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5.0 CONCLUSION

As this article strives to provide an insight into how and when cryptography should
work, readers should have the basic understanding that this field deals with either abstract,
experimental or established mathematical theory. Implementation is however a matter of
using cryptography and merging it with the technical field. A web developer might have to
implement the SSH algorithm in the transport layer of the TCP/IP protocol, a router
designer will have to use a combination of AES together with current wireless encryption
standard which is WPA2 (there are already articles on WPA 3). There are also hardware
engineers who are looking into the possibilities of using the cipher on programmable
devices like FPGA and embedded controllers to differentiate its usefulness.

For those who are really enthusiastic about the current trends in cryptography, the
current interest in research is towards quantum cryptography and elliptic curve
cryptography. If students are interested, a handful of C compilers are available to be used
for compiling and general experimentation. HDL compilers are also available from website
like www.opencores.org for experimenting simulation on the same thing on hardware.
Whichever way one chooses, it boils down to three things, which are the chosen cipher that
the designer is interested to work with, second, where he is actually going to use it and
finally, if he is actually satisfied with the overall performance of his system after turning it
on with the encryption.

REFERENCES

Ashley; Black, Phil et al (2013). "Snowden out of airport, still in Moscow". CNN.
Retrieved April 11, 2015.

Cannon JC. 2015. “The Problem with Encryption”. Retrieved from
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/problem-encryption-jc-cannon-cipt-cipm

Fish G. 2019. “Why Data Encryption Remains a Really Complex Issue”. Retrieved from
https://people.howstuffworks.com/why-encryption-is-so-hard-to-agree-on.htm

Gault M. 2020. “Six Reasons why Encryption isn’t working”. Retrieved from
https://guardtime.com/blog/6-reasons-why-encryption-isnt-working

Guez Y.2016. “6 encryption mistakes that lead to data breaches”. Retrieved from
https://www.crypteron.com/blog/the-real-problem-with-encryption/

Luenendonk M. 2018 . “5 Common Encryption Algorithms and the Unbreakables of the
Future”. Retrieved from https://www.cleverism.com/5-common-encryption-
algorithms-and-the-unbreakables-of-the-future/

Raynard R. 1996. “The Secret Codebreaker II, A Cryptanalysis Handbook”. Softcover. p51

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TutorialPoint. (2014). “Cyptography Tutorial”. Organizational Behavior. Retrieved from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/cryptography/index.htm

Webster, E. M. (2001). Federal Communications Commission. Navigation, 2(6), 189–191.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-4296.1950.tb00554.x

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Plastik Biodegradasi

Azlina Binti Khairi 1, Nor Juhaliza Binti Md Nordin2

1Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]
2Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRAK

Beg plastik adalah benda paling popular dalam kehidupan seharian semua manusia di muka
bumi. Majoriti masyarakat hari ini sedar akan lambakan sampah yang 60% daripadanya
adalah berasaskan bahan plastik. Kita juga sedar akan keadaan bumi yang kian tenat
menanggung sampah plastik yang menimbun saban hari. Walaupun begitu, kesedaran itu
dipandang sepi sedangkan kempen Sifar Beg Plastik dilaksanakan pada setiap hari Sabtu,
bayaran 20sen bagi setiap beg plastik yang diminta dilaksanakan dan pengharaman
penggunaan polisterina sebagai bekas membungkus makanan telah mula dilaksanakan
mulai tahun 2007 hingga kini namun masih belum dapat mendidik masyarakat Malaysia
khususnya untuk turut berperanan menjayakan usaha menyelamatkan bumi. Oleh itu, para
saintis hari ini telah memperkenalkan beg plastik biodegradasi yang mudah urai. Ini adalah
alternatif yang difikirkan baik buat masa ini kerana sifat biodegradasi yang mudah diurai
mengikut keadaan persekitaran. Beg plastik jenis ini juga dilihat lebih bersifat mesra alam.

Kata kunci: beg plastik, biodegradasi

1.0 PENGENALAN

Bolehkah kita menggunakan beg plastik? Jawapannya, boleh. Namun begitu, ia
menjadi satu kesalahan apabila plastik digunakan sekali sahaja dan kemudian dibuang.
Pembuangan plastik selepas hanya sekali penggunaan menyebabkan lambakan sampah
plastik dan lama-kelamaan merosakkan alam sekitar. Satu kajian pencemaran plastik yang
dijalankan oleh Jenna R. Jambeck bersama beberapa pengkaji lain dan diterbitkan dalam
jurnal berwasit bertajuk Science pada tahun 2015 menunjukkan bahawa daripada 192
negara pesisir, Malaysia berada di tangga kelapan sebagai negara pengeluar sisa buangan
plastik terbesar di dunia. Kajian itu juga membuktikan bahawa bagi tahun 2010, Malaysia
menghasilkan 0.94 juta tan sisa plastik terbuang dan lebih kurang 40 peratus daripadanya
dibuang ke laut. Daripada keseluruhan sisa pepejal yang dihasilkan di Malaysia, 13 peratus
daripadanya ialah sisa plastik. Manakala pada tahun 2018, rakyat Malaysia menghasilkan
lebih 19,000 tan sisa pepejal setiap tahun dan 60 peratus daripada jumlah itu adalah plastik.

Malaysia dan beberapa buah negara telah merangka pelbagai usaha untuk
menghentikan penggunaan plastik sekali guna. Kajian oleh United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) dan World Research Institute (WRI) menunjukkan, sehingga Julai
2018, 127 daripada 192 negara yang dikaji telah merencana beberapa dasar untuk
mengawal penggunaan plastik. Antaranya ialah cukai terhadap pengeluaran beg plastik,

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mengenakan bayaran kepada pengguna yang ingin menggunakan plastik, undang-undang
atau peraturan untuk mengharamkan atau menghadkan penggunaan sekali guna bahan-
bahan plastik seperti straw, sudu, garfu serta pinggan polisterina.

Berdasarkan kajian Institute of Energy and Enviromental Research (IEER) pada
1992 menunjukkan polisterina yang diperbuat daripada HCFC-22 berpotensi mengancam
persekitaran tiga hingga lima kali lebih tinggi berbanding bahan buangan yang lain. HCFC-
22 adalah hidroklorofluorokarbon yang menyumbang kepada penipisan lapisan ozon
apabila dibakar. Plastik biodegradasi atau mudah difahami sebagai plastik mudah urai
merupakan sinar harapan buat bumi kita. Plastik biodegradasi dihasilkan menggunakan
bahan mentah kos rendah, mudah didapati dan boleh diperbaharui (Mbey et al. 2012).

2.0 SIFAT KIMIA BAHAN MUDAH URAI

Nor Shafiqah dan rakan-rakan (2018) menjelaskan salah satu polimer yang
dikategorikan sebagai polimer boleh urai adalah poli (asid laktik) (PLA). PLA adalah salah
satu daripada biopolimer yang diperoleh daripada sumber yang boleh diperbaharui seperti
kanji dan jagung. Produk sampingan selepas penguraian PLA tidak memberi kesan buruk
kepada alam sekitar. Kerana sifat biodegradasinya, PLA adalah alternatif yang baik untuk
pengeluaran pembungkus makanan, mangkuk dan cawan pakai buang, serta dalam aplikasi
perubatan.

2.1 Proses penghasilan plastik biodegradasi

Penghasilan plastik biodegradasi melalui beberapa proses utama:

Rajah 1. Proses penghasilan plastik biodegradasi

Plastik konvensional dan polistirena mengambil masa antara 20 hingga 1000 tahun
untuk terurai, walhal plastik biodegradasi yang bersifat organik hanya memerlukan tempoh
sebulan sahaja untuk terlupus. Selain bersifat mesra alam, plastik biodegradasi mempunyai
kelebihan dari segi daya ketahanan di mana plastik biodegradasi boleh berada pada suhu
140 darjah Celsius selama 1 jam (dalam ketuhar biasa atau ketuhar gelombang mikro) dan
pada darjah beku -5 Celsius selama lebih daripada 24 jam.

Sungguhpun begitu penggunaan plastik biodegradasi masih belum cukup popular
kerana kosnya yang mahal disebabkan industri biodegrasi adalah revolusi baru terhadap
pengeluran plastik dalam usaha menggantikan plastik konvensional yang sedia ada.
Dapatan daripada taklimat Kesedaran dan Penguatkuasaan Penggunaan Produk
Biodegradasi Di Premis Perniagaan Putrajaya, baru-baru ini, penceramah dan aktivis dari
Global Go Green for Biodegradable Dr Aishah Aziz memperincikan beberapa isu berkaitan
ancaman plastik dan polisterina kepada alam sekitar dan kesihatan manusia serta

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keistimewaan plastik biodegradasi. Beliau menjelaskan terdapat dua jenis utama plastik
biodegradasi dalam pasaran.

Jadual 1. Jenis plastik biodegradasi

Hydro Biodegradable Plastic (HBP) Oxo Biodegradable Plastic (OBP)

Mendegradasi dan membiodegradasi dengan Terurai sedikit lambat berbanding HBP

lebih pantas berbanding OBP

Sedikit mahal berbanding OBP Murah

HAMPAS JAGUNG Sifat fizik lebih baik serta mudah diproses.

