Author Dheejan Babu Kaphle M. Ed. (TU) 8 HealtH, PHysical education Approved by the Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Sanothimi, Bhaktapur.
First Edition : 2080 (New curriculum) Copyright : Publisher Price : 290/- Print Quantity : (2200 pcs.) Layout : Oasis Desktop Anamnagar, Kathmandu Printed in Nepal 8 HealtH, PHysical education First Edition : 2080 (New curriculum) Copyright : Publisher Price : 290/- Print Quantity : (2200 pcs.) Layout : Oasis Desktop Anamnagar, Kathmandu Printed in Nepal 8 HealtH, PHysical education
“You can do anything with children if you only play with them.” -Bismark (1815-1898), German Statesman. Children are like unmoulded clay of the potters. They incubate several mysteries under their young thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with the rest of the world. There are several ongoing quests of studies on child nature and behavior. Each of the quests brings new facts and theories with a common conclusion that caring and friendly attitude towards children is a key factor for their development. We should cooperate with children for resolving the hindrances of learning and discipline. Instead of motivating them towards healthier lifestyle and behavior, we should not force them to mug the texts up in their soft and delicate brain. In contrary, unbearable load of study, system of corporal punishment, and practice of imposing supra-disciplinary confinements have created a big problem for children. This book intends to make children active, creative, and healthy in their practical life. Teachers should be conscious enough to manage their ignorance and juvenile behavior without harming their body and brain. This book includes the contents as prescribed by CDC, Ministry of Education, Nepal. While editing this book, cognizant and insightful plans are applied as far as practicable. The authors are precisely focused to prepare competent citizen through the educational processes carried out with this book. “Children aren’t happy with nothing to ignore and that’s what parents were created for.” -Ogden Frederic Nash (1902-1971), U.S. Humorist. With a deep dedication to the children who are deprived of school education, I expect genuine comments and suggestions from the teachers, guardians, and readers. Dheejan Babu Kaphle The Author [email protected] Part One: Health E
Chapter Page No. 1. The Human Body 5 2. Community Health and Mental Health 24 3. Nutrition and Food Security 47 4. Diseases, Safety and First Aid 61 5. Sexual and Reproductive Health 94 6. Physical Exercises and Drill 108 7. Athletics and Adventures 116 8. Games 125 9. Yoga 143 10 Introduction to Arts, Line Arts and Colour 154 11. Printmaking, Claywork and Collage Construction 168 12. Singing and Playing Musical Instruments 177 13. Dancing and Acting 189 Contents
5 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 Our body is like a living machine. Different parts of the body coordinate with one another to perform special tasks. How is the human body made? How does it remain alive? Discuss this matter and share your opinions in your class. Some people say that human body is a creation of God. Some argue that it developed itself in the nature. What do your parents, neighbours, friends, and teachers think about it? Conduct a short symposium in your class. It is not necessary that you must find the truth. It is for the discussion about what people think about the origin of human body. Before You Proceed 1 The Human Body
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 6 1.1 Introduction Human body is a combination of different systems. Each of the systems is assigned with specific tasks. The human body respires for survival. This task is assigned to the respiratory system. Intake of food is very essential for any living beings to survive. This complex task is done by digestive system. There are altogether nine systems in our body. Different organs coordinate with one another to make a system. These organs work together to carry out common functions. A system is a set of organs which work together to carry out common functions. Each system is made up of its constituent organs. For example, the respiratory system is made of up nose, throat, larynx, pharynx, wind pipe, lungs, etc. These organs help to inhale air from the atmosphere, absorb oxygen through the lungs, and exhale the unused gases with carbondioxide out to the atmosphere. Oxygen is essential for the body to produce energy. It helps in oxidation1 of glucose in the body cell. Blood, which is an organ of circulatory system, supplies glucose to each and every cell of the body. Blood receives glucose from the digestive system. This system is made up of many organs like mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, etc. In this way, all the systems work in coordination with one another to keep the body alive. 1.2 Nervous System Nervous system is the master system of our body because it controls all the other systems. It is the most complex system in the human body. This system carries the sole responsibility of various abstract feelings, memory, thoughts, and creativity. Senses like smell, sound, vision, touch, and tastes are recognized only after their analysis by the brain. Nervous system is made up of a special type of tissue known as nervous tissue. This tissue is made up of nervous cells called neurons. 1 Oxidation = Chemical combination of oxygen with glucose releasing energy needed for the body. Carbondioxide and water vapour is also produced along with energy production.
7 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 Neurons make nerve fibers by connecting themselves with one another. There are three types of nerve fibers. a. Sensory Nerve: Nerves that carry sensations from various organs towards the spinal cord and brain are called sensory nerves. b. Motor Nerve: Nerves that carry commands from the brain and spinal cord towards different organs of the body are called motor nerves. c. Mixed Nerves: Nerves that show the characteristics of both the sensory and motor nerves are called mixed nerves. The nervous system is composed of its three sub-systems. They are: A. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system has two major parts. They are the brain and spinal cord. Axon Terminals Axon Myelin shath Dendrite Node of Ranvier Nucleus Cell Body
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 8 Brain: The brain lies inside the cavity of head-bone called cranial cavity. Brain is protected by three thin layers of meninges2 and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)3 between these membranes. The brain has the following parts: a. Cerebrum: This is the uppermost and the biggest part of the brain. It is made up of very soft nervous tissue. It contains the centres of speech, smell, taste, temperature, hearing, vision, wisdom, knowledge, creativity, and memory. It receives different sensations from various organs and sends commands to them accordingly. b. Cerebellum: It is also called small brain or hindbrain. It lies at the lower-back side of the cranial cavity. It is protected by occipital bone at its back. The centre for balancing the body lies in the cerebellum. It receives the sensation of posture and gravitational force acting on our body. According to these sensations, it sends commands to various muscles of legs and body for keeping our body balanced. 2 Meninges are the membrane structures covering the brain. It has three layers, pia mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater. Its singular form is ‘meninx’. 3 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a special type of fluid that remains between the meninges and protects brain from physical injuries Brain stem Cerebellum Midbrain Thalamus Ventricles Corpus collosum Medulla Pons Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Cerebrum Central Nervous System
9 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 c. Midbrain: It lies below the cerebrum and in front of the cerebellum. It connects the brain with Pons Varolli. It serves in transmission of messages between cerebrum and Pons Varolli. d. Pons Varolli: It lies below the midbrain, connecting it to the medulla oblongata. It conveys the nerve impulses between the midbrain and medulla oblongata. e. Medulla Oblongata: It lies just below the Pons Varolli, and links it to the spinal cord. It helps in transmission of nervous impulses between them. Besides, it also has some vital centres. They are the cardiac centre4 , respiratory centre, as well as coughing and sneezing centres. f/ Spinal Cord: It is a long cord situated inside the backbone. It is connected with 31 pairs of spinal nerves which connect different body parts to the cord. Spinal cord transmits the nervous impulses between the brain and different body parts. Besides, it is the centre for reflex action. 4 Cardiac Centre = the nervous centre that regulates the activities of the heart What is reflex action? We do various activities after thinking about their causes and consequences. But, there are some actions which are performed automatically without conscious thinking. For example, we scream ‘aaaththa……..’ and remove our hand from hot objects, if it comes in touch with very hot substance unknowingly Similarly, we quickly raise our leg if it strikes a sharp stone on the way. We may shout, ‘aai…yaaa…!’ all of a sudden. We do these activities without conscious thoughts. Such sudden action executed without conscious thought by our body in response to certain unpleasant stimuli is known as reflex action. Figure: Example of Reflex Action Sensory nerve tells spinal cord that flame is hot Spinal cord Sensory nerve Spinal cord sends message through motor nerve to move hand Motor nerve Reflex action
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 10 B Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral nervous system lies at the periphery of our body. It is made up of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. These nerves spread at the peripheral parts up to the skin and connect them with the central nervous system. Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord and cranial nerves originate from the cranial cavity. It has sensory, motor, and mixed nerves. C Autonomic Nervous System It is the part of nervous system that controls the self-regulating body functions without conscious thought. It determines the involuntary functions like the works of heart, lungs, and intestine. Autonomic nervous system has two sub-systems. They are parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. These two sub-systems work in opposite way and produce a balanced function of various organs in our body. For example, the sympathetic nervous system dilates pupil while the parasympathetic nervous system helps in its contraction. Due to effort of both of these systems, pupil gets the desired and appropriate sizes in dim and bright light. The following diagram demonstrates how these two subsystems produce desired and balanced mechanisms. Nervous system and health As the nervous system is the master system of human body, it controls all the other systems and body functions. Though the major organs of nervous system are protected well by cranial box and spine, it is made up of delicate tissue and hurt easily with injuries to the cranium and spine. There are centres for various sensory and vital organs in the brain. If the centres are injured or damaged, their corresponding organs become dysfunctional. A well-balanced and nutritious food as well as balanced exercise and rest are essential to keep this system healthy. We should avoid junk, dirty, and stale foods. Tobacco, marijuana, alcohol, and harmful drugs are harmful for nervous system. Safe travel and adoption of safety measures in risky situation can prevent injuries to the nervous system.
