers of culture and heritage, 2012 (this table is the partially
altered version of the original)

According to Medlik and Middleton (1973), all tourists buy, either separately, or
as an inclusive tour, various components of the tourism product. Either way, the end result
of all these purchases is a ‘package.’This view of the tourism product holds good whether
a business trip, a holiday or, indeed, any other form of tourism, international or domestic,
is under consideration. Airline seats or hotel beds may be individual products in the
eyes of their producers, but they are merely elements or components of a total tourism
product, which is a composite product. Koutoulas, who cites these views, also explains
the tourism product and components by this means: The tourism product is defined as the
total bundle of functionally interdependent tangible and intangible elements that enables
the tourist on the one hand to engage in a specific activity at one or at several consecutive
destinations and on the other hand to facilitate the transition to the destination(s) and the
social reproduction during the trip. The components of tourism product which include all
tangible and intangible elements are found in different geographical location (the place of
residence, the destination(s) and the transit routes) and in different time periods (before,
during and after the trip). From the tourist’s point of view, the touristm product is equated
with his/her total travel experience; for this experience, he/she pays the total travel
expenses. The consumption of the tourism product primarily allows for the satisfaction of
tourist needs (through the benefits offered) and secondarily promotes the achievement of
the organisational targets set by the individual tourist enterprises and collective tourism
organisations (through the obtained income) (Koutoulas, 2004: 5, 9-10).

According to Brida et al. (2011), tourism product, like any product, is something
that attracts tourists as buyers. It must be designed for and continuously adapted to match
changing needs and expectations of the target market. Tourism, as a dynamic process of
exchange, involves a direct and reciprocal relationship between users and producers of
the tourism product. When the demand for a tourism product is higher than the existing
supply, it will decrease the quality of service and satisfaction of visitors. Similarly, when
the demand is less than supply, revenues are lost because of unused opportunities and

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resources. The tourism product is extremely diverse; natural and cultural resources,
tourism facilities, the communications infrastructure, accommodation and restaurants are
the basic resources of a tourist destination (Jatuliavičienė and Mačerinskienė, 2012: 373-
375).

Routes had been important parts of the tourism products, even long before tourism
was defined. The early travel routes were either parts of a trading system or connected to
religious practices. Most of the route names are created later on, to explain the subject of a
route or the direction. Towner (1996) gives these two examples: The Silk Route Asia and
the first real system of tourism routes - the Grand Tour. The tour operated routes are just
one and a half century old. The first organized tours were Thomas Cook’s from 1841. The
invention of cars meant new possibilities of travel. The explosion of travel guidebooks,
travel programmes on TV, and separate travel channels in some countries have also
contributed to the rapid emerging systems of themed routes. Another route system is the
one used by the travellers around the world. Pryer (1997) asserts that there is a group of
“mature adventurists” who have been travelling around the world for years either because
they have financial means for this or they are “working their way around”. This group
does not need travel handbooks etc. but might be later on handbook authors. In a way,
they set up routes for others to use. During the last two decades, specifically designed
touristic routes have come more into focus all over the World - especially themed routes
like Wine Tours, Bier Route (Bavaria, Germany), Malt Whisky Trail (Scotland), Belgian
Textile Route, Franco-Swiss Clock Route, Glass Trail (Sweden) and Romantische Strasse
(Germany). Tourism and travel as research themes are not based on a single theory, but
a series of models of which some contains basic definitions that most researchers agree
on. One of these common agreements is that being a tourist means leaving home, then
travelling on a route, and at last returning home (Flognfeldt jr., 2005: 1-3).

Converting a cultural heritage resource into a tourism product requires the
incorporation of new agents and practices related to tourism so that it can be inserted
into market dynamics, especially the leisure and free-time industry where financial
profitability is a key factor for viability. Although this requirement, in principle, can be
considered as a limiting factor of the potential of heritage as a tourism product, the fact is
that heritage allows to achieve one of the major goals pursued by current tourism products
(UNWTO, 2015: 38). In addition, a significant shift in tourism product is driven by the
aging of the population, with the increased interest of elderly people in arts, heritage and
cultural tourism. With so many products and services providing the needs of tourists, it’s
not surprising that tourism is now considered the largest industry in the world.