Dihasilkan menggunakan sedikit sebatian asid

SUMBER YANG GANDUM lemak logam peralihan tertentu (contoh:besi)
BOLEH

DIPERBAHARUI

HAMPAS TEBU

HBP BOLEH
DIHASIL DARIPADA

SUMBER YANG BAHAN
TIDAK BOLEH BERDASARKAN
DIPERBAHARUI PETROLEUM

CAMPURAN
KEDUA-DUA

SUMBER

Beliau turut menegaskan bahawa plastik biodegradasi hanya mengambil masa yang
singkat untuk terurai, dapat diperbaharui malah lebih mudah untuk dikitar semula dan tidak
bertoksik. Jadual dibawah pula menunjukkan perbezaan plastik biodegradasi dan plastik
konvensional

Jadual 2. Perbezaan plastik biodegradasi dan plastik konvensional

Plastik konvensional Plastik Biodegradasi

Masa yang panjang untuk terurai (antara 20 Masa yang singkat untuk terurai (lebih kurang

hingga 1000 tahun) sebulan)

Boleh dikitar semula tetapi kos kitar semula Mudah dikitar semula

beg plastik lebih mahal dari pembuatan satu

beg plastik.

Apabila dibakar dan dikitar semula akan Tidak bertoksik dan mesra alam kerana tiada

membebaskan gas metana serta bahan karbon yang terlibat dalam proses

pencemar lain. pembuatannya maka tiada karbon yang akan

dilepaskan.

Kandungan yang terdapat didalam beg plastik Diurai oleh bakteria semula jadi

iaitu bersifat karsinogenik akan mengganggu

hormon, DNA manusia dan menyebabkan

manusia mudah untuk mendapat penyakit

kanser. Penggemar makanan laut

bercengkerang berpotensi tinggi terkena

kanser.

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Walaupun plastik biodegradasi dilihat sangat mesra alam di darat tetapi wujud
keburukan kepada ekosistem di laut. Pakar Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Universiti Malaya,
Prof Madya Dr Sumiani Yusoff melihat keadaan itu mampu menimbulkan risiko kesihatan
kepada manusia. "Ini kerana walaupun ianya terurai dalam bentuk partikel yang lebih kecil,
ia juga akan menjadi makanan oleh hidupan marin dan manusia berada paling atas kitaran
makanan, ia masih lagi akan berbalik kepada manusia dan ini pasti akan memberi kesan
kesihatan," katanya. Jadual di bwah menunjukkan keburukan plastik biodegradasi terhadap
hidupan marin.

Jadual 3. Keburukan plastik biodegradasi terhadap hidupan marin
Keburukkan
Tidak mengurai dengan cepat di laut kerana plastik biodegradasi hanya akan mengurai
pada suhu 50‫ﹾ‬C (bukan suhu di laut)

Plastik yang telah terurai kepada saiz yang lebih kecil tidak terapung dan akan tenggelam
ke dasar laut sekaligus menjadi makanan hidupan laut.

Mempunyai komponen tambahan seperti petroleum atau sebatiannya untuk tujuan
pembakaran kesannya akan merbahayakan hidupan laut.

Beg plastik mudah urai masih memerlukan komponen asing yang ditambah dalam
pembuatannya. Komponen tambahan pula memerlukan bahan tenaga bagi proses
pembakaran dan juga bahan-bahan lain. Oleh hal demikian, proses ini turut memberi impak
kepada alam sekitar jika tidak dikawal.

3.0 KESIMPULAN

Beberapa penyelesaian harus diketengahkan bagi mengatasi masalah penggunaan
plastik konvensional dan juga polisterina. Antaranya ialah pelancaran program kitar semula
secara berterusan dengan penyediaan fasiliti seperti tong-tong sampah berlainan warna
yang cukup dan perlu di letakkan di banyak tempat awam supaya dapat memberikan
kesedaran kepada masyarakat Malaysia khususnya.

Selain itu, pendidikan terhadap kesan penggunaan beg plastik secara tidak terkawal
harus disebar luas kepada semua peringkat umur masyarakat Malaysia. Menurut
Jamaluddin (2002), penggunaan media dalam mengatasi isu-isu alam sekitar melalui
kempen oleh media dan juga seminar dalam mengetengahkan isu alam sekitar ke seluruh
negara. Ia juga disokong dengan kajian Mohammed Zin dan rakan-rakan (2003) yang
menyatakan peranan media dalam literasi alam sekitar menerusi kempen-kempen di
televisyen dan dokumentari adalah penting.

Akhir sekali, penguatkuasaan undang-undang dan pemantauan dari pihak berkuasa
juga memainkan peranan penting dalam menjayakan misi pengurangan penggunaan beg
plastik. Pencegahan tanpa henti dan bermusim dilihat mampu mengurangkan penggunaan
beg plastik. Pakar Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Universiti Malaya, Prof Madya Dr Sumiani
Yusoff menyarankan agar masyarakat Malaysia khususnya menggunakan beg kitar semula

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atau bakul jika ke pasar dimana bakul boleh digunakan berulang kali tanpa memberi kesan
kepada alam sekitar.

RUJUKAN

Ambil masa singkat untuk terurai.2017. Diambil dari
https://www.hmetro.com.my/dekotaman/2017/09/264038/ambil-masa-singkat-
untuk-terurai

Beg plastic dan kesan terhadap alam.2018. Diambil dari
https://people.utm.my/zulkeflee/2018/11/11/bag-plastik-dan-kesan-terhadap-alam-2/

Biodegradasi, bumi dan kita (2019). Diambil dari
https://www.malaysiakini.com/letters/482559

Jamaluddin, M.J. 2002. Pengurusan Persekitaran di Malaysia: Isu dan cabaran. Bangi: Pusat
Pengajian Siswazah Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.Diambil dari
http://ejournals.ukm.my/akademika/article/view/488/4137

Noor Shafiqah, Noor Afizah, Wan Hafizi & Ishak. 2018. Sifat Mekanik dan Boidegradasi
biokomposit poli (Asid Laktik). Journal of Polyer Science and Technology 3(2)
2018:15-19

Mbey JA, Hoppe S & Thomas F. 2012.Cassava starch–kaolinite composite film. Effect of
clay content and clay modification on film properties. Carbohyd Polym. Diambil
dari https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5756213/

Perjuangan menghentikan penggunaan plastic sekali guna.2019. Diambil dari
http://www.ikim.gov.my/index.php/2019/02/11/perjuangan-menghentikan-
penggunaan-plastik-sekali-guna/

Plastik mudah urai benar-benar mesra alam.2017. Diambil dari
http://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/perspektif-plastik-mudah-urai-benar-
benar-mesra-alam-130396

Taklimat Kesedaran dan Penguatkuasaan Penggunaan Produk Biodegradasi. Diambil dari
https://www.facebook.com/putrajaya/posts/10154792042591723

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) dan World Research Institute (WRI).
Diambil dari http://www.ikim.gov.my/new-wp/index.php/2019/02/11/perjuangan-
menghentikan-penggunaan-plastik-sekali-guna/

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Exploring Linux Operating System Using VMware

Rozanita Binti Baharudin

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

An operating system is the system software that manages all the hardware and other
software on a computer. Most computer users use Microsoft Windows for software or
operating systems. In addition to windows, Linux is also an operating system that has been
widely used by computer users. To run other programs every machine has to have an
operating system. However, we can use Virtual Machine (VM) software to explore the
other operating system without disturbing the operating system we are using. There are
many types of virtual machine applications available on the internet. Some of the most
commonly used virtual machine applications are VirtualBox and VMware.In this sharing,
VMware has been used to explore 11 different types of Linux Operating System which are
Kali Linux, Bionicpupy, Fedora, Kubuntu, Lite, Manjaro, Mint, Open Suse, Slackelive,
Ubuntu and Zorin

Keyword: Operating System, Virtual Machine

1.0 INTRODUCTION

System software is an operating system that controls other software and all the
hardware on a device. An operating system, also can be defined as a Resource Manager
which provides an environment for execution of programs and offers services that
application software can use. It executes fundamental jobs such as recognizing keyboard
input, keeping track of files, directories on the disk, sending output to the monitor screen
and managing peripheral devices.

To run other programs every machine has to have an operating system. The
operating system manages the hardware usage for various users among the different device
programs and application programmes. This essentially creates a framework for other
initiatives to do valuable work within. Microsoft Windows, Apple iOS, Google's Android
OS, Apple macOS, Linux Operating System are the five popular operating systems

2.0 MICROSOFT WINDOWS VS LINUX

Microsoft Windows remains the most common worldwide operating system. Most
computer users also use Microsoft Windows for applications or operating systems.
Windows does have a number of sequences. The first version of Windows OS was released
in 1985, and is a basic GUI, an expansion of the current disk operating system (MS-DOS)
and a significant update when it was released in 1995. Many PCs only run on the Windows

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operating system. The new version of Windows OS is Windows 10 that currently
dominates the market.