11 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 1.3 Glandular System and the Endocrine Glands Glands are a group of cells that secrete specific fluids in the body. The fluids are enzymes, hormones, sweat, saliva, tear, and juices in the human body. There are two types of glands in the human body: A. Endocrine Glands B. Exocrine Glands Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands a. They are ductless glands. b. They secrete hormones. c. Their secretions are mixed directly into the bloodstream d. Examples: Pituitary gland, adrenal gland, gonads, thyroid gland, etc. a. They are connected with ducts. b. They secrete enzymes, juices, sweat, and tear. c. Their secretions are transported to a certain part through ducts. d. Examples: Sweat glands, tear glands, salivary glands, etc. # Pancreas shows the characteristics of both endocrine and exocrine gland.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 12 Endocrine Glands a. Pituitary Gland: This is also called ‘master gland’ of human body. It controls all the other glands. It secretes many hormones that command other glands for secretion of their respective hormones. Some of the hormones secreted by this gland are growth hormone (GH), gonadotropins, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), etc. It is situated below the cerebrum of brain. Its shape and size is almost similar to a seed of pea. b. Thyroid Gland: There are two thyroid glands in the front side of the neck. They are attached to the Adam's apple. They produce T3(triiodothyronine) and T4(thyroxin) hormones. These hormones help in our physical and mental development. Iodine is needed to produce thyroxin hormone. If there is lack of iodine in our food, this gland gets swollen and bulges frontwards to be a goiter. Therefore, we must take iodized salt to prevent goiter and also to save ourselves from physical and mental retardation. c. Parathyroid Glands: There are four parathyroid glands in the human body. They are situated at the back of thyroid glands. They produce parathormone hormone, which helps in proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus in the human body. If this hormone is secreted in excess, calcium which is needed for strengthening bones is deposited in kidneys to form kidney stone and the bones become weaker. If it is less in the Testis (Male) Ovary (Female) Adrenal gland Thymus gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Pituitary gland Pancreas
13 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 human body, our muscles become weaker. Therefore, there must be right amount of parathormone in our body. We must take a balanced diet and take regular exercises and rest to make them function well. d. Gonads: They are the sex glands in the human body. Testes are male and ovaries are female gonads. Testes produce testosterone hormone, while ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone hormones. These hormones determine respective sex characteristics in males and females. e. Adrenal Glands: They are situated above each kidney. They produce adrenalin and noradrenalin hormones, which help in proper digestion of carbohydrates and balance of blood pressure. Imbalanced production of these hormones causes weakness, hypertension, hypotension etc. These glands also produce small amount of sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone) in males and females both. Excessive secretion of testosterone hormone in females results in adrenal virilism5 . Similarly, if the female sex hormones are produced in excess in males, they develop adrenal feminism6 . f. Pancreas: Pancreas plays the role of endocrine as well as exocrine gland. It secretes pancreatic juice and sends it to the duodenum through its duct. Therefore, it is an exocrine gland. It also secretes insulin and glucagon hormones that directly mix into bloodstream. Therefore, it is also an endocrine gland. It is situated just above the transversecolon below the stomach. Insulin hormone plays an important role in utilization of sugar in the body. If this hormone is produced in inadequate amount, sugar cannot be used properly by the body and sugar-level rises. This situation causes weakness and fatigue7 . In diabetes, the pancreas does not produce insulin hormone and the blood-sugar level rises. 5 Adrenal virilism = development of male characteristics like hoarse voice, mustache, beard, hair on limbs etc. in females 6 Adrenal feminism = development of female characteristics like sweet voice, enlargement of breast etc. in males 7 Fatigue = tiredness
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 14 g. Pineal Gland: This gland is situated inside the cranial cavity, between the hemispheres of cerebrum. This is a pea-sized gland similar in shape to a pinecone. It has red colour. This gland secretes melatonin hormone. This gland is more prominent in younger age and goes on degenerating with increasing age. It becomes calcified and harder in the old age. This hormone is produced in humans, other mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. In humans, melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of sleep cycles. Pineal gland has a connection with the special receptor cells of retina of the eyes. The secretion of melatonin hormone is increased with the decrease in the perception of light by the retina. Therefore, the maximum production of melatonin occurs during the night time. During the daytime, it's production is less. Melatonin generation by the pineal gland induces physiological changes that make us feel sleepy, promote sleep, reduce body temperature and decrease respiration rate. During daytime, melatonin levels are low because large amount of light is detected by the retina. Light inhibition of melatonin production is central to stimulating wakefulness in the morning and alertness in the daytime. Melatonin has anti-aging properties. It acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing harmful oxidative radicals. Melatonin also plays a role in modulating certain functions of the immune system. Birds know time and reptiles decide the time of their hibernation with the help of this hormone. In amphibians, melatonin stimulates a lightening of the skin. h. Thymus Gland: This gland is situated at the back of sternum, the central vertical bone of the front chest. It has pinkish-gray colour. The size of thymus gland is 10gm in children and 35 to 40gm in adults. As the ageing starts, it starts shrinking down and its average weight reduces Pineal Gland
15 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 upto 15 gm in elderly people. Thymosin hormone is produced by the thymus gland. The hormone helps in production of lymphocytes. Lymphocytes help in strengthening the immunity power to defend against diseases and germs. Glands and Our Health Hormones secreted from different endocrine glands play a very important role to control different functions in our body. Hormones secreted from all the glands mix into the bloodstream and affect various organs and their functions in a proper way. In order for the glands to function well and make our body healthy, we must take a balanced diet, adopt healthy habits, and take proper exercise and rest. 1.4 Reproductive System Reproduction is one of the identifying characteristics of living beings. All the living things in the world have their reproductive system. There is sexual reproduction in human beings. Figure: Human Reproduction Female Male Baby Zygote (23+23=46) Fertilization Egg (23) Sperm (23)
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 16 Sexual reproduction is followed by the union of male and female haploid8 gamete cells. Male gamete cell is known as sperm9 and female gamete cell is known as ovum10. As both of the gamete cells contain 23 chromosomes each, there is a complete set i.e. 46 chromosomes after their union. In this way, combination of these cells assures the new offspring with human characteristics with complete set of chromosomes (i.e. 46 chromosomes). Reproductive activities are controlled and guided by sex hormones. Male sex hormone is termed as ‘testosterone’. There are two female sex hormones. They are ‘estrogen’11 and ‘progesterone’. Gonads Gamete cell Hormones Male Testes Sperm Testosterone Female Ovaries Ovum Estrogen and progesterone A. Male reproductive system Male reproductive system produces male gametes and male sex hormone. Besides, it manages the safe transport, storage, nutrition, and proper ejaculation of the spermatozoa12 and semen. Male gamete is also known as sperm. Its nucleus contains only 23 chromosomes while other normal human cells contain 46 chromosomes in their nucleus. Following are the important parts of male reproductive system. 9 Haploid = containing half number of chromosomes in the nucleus (i.e. only 23 chromosomes in case of human being) 9 ‘Sperm’ = also termed as ‘spermatozoan’ 10 ‘Ovum’ = is a singular term and its plural term is ‘ova’ 11 ‘Estrogen’ = has different spelling in British English, i.e. oestrogen 12 ‘Spermatozoa’ = is the plural form of spermatozoan Reproduction is the process of producing offspring or similar descendent by the living things. Sexual reproduction is the process of producing offspring with the involvement of two opposite sexes for the union of male and female gametes. Figure: A Sperm Acrosome Head Body Tail
