The musical classroom backgrounds, models, and skills for elementary teaching

The Musical Classroom

The Musical Classroom: Background, Models, and Skills for Elementary Teaching,
Ninth Edition, is designed for students majoring in elementary or music education.
Through eight editions, this book has been a market leader in its field. Its goal has
been to help teachers·some who may only have a limited background in music·
prepare to make music a part of the daily lives of their students. The model lessons
remain the centerpiece of the bookÊs long-lasting success. Supported by a collection of
childrenÊs songs from around the world, instructional information for learning to play
basic instruments, and the theoretical, pedagogical, and practical backgrounds needed
for reaching all learners, pre-service and in-service teachers can make their classrooms
musical classrooms.

NEW to the ninth edition:

The 2014 National Core Music Standards
Multiple curricular connections to other subjects
Expanded soprano recorder instruction unit
Addition of the QChord® with Autoharp®/Chromaharp® instruction unit
Updated and expanded prekindergarten section
A significant infusion of technology throughout the text
Mallet-instrument ensemble accompaniments
A companion website linking to music sources with numerous resources for both
students and instructors

Carolynn A. Lindeman is Professor of Music Emerita at San Francisco State
University and past president of The National Association for Music Education.



Ninth Edition

The Musical Classroom

Backgrounds, Models,
and Skills for Elementary

Teaching

Carolynn A. Lindeman

San Francisco State University
with original collaborators

Patricia Hackett and James M. Harris

Ninth edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of Carolynn A. Lindeman to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted
by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 1979
Eighth edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2010

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lindeman, Carolynn A., 1940 author.
Title: The musical classroom : backgrounds, models, and skills for elementary teaching /

Carolynn A. Lindeman ; with original collaborators Patricia Hackett and James M. Harris.
Description: Ninth edition. | New York ; London : Routledge, 2018.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017029683 (print) | LCCN 2017032536 (ebook) |

ISBN 9781315210933 (ebook) | ISBN 9780415793636 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780415793643 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: School music·Instruction and study. | Elementary school teaching.
Classification: LCC MT1 (ebook) | LCC MT1 .H12 2018 (print) | DDC 372.87/044·dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017029683

ISBN: 978-0-415-79363-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-79364-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-21093-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times-Roman
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Senior Acquisitions Editor: Constance Ditzel
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Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/lindemanclassroom

Dedicated to my friends and original coauthors,
the late Patricia Hackett and the late James M. Harris



Brief Contents

ABOUT THE AUTHOR, xiii
PREFACE, xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, xvii

SECTION I

Backgrounds for Teaching Music, 1
1 MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, 3
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC AND

MUSIC CONCEPTS, 11

3 MUSIC-MAKING EXPERIENCES, 21
4 MUSIC OF THE WORLD, 49
5 CURRICULAR APPROACHES, 57
6 CURRICULAR DEVELOPMENTS AND INTEGRATION, 69
7 PLANNING AND ASSESSING MUSIC LEARNING, 93

SECTION II

Model Experiences for Teaching Music, 99
8 INTRODUCTION TO MODEL EXPERIENCES FOR

TEACHING MUSIC, 101

9 LEVEL I: KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE, 111
10 LEVEL II: SECOND AND THIRD GRADES, 153
11 LEVEL III: FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES, 191

vii

viii Brief Contents

SECTION III

Songs, 243

SECTION IV

Appendices, 343
A REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR MUSIC FUNDAMENTALS, 345
B INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTOHARP®,

CHROMAHARP®, QCHORD®, SOPRANO RECORDER,
AND GUITAR, 357

C A COLLECTION OF CHANTS, PROVERBS, AND POEMS, 377
D RESOURCES FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS, 381
E RESOURCES FOR CHILDREN, 387

GLOSSARY, 391
SUBJECT INDEX, 397
MUSIC INDEX, 401

Contents

ABOUT THE AUTHOR, xiii

PREFACE, xiv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, xvii

SECTION I

Backgrounds for Teaching Music, 1
1 MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, 3

The Classroom Music Program, 4
Why Music in the Elementary School?, 5
What Elementary School Children Should Learn about Music, 6
National Core Music Standards, 6
The Amount of Time that Should Be Allocated for Music, 9
Materials and Equipment Needed to Teach Music, 9

2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

AND MUSIC CONCEPTS, 11

The Elements of Music, 11
Expressive Qualities, 12
Rhythm, 14
Melody, 15
Form, 17
Texture/Harmony, 18

3 MUSIC-MAKING EXPERIENCES, 21

Singing (Performing), 21
Playing Instruments (Performing), 28
Listening (Responding), 36
Movement (Responding), 38
Creating Music, 41
Reading and Notating Music (Performing and Creating), 44