Linux is also an operating system that has been commonly used by device users in
addition to windows. Linux is an open-source, UNIX-based operating system created in
1991. Also Linux operating system comes with a graphical user interface (GUI) with some
necessary software that is used daily. It is also used on desktops, handheld devices, gaming
consoles and digital media. Linux distributions which are most common are:

i. Ubuntu
ii. Mint
iii. Red Hat
iv. Deepin
v. Fedora
vi. Debian
vii. Open SUSE

Operating systems are typically pre-loaded into any device you buy. Many people
use Microsoft Windows as an operating system that comes with their machine but operating
systems can be modified or even changed. As a result, many computer users are not aware
of operating system programs other than Microsoft Windows, or have no access to them. In
reality, computer users may also seek to explore other operating systems by using Virtual
Machine software, without disturbing the operating system they are using.

3.0 VIRTUAL MACHINE (VM)

A virtual machine (VM) is application software that not only demonstrates the
actions of a single computer but can also perform tasks such as organization programs and
running applications like a separate computer. There are many types of virtual machine
applications available on the internet. Some of the most commonly used virtual machine
applications are VirtualBox and VMware. In this sharing, VMware has been used to
explore 11 different types of Linux Operating System:

i. Kali Linux
ii. Bionicpupy
iii. Fedora
iv. Kubuntu
v. Lite
vi. Manjaro
vii. Mint
viii. Open Suse
ix. Slackelive
x. Ubuntu
xi. Zorin

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Table 1. Kali Linux

Desktop

Menu Application

Terminal

Files

System
Information

Setting

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Resolution

Table 2. Bionicpupy

Desktop

Menu Application

Terminal

Files

Setting

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LibreOffice

MPV Player

Table 3. Fedora

Desktop

Activities

File Manager

System
Requirement

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Terminal

LibreOffice

Disk Analyzer

Table 4. Kubuntu

Desktop
System Setting
File Manager

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Terminal
CD Creator
LibreOffice
Desktop Setting

Table 5. Lite

Desktop
Menu

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System
Information
File Manager

Terminal

Control Panel

LibreOffice

Table 6. Manjaro

Desktop

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Menu

File Manager

Terminal

System Setting

System
Information

Global Theme

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Table 7. Mint

Desktop

Menu

System Info

Home

Run Command

File Manager

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LibreOffice

Table 8. Open Suse

Desktop

Menu

System Setting

System
Information

LibreOffice

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Bash-Konsole

Disk Partition

Table 9. Slacke Live

Desktop

Home Folder

LXTerminal

Bootparameters

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Terminal

LibreOffice

Devices

Table 10. Ubuntu

Desktop

Activities

System
Information

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Setting
Rhythmbox
Web Browser
LibreOffice

Table 11. Zorin

Desktop
File Manager

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Setting
System Details
Terminal
LibreOffice
Disk

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REFERENCES
Steven Melendez; Reviewed by David Weedmark, MCSE; Updated April 09, 2019 (2012).
Wilson K. (2015). About Windows. In: Everyday Computig in Windows 8.1. Apress,

Berkeley, CA
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-of-operating-system-set-1/
https://www.techo0pedia.com/definition/4805/virtual-machine-vm
https://books.google.com.my/books?id=PUZ3dtjb12kC&pg=RA16-PA2&lpg=RA16-
PA2&dq
https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/history_of_microsoft_win
dows_operating_system.html

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A Review: Constraints on Usage of Renewable Energy
Technologies in Rural Area at Malaysia

Nurul Huda bt Jamil1, Nurzaimawani bt Hussin2

1Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]
2Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

An enormous natural property likes oil, natural gas, fossil fuel and coal well-known as non-
renewable basis are used to generate electricity to fulfill the request of electric power. It
acquired millions of time to custom. Wind, solar and biomass is the most renewable energy
type used in the rural area. There are three constraints of usage the renewable energy
technologies discuss in this paper. The rural residents are not very attracted to use these
kinds of energy sources, mainly because of lack of knowledge about the performance and
reliability of these technologies. Renewable energy is the best solution for the rural
resident if all the barrier that have been discussed can be eliminate.

Keyword: renewable energy, rural area, electricity

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Energy consumption is enlargement because of the rising complexity populations all
over the world. Throughout the growth of earth, demand for electricity is rising day by
day. Energy supply is a central problem for the world. An enormous natural property likes
oil, natural gas, fossil fuel, coal etc well-known as The non-renewable foundation is used to
generate electrical capacity to meet with the order for electrical resources that has gained
millions of time for practice. The world’s natural treasures are minimal. They will be over
one day and once we consumption these non-renewable sources were finished which will
pretense a major threat to electricity production. (Sarkar2018)

At Malaysia electrical grids are typically not available in these rural area due to the
geographical limitations (challenging terrain) that make access to these sites difficult.
Therefore, supplying power to an off-grid BS is a significant challenge. Conventionally, a
diesel generator (DG) is used to supply electrical power to a base station at an off-grid site
(MH Alsharif 2014)

2.0 ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION METHOD

This chapter presents the most renewable energy type from the (Badal et al., 2019)
that was used in the rural area in worldwide nowadays.

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2.1 Wind
Figure 1 is a simple diagram for using wind turbine for producing electricity. This

consists about two or three propeller around over a shaft, at the upper of the turbine. The
wind movement contributed to the force on the to replace the generator rotor which
engenders the induction of electromagnetic. The produces of electricity come from the
changes of the flux across the conductor. In wind turbine two types of propeller are used,
namely type of drag and type of lift. The propeller style drag has higher torque and slow
rate of rotation. The HAWT (Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine) expenditures propeller style
lift. The leading edge at the lower air pressure is produced while the higher air pressure on
the edge of the tail is created. Induction generator able to consumes extra responsive
power. Commonly, the Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) is used to overwhelm these
difficulties. An inverter that manages the machine's torque and actual and the current is
used via regulating the reactive power.

Figure 1. Block Diagram to generate Wind Energy
2.2 Solar

The simple block diagram for the generation of electricity using the solar system as
shown in Figure 2. The solar cell in a solar system transforms light energy to electrical
energy. Once the photons touch the solar cell, the photon will be absorbed. Furthermore,
the force of the photons pushes the electrons to the neurons; while the electron can be free
if the frequency is high enough, they will bring the charge across the circuit. Light-
producing current is referring to current formed through solar system. Photons produced by
solar cell form pairs of electron holes, whereas the carriers are received via a p-n junction
to isolated related electron commencing the hole. Furthermore, an electrical field is washed
away as the minority carriers join the p-n junction as the light produced by the carrier
permits into the external circuit, connecting the emitter and the base together.

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Figure 2. Block Diagram to Generate Solar Energy
2.3 Biomass

There are several approaches for producing energy from biomass. Fig. 3 explains
the process of production of electricity via biogas. It requires the clear combustion of
biomass, which produces the fuel needed to heat the water and turn it into a flux. The
current is used to fuel a generator of electricity. Another phase in which wood is gasified to
create gas that can be used. In this method, the gasifier is used to remove the together wet
and dry biomass. In the absence of oxygen, dried biomass, such as crop waste, generates
high temperature synthesized gas (CO+H2). Once again, wet biomass is converted into
methane gas (CH4), i.e. agricultural waste. In this scenario, both synthesis and methane gas
may be used to supply a gas turbine for electricity production.

Figure 3. Block Diagram to Generate Bio – Energy
3.0 CONSTRAINTS

Renewable Technology has a variety of external factors influencing the decision-
making phase as seen in Figure 4. Such chapters mainly address the cost of development
and allocation of capital as renewable energy is implemented and utilized in rural areas.
Awareness of the customer shall also be regarded.

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Figure 4. Decision-Making Process on Renewable Energy

3.1 Resource Assessments

The estimation of the exact quantity of renewable energy supplies is a significant
obstacle to the development of clean energy sources. For example, wind energy is very
versatile due to time and place, but often causes organizational challenges and market
uncertainty. The findings of the evaluation of resources are the foundation for determining
whether or not to construct wind power, as the quantity of resources directly impacts both
electricity and economic efficiency (Yeo et al., 2009)

Solar panel, wind turbine, biomass and several new sources of rewable energy act as
main microgrid mover. They produce and deliver the microgrid with the energy. The
reliability of the microgrid relies primarily on the sources of the renewable energy to this
nature. The reliability of sustainable energy bases relies with a number of issues, such as
wind, solar power, sunshine, etc. Not all of these variables are stable all the period. They
are different with the seasonal transition, the time. The output performance of microgrid
has also been changed where its contributed to the heterogeneity of these criteria have an
effect on the efficiency of such renewable energy sources. Some modification of these
variables can induce oscillation of voltage and frequency, and microgrid activity would be
dangerous. Different types of load dynamics or uncertainties hinder microgrid performance
and make microgrid voltage unstable. As these uncertainties affect the device, they will not
be able to generate a 50 Hz frequency and the voltage drive to oscillate for a definite period
of time.