17 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 a. Testes13 b. Epididymis c. Vas deferens d. Seminal vesicles e. Ejaculatory duct f. Urethra g. Penis a. Testes: There are two testes in males. They are oval in shape. They lie at the groin region between two thighs. They are enclosed inside a thin skinny sac known as scrotum. Testes are also known as male gonads. They produce male gamete cells (sperms). They also produce male sex hormone, testosterone. This hormone gets into the bloodstream and determines various sex characteristics in males. b. Epididymis: There are two epididymes above each testis. They collect sperms from testes and send them to the vas deferens. c. Vas deferens: They are two long and narrow tubular structures originating from the base of each epididymis to seminal vesicles. They transport sperms from epididymes to seminal vesicles. Males can permanently stop their fertility by getting these ducts cut surgically. This process is called vasectomy. d. Seminal vesicles: They are two pouch or sac like structures. They collect sperms form vas deferens and store them. They produce milky-white viscous fluid called semen. Semen provides nutrition as well as a medium to swim for the sperms collected inside the vesicles. Male Reproductive System 13 ‘Testes’ = is the plural form of ‘testis’ Figure: Male Reproductive System Testicle Testes Epididymis Vasa deferentia Prostate Seminal vesicle Bladder Urethra Urethra Prostate gland Rectum Seminal vesicle Lymph nodes Bladder Penis
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 18 e. Ejaculatory duct: They help in ejaculation14 of the stored sperms with semen at the time of sexual climax in males. There are two ejaculatory ducts originating from each seminal vesicle and terminating at urethra. f. Urethra: There is only one urethra in male reproductive system. It helps in transport of sperms and semen out from the male’s body. It is enclosed inside the penis in its anterior part. It opens outside at the tip of penis. It is a common organ for reproductive and urinary system in males because it also carries urine from the urinary bladder in the urinary system. g. Penis: Penis is a muscular organ situated just above the scrotum. It is made up of erectile and spongy tissue. B. Female reproductive system Female reproductive system produces female gamete cell, i.e. ovum and female sex hormones. There are two female sex hormones. They are estrogen and progesterone. Besides, it manages the monthly cycle of menstruation, pregnancy, and delivery of baby. Following are the main organs of female reproductive system. Figure: Female Reproductive System Ovary Fallopian tube Uterus Cervix Vagina 14 Ejaculation = forced ejection or passing out of fluid
19 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 a. Ovaries: There are two ovaries in females. They are situated on either side above the pelvis. They are oval in shape. They produce female gamete cells, i.e. ova15 and female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone. An ovum contains only 23 chromosomes. It is fertilized by a sperm to make a zygote. The zygote is developed inside the womb of the mother and becomes a baby after maturity. The hormones secreted from ovaries mix into bloodstream and determine various female sex characteristics. b. Fallopian tubes: There are two fallopian tubes in female reproductive system, each connecting an ovary to the uterus. These tubes bring the gamete cells produced by ovaries towards the uterus. The tubes also provide space for the fertilization of ovum with sperm. c. Uterus: Uterus is also known as womb. It is pear-shaped muscular hollow organ. The fertilized ovum is implanted on its internal wall. The fetus gets proper environment for its development and growth. After maturity, the wall of uterus contracts and expels the baby out from the womb to the external environment. d. Cervix: Cervix is the anterior opening of the uterus. It has a narrow neck and remains closed due to its grip. The cervix links the uterus to the vagina. e. Vagina: It is a muscular tube that establishes connection between the external environment and the uterus. It receives the erected penis of a male during the sexual intercourse. It also provides the passageway for a matured baby to be delivered out from the uterus. Its external opening is surrounded by two pairs of muscular flaps known as labia majora and labia minora. There are two bartholin glands and a number of vestibular glands at the opening of vagina. Secretion from these glands keeps the vagina moist. Menstruation The process of discharging blood fragments and mucus by females through their vagina every month in a cyclic order is known as menstruation. It is a natural process guided by female sex hormones. The first menstruation begins at the 15 ‘Ova’ is the plural form of ‘ovum’
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 20 early adolescence in girls. This may be at the age of 11 to 13 on average. The first menstruation is termed ‘menarche’. It is an indicator of reproductive potentiality in girls. Normally, it occurs in every 28 days. In some females, it may differ by one to three days. Menstruation is one of the phases of women’s monthly cycle. The first phase of monthly cycle starts immediately after menstruation. In this phase, the ovaries start developing ova. Consequently, the uterus starts the preparation of its implantation on its inner wall, the endometrium. This preparation includes development of new blood vessels and mucus membranes on the endometrium. This phase takes about 14 days. In the second phase, the preparatory work of uterus is developed more with the increase in thickening of mucus membrane and distribution of blood vessels. This thickening and other development of endometrium is the preparation for future implantation of ovum. But, it is not possible for ova to be fertilized every month. As the unfertilized ovum is not implanted on the endometrium, all the preparatory work of endometrium becomes useless. This phase takes about 10 days. In the third phase of monthly cycle, the useless preparation of endometrium and adead-unfertilized ovum are shaded off and expelled out through the vagina. This is called menstruation. The menstruation phase normally lasts for about four days.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 21 The first phase of monthly cycle begins after completion of menstruation. This cycle may continue up to the age of 45 years on average. The stoppage of monthly cycle is called menopause. After menopause, there is neither menstruation nor fertility power in women. Reproductive Process The reproductive process begins from the production of ovum and sperms in female and male reproductive systems respectively. When an ovum is released by the ovary in females, it travels slowly in the fallopian tube. If there is sexual intercourse with a male, millions of sperms enter inside the vagina and uterus. Sperms, then, travel to all the directions and also towards the fallopian tube. Ultimately, one sperm meets and fertilizes the ovum inside the fallopian tube. Now the fertilized ovum is termed a ‘zygote’. During the time from ovulation16 to fertilization, the internal wall of uterus, known as endometrium, develops new blood vessels and mucous layer on it. It is the preparation for implantation of zygote. The zygote, then, comes inside the uterus and gets implanted on the wall of the uterus. 16 Ovulation = release of ovum from the ovary Figure: A Developing Fetus in the Uterus (Womb) Vagina Cervix Uterus Leg Umbilical cord Placenta Amniotic sac with fluid Eyelid
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 22 The implanted zygote undergoes multiple cell divisions and develops rapidly. It becomes an embryo and fetus. Its head, trunk, limbs, heart, lungs, stomach and all the organs are developed and it matures after about nine months and seven days. After maturity, the wall of uterus contracts and expels the baby out through the vagina towards the external world. This event is called delivery or birth of a baby. Exercise A. Give very short answers to the following questions. 1. Name the major organs of Nervous System. 2. What is cerebrum? 3. Which types of nerves carries stimuli away from the brain? 4. Which glands are called the master gland of human body? 5. Name any one example of exocrine gland. 6. Define endocrine gland. 7. Which gland produces T3 and T4 hormones? 8. Name the cord that is situated inside the vertebral column. 9. What does the sympathetic nervous system do? 10. Name the hormones produced by ovary? B. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. Differentiate between sensory and motor nerves. 2. What are parathyroid glands? Where are they found? 3. Draw a diagram of brain and label it showing the major organs located in the brain. 4. How does endocrine glands work in the human body? Make a list of all endocrine glands. 5. Write the functions of: a. Testes b. Ovaries c. Uterus d. Penis e. Vagina.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 23 6. Draw well-labeled diagrams of male and female reproductive systems. 7. Why is the pituitary gland called master gland? Write the functions of pituitary gland. 8. List different endocrine glands of the human body along with their locations, secretions, and functions. 9. Draw a diagram of neuron and label its parts. 10. Define a. Nervous System b. Reflex Action c. Blood Capillaries 11. Differentiate between: a. Cerebrum and Cerebellum b. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems. C. Fill in the blanks. 1. …………….. tubules are situated inside the testes. 2. Spinal cord transports the stimuli towards the…………….. 3. Nervous tissue has …………….. colour. 4. Parathyroid gland produces …………….. hormone. 5. The specialized cells of nervous system are called……………..