4 MUSIC OF THE WORLD, 49

Classical Music, 49
Music from Around the World, 50

ix

x Contents

Jazz, 54
Popular Music, 55

5 CURRICULAR APPROACHES, 57

The Dalcroze Approach, 57
The Orff Schulwerk Approach, 58
The Kodály Approach, 62
Music Learning Theory: Edwin E. Gordon, 64
Other Approaches to Curriculum, 66

6 CURRICULAR DEVELOPMENTS AND INTEGRATION, 69

Integrating Music Technology, 69
Integrating Music with Other Subjects, 72
Reaching All Learners in the Music Classroom, 76
The Prekindergarten Child and Music, 81

7 PLANNING AND ASSESSING MUSIC LEARNING, 93

Planning Music Learning, 93
Assessing Music Learning, 94

SECTION II

Model Experiences for Teaching Music, 99

8 INTRODUCTION TO MODEL EXPERIENCES FOR

TEACHING MUSIC, 101

Scope and Sequence Chart of Music Concepts in Model Experiences,
Levels I–III, 103
Developmental Characteristics of Kindergarten–5th-Grade Students, 104
The Model Experience Format, 106
Suggestions for Model Experience Presentations, 108
Teaching Tips, 109

9 LEVEL I: KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE, 111

Sequence of Songs and Listening Selections, 112
Sequence of Music Concepts, 113
Model Experiences, 114

1 „Golden Gate‰ (Traditional chant), 114
2 „Riding in the Buggy‰ (American folk song), 116
3 „Parade,‰ from Divertissement, by Ibert, 118
4 „Sally, Go ÊRound the Sun‰ (American folk song), 120
5 „Boogie-Woogie Walk,‰ by Spencer, 122
6 „Looby Loo‰ (Traditional), 124
7 „Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks,‰ from Pictures at an Exhibition, by Mussorgsky, 126
8 „John the Rabbit‰ (American folk song), 130
9 „The Elephant‰ and „The Aviary‰ from Carnival of the Animals, by Saint-Saëns, 134
10 „Five Angels‰ (German folk song), 136
11 „Wishy Washy Wee‰ (American folk song), 140
12 „Head-Shoulders, Baby‰ (African-American game song), 142

Contents xi

13 „Bata Drums‰ (Nigeria) (excerpt) and „Munomuno‰ (Mulondo, Uganda) (excerpt), 144
14 „Wake Me!‰ (American folk song), 146
15 „Matarile‰ (Mexican folk song), 148
Review of Level I, 150
Creating a Model Experience, 151

10 LEVEL II: SECOND AND THIRD GRADES, 153

Sequence of Songs and Listening Selections, 154
Sequence of Music Concepts, 155
Model Experiences, 156

16 „Sing about Martin!‰ by „Miss Jackie‰ Weissman, 156
17 „Barcarolle,‰ from Tales of Hoffmann, by Offenbach (excerpt) and „DevilÊs Dance,‰

from The SoldierÊs Tale, by Stravinsky, 158
18 „Shoo, Fly‰ (American folk song), 160
19 „Chinese Dance,‰ from The Nutcracker Suite, by Tchaikovsky, 162
20 „Willowbee‰ (American game song), 164
21 „Kangaroos,‰ from Carnival of the Animals by Saint-Saëns, 166
22 „Cielito Lindo‰ (Mexico), 168
23 „Chatter with the Angels‰ (African-American song), 171
24 „The Stars and Stripes Forever,‰ by Sousa, 173
25 „Jesu, Joy of ManÊs Desiring,‰ from Cantata no. 147, by Bach, 175
26 Canzona, by Gabrieli; Trout Quintet, fourth movement, by Schubert (excerpt);

Serenade for Wind Instruments, Theme and Variations (K. 361), by Mozart;

Toccata, third movement, by Chávez, 177
27 „Ebeneezer Sneezer,‰ by Olson, 181
28 „A Ram Sam Sam‰ (Moroccan folk song), 185
29 „The Dragon Song‰ (Chinese folk melody), 187
Review of Level II, 189
Creating a Model Experience, 190

11 LEVEL III: FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES, 191

Sequence of Songs and Listening Selections, 192
Sequence of Music Concepts, 193
Model Experiences, 194

30 „Pianists‰ from Carnival of the Animal, by Saint-Saëns, 194
31 „Hawaiian Rainbows‰ (Modern Hawaiian song), 196
32 Haiku sound piece, 200
33 „Carillon‰ from LÊArlésienne Suite no. 1, by Bizet, 202
34 „Viennese Musical Clock‰ from Háry János Suite, by Kodály, 204
35 „Mango Walk‰ (Calypso song from Jamaica), 208
36 „Stomp Dance‰ (Cherokee Indian) (excerpt); „Mai Wakaringano‰ (Zimbabwe)