Wind and solar power absorb the major portion of all forms of renewable energy
desalination. Technologies such as forestry, hydroelectricity and ocean power, though, can
still be used in limited amounts to provide water for limited desalination plants. The biggest
downside of wind and solar energy is their unpredictability and dependency on the
environment. This is why clean technologies can not meet the need for electricity networks
on their own. Batteries are things that commonly used nowadays, became the mainly of the
purposes; with high repair costs, weather and low battery life, the deterioration of batteries
is a main problem for those storage structures (Emailion, 2020).

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Despite the reduced efficiency, the utilities are often facing significant shortages of
electricity owing to lengthy queues in these areas. This therefore factors in rising
production, operation and repair prices. To order to minimize the total cost of power
supply, companies tend to utilize clean technology-based distributed technology systems
(DERs) to remote power grids (Che L 2014 and Khodayar). Such devices, classified as
standalone microgrids (MGs), are typically configured to be self-sufficient and to work in
isolation (Chowdhury 2009). The very critical issue of the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) republics as they step forward with renewable energy is to certify the stability of
electricity systems as intermittent renewable energy sources, especially solar photovoltaics.
Currently, the United Arab Emirates is the only GCC place where standards for the
installation of solar energy are extremely strong to specifically require the planning of large
PV power systems (Griffiths, 2017).

3.2 Production Cost

Sales costs are another significant consideration when determining the market price
profits of renewable energy suppliers. The expense of generating renewable energy is far
higher than that of fossil fuels, however as sustainable development advances, the
difference is rising and the environmental advantages are being comprehensive to fossil
fuel generators. It is therefore very important to determine the exact cost of pro. Due
toward the high cost of wind turbines, PV panels and baterries a large total of research has
been concentrated on the scale of wind turbines and solar and battery banks for charges
requirements (McGuire et al., 2012). (Ban et al., 2019) involve in a research based on the
Battery Swap Station (BSS). BSS drained EV batteries may be substituted temporarily with
full charged ones and existing PV-based BSS works rely mainly on consolidated networks,
where large-scale distributed PV production centrally recharges all spent batteries. Such
systems involve a lot of space for consolidated PV panels to be mounted and are often
expensive where BSSs are placed in metropolitan areas.

Dubai's plan to trade CSPs for electricity storage at an average expense
considerably higher than that seen in current utility-scale solar PV auctions suggests that
solar PPAs alone are not the only significant concern for policy makers in the area of
renewables. Alternatively, sufficient complementary capability, whether form production,
demand control or storage, need also be measured. (Griffiths, 2017) Moreover, researcher
(I. C. Muresan et al., 2017) noticed that the key reason rural communities do not utilize
green energy sources is the shortage of financial support available for capital expenditure.

Nonetheless, in (Esmaeilion, 2020) the optimum calculation approach for PV /
battery / diesel, Diesel and wind / PV / battery / diesel integrated energy conversion
systems to satisfy rural load demand was suggested under various fuel cost scenarios. The
optimization approach takes into account the effect of fuel prices on the highest degree of
renewable penetration, component scale and energy costs (COE). The first tests have shown
that PV systems are the most cost-effective option for the supply of load requirements. The
elimination of subsidies for fuel prices lowers the position of the diesel engine in the output
of electricity by approximately 20–55%.

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3.3 Knowledge

Almost 2/3 of the respondents (I. Muresan et al., 2017) claim that they do not have
adequate information regarding green energy and how it can be included in day-to-day
operations. Such lack of awareness may clarify why rural people are less informed
regarding the quantity of electricity generated by renewable sources. (Al & Judith, 2018)
claims that strong fossil fuel subsidies, weak power prices from alternative energy sources,
and long-term acceptance cycles are major obstacles that such learning mechanisms need to
address for citizens of Oman.

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are several important variables that are considered critically in guiding
decisions on which energy resources are appropriate for the conditions. Assessing the exact
quantity of renewable energy supplies is a Huge challenge to the production of clean energy
sources. In the current situation, the cost of generating green energy is far more expensive
than fossil-fueled oil, so it is very unlikely to assume equal rivalry between two separate
energy sources. Governments usually encourage clean energy sources in order to reduce the
economic capability deficit resulting from cost of production. Rural people are not quite
drawn to the usage of these kinds of energy sources, primarily due to lack of information
regarding the efficiency and durability of these technologies. Renewable electricity is the
only option for rural communities, provided all the obstacles that have been addressed can
be overcome.

REFERENCE

Al, A., & Judith, S. (2018). Assessing strengths and weaknesses of renewable energy
initiatives in Oman : an analysis with strategic niche management. Energy Transitions,
2(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41825-018-0008-9

Badal, F. R., Das, P., Sarker, S. K., & Das, S. K. (2019). A survey on control issues in
renewable energy integration and microgrid. Protection and Control of Modern Power
Systems, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41601-019-0122-8

Ban, M., Yu, J., Shahidehpour, M., & Guo, D. (2019). Optimal sizing of PV and battery-
based energy storage in an off-grid nanogrid supplying batteries to a battery swapping
station. Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, 7(2), 309–320.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40565-018-0428-y

Che L, Khodayar M, Shahidehpour M (2014) only connect: microgrids for distribution
system restoration. IEEE Power Energy Mag 12(1):70–81

Che L, Shahidehpour M (2014) DC microgrids: economic operation and enhancement of
resilience by hierarchical control. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 5(5):2517–2526

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Chowdhury S, Chowdhury SP, Crossley P (2009) Microgrids and active distribution
networks. The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), London

Council, N.R., et al. (2010). Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and
Impediments. National Academies Press.

Elhadidy, M.A., Shaahid, S.M.: Technical and economic assessment of grid-independent
hybrid photovoltaic-diesel-battery power systems for commercial loads in desert
environments. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11(8), 1794–1810 (2007)

Esmaeilion, F. (2020). Hybrid renewable energy systems for desalination. In Applied Water
Science (Vol. 10, Issue 3). Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-1168-5

Griffiths, S. (2017). Renewable energy policy trends and recommendations for GCC
countries. Energy Transitions, 1(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41825-017-
0003-6

McGuire, C., Brew, M. R., Darbari, F., Bolton, G., McMahon, A., Crawford, D. H., Weiss,
S., & Stewart, R. W. (2012). HopScotch-a low-power renewable energy base station
network for rural broadband access. Eurasip Journal on Wireless Communications
and Networking, 2012, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1687-1499-2012-112

MH Alsharif, R Nordin, M Ismail, Classification, recent advances and research challenges
in energy efficient cellular networks. Wireless Pers. Commun. 77(2), 1249–1269
(2014)

Muresan, I. C., Chiciudean, G. O., Harun, R., Arion, F. H., Chiciudean, D. I., Oroian, I. G.,
& Jitea, M. I. (2017). Constraints On Use of Renewable Energy Technologies in
The Rural Area: A Case Study from The North-West Region of Romania. 1753(4),
1746–1753.

Muresan, I., Chiciudean, G. O., Rashid, R., & Arion, F. (2017). Constraints on Use of
Renewable Energy Technologies in the Rural Area: A Case Study from the North-
West Region of Romania TECHNOLOGIES IN THE RURAL AREA: A CASE
STUDY. December.

Sarkar, S.K., Roni, M.H.K., Datta, D., Das, S.K., Pota, H.R. (2018). Improved Design of
High-Performance Controller for Voltage Control of Islanded Microgrid. IEEE
Systems Journal, 99, 1–10.

Yeo, S. S., Kang, D. J., & Park, J. H. (2009). Intelligent decision-making system with green
pervasive computing for renewable energy business in electricity markets on smart
grid. Eurasip Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, 2009.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2009/247483

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Basics of Wired, Wireless Communication and
E-waste Awareness

Karthega a/p Shanmugam1, Roslinda bt Samion2

1Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson;[email protected]
2Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The world of telecommunication is growing rapidly leaving everyone to run along with it
quickly to avoid being left behind by the current technology that offers many different
features, benefits and trends. This article helps in a little in depth in the evolution of
wireless communication in a lay man language so that basic knowledge can be conveyed to
everyone. Ranging from 1G up to 5G, all the difference features and design of hand phones,
the capacity of the system, the technology used, are well explained. Apart from that,
difference in terms of pros and cons of wired and wireless technology is also articulated. In
this modern days, hacking becomes a major concern, therefore the best practices of wired
and wireless networking is explained so that one can take necessary action and precaution
to avoid violation of data confidentiality. Moving on, the cellular network is illustrated on
the methods to stay connected with network which includes processes such as handoff and
frequency re-use. Not forgetting the mother of all network, GSM components are explained
and illustrated to show the flow of connection. Finally, no matter how far and fast the
technology seem to evolve, people awareness in environment sustainability is important in
order to preserve the earth well condition for future generation. E-waste is a topic which
was also touched upon. Introduction of e-waste and what can be done to sustain the
environment is discussed briefly here.