24 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 2 Community Health and Mental Health Before You Proceed A SHORT STORY There were two boys living in a village. They were ‘Buddhi Bahadur’ and ‘Murkha Maan’. Both were students of class eight in a local school. Buddhi Bahadur was as wise as his name implies and so was Murkha Maan. Both of them were talented students. The only difference was that Buddhi used to apply the learnt lessons in his own life but Murkha used to utilize the learnt knowledge in the examination only. Buddhi looked neat, clean, and smart. But, Murkha looked dirty and rough. One Saturday evening of the summer, both of them came out from home. The environment was very calm and clean. Trees and shrubs around were blooming. Birds were singing in the soft breeze of air. They did not know that they had walked for more than an hour meeting their friends and enjoying the beauty of nature. With an unexpected interruption in their talks about upcoming examination, Buddhi said, ‘Oh yaar, it has become late to get back and I’m feeling hungry.’ Murkha replied quickly pointing towards a junk food seller on the side of the street, ‘Don’t worry! My favourite item is there!’ He added, ‘I’ve money too’. Buddhi opposed, ‘Hey, these items look unhealthy, don’t buy them', but Murkha did not listen to him and bought a little junk food and came back in no time. Murkha requested Buddhi to take but he denied. Murkha took all of the bought materials and gave a loud repulsive1 belch. AFTER FIVE DAYS It was the time of examination. All the students attended examinations. They did well but could not see one of their talented friends - Murkha Maan. He had been ill. Buddhi, his closest chum from childhood, went to meet him in hospital. After a long conversation regarding examinations, questions, and school activities, Murkha regretted, ‘Buddhi, I suffered a great loss in my study because I ignored the learnt knowledge and your valuable suggestions. I am under medication of typhoid. I shall never take junk and street foods again’, Buddhi smiled and said, “Don’t worry my friend! I have requested the principal for your re-examination. He is positive about that.". 1 Repulsive = Disgusting, foul.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 25 Activity Find a friend who knows about rural communities. Find another friend who knows about urban communities. Ask them about the factors influencing people’s health in rural and urban areas, sources of drinking water, local health service centres, examples of wastes, waste management, and sources of vegetables and fruits in urban and rural areas. Write a short paragraph discussing the differences found between them. 2.1 Introduction to Community Health The status of health of people is determined by various factors. Human beings are a social creature and they live in a society or community. People living in a community are linked in various ways. They share a common environment, climate, social norms and values, and common health services and facilities available in the community. There are various types of diseases, which affect a group of individuals in different ways. Some diseases can be controlled by personal efforts but some, especially those which are communicable and can become epidemic, need group or community effort to control them. There is a need for public participation or the involvement of the whole society in such efforts. Therefore, community health is synonymous to public health, community medicine, or social medicine. In the past, a community health programme was understood as the programme of sanitation of public places and curing of diseases in the community. However, these days it is considered in a broad sense and it includes curative, promotive, preventive, as well as reha-
26 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 bilitative health services. Community health focuses on the participation of community people to prevent diseases in the community. Community health can be defined as a science and art of postulating a balanced integration of curative, promotive, preventive, and rehabilitative health services to make a community healthy by promoting environmental and personal health of community people through an organised community effort. Community health has been adopted by many countries in their health policies in the world. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has promoted the concept of primary health care, which has been adopted by Nepal in its health policies. Primary health care focuses on providing basic and necessary health services to all the people living in all corners of the world. That’s why primary health care is also considered community health. Nepal is a landlocked country situated between two large countries, China and India. Even though history of civilization has been found from very ancient time on this land, superstitions and wrong conceptions of health are found to be very strong and persistent here. Due to lack of access to new technologies and knowledge of health, difficult geographical topography of land, unstable governments, lack of commitment of government, underdeveloped economy of the nation, and influence of some superstitious culture, there are many health problems in Nepal. i. Prevalence of infectious diseases: Infectious diseases are those diseases which cause infection in one or more parts of human body. Infectious diseases are basically caused by the presence of microorganisms like amoeba, virus, and bacteria. Infectious diseases like dysentery, tuberculosis, malaria, diarrhea, leprosy, HIV AIDS, typhoid, worms, viral hepatitis, tetanus17, and others have been major diseases in Nepal. Even diarrhea kills about 45,000 children in one year in Nepal. In the past, endemic of malaria, smallpox, 17 Tetanus : a communicable disease caused due to a species of bacteria ‘Clostridium tetani’. It is preventable with TT (Tetanus Toxoid) immunization. Major Health Problems of Nepal 1. Prevalence of infectious diseases 2. Malnutrition 3. High infant mortality rate 4. High maternal mortality rate 5. Poverty 6. Lack of health education 7. Lack of health services 8. Rapid population growth 9. Unhealthy food habits and lifestyle
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 27 cholera, plague, had been fatal diseases to cause big loss of lives. Due to some superstitions and lack of health knowledge, patients of some communicable diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis hesitate to show their problem and conceal it. This results in further communication of diseases and even death of the patient. ii. Malnutrition: Malnutrition is caused due to either excess or deficit of necessary nutrients in our body. Therefore, malnutrition may be overnutrition or under-nutrition. But in the context of Nepal, where majority of people are poor, uneducated and unaware about health precautions, under-nutrition seems to be most prevalent. The concept of balanced diet is rarely brought in practice. Oily, spicy, unhealthy, insufficient, and unbalanced diet of Nepali people is resulting in severe under-nutrition in Nepal. Poverty, superstitions, socio-cultural trends, lack of health services, prevalence of infectious diseases, etc. are also contributing to malnutrition in Nepal. Other causes of malnutrition are the ill access of transportation to the mountain and hill region. Due to this, the grains produced in terai region cannot be transported to those areas. In terai region, poverty has been found as the main cause of malnutrition. Though Nepal is an agricultural country, seventy percent of Nepali children below five years of age are suffering from malnutrition. At the end of the ninth plan, underweight of children (i.e. less weight with respect to their height) was recorded as 48% and the tenth plan had aimed to reduce this figure to 30%. This value was 29% in 2011 AD according to NDHS-201118. Malnutrition is not only the problem of children. It affects adults and elderly people as well. But in children its effects are more harmful as it disturbs physical and mental development in them. It is the main cause of infant and child mortality rate. iii. High infant mortality rate: Infants are those who are under one year of age. Health of infants is closely related with the health of mother. Mothers of Nepal are not getting proper care during their pregnancy period. As a result, babies born are often found with multiple health problems. After getting birth, infants are not cared well in the family due to negligence, 18 NDHS : National Demographic and Health Survey held by Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal
28 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 ignorance, lack of knowledge, and lack of health services and facilities. Infants do not get proper immunization, nutritious food, and healthy environment too. Such condition has created high infant mortality rate in Nepal. Infant Mortality Rates in SAARC Countries (Per 1000) Countries 2006 AD 2013 AD 2020 AD Bangladesh 65 33 24.3 Bhutan 40 47 23.2 India 58 44 27.0 Maldives 15 9 05.5 Nepal 64 46 23.6 Sri Lanka 11 9 05.9 Afghanistan - 74 44.9 Pakistan - 74 54.2 Source: World Population Data Sheet, 2007,2014 AD, UNICEF 2022 iv. High maternal mortality rate: Nepal has a social structure of male domination over female. In most of the families, male members make decisions regarding almost all matters. Even children to be born are determined as per the desire of male members. Health of mother is ignored for fulfillment of their desire. Majority of women in fertile age group work very hard for their family. Pregnant women and even postnatal mothers are compelled to accomplish heavy works like carrying water pot, fodder, and firewood for long distance in hilly region. Such behavior towards mothers has declined their health status leading to high maternal mortality rate. In the decade of 1990 AD, about five lakhs women died of the problem of maternity (i.e. The problems related to pregnancy and delivery of child). This problem exists more in developing countries like Nepal. Recent health data seems quite satisfactory regarding maternal mortality in Nepal. In year 2017 AD, maternal mortality rate of Nepal was reduced to 186 per lakh. In the fiscal year 2021-22, 118 women died of birth-related complications, according to the Ministry of Health and Population in Nepal. This is quite a bigger figure in comparison to the developed countries.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 29 v. Poverty: In 2020 AD, 17% of Nepali people were below the line of absolute poverty.line, and in 2022, the level of the Global Hunger Index was 19.1 with 81st rank out of the 121 countries. According to data in 2023, more than 8.1 million Nepalis live in poverty. Women and girls are more likely to be poor, despite the significant contribution they make to the economy, especially through unpaid care and household work. More than one-third of Nepal’s children under 5 years are stunted, and around 10 percent children suffer wasting due to acute malnutrition. Poverty has direct relationship with health. One's economic strength determines his/her capacity to obtain food, health education, health services and facilities, etc. Diseases are found most prevalent in those areas where poverty exists. Nepal is also a poor country. People of Nepal are facing the problems of hunger and starvation due to poverty. It has been the main cause of under-nutrition and declined immunity power. vi. Lack of health education: Basic knowledge about general health phenomenon in human body and its interaction with the environment is a must for all people to maintain their sound health. On the other hand, health education is essential to eliminate various superstitious beliefs and practices in the society. We can still find people who believe that diarrhea is caused due to high intake of water; therefore, they reduce water intake in case of diarrhea. It results in dehydration and even death of the patient. Cholera, leprosy, and TB are regarded to be caused by the curse in previous life and it is concealed. Such practices and wrong beliefs still exist here due to lack of health education. The condition of health education is not satisfactory in Nepal. Even government's general school education is not accessible for all people. However, inclusion of health education in school level and college level is appreciable. vii. Lack of health services: Available health services and facilities do not meet the need of increased population. On average, 20% of people are estimated to get the necessary health services in Nepal. The following table reflects the general situation of health services in Nepal.
30 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 Health Services Available in Nepal Health Services Available in Nepal Health Services Number 2013 AD 2022 AD Govt. Hospitals 102 154 Primary Health Centers 202 203 Ayurvedic Clinics 291 293 Health Posts 1211 3789 Sub-Health Posts 2597 3176 Doctors 12571 32218 Nurse 23022 72550 Source: Nepal Medical Council, 2014(NMC),, 2022(DOHS, Nepal), The data presented above reflects the present situation of health services and facilities in Nepal. It shows that the number of medical personnel seems inadequate for Nepali people. Though there is increasing number of sub-health posts and primary health centres in rural areas, these are not well-managed to provide health services in Nepal. "Health posts run under peon" is common news in our newsletters. Thus it has been a major health problem in Nepal. viii. Rapid population growth: On the one hand, there is lack of health services and facilities and scarcity of health personnel. On the other hand, population growth has been rapid in Nepal. It shows the problems are more persistent and much effort is needed to solve the health problems. According to census 2011 AD population growth rate of Nepal was 1.35 % per annum. It results in the estimated population doubling time of only 51.9 years. ix. Unhealthy food habits and lifestyle: In general, we have no appropriate food habit. Most of Nepali people take two heavy dishes of unbalanced food in the morning and evening. Use of oily, spicy, and hot19 food is a 19 Hot : with excessive spices and chili taste that cause burning sensation in mouth
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 31 tradition of Nepal. Food items do not contain many nutritious components like minerals and vitamins. There is overdose of carbohydrates and fats. Instead, food items must be well-balanced, fresh, nutritious, and frequent but not heavy doses from the view of healthy food habit. 2.2 Introduction to Total Sanitation Clean water, basic toilets, and good hygiene practices are critical for children's survival and development. Millions of children's lives are jeopardized if these basic needs are not met. Water and sanitation-related diseases are one of the leading causes of death in children under the age of five. Every day, children die from preventable diseases caused by contaminated water, poor sanitation, and a lack of hygiene. 10.8 million people in Nepal do not have access to improved sanitation, and 3.5 million do not have access to basic water services. Nepal Government has started "Total Sanitation" programme since 2017 AD (2073 BS) with it's master plan. According to the master plan of, total sanitation is “is a range of facilities and hygiene behaviors that lead to achieve sanitized condition of the designated areas,”, including municipalities, villages and institutions such as schools. The first step towards total sanitation is to end open defecation (OD), whereby an area may be declared ODF(Open Defecation Free), when the following criteria are achieved: • “there is no OD in the designated area at any given time; A Notice for compliance of ODF
32 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 • all households have access to improved sanitation facilities (toilets) with full use, operation and maintenance; and • all the schools, institutions or offices within the designated areas must have toilet facilities,”. After being declared ODF, the second step is total sanitation. This step includes sustainability of sanitation facilities, hygiene and hygiene behaviors. As such, total sanitation is achieved when the following key hygiene and sanitation behaviors have been achieved: • “use of toilets; • practice of hand washing with soap or cleaning agent at critical times; • safe handling and treatment of drinking water (e.g. point of use treatment) at households level; • maintenance of personal hygiene (regular nail cutting, bathing, cloth washing, daily combing, tooth brushing etc.); and • proper solid and liquid management in and out of the home. The total sanitation programme started in Nepal primarily aims to: i. Improve access to safe water at schools and health care facilities through inter-sectoral collaboration. ii. Scale up sanitation social movement and the total sanitation concept. iii. Engage private sector to promote improved hygiene practices and create markets for sanitation. iv. Advocate for gender and disability-friendly sanitation facilities in health facilities, ECD centres and schools. v. Use mass media and social media to raise awareness on hygiene behaviours including menstrual hygiene management practices. vi. Improve water quality by strengthening the water regulatory body, implementing water safety plans, and enhancing community awareness on household-level water treatments. vii. Develop a strategy to ensure the access of unreached populations to safe water and strengthen the functionality, coverage, sustainability and resilience of water supply systems.