Choice of holiday destination is a significant lifestyle indicator for today’s
aspirational consumers and the places where they choose to spend their squeezed
vacation time and hard-earned income increasingly have to have an emotional appeal,
high conversational capital and even celebrity value. The World Tourism Organization
endorses this view, suggesting that the twenty-first century will see the emergence of
tourism destinations as fashion accessories. Indeed, as style symbols, destinations can
offer similar consumer benefits to highly branded lifestyle items. At the same time, as

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they are tapping into the emotional power of travel as “experience”, destination brands
are also beginning to reach beyond the tourism industry. To achieve effective destination
branding, marketers must be in the business of delivering impactful experiences, not
merely co-ordinating media relations and constructing clever brand identities (Morgan
et al., 2004: 4).

The implementation of the process of revitalisation and presentation of industrial
heritage requires the synergic work of experts from various scientific disciplines such
as historians, art historians, ethnologists, technical engineers, conservators, restorers,
tourism workers, museologists and others, depending on the type of treated cultural good
(Mihic and Makarun, 2018: 11-12, 14-15) (Figure 2):

Figure 2. Workflow of creating a tourist destination-industrial heritage
Source: Mihic ve Makarun, 2018

Industrial Heritage Tourism and its Relationship with Other
Tourism Types

Industrial heritage tourism

According to Jie (2009), Pat Yale’s study on the Canyon Bridge (UK) in 1991
pioneered the industrial heritage tourism. Yale’s document is a representative achievement
which systematically introduces the protection and tourism development of industrial
heritage (Jie, 2009: 7). As Landorf (2011) indicated, it is particularly important to adopt
a holistic approach to industrial heritage and its use in tourism – i.e. the sustainable
development of entire regions in accordance with economic, ecological, scientific, and
social features and characteristics. The basic goals of industrial tourism include the

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preservation and promotion of industrial heritage in its specificity: climate, the promotion
of culture and science, as well as first-hand learning facilitated through entertainment and
stimulating events. On-site interpretations of industrial heritage are invaluable to tourism,
because, in those industrial regions, where the local population immediately represents
and interprets its own history and tradition, way of life - in short, everything that is
authentic. Industrial tourism can, in this way, serve as an excellent catalyst for modern
economies in certain areas. It can also include different kinds of tourism: ecotourism,
agritourism, adventure travel, business tourism, etc. (Graf, 2013: 332-333).

All regions that apply some strategy of industrial heritage tourism disposes
of a unique set of industrial monuments that can be used for recreational activities.
Nevertheless, in the European context some general categories of industrial tourist
attractions may be distinguished. The first group comprises industrial relicts in the
field of production and processing. These attractions are rather popular among visitors
and include numerous sites located underground (mines) or on the earth’s surface (e.g.
plants, blast-furnaces and shipping yards). Often these workplaces have been restored
and transformed into museums demonstrating the history of industrial occupations. Some
abandoned industrial sites provide tourists also with other amusement such as films,
concerts, and catering. However, in other cases, Edwards and Llurde (1996) draw the
attention to the fact that industrial monuments are neglected consciously with the aim
to show visitors the aesthetics of de-industrialization. Transport attractions make up
the second group of industrial tourist attractions. They refer to industrial legacies in the
field of rail, water and roads aiming to give the visitors a nostalgic or novel transport
experience. The third category consists of socio-cultural attractions associated with a
region’s particular industrial past. Here, examples are the former working-class houses
and employers’ estates. Some traditional industrial areas such as Wales and the Ruhr area
offer all three groups of attractions, whereas other regions such as those in France and
Spain exploit only a few of them (Hosper, 2002: 399).