Keywords: Wireless communication, frequency reuse, handoff, GSM, e-Waste

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wired technology exist prior to wireless technology, in which wired technology was
the basics of communication. Although wireless communication experience rapid and fast
changes, wired communication still exist and carries essential part in day to day business
till today. After all both wired and wireless has its own benefits and drawbacks
overweighing one another. And therefore its application and relevance to the industry is
very specific to its own usage. As the world has alarmed by Covid-19 crisis recently, the
communication industry has become one of the surviving factor in social, economic,
education even political aspects. However, communication that we used today has gone
through many phases and was growing rapidly step by step. It has somehow surpassed the
stage of slow internet connectivity and now has reached satisfied speed in most part of the
world. Connectivity speed is the significant faction in surviving biological crisis as we are
in now. Looking back, communication evolve 1G,2G,3G,4G and 5G and synchronously

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evolving with the types of handphones. The G is known as generation or in simple word as
“upgrade of technology/system”. When the G upgrades, so do the features of handphones.

2.0 EVOLUTION OF HANDPHONES AND WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

1G marks the beginning of all generation. It runs basically on analog system.
During the times of 1G, handphones existed was fairly large in size and may not meet the
taste of current millennials. Besides, technologies used have limited bandwidth, speed, as
well as capacity and many may not have the capability to use handphones as it is used as
luxury possessions. Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone
System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS) and Push to Talk (PTT) was
among the technologies that was deployed at that time. Its successor, 2G, has more
significant contribution towards wireless era as this when the first digital technology was
applied. GSM that we are well known today was developed back in 2G. These are times
where handphones shrink smaller in size since they emitted less radio power and comes
with attractive colorful designs. Applications such as SMS is a common talk among
youngsters of the year 2000. It carries many plus points because when handphones emitted
less radio power, battery lifetime lasted longer.

Digital coding has resulted in less noise, providing extra security in data and voice
calls. Shortly after 2G appears, 2.5G emerges with General Radio Packet Services (GPRS)
and the implementation of packet switched network has taken place. Besides enhancement
in data rates up to 155kbits/s it can provide basic internet connection of email checking and
the MMS was emerged as latest trend during the good old days. The chain of Gs keeps
evolving rapidly resulting of 3G shortly after. EDGE, HSDPA was the technology that
provides faster internet connectivity. Handphones also keeps in par with fast growing
technology by evolving into smart phones, where phones become mini computers. The
touch screen has captured many young generations. Camera is no more a separate object to
carry with as it was integrated with handphones and has reasonable higher pixels. New
terms such as “selfie” has also become a trendy talk among every walks of life. Internet
connections was way faster than before, video streaming was possible, and website can be
browsed easily. Just after 3G, 4G has emerged with even faster speed, large bandwidth and
capacity. It uses different backend network unlike GSM before this. 4G is well known for
its technology known as Long Term Evolution (LTE). Before 4G has fully spread its wings,
the 5G has already emerged bringing up more surprises. 5G provides a very high bandwidth
and is expected to bring in a swift in wireless communication era in which user never have
experienced before. 5G embeds advance features and will be a powerful technology in
upcoming years.

3.0 WIRED AND WIRELESS

As the name suggests, commonly there are two types of network, wired and
wireless. Wired network uses cables to connect devices to the internet or other network
where else wireless rely on the air as transmission medium and therefore no wires are used.
The cables in wired network can be anything ranging from fiber optics, copper wire or even
twisted pair. On the other hand, wireless uses infrared and radio frequency to carry signals

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between devices. Mobile phones, Bluetooth headsets, remote controls, wireless sensors to
name some that are categorized as wireless devices. Wireless network is a main utility for
mobile devices but may not be the main choice for office computers.

Wired and wireless has its own advantage and disadvantage. Instead of looking at
pros and cons, the features of both networks are discussed here. In terms of installation,
wireless is an easier option obviously due to the freedom of not being cable-attached with
one device to another. Besides, wireless offers better mobility as the users can be mobile
and move anywhere within the coverage area as long the network connection is available as
opposed to wired users where their movement is restricted with cable length. Users find
hassle to look for another port for wired connection and this restricts the need for being
mobile instantly. However, data is more secured in wired networks as compared to
wireless, as tapping or hacking for wired network is tricky. Besides, when it comes to
interference, obviously wireless which uses air as transmission medium is more susceptible
to outdoor noise and disturbance from other radiated devices hence causing signal
distortion for worst case. When looking at the apparatus needed for wired networks, the
uses hubs and switches are common where else wireless uses routers to transmit data to and
fro between devices. When dealing with wired networks, terms such as Local Area
Network, LAN are common. Wireless uses Wireless Local Area Network, WLAN instead,
besides Wireless Personal Area Network, WPAN, Infrared and Cellular. WLAN is used for
wireless connectivity between devices within limited space such as office. Meanwhile
WPAN provides even smaller coverage, mainly connection between two devices, namely
Bluetooth, infrared and zigbee. Mobile phone uses wider wireless networks to make calls,
internet connection and etc. known as cellular network.

3.1 Best practices of wired and wireless networking

When security is the upmost priority, always opt for wired network as it offers more
reliable and secure internet connection. That is why it is advisable to avoid public/shared
wi-fi during banking transactions. This also applies for business purpose navigations and
academic or researches because wired networking has dedicated bandwidth instead of
shared network connections enabling any unnecessary interference and wireless
interruptions. Whenever wired networks are not possible, it is better to use
encrypted/secure wireless networking. Most free wi-fi spots doesn’t have encryption
feature and uses plain text to traffic data openly giving high chances to “sniff” off any
confidential information. On the other hand, the usage of wireless printers also becomes a
security concern. Wireless printers can receive information to be printed wirelessly and
this also easy for hackers to capture without the knowledge and permission of the owner.
Hackers has the ability to change printer settings since the printer is connected online.
Therefore, it is always the best practice to cable connect to computers whenever printer is
used. Also, wireless printers should be powered off when not in use to avoid unwanted
alteration on the settings. Besides, non- wi-fi based devices should be operated outside
frequency range of 2.4Ghz-5.8Ghz to avoid normal operation of wireless computing.

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4.0 CELLULAR NETWORK

Mobile phones stay in connection or in line using cellular network. This is the
network and the main reason that makes calling is possible using mobile phones. Without
this network, mobile phones are merely a thing with very limited capability that does not
serve its main purpose – calls and connection. Below is how the cellular network looks like.
The most common one exist till today is known as Global system for Mobile
Communication. GSM was deployed way back during 2G with first digital transmission
and exist with upgraded version till today. It is the upmost essential underlying network
topped with many upgraded versions. This is the network where the last link (base station
to phones) are wireless. From the diagram, it can be seen there are many divided shapes
known as cells. This pattern is actually distributed over an actual land area where the cells
are land area that is divided equally with coverage patterns that the base stations can
provide. In simple terms, each base station, provides coverage limited to the boundaries of
its respective cells. Mobile phones that located under a particular cell is dependent for
coverage with its respective base station. When mobile phones move from one cell to
another, the coverage signal also been transferred from one base station to another base
station located on the new cell.

Figure 1. Network topology

4.1 Handoff

This process is quick and neat and is known as hand-off. If the mobile phone lost its
connectivity to the corresponding base station, the phone is said to be not in coverage and
user can easily identify this by looking at the tower signal on the phone display. This
normally happens where the user is in a location that cannot be detected or hidden by the
nearby base stations such as in caves, jungles namely. The process of transition of signal
from one base station to another when the user is moving which is known as hand –off can
be categorized as three types, hard handoff, soft handoff, and softer hand off. The
difference relies on when the connection is to be break in order to make new connection
with other base station. As mentioned before when user moves from once cell to another
(example driving), mobile which is previously connected to one base station, breaks the

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connection and quickly makes new connection with the new base station from the new cell
that the user moves. This type o handoff is known as the hard hand-off whereby the process
involves breaking old connections before making new connections. As opposed to soft
handoff, the mobile doesn’t not break old connection but instead secures new connection to
new base station first, before breaking the old one. This make before break provides better
connectivity as the mobile actually makes sure the existence of connectivity before
breaking the existing connection. Where else, softer handoff is more flexible when both the
old connection and the new connection with base stations is combined and optimized with
better connectivity level when the user moves.

Figure 2. Hand off process
4.2 Frequency Reuse

The spectrum of frequency is limited for the use of telecommunication. Therefore, it
is vital to practice optimum utilization in order to maintain smooth operation. As a result of
this a technique known as frequency reuse method is applied. As the name suggest,
frequency reuse is a method used where a set of frequencies used in a cell is reused in
another cell as well. This comes with condition that both cells that uses the same
frequencies should not be adjacent or near to each other to avoid interreference. The reuse
method optimizes the limited number of frequencies by not having to provide a “new” set
of frequencies of every cell created instead can be reuse.

The diagram below shows a simple example of frequency reuse. A set of frequency
band is divided into 1 to7 cells the number indicates the reuse pattern and how it is reused
with geographical distance to avoid interference. A group of cells (from 1 to 7) that doesn’t
contain any reuse of frequency is known as cluster. The diagram here has 5 clusters.
.