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 33 2.3 Latrine Latrines are the safe places for disposal of human excreta. We defecate14 and urinate in latrine for safe disposal of faeces and urine. The process of releasing excreta out from our body keeps us healthy by removing harmful substances. It creates new space in our body for intake of food and water. Latrines are necessary to keep the environment clean and healthy. If there is no proper management of latrine, people defecate at any place or wherever they like. Latrines are made in places where people live. As there is lack of space in town areas, people make latrine inside or attached to the house. Attached concrete latrines are easy to use and convenient for children, elderly, and handicapped family members too. In village area, latrines are made at a safe distance from the house. Raw materials used in construction of houses and latrines in village areas are not long-lasting. People use hay15 , straw, wood and similar materials for construction purpose. There are different types of latrines used at different places in our country. Some of them are described below. Types of Latrine a. Trench Latrine Trench latrine is an immediate improvement against the problem of open defecation. It is a type of temporary latrine made particularly for the events like fair and camps. It has a longitudinal pit divided into few cubicles (segments) separated by the sheets of straw, plastic, tin, wood or any other locally available material. Trench Latrine
34 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 The trench is about 2 feet deep and, once filled, will be covered with soil and another trench is dug parallel to it. The recommended maximum length of trench is 6m, providing six cubicles. b. Borehole Latrine A borehole drilled by machine or hand-powered auger can be used as a latrine. This has a typical diameter of 20 to 40 cm and a depth of 6 meter (20 feet). At the top, a sitting seal is set for convenience of defecation. This structure is protected by the walls made up of locally available materials on three sides and a door on one side. A roof made up of tin, straw, hay or plastic protects the interior from rain. It should be constructed about 15-50 meters away from the water resources depending on the nature of soil. Borehole latrines are most appropriate in situations where boring/ drilling equipment is readily available, where a large number of latrines must be constructed rapidly, and where pits are difficult to excavate, either due to ground conditions or lack of a suitable labour force. The relatively small diameter permits a simpler, smaller, lighter and cheaper floor slab and foundation, but limits the storage capacity. A borehole latrine is suitable for stable, permeable soils, free of stones, and where the groundwater is deep beneath the surface. It was first started in India in 1930 by Rockefeller in order to control the transmission of hookworms. c. Pit Latrine This kind of latrine is popular in rural areas. A simple pit is made in a certain place from the house. Its size depends upon the size of the family and their need. It is simply made with locally available raw materials like straw, hay, bamboo, wood, etc. Local villagers with no special training can also construct the simple pit latrine. In this latrine, there is a simple pit and a safe defecating chamber with boundaries and roof. The faces are collected in the pit which is covered safely. Pit latrine was brought in use from West Bengal since 1949 A.D. It is useful in rural areas where there is no sufficient water and construction materials like cement, sand, rods, bricks, etc. Some of the important information regarding simple pit latrine are given below. a. Site selection: Site selection should be done carefully. At least
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 35 following points should be considered for the selection of site. i. It should be selected at least 30 feet away from the house and water sources such as well, tube-well, etc. ii. It should be constructed below the water source. It prevents water from being polluted. iii. It should be constructed in hard soil area that increases the life of latrine. iv. Latrine should not be constructed too far from the house because it will be difficult for old and young members as well as for sick people. The door and ventilation of latrine should not face towards the house. Otherwise bad odor of latrine spreads towards the house. Advantages i. Pit latrine can be constructed even at low cost and using the locally available materials. ii. It needs less amount of water compared to other advanced types of latrines. iii. It doesn't need trained manpower to construct. iv. Use of pit can help to make the surroundings clean. It protects the growth and spread of flies, insects and germs. v. Ventilator and wooden slab can be used to keep it clean and safe. Disadvantages i. It is not durable in comparison to other concrete latrines especially it creates problems in rainy season. ii. It cannot be made near the residence. So, it creates problem at night, rainy season and for children and aged family members to use. iii. It pollutes the surroundings and provides habitat for fly, insect and germs. iv. It is not very safe from the point of view of transmission of diseases as houseflies and other insects go inside it easily.
36 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 d. Water Seal Latrine This type of latrine is permanent and more hygienic than the pit latrine. It prevents the spread of foul smell because of the use of water-seal pan. The lower part of pan consists of a looped portion that contains water. It allows excreta to pass easily down towards the pit but prevents gases and foul smell of the pit to spread in the environment. Advantages i. It is more hygienic and even semi-skilled manpower can make it. ii. This type of latrine can be constructed near the house. iii. It helps to keep the surroundings clean and healthy. Water-seal pan16 helps to prevent foul smell. iv. This latrine prevents spread of the diseases from human excreta. e. Sanitary Latrine It is modern concrete latrine. This type of latrine is more hygienic and made of advanced technology like flush system, safety tank, etc. Modern concrete latrine is widely used in urban areas. It can be constructed inside or outside the house. Activity How many latrines are there at your home? Write a short report on the excreta management system at your home and show it to your teacher. 2.4 School Health Screening Test School health screening is one of the important part of school health programme.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 37 School health programmes and services, at the places where implemented, have served as an important support system for children, identifying those with disorders that may not be obvious to parents, teachers, or the children themselves. Over time, these services became more sophisticated, with formal screening of specific age groups of schoolchildren for specific disorders replacing earlier years' general medical checks. Screening tests, which cover a wide range of disorders, are now standard procedures in all school health services. School health screening systems address a wide range of health issues, including growth and development, hearing and vision, speech and language, and dental issues. 2.5 Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Stress Stress Stress is a normal reaction to the pressures of everyday life. Worry, fear, anger, sadness and other emotions are also all normal emotional responses. They are all part of life. However, if the stress that underlies these emotions interferes with your ability to do the things we want or need to do, this stress has become unhealthy. Symptoms of emotional stress can be both physical, mental and behavioral. Physical symptoms include: • Heaviness in the chest, increased heart rate or chest pain. • Shoulder, neck or back pain; general body aches and pains. • Headaches. • Shortness of breath. • Dizziness, fatigue. • Losing or gaining weight; changes in eating habits. • Sleeping more or less than usual. • Gastrointestinal problems including upset stomach, diarrhea or constipation.