To develop industrial heritage sites into tourist attractions can be a powerful
argument to insist that a region’s historic and cultural past must be preserved. The
essential characteristics of industrial heritage tourism are its multidisciplinary and scalar
interpretations. Among the motives like conservation, space, image and community
and attributes such as potentials, stakeholders, adaptive reuse, economics, authenticity
and perceptions, conservation serves as a tool for regenerating and sustaining tourism
development. Two attributes, potentials and stakeholders, correlate with the motive
of conservation. The decision-making process involves environmental assessments,
socioeconomic criteria and government support. Industrial Heritage Tourism encompasses
five major components: culture to connect with the past; physical to present authenticity;
product to appeal to tourists; experience to relive the history; and sustainability to involve
stakeholders’ participation. A comprehensive tour of structures and artifacts represents
a means of increasing the understanding of the industrial past by promoting its culture,
celebrating its achievement, and revitalizing the industrial products. Despite the potential
financial and cultural benefits of tourism, the industrial heritage has its own specific
problems compared to the other types of built heritage. Researchers face a number

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of challenges in trying to understand this type of tourism. These separate but related
challenges include: (ı) lack of public awareness; (ıı) lack of economic measures; and (ııı)
spatial and regional complexities (Xie, 2015: 45, 96-97).

Four key issues in industrial heritage tourism need to be highlighted. Firstly, many
former industrial areas do not have existing accommodation facilities, nor do they often
have many domestic properties large enough to offer bed and breakfast facilities - both
omissions are linked to their industrial pasts. Because of the failure of many industrial
heritage sites/museums to link with tourism interests and agencies, it is hard to advance
the evolution of industrial heritage into full destination status. Secondly, the drivers
behind the conservation of industrial heritage are usually quite different. Most industrial
heritage site management is undertaken by non-profit, local government or state agencies,
and often by volunteers rather than paid labour. Funds are provided largely by the public
sector. Thirdly, industrial heritage tourism is sustained under serious psychological
and aesthetic burdens. The link between industry, hard work and the often tough living
conditions of the past is deeply engrained in the psyche of much of the population. An
appreciation of the industrial landscape is a taste that can be hard to acquire for some.
Finally, it is a popular belief that health and safety issues, and trends in society towards
litigation, are becoming problematic, especially for industrial heritage (European
Parliament’s Committee on Transport and Tourism, 2013: 26).

Studies conducted among the visitors of industrial sites show various motives
for visiting an industrial site. The primary motives are interest in the site, families and
friends, recreation, promotional information, been-here-before, having some knowledge
of the sites. However, they are related to differences in travel experience, gender and
time of travel. Also, the results have shown that tourists tend to visit the same types of
sites, although this may not necessarily be related to their profession. This means that if
a tourist had visited an industrial site, he would very likely visit/want to visit the others.
This indicates the need to connect sites by type, i.e. forming offers with clear typing. To
create routes/tours of industrial heritage, or more specifically, industrial heritage mills,
mines and etc. would have a positive influence on the number of visitors because the
interested tourists would more easily get the information they are interested in. One of the
most important issues is the presentation of these locations online and the status of their
protection through local/regional/national/international regulations since these factors
greatly contribute to the overall popularity of cultural tourist sites (Mihic and Makarun,
2018: 9, 16-17).

Cultural tourism

Cultural tourism, as a practice where heritage is the main inspiration and resource
for traveling, is hard to set in one definition. Firstly, it is due to the very complex and
abstract word culture, and secondly due to the numerous perspectives and definitions
hereby produced. The definition made by ICOMOS in 1997 is as follows: Cultural
tourism can be defined as that activity which enables people to experience the different

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ways of life of other people, thereby gaining at first hand an understanding of their
customs, traditions, the physical environment, the intellectual ideas and those places of
architectural, historic, archaeological or other cultural significance which remain from
earlier times. Cultural tourism differs from recreational tourism in that it seeks to gain
an understanding or appreciation of the nature of the place being visited. (Hansen and
Gronau, 2020: 156).

Cultural and heritage tourism occurs when participation in a cultural or heritage
activity is a significant factor for traveling. Cultural tourism includes performing arts
(theatre, dance, music), visual arts and crafts, festivals, museums and cultural centres,
and historic sites and interpretive centres. Heritage tourism is a travel directed towards
experiencing the heritage of a city, region, state or country. Heritage tourism enables the
tourist to learn about, and be surrounded by, local customs, traditions, history and culture.