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Figure 3. 7 Cell Frequency Reuse

4.3 Global system for Mobile Communication (GSM)

GSM is standard developed in 2G and it is the underlaying basic network that was
used until today. The only difference is that this system is upgraded and modified to meet
the speed and capacity of today. The GSM system consists of cellular network as described
before in which the geographical land is subdivided into coverage area known as cells.
These cells are the boundaries in which Radio Base Station is capable of transmitting the
signal. Each cell has its own base station that handles signals to and fro from the phones
that are located within the cell that base station placed. The base station contains different
kind of antenna depending on the application. Basically, there are two types of antenna
used, omni directional and directional antenna. Omni directional radiated signal in 360
degreed and is shaped like donut when viewed in 3D. Where else directional antenna
radiates signal only at a certain direction. These base stations are then connected to Base
Station Controller (BSC). BSC acts like the brain behind BTS. Collectively, BTS and BSC
are called BSS or Base Station Subsystem.

The BSS are then connected to the core of the network system. The system consists
of the backend which has Mobile Switching Centre (MSC), Visitor Location Register
(VLR), Home Location Register (HLR), Authentication Centre (AUC), and Equipment
Identity Register (EIR). In simple words, MSC performs the main operation, the switching
of calls. It also connects to the outside network such as PSTN or internet. HLR, VLR and
EIR are known as registers or database. HLR is the database where all subscriber’s identity
will be stored in here. As soon as a user buys the sim, their identity is stored in this place.
Where else for the Visitor Location Register, the identity of a person “visiting” a certain
cell, is stored temporarily into this register. Once the person has moved out of the cell, the
register automatically clears out. This helps in location tracking of constantly moving
subscriber. EIR is also a database that stores equipment identity number that has been
banned from the network. For instance, a stolen handphone where the owner wishes to
block its operation on the network can do so by informing to the service provider to banned

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it from network. The IMEI of handphones need to be known beforehand so that the service
provider can immediately store it in EIR. Finally, is the AUC. AUC aids the network for
authentication services to avoid unnecessary problems. It is important that all these systems
work cooperatively to handle a smooth network operation.

Figure 4. The GSM Network Architecture
4.4 E-Waste

Despite the current affairs on the unsolved, ever existing environmental issues that
human have created leaving no rooms for future generation, the mobile E-waste has added
up another big concern when information technology has spiked up tremendously in the
whole world. Electronic waster consists of mobile phones, printers, computers, laptops,
photocopy machines, and also television sets that is thrown away. The problem arises when
the volume of these of e-waste and the toxic material containing it can leave a devastating
scenario if not managed in a proper way. E-waste mostly contains 60% materials such as
iron, copper, aluminum, gold, and 30% of plastic where else the hazardous compound
comprises about 2.7%. These creates toxic and rising concern upon disposal. Besides,
heavy metal such as mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, as well as flame retardants also
exposes once it is being disposed. These chemicals can create serious health concern and
can affect our organs such as liver, kidney and even brain. According to the research
conducted by Sharma Pramila from School of Environmental Sciences, it is said that the e-
waste is fastest growing waste type in the world.
5.0 CONCLUSION

As telecommunication is arising as one of the fast-developing technology, it is
become a universal knowledge that people from different background are really interested
upon. Back were the days where terms such as Megabytes, speed, connectivity are only
spoken among technicians. Difference is today, these types of technical terms is a common
language among everyone especially youngsters. Therefore, this article helps to articulate
wireless and network in a very simple language. Despite the fast-changing technology, it is

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also important to create awareness in sustainability and environmental issues. This article
has also touched little on e-waste.

REFERENCES

Bhalla, M. R., & Bhalla, A. V. (Volume 5– No.4, August 2010). Generations of Mobile
Wireless Technology: International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 –
8887).

Cannon JC. 2015. “The Problem with Encryption”. Retrieved from
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/problem-encryption-jc-cannon-cipt-cipm

Fish G. 2019. “Why Data Encryption Remains a Really Complex Issue”. Retrieved from
https://people.howstuffworks.com/why-encryption-is-so-hard-to-agree-on.htm

Gault M. 2020. “Six Reasons why Encryption isn’t working”. Retrieved from
https://guardtime.com/blog/6-reasons-why-encryption-isnt-working

Guez Y.2016. “6 encryption mistakes that lead to data breaches”. Retrieved from
https://www.crypteron.com/blog/the-real-problem-with-encryption/

Kohli,Kumar . 2013. “ FPGA Implementation of Cryptographic Algorithms using Multi-
Encryption Technique”. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer
Science and Software Engineering. Volume 3, Issue 5. P112

Luenendonk M. 2018 . “5 Common Encryption Algorithms and the Unbreakables of the
Future”. Retrieved from https://www.cleverism.com/5-common-encryption-
algorithms-and-the-unbreakables-of-the-future/

Nebraska-Lincoln, U. o. (2020). Wired and Wireless Netwoking. Retrieved from IT Best
Practices: https://its.unl.edu/bestpractices/wired-vs-wireless-networking

Parikh, P. P., Kanabar, M. G., & Sidhu, T. S. (2010, 25-29 July). IEEE.org. Retrieved from
Opportunities and challenges of wireless communication technologies for smart grid
applications: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/5589988

Pramila, S., Fulekar M.H. , & and Pathak Bhawana . (2012). E-Waste- A Challenge for
Tomorrow. Research Journal of Recent Sciences , Vol. 1(3), 86-93.

Purohit, H. (2013). A Comparative Study Of Different Types Of Handoff Strategies In
Cellular Systems. Retrieved From Https://Www.Semanticscholar.Org/Paper/A-
Comparative-Study-Of-Different-Types-Of-Handoff
Purohit/Dd3a3b10bcc6125e8d78e4aff34d9057582ad679

Quinn, M. 2003. Parallel Programming in C with MPI and OpenMP, 1st ed., New Jersey:
McGraw-Hill higher education.

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Rescorla, E. 2000. SSL and TLS Designing and Building Secure System, 1st ed., New
Jersey: Pearson Education Corporate Sales Division.

Stalling, W. 2003. Cryptography and Network Security, 3rd ed., New Jersey: Pearson
Education International.

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Teknologi Ikatan Klip Komponen Separa Pengalir:
Analisa Data Kebarangkalian Punca Kecacatan Klip

Terlucut

Mimi Suhana Abd Aziz

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRAK

Pembuatan litar bersepadu digital, analog dan isyarat campuran dibuat menggunakan
teknologi Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS). Antara cabaran
mikroskopik dalam proses pembuatan litar bersepadu adalah kebolehpercayaan dan
kemampuan pembuatan juga pelesapan kuasa. Antara proses yang berevolusi dalam proses
pembuatan litar bersepadu yang menghadapi cabaran mikroskopik ini adalah proses ikatan
wayar (wire-bonding) dalam peringkat akhir proses pembuatan litar bersepadu. Proses
ikatan wayar ini telah mula digantikan kepada teknologi ikatan klip (clip-bonding) bagi
meningkatkan tahap daya dan keperluan ketumpatan kuasa untuk pelbagai produk akhir
yang dihasilkan. Namun begitu, permasalahan klip terlucut (deprived clip) merupakan
antara kecacatan yang wujud dalam teknologi ini. Di dalam kajian ini, analisa
kebarangkalian punca kecacatan klip terlucut dijalankan bagi melihat kebolehtahanan
teknologi ikatan klip dalam proses pembuatan komponen separa pengalir teknologi CMOS.
Kajian menumpukan kepada dua set keadaan iaitu jumlah epoksi yang digunakan dan
proses pemeriksaan lot pada mesin. Hipotesis yang dinyatakan terbukti berlaku
perhubungan diantara jumlah epoksi yang digunakan dan proses pemeriksaan lot pada
mesin membawa kepada potensi bagi kecacatan klip terlucut.

Keyword: CMOS, litar bersepadu, wire-bonding, clip-bonding, deprived clip

1.0 PENGENALAN

Sejajar dengan perkembangan teknologi pembuatan komponen separa pengalir bagi
tahun terkebelakang ini, kadar pengurangan saiz peranti Complementary metal–oxide–
semiconductor (CMOS) adalah agresif dalam pengeluaran dan penyelidikan bidang
berkaitan. Litar bersepadu CMOS integrasi berskala besar (LSI) banyak digunakan bagi
pelbagai aplikasi. Pada tahun 2011, 99% cip litar bersepadu, termasuk kebanyakan litar
bersepadu digital, analog dan isyarat campuran, dibuat menggunakan teknologi CMOS.
Namun, pelbagai masalah serius muncul apabila metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET) ini digunakan untuk merealisasikan litar bersepadu berskala besar. Di
dalam kajian ini, analisa kebarangkalian punca kecacatan klip terlucut dijalankan bagi
melihat kebolehtahanan teknologi ikatan klip dalam proses pembuatan komponen separa
pengalir teknologi CMOS.