38 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 Mental or behavioral symptoms include: • Being more emotional than usual. • Feeling overwhelmed. • Trouble keeping track of things. • Loss of memory. • Trouble making decisions, solving problems, concentrating, getting your work done. • Using alcohol or drugs to relieve the emotional stress. Anxiety Anxiety is your body's natural response to stress. It's a feeling of fear or apprehension about what's to come. For example, going to deliver a speech on the first day of school, or speaking in front of strangers may cause some people to feel fearful and nervous. Anxiety is an emotional behavior that is associated with high levels of mental tension, the continuous stream of worrying thoughts, and could also cause physical changes in the body such as an increase in blood pressure. Anxiety is highly associated with the fear of imminent danger. However, most cases of anxiety in the contemporary society are associated with daily activities such as work, family life and related aspects such as money. Knowing this helps to beware of developing an anxiety disorder. Social anxiety disorder is an intense, persistent fear of being watched and judged by others. For people with social anxiety disorder, the fear of social situations may feel so intense that it seems beyond their control. For some people, this fear may get in the way of going to work, attending school, or doing everyday things. People with social anxiety disorder may experience:
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 39 • Blushing, sweating, or trembling • Pounding or racing heart • Stomachaches • Rigid body posture or speaking with an overly soft voice • Difficulty making eye contact or being around people they don’t know • Feelings of self-consciousness or fear that people will judge them negatively Anxiety disorders are generally treated with psychotherapy, medication, or both. There are many ways to treat anxiety, and we should work with a health care provider to choose the best treatment. Stress management techniques, such as exercise, mindfulness, and meditation, also can reduce anxiety symptoms and enhance the effects of psychotherapy. In problematic cases, it is better to seek for the treatment by talking to a professional health care provider in time. Otherwise an anxiety may develop to mental depression and other severe mental problems. Depression Depression is one of the most common types of mental health conditions and often develops alongside anxiety. Depression can be mild and shortlived or severe and long-lasting. Some people are affected by depression only once, while others may experience it multiple times. Depression can lead to suicide, but this is preventable when appropriate support is provided. It’s important to know that much can be done to help young people who are thinking about suicide. Depression can happen as a reaction to something like abuse, violence in school, the death of someone close or family problems like domestic violence or family breakdown. Someone might get depressed after being stressed for a long time. It can also run in the family. Sometimes we may not know why it happens. Depression in children and adolescents Depression can show up in children and adolescents as prolonged
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 40 periods of unhappiness or irritability. It is quite common among older children and teenagers, but often goes unrecognized. Some children might say they feel “unhappy” or “sad”. Others might say they want to hurt or even kill themselves. Children and adolescents who experience depression are at greater risk of self-harm, so such responses should always be taken seriously. Just because a child seems sad, it doesn't necessarily mean they have depression. But if the sadness becomes persistent or interferes with normal social activities, interests, schoolwork or family life, it may mean they need support from a mental health professional. Prevention and control of depression, anxiety, and stress For a person, being depressed is painful and weakening. In our family and society, many people might suffer from symptoms of depression, resulting in family strife, loss of work productivity, and misery for the person affected by the condition and those around them. The symptoms of mental illness may be noticed or not by the other people around a victim of a mental illness. It may be at the early stage or severe. If the condition is severe, there are also many non-medical solutions a person can take on their own to reduce symptoms of depression. Many therapists and doctors advise that depressed patients take steps like these, along with counselling and medication. Here are some methods a depressed person can engage in self-help to overcome or reduce the symptoms of depression. a. Get some exercise Exercise has multiple positive benefits beyond helping with depression symptoms such as improved cardiovascular health, weight loss, and reduced risk for developing many chronic diseases. Exercise helps with the symptoms of depression because it increases brain chemicals called endorphins. Even a few minutes a day of mild exercise can improve mood by elevating endorphin levels. b. Challenge negative thoughts When someone is depressed, they often engage in negative thinking.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 41 Thoughts such as, "I'm a failure," "No one likes me," or "I'll always feel this way," are common in a depressed person's mind. Negative thoughts like these become an unconscious habit, reinforcing the feeling of depression. c. Regular and balanced foods When a person is depressed, they often tend to eat poorly. Sugary, salty, and high-fat junk food can bring a temporary feeling of comfort, but ultimately these foods cause increase in blood sugar, weight gain, and bring on bad moods. Fresh fruit, salads, lean meats, oily fish such as salmon, and whole-grain bread are all good options to control mental illnesses like anxiety and depression. d. Adequate sleep Sleep is vital for our brain and body to regenerate, repair, and renew. Getting a good night's sleep each night improves overall health and energy levels, which can reduce symptoms of depression. Both depression and anxiety can contribute to sleeplessness (insomnia), which could include difficulty falling and staying asleep. Making changes in sleeping pattern to get adequate rest may help with getting a more relaxing sleep throughout the night. e. Drinking plenty of water Water is essential for all bodily functions. Drinking an adequate amount of water daily assists the body in removing toxins, improves the function of internal organs, and even enhances clear thinking. f. Make a change in routine When a person is depressed, they often get into a routine that reinforces the symptoms of depression. For example, a depressed person may get up, go to work, come home, watch the same shows on TV each night, and then binge on unhealthy foods before going to bed. A schedule like this can keep a person feeling bad about them. Changing routines can help to rewire the pathways of dopamine in the brain, an important brain chemical linked to feelings of happiness. The changes in routine do not need to be large to have a positive effect.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 42 2.6 Conversion Disorder Conversion disorder is a mental condition in which a person has blindness, paralysis, or other nervous system symptoms that cannot be explained by medical evaluation. Conversion disorder is thought to be caused by the body's reaction to a stressful physical or emotional event. General symptoms of conversion disorder include: • Abnormal movement, such as tremors or difficulty walking. • Weakness or paralysis. • Loss of balance. • Difficulty swallowing or feeling "a lump in the throat" • Seizures or episodes of shaking and apparent loss of consciousness (nonepileptic seizures) • Episodes of unresponsiveness. Conversion disorder cannot be perfectly treated with medications and medical interventions only, the symptoms can be managed effectively through proper behavioral treatment and understanding the underlying psychological cause of the condition. Followings are some of the preventive measures of conversion disorder:
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 43 Prevention of conversion disorder The primary method of preventing conversion disorder is to find ways to relieve stress and to avoid emotional trauma when possible. Some of other preventive measures may include: • getting treatment for any mental or emotional disorder that might be including depression • maintaining a good work and life balance • creating and maintaining positive relationships • having a secure and calm family atmosphere 2.7 Drugs Addiction In general, a drug is a chemical substance that can alter the physiological process of body systems. Drugs are used as a medicine or used in a medicine. The meaning of drugs is not confined to its general meaning if drugs are abused. Besides this, other non-medicinal addictive substances are also consumed nowadays. Some of the drugs and substances used commonly by drug addicts are: Tidigesic, Norgesic, diazepam, ibuprofen, opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, cannabis, etc. The world Health Organization defines drug as “any chemical entity or mixture of entities, other than those required for the maintenance of normal health, the administration of which alters the biological function and possible structure.” A drug addict becomes addicted after crossing certain stages. The stages are drug use, drug misuse and drug abuse. The necessary intake of a drug as prescribed by a medical practitioner, is called drug use. Sometimes, drugs use is essential for continuation of survival. If a person takes drug in an inappropriate way for any purpose without the prescription of medical personnel, it is called drug misuse. The deliberate use of an illegal drug or of too much of a prescribed drug is called drug abuse. When a drug user practices its abuse repeatedly, that may result in drug addiction. Drug addiction is the condition when an individual experiences
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 44 a repeated psycho-physiological need to take a habit-forming drug for compulsive satisfaction or intoxication. The intoxication produced by the drugs is termed as euphoria. Drug addiction has become a worldwide psychosocial problem today. Law and order are compulsory for all to know. No one can get excuse against a crime that has been committed just because the person does not know about the legal provisions related to that crime. For example, if a person consumes marijuana in Nepal, and police notice that, the person is regarded as a criminal and sent to jail. This criminal is not forgiven by the law just because he/she does not know that smoking marijuana is illegal. Therefore, people must know some of the basic laws related to drug addiction and drug consumption. In Nepal, the Narcotic Drugs Control Act, 2033 (1976), is the major law to control the production, import, sale and consumption of drugs. Section 3 of Narcotic Drugs Control Act includes the following in the definition of narcotic drugs: i. Cannabis/marijuana, ii. Medicinal cannabis, iii. Opium, iv. Processed opium, v. Medicinal opium, vi. Plants and leaves of coca, and Any substances prepared by mixing opium and extract coca, including mixture. The Narcotic Drugs Control Act regards the following acts as a crime of narcotic drugs, which is punishable as per law. The acts prohibited by Narcotic Drugs Control Act are listed below: i. Cultivation, production, preparation, buying, selling, export, import, trafficking, sortation or consumption of cannabis/ marijuana, ii. Cultivation of opium or coca or production of opium or coca leaves or other narcotic drugs,
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 45 iii. Manufacturing or preparing narcotic drugs, iv. Selling and distributing narcotic drugs, v. Export or import of narcotic drugs, v. Purchasing, storing, processing or conducting any trafficking of narcotic drugs Punishment for the offences • Anyone who consumes cannabis/ marijuana shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of up to one month or with a fine of up to Rs 2,000. • Anyone who cultivates up to 25 cannabis/ marijuana plants shall be punished with imprisonment for up to three months or with a fine of up to Rs 3,000. • Anyone who cultivates more than 25 cannabis/ marijuana plants shall be punished with imprisonment for a term of three years or with a fine from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 25,000. Activity DO THE FOLLOWING AND DISCUSS IN YOUR CLASS • Make a list of nutritious foods that are provided in your family. • What activities do you do for maintenance of your personal health? Exercise A. Answer the following questions. 1. Define community health. 2. What are the problems of community health in Nepal? Describe in short. 3. What do you mean by total sanitation? 4. What is modern concrete latrine?