The ties between tourism and heritage conservation have been growing stronger
in recent years. The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) created
the International Cultural Tourism Charter-Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage
Significance. Its key principles are:

• Since tourism is among the foremost vehicles for cultural exchange,

conservation should provide responsible and well-managed opportunities for
members of the host community and visitors to experience and understand
that community’s heritage and culture first-hand.

• The relationship between heritage places and tourism is dynamic and may

involve conflicting values. It should be managed in a sustainable way for
present and future generations.

• Conservation and tourism planning for heritage places should ensure that the

visitor experience will be worthwhile, satisfying and enjoyable.

• Host communities and indigenous peoples should be involved in planning for

conservation and tourism.

• Tourism and conservation activities should benefit the host community.
• Tourism promotion programs should protect and enhance natural and cultural

heritage characteristics.

These principles demonstrate that the heritage conservation recognizes tourism
and seeks ways to live harmoniously (Federal Provincial Territorial Ministers of Culture
and Heritage, 2012).

Cultural tourism involves visits to cultural attractions and events. As cited by
Richards (2003), the definition articulated by ATLAS (Association for Tourism and
Leisure Education) states that cultural tourism is the movement of persons to cultural
attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather
new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs. Moreover, the OECD
report on culture and tourism (2009) summarizes the main drivers to develop cultural
tourism: valorising and preserving heritage, economic development and employment,

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Relationship Between Industrial Heritage and Tourism ... Füsun BAYKAL

physical and economic regeneration, strengthening and/or diversifying tourism retaining
population, and developing cultural understanding. Europe is a key cultural destination
and several significant cultural tourism niches can be identified, which replaces mass
tourism: creative, educational, gastronomic, religious, spiritual and holistic, wellness
and spa, cultural volunteer and roots of migrant tourism types. Authenticity is also an
important question, where new trends can be experienced towards context, originality,
and user-generated content. Heritage is an important part of the cultural tourism and its
development can evidently fit the identified market niches (Nagy, 2012: 46-47).

Cultural and heritage tourists are complex groups which are influenced by a
number of motivations. Heritage studies and tourism studies have dealt intensively with
this topic. Although the thematic motivation often represents a niche segment, it usually
includes tourists who tend to be rather uncompromising in their search for the theme.
Patriotic motivation, on the other hand, can be understood literally as national or local
patriotism. Since the patriotic motivation is the one for which visitors come in the highest
numbers, it is important for any tourism manager to be aware which heritage objects that
can serve this motivation and how (Hansen and Gronau, 2020: 156-158).

Europe’s cultural routes have set a trend in cultural tourism, but to effectively
promote and safeguard the very heritage on which they depend, there needs to be an even
greater coordination at the European level. International joint action for the promotion
of these routes is necessary. There is also room for improvement in the connectivity of
the transnational physical network itself. Quality and sustainable tourism standards as
well as performance evaluation tools can and should be implemented. In recent years,
the further development of cultural tourism and tourism routes has gained growing
relevance in UNWTO’s agenda. As a result, in 2013, UNWTO signed a cooperation
agreement with the European Institute of Cultural Routes, highlighting the need to
support the competitiveness and sustainability of the cultural tourism sector, in view of
its growing economic, cultural and even environmental importance. Moreover, as part
of its general programme, UNWTO continues to support the development of sustainable
cultural tourism. A final and equally important point is the potential for cultural routes to
provide a fertile ground for the creation of multi-destination packages attractive to long-
haul markets and especially key emerging ones. Not only does this make it possible to
represent and market Europe as a single tourism destination, helping to maintain it as the
number one tourist region in the world, but it also allows for collaboration and pooling
of resources across borders, either financial or expertise-related, and for the creation of
partnerships between public and private sectors (UNWTO, 2015: 33).

Cultural and heritage tourism provides benefits to tourism operators, visitors,
and host communities, including economic returns and jobs. A 2009 study conducted for
the US National Trust for Historic Preservation found out that nearly 80% of all leisure
travellers take part in a cultural heritage activity. It also revealed that cultural heritage
tourists spend an average of $994 per trip, compared to $611 for the “general” traveller -
almost 50% more. Cultural heritage is a tool that lets you offer clients something special,
something marketers call a unique selling proposition. This ability to separate product

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