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2.0 PERKEMBANGAN TEKNOLOGI PEMBUATAN KOMPONEN SEPARA
PENGALIR
Dalam kajian H. Iwai dari tahun 1995, 2002, 2003 dan 2004, pembangunan litar

elektronik telah dicapai dengan pengurangan skala saiz komponen sejak penggantian tiub
vakum kepada transistor lebih 40 tahun yang lalu. Sejajar pada tahun 1965, Hukum Moore
menyatakan bahawa jumlah transistor pada cip meningkat dua kali ganda bagi setiap 18
hingga 24 bulan. Ramalan ini menjangkakan teknologi semikonduktor akan menggandakan
keberkesanannya bagi setiap 18 bulan. Hukum Moore ini telah diverifikasi dalam laporan
oleh The McClean Report edisi 2020 IC Insights (dikeluarkan di Januari) yang mana sejak
lima dekad yang lalu, DRAM, memori flash, mikropemproses, dan grafik pemproses telah
mengesan keluk yang diramalkan oleh Moore (rujuk Rajah 1).

Rajah 1. Tren Hitungan Transistor bagi Peranti Elektronik sehingga 2019

Hukum Moore telah menjadi asas dan piawaian kepada pemain industri pembuatan
komponen separa pengalir yang mengesahnyatakan terdapat dua kali ganda bilangan
transistor dalam setiap cip bagi setiap dua tahun. Daripada Rajah 1 juga menunjukkan
terdapat pengurangan kadar pertumbuhan transistor bagi beberapa produk litar bersepadu
selama 10-15 tahun terakhir. Antara faktor yang dilaporkan didalam laporan Mc Clean pada
March 2020 adalah faktor penggunaan kuasa dan juga cabaran yang berkaitan dengan had
skala telah memperlahankan kadar peretumbuhan transistor. Sebagai contoh, jumlah
transistor DRAM meningkat pada kadar purata kira-kira 45% per tahun hingga awal tahun
2000an tetapi perlahan pertumbuhannya kepada kira-kira 20% melalui generasi 16Gb yang
muncul pada tahun 2016. Samsung memulakan pengeluaran dengan peranti DRAM 16Gb
cip tunggal pada suku akhir tahun 2016. Satu tahun sebelumnya Samsung memulakan
pengeluaran besar-besaran cip DRAM 12Gb, dan peranti 8Gb pada tahun sebelumnya.
Jumlah transistor untuk pemproses aplikasi siri A yang digunakan dalam iPhone dan iPad,
meningkat pada kadar tahunan 43% sejak 2013. Kadar itu termasuk sebagai titik akhir

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pemproses A13, dengan jumlah 8.5 bilion transistor. Pada separuh pertama tahun 2020,
Apple dijangka akan melancarkan iPad Pro berdasarkan pemproses A13X baru.

Didalam laporan Mc Clean Januari 2020 mengenai pasaran litar bersepadu, IC
Insights meramalkan pertumbuhan penjualan dalam lapan kategori dijangka meningkat
sebanyak 8% atau lebih, untuk keseluruhan pasaran litar bersepadu pada tahun 2020. Dua
kategori produk iaitu produk Automotif-Litar Logik Tujuan Khas dan Unit Mikro
Pemproses Tertanam, muncul dalam senarai pertumbuhan teratas sepanjang tiga tahun iaitu
bagi tahun 2018, 2019 dan 2020, seperti yang ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2.

Rajah 2. Unjuran Pertumbuhan Pasaran Litar Bersepadu bagi tahun 2018 hingga 2020

Melihat perkaitan antara kehendak pasaran dan produk berpotensi iaitu produk
automotif adalah dipengarahui oleh rekabentuk kenderaan masa hadapan. Antara faktor
yang di kenalpasti oleh Rokadiya dan Yang adalah faktor persekitaran, ekonomi dan sosial
yang mempertimbangkan peraturan pelepasan karbon dioksida (CO2), insentif cukai dan
infrastruktur pengisian yang memperlihatkan evolusi yang ketara dalam jangka masa
pendek dan jangka masa panjang. Peranti separa pengalir kuasa adalah komponen utama
dalam sistem kenderaan elektrik (EV), kenderaan elektrik hibrid (HEV) dan kenderaan
hibrid plug-in (PHEV). Beberapa penerbitan menyatakan bahawa perbandingan peranti
separa pengalir didalam kenderaan konvensional petrol dan kenderaan EV adalah bernilai
$330 dan $750 dengan sebahagian besar bahagian nilai diwakili oleh peranti kuasa yang
digunakan di penyongsang utama (main inverter), pengecas on-board dan penukar DC-DC.

2.1 Cabaran dalam Rekabentuk Digital

Didalam industri pembuatan peranti separa pengalir, cabaran dalam rekabentuk
digital dan pembuatan melibatkan masalah mikroskopik dan melangkaui isu makroskopik
yang memperlihatkan isu yang lebih besar. Dengan merujuk Rajah 3, masalah mikroskopik
ini antaranya melibatkan isu rekabentuk berkelajuan tinggi, saling berhubungan, hingar,
kebolehpercayaan, kemampuan pembuatan dan pelesapan kuasa. Sebagai contoh,
kemampuan pembuatan menggambarkan implikasi kebolehkerjaan pada setiap tahap
proses, termasuk kesan kecacatan pada susun atur, pemetaannya terhadap kerosakan
elektrik, dan pendekatan yang sesuai untuk mengesan kerosakan tersebut. Manakala isu
makroskopik melibatkan waktu pemasaran, pengabstrakan aras tinggi dan kebolehjangkaan
produk.

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Rajah 3. Pecahan Cabaran dalam Rekabentuk Digital
3. PROSES PEMBUATAN LITAR BERSEPADU DAN EVOLUSI

TEKNOLOGI IKATAN KLIP KOMPONEN SEPARA PENGALIR
Penghasilan litar bersepadu melibatkan pelbagai peringkat. Ia melibatkan proses
tumbesaran hablur silikon yang digunakan untuk pembentukan silikon. Silikon ini adalah
bahan asas bagi penyediaan wafer. Apabila wafer telah terhasil, proses pengoksidaan
dilakukan dan diikuti proses pengedopan dan fotolitografi. Ini seterusnya diikuti dengan
proses pelogaman dan punaran. Contoh-contoh pemunar dan lapisan yang dipunarkan
adalah punaran basah (punaran kimia) dan punaran kering (punaran plasma). Merujuk
kepada Rajah 4, wafer yang telah potong akan dikenali sebagai kepingan die dan akan
melalui proses ikatan die, heat curing dan ikatan wayar sebelum ke proses molding untuk
melengkapkan pakej litar bersepadu tersebut.

Rajah 4. Proses Pembuatan Pakej Litar Bersepadu

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Teknologi yang berevolusi menunjukkan perubahan daripada teknologi ikatan
wayar kepada teknologi ikatan klip. Menurut Albert, teknologi ikatan klip digunakan bagi
meningkatkan tahap daya dan keperluan ketumpatan kuasa untuk pelbagai produk akhir
yang dihasilkan. Berbeza dengan kaedah konvensional proses die attach dengan ikatan
pelekat atau pematerian wayar, pakej berkuasa tinggi dan peranti diskrit, seperti MOSFET
dan IGBT, menggunakan pes pateri untuk menyambungkan cetakan ke substrat asas dan
atau plumbum. Teknologi ikatan klip sebahagiannya menggantikan sambungan ikatan
dawai standard antara die dan plumbum menggunakan jambatan tembaga pepejal, yang
juga dipateri oleh pes pateri. Ini membolehkan ketahanan pakej yang unik, pemindahan
haba yang lebih baik, dan prestasi pertukaran yang sangat pantas kerana pakej yang kecil.

Rajah 5. Teknologi Ikatan Klip (Sumber http://www.cirtek-electronics.com/)
3.1 Kecacatan Klip Terlucut

Penggunaan teknologi ikatan klip ini walaubagaimanapun masih di peringkat
pembangunan dan penambahbaikan. Di dalam proses ikatan klip ini, apabila lead frame
melalui proses Trim and Form yang mana berlaku proses untuk mengasingkan lead frame
tersebut diantara satu sama lain, berlaku kecacatan klip terlucut. Ia berlaku apabila klip
yang dipotong terlucut daripada lead frame.

Rajah 6. Imej Imbasan XRay Kecacatan Klip Terlucut

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Daripada kecacatan yang terhasil satu analisa rajah tulang ikan dibuat bagi
mengenalpasti kebarangkalian punca kepada kecacatan klip terlucut terhasil. Rajah 7
menunjukkan enam kelompok punca kecacatan klip terlucut. Enam kelompok tersebut
adalah faktor persekitaran, faktor manusia, faktor kaedah yang digunakan, faktor bahan
yang digunakan, faktor mesin yang digunakan dan faktor pengukuran. Daripada analisa
rajah tulang ikan yang dihasilkan, satu set log data ralat bagi mesin proses Die Attach and
Clip Attach direkodkan. Log data ralat bagi mesin berkenaan direkod kerana pada mesin
berkenaan kecacatan klip terlucut boleh berlaku.