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 46 5. Define depression, anxiety and stress in your own words 6. What is conversion disorder? What precautions should we adopt to prevent such disorder? Describe in short. 7. What is drug addiction? Enlist the preventive measures of drug addiction in the context of our society. B. Tick (√ ) the best alternative. 1. The community health is……………………. a. the cleanliness done for the all members of the society b. the sanitation of the community. c. process of making peoples health with community effort. 2. Anxiety is ………………… a. a severe mental illness that cannot be treated. b. our body's natural response to stress. . c. another name of stress and depression. 3. A borehole latrine has a typical diameter of ………………. a. 20 to 40 cm b. 10 to 50 cm. c. 200 to 400 cm. 4. Nepal Government has started "Total Sanitation" programme ….…… a. since 2021 AD. b. since 2011 AD. c. since 2017 AD.
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 47 3 Nutrition and Food Security Before You Proceed Energy is required to carry out any sort of work. Vehicles running on the roads are supplied energy with petrol and diesel. Huge trains run with the energy of burning coal. • Our fans and heater work with the electrical energy. • We walk, speak, think, run, and do various work. • Our body also produces heat energy continuously to keep itself warm. • Our body also needs energy. If it is so, how does our body get energy? Our body grows and develops itself. Besides, it fights against various disease germs to keep itself safe. How does it build millions of new cells for its growth? Guess yourself, discuss this matter with yourfriends and others, and match it with the text given below.
48 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 Introduction to Nutrition Nutrition is the process of proper intake and utilization of food, which is needed for continuing life processes. It is the process by which living things receive the food necessary for them to grow and remain healthy. Proper nutrition maintains the proper functioning of body tissues and cells. It is essential for survival. It is said that individual's health is a result of what s/he eats. Therefore, an individual must consume all sorts of food from different groups so that the body can fulfill its requirements for proper functioning and development. The food that we eat should contain appropriate nutritive values. The nutrients are categorized into six groups. They are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water. 3.1 Malnutrition This term is made up of a prefix ‘mal-’ and the word - ‘nutrition’. The prefix ‘mal-’ means improper or bad. Thus, the meaning of malnutrition is the incorrect or improper form of nutrition. There are two types of malnutrition. It is a condition that results from either excess or inadequate supply of any essential nutrients of food. They are over-nutrition and under-nutrition. Under-nutrition is caused if an individual does not take required nutrition for a long period of time. In contrast, over-nutrition is caused if an individual takes excess nutrients, more than required for the body. The causes of malnutrition include not only the scarcity of food. We must have proper knowledge of obtaining and consuming food in appropriate ways. The main causes of malnutrition are scarcity of food, lack of knowledge, diseases, and improper food handling. Over frying of food, improper storage, open storage, long-term storage, etc. damages the nutritional values of food items. Intake of such food items does not have any meaning in promoting our health. Malnutrition is seen mostly in infants and young children below five years of age. It has been a major problem in Nepal and other developing countries in the world. Pregnant women, illiterate people, poor people, and children are the main victims of malnutrition all over the world. Malnutrition results in undergrowth, weakness, mental retardation, lean and thin appearance, anemia1 , and various diseases. 1 Anemia = lack of blood or hemoglobin in the body
Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 49 3.1.1 Some Diseases Caused due to Malnutrition (Nutrition-Deficiency Diseases: Marasmus, Kwashiorkor, Anemia, Night Blindness, Scurvy, Rickets, Goiter). a. Marasmus: Marasmus is also called PEM (Protein Energy Malnutrition) because it is caused due to lack of both protein and carbohydrates. It is a common childhood health problem resulting in chronic diarrhea and anemia. It is caused basically by the lack of protein and carbohydrates supply to the children. It is seen most commonly in weaned infants of about one year of age. Weight of the victim declines severely and may become less than 60% of the standard weight. There is remarkable and rapid loss of muscle and tissues in the body. Symptoms of marasmus: Main symptoms of marasmus include thin arm, loose and dry skin, wrinkled face and body, shrunken body, wasted tissue, loss of appetite, dehydration, thin limbs and swollen stomach, retardation in body growth, etc. Preventive measures of marasmus: Increase in food intake, addition of carbohydrate and fats in food items, encouragement on breastfeeding, give knowledge about nutritious and balanced diet in the family. b. Kwashiorkor Kwashiorkor is a form of under nutrition caused due to deficiency of protein in children. Kwashiorkor develops when, after prolonged breast feeding, a child is weaned onto and inadequate traditional diet of starchy food. It is most common in children between the ages of one to five years, particularly to the first baby if the second one is born after short birth spacing. Symptoms of kwashiorkor i. Loss of appetite, diarrhea, and general discomfort
50 Health, Physical Education & Creative Arts - 8 ii. Underweight up to 60 to 80 percent of normal weight iii. Broken skin with remarkable rashes iv. Change in skin color v. Moon face, dry, scaly and rough skin vi. Enlarged stomach and liver vii. Accumulation of fluid round feet area in the beginning and its extension throughout the body Prevention and control of kwashiorkor i. Awareness and education program about the knowledge and importance of nutrition, balanced diet, and nutritive values ii. Identification of children suffering from malnutrition iii. Supply of protein-rich food stuffs to the children iv. Prolonged breast feeding to the children v. Protection of children from infectious diseases and proper immunization. Difference between marasmus and kwashiorkor Marasmus Kwashiorkor i. It is caused due to lack of protein and carbohydrates both. i. It is primarily caused due to lack of proteins. ii. Elderly appearance with loose, dry, and wrinkled facial appearance with bony outlook is seen in marasmus. ii. Moon face, scattered burns, and distended abdomen, and general edema are seen in kwashiorkor. iii. It is also known as protein-energy malnutrition (PEM). iii. It is just a protein deficiency malnutrition. iv. It attacks infants below one year of age. iv. It attacks children between one to five years. v. It is mainly found to be associated with hunger, starvation, and poverty. v. It is mostly found among the weaned children provided with adequate starchy food.