Rajah 7. Rajah Tulang Ikan bagi Klip Terlucut (Deprived Clip)

4.0 ANALISIS LOG DATA RALAT MESIN PROSES IKATAN KLIP

Bagi mencari kebarangkalian punca kecacatan klip terlucut, hipotesis awal bagi
kecacatan ini adalah dari kelompok mesin yang digunakan. Terdapat dua keadaan yang
dilihat iaitu jumlah epoksi yang digunakan dan proses pemeriksaan lot pada mesin. Satu set
log data ralat bagi mesin proses Die Attach and Clip Attach direkodkan bagi melihat tren
kepada hipotesis tersebut.

Rajah 8. Jumlah Jenis Ralat Terhasil daripada Mesin DA

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Daripada Rajah 8, ralat yang paling tinggi dicatatkan adalah saiz epoksi terlalu kecil
iaitu sebanyak 34, diikuti dengan saiz epoksi terlalu besar sebanyak 19 kali. Kedua-dua kod
ralat ini adalah berkaitan dengan hipotesis yang pertama jumlah epoksi yang digunakan.

Rajah 9 (a) menunjukkan tren data bagi Pad Top semasa data direkodkan. Data ini
berfokuskan kepada ralat saiz epoksi. Daripada rekod, terdapat 15 kawasan dimana bacaan
yang direkodkan adalah berada di luar julat yang ditetapkan. Daripada 15 kawasan ini,
pecahan saiz epoksi terlalu kecil dan saiz epoksi terlalu besar direkodkan seperti di dalam
Rajah 9, dan ini mewakili 17% daripada ralat saiz epoksi daripada rekod harian
pemeriksaan mesin pre-bond. Bagi Lead Top, data pengukuran pre-bond yang direkodkan
secara konsisten hanya melibatkan bacaan lebih daripada julat atas had yang ditetapkan.
Rajah 9(b) menunjukkan hanya saiz epoksi terlalu besar diperoleh daripada log data
tersebut dan mewakili 18% daripada ralat saiz epoksi daripada rekod harian pemeriksaan
mesin pre-bond.

(a)

(b)

Rajah 9. Jumlah Ralat Berfokus Saiz Epoksi pada Kawasan (a)Pad Top dan (b)Lead Top

Merujuk Rajah 10, hasil analisa log data menunjukkan terdapat 3 jenis ralat yang
paling banyak dijumpai iaitu Kod Ralat 640 iaitu Postbond Inspection Failed, Kod Ralat
655 bagi Post Bond Placement dan Kod Ralat 194 Input Indexer Error. Bagi mesin CB ini,
direkodkan terdapat 30 kali kekerapan ralat Postbond Inspection Failed berlaku, 20
kekerapan Post Bond Placement dan 14 kekerapan Input Indexer Error.

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Rajah 10. Jumlah Jenis Ralat Terhasil daripada Mesin CB
Rajah 10(a) menunjukkan tren data pre-bond bagi kawasan Source. Daripada rajah
tersebut dilihat bahawa hanya saiz epoksi terlalu kecil direkodkan, yang menunjukkan
bahawa tren ini disebabkan oleh bacaan yang berada di luar had julat rendah. Apabila
perbandingan data log dilakukan, didapati had ketetapan julat yang salah menyebabkan
jumlah kesalahan pada log ralat tidak sama dengan hasil data pre-bond (0.55 to 2.1 mm2).
Seterusnya, Rajah 10(b) menunjukkan tren data pre-bond bagi kawasan Gate. Didapati
tiada sebarang kelainan yang ketara bagi set data ini. Data yang konsisten bagi kawasan
Gate dan had ketetapan julat yang betul digunakan.
(a)

(b)

Rajah 11. Jumlah Ralat Berfokus Saiz Epoksi pada Kawasan (a)Source dan (b)Gate

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5.0 KESIMPULAN

Daripada log data dan analisa yang dilakukan, hipotesis yang dinyatakan terbukti
berlaku dan mempunyai perhubungan sebagai antara punca terjadinya klip terlucut.
Kekerapan berlakunya ralat pada saiz epoksi membawa kepada potensi berlakunya
kecacatan klip terlucut. Pemeriksaan mesin berfungsi seperti yang diharapkan dan dapat
mengesan kelainan pada mesin DA dan mesin CB. Dari data pemeriksaan mesin CB,
terdapat penggera yang dicetuskan oleh mesin untuk ralat pemeriksaan Post bond
(Postbond Inspection Failed) dan ralat penempatan Post bond (Post Bond Placement) yang
berkaitan dengan pemeriksaan keadaan klip (penempatan klip). Ini juga membawa kepada
potensi tinggi kepada kecacatan klip terlucut. Data imej yang direkodkan juga mempunyai
beberapa offset pada kedudukan atau penempatan klip. Tiada masalah dijumpai bagi jumlah
pateri kecuali pada kawasan Source yang menggunakan had bawah yang salah sebagai
spesifikasi pengeluaran.

RUJUKAN

Ajay Sattu. (2019). Power Packaging for Automotive Semiconductors – Now and Future.
Amkor Technology, Inc.

Albert Heilmann, Umicore, & Stefan Strixner, Zestron. (2007). Clip Bonding On High
Power Modules, Semiconductor Digest.

H. Iwai and S. Ohmi. (2002). Silicon Integrated Circuit Technology from Past to Future,
Microelectron. Reliab., 42, 465-491.

H. Iwai, H. S. Momose, M. Saito, M. Ono, Y. Katsumata. (1995). The Future of Ultra-
Smallgeometry Mosfets Beyond 0.1 Micron, Microelectronic Engineering, 28, 147-
154.

H. Iwai. (2003). Cmos Downsizing Toward Sub-100 Nm, Solid-State Electron. 48, 497-
503.

H. Iwai. (2004). Future Semiconductor Manufacturing-Challenges and Opportunities, Iedm
Tech. Dig., 11-16.

Heilmann, A. & Strixner, S. (2007). Clip Bonding On High-Power Modules. 16. 18-20.

Hiroshi Iwai, Kuniyuki Kakushima, Hei Wong. (2005). Challenges for Future
Semiconductor Manufacturing, International Journal Of High Speed Electronics
And Systems. Vol. Xx, No. X (2005) 1–39.

John, Reiner & Vermesan, Ovidiu & Bayerer, Reinhold. (2009). High Temperature Power
Electronics Igbt Modules for Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles, Proceedings - 2009
Imaps International Conference On High Temperature Electronics Network, Hiten
2009.

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Pineda De Gyvez, J., & Pradhan, D. (Eds.). (1999). Integrated Circuit Manufacturability:
The Art of Process and Design Integration. Chichester: Wiley-Ieee.

S. Rokadiya, Z. Yang. (2019). Overview of Global Zero-Emission Vehicle Mandate
Programs, International Council On Clean Transportation (Icct). Apr 24.

The Mc Clean Report. (2020). 26 Of 33 Ic Products Forecast to Demonstrate Positive
Growth in 2020, IC Insight Research Bulletin. January 22, 2020.

The Mc Clean Report. (2020). Transistor Count Trends Continue to Track with Moore’s
Law, IC Insight Research Bulletin. March 15, 2020.

The Mc Clean Report. (2020). A Complete Analysis and Forecast of the Integrated Circuit
Industry, IC Insight Research Bulletin. 5 January 2020.

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Visual Basic Programming: About Components

Fadilah Mat Assain@Hashim

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Elektrik, Politeknik Port Dickson; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In the Visual Basic programming environment there are important things that need to be
known that are related to the components or also known as the elements. Rationale for
understanding about components or elements to facilitate the learning process and the
process of developing a program or system. The success of each program developed
depends on the creative ideas and the use of the components contained in this software to
launch the development process. Programs developed using Visual Basic Programming
software are not only limited to the education sector but can also help for the business
sector, multimediaproducts and even electronic games. In this writing also explains the
advantages of Visual Basic programming as well as the basics related to this environment.

Keyword: Visual Basic Programming, Components

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One of a programming language known as Visual Basic (VB) is a high level
programming language published by Microsoft. VB is also categorized as object-oriented
programming which is user friendly, easy to learn it and use. It has been evolved from a
previous version of DOS called BASIC. BASIC means Beginners' for All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code. Microsoft has since published a range of iterations of Microsoft
Visual Basic, starting Visual Basic 1.0 to the new edition of Visual Basic 6.0. VB is an
easy-to-use programming language built for novice users to understand and encourages
everyone to use it. Through this application many interesting programs that feature
graphical user interface (GUI) can be developed. Furthermore, VB can also be combined
with other features including Rapid Application Development (RAD), Application
Graphical User Interface (GUI), and Database Access using Data Access Objects, Remote
Data Objects, ActiveX Data Objects, Control Creation and ActiveX.2 Object.

2.0 HOW IS VISUAL BASIC USED?

i. Education

In VB, various programs can be developed depending on the objectives of a project.
For math teachers, interactive character mathematics programs such as Factors Finder,
Simultanous Equation Solver, Geometric Progression, Prime Number Tester, Quadratic
Equation Solver, Quadratic Function Graph Plotter and more can be developed more
interestingly. For science teachers, simulation programs such as Star War, Simple

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