(excerpt); „Ho Jamalo‰ (India Pakistan) (excerpt), 210
37 „Corn Grinding Song‰ (Navaho Indian), 212
38 „Wedding Music‰ (Tunisia) (excerpt); „Classical Quintet Ngu Tuyet‰ (Vietnam) (excerpt);

„Barong Dance‰ (Bali) (excerpt), 216
39 „Wabash Cannon Ball‰ (Traditional); „Orange Blossom Special,‰ by Rouse, 220
40 „Lost Your Head Blues‰ (American blues), 222
41 „Piffle Rag,‰ by Yelvington, 226
42 „Take Five,‰ by Desmond (excerpt), 230
43 „Four on the Floor,‰ by Larsen (excerpt); Archduke Trio, second movement,

by Beethoven (excerpt), 232

xii Contents

Review of Level III, 236
Creating a Model Experience, 237
Monthly Planners, 238

SECTION III

Songs, 243

SECTION IV

Appendices, 343
A REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR MUSIC FUNDAMENTALS, 345
B INTRODUCTION TO THE AUTOHARP®, CHROMAHARP®,

QCHORD®, SOPRANO RECORDER, AND GUITAR, 357

C A COLLECTION OF CHANTS, PROVERBS, AND POEMS, 377
D RESOURCES FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS, 381
E RESOURCES FOR CHILDREN, 387

GLOSSARY, 391
SUBJECT INDEX, 397
MUSIC INDEX, 401

About the Author

Carolynn A. Lindeman (B.M., Oberlin College, DMA, Stanford University) is Pro-
fessor of Music Emerita at San Francisco State University and past president of the
National Association for Music Education. Before college teaching, she taught and
coordinated elementary classroom music programs. Active as a speaker and clini-
cian, she has given presentations throughout the United States and in Canada, Europe,
Southeast Asia, Mexico, Israel, and South Africa. Dr. Lindeman is the author of Musi-
cal Children: Engaging Children in Musical Experiences, 2nd ed. (Routledge, 2019),
PianoLab: An Introduction to Class Piano, 7th ed. (Thomson/Schirmer, 2012), and
The Piano Advantage: A Concise Introduction for Beginners (Thomson/Schirmer,
2006), and has published more than 50 articles in professional journals. She served
as series editor for 16 publications (MENC, 1995 2003) related to implementing and
assessing the 1994 National Standards for Music Education and was a member of the
writing team for both the 1994 standards and the 2017 National Core Music Standards.

xiii

Preface

Music and children just naturally go together. Those who love music and children with
equal passion will want to bring children in touch with all the excitement the world
of music offers. The elementary classroom is the perfect place to begin! The Musical
Classroom, ninth edition, was created to share backgrounds on teaching music in the
elementary grades and models for engaging children actively, enthusiastically, and
joyfully in musical experiences. While this textbook is designed primarily for those
preparing to teach·elementary education majors and music education majors·it also
serves as a resource for in-service teachers and in home schooling. With the musical
materials in this text, the resources and links on the companion website, and a personal
desire to help children experience all that music can offer, elementary school teachers
can make their classrooms Musical Classrooms.

WHAT’S IN THE MUSICAL CLASSROOM?

43 Model Experiences for Teaching Music (organized by Grades K-1, Grades 2 3,
and Grades 4 5) are sequentially organized, standards based, and presented in a
step-by-step format. Each model focuses on a single music concept and provides for
assessing student learning through stated objectives, standards, and indicators for
success. Recordings of the 54 musical selections for the 43 model experiences are
accessed through the companion website. Learning may be adapted and expanded
by using the „Adapt‰ (ways to reach all learners) and „Extend‰ (connecting to other
subjects in the curriculum) sections that follow each model.
Background information on teaching music in the elementary classroom is presented
through a series of seven chapters beginning with an introduction to „Music in the
Elementary School,‰ followed by a description of the elements of music and the
music-making experiences that are the basis for the model experiences. A chapter
on „Music of the World‰ introduces the many genres and styles of music and identi-
fies their importance in the curriculum. The various curricular approaches for teach-
ing music are described: Orff and Kodály, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, Music Learning
Theory, Comprehensive Musicianship, and the Eclectic approach. The „Curricular
Developments and Integration‰ chapter presents information on music technology,
integrating music with other subjects, reaching all learners through music, and the
prekindergarten child and music. Section I concludes with an introduction to „Plan-
ning and Assessing Music Learning.‰
A collection of 130 songs from a variety of cultures and styles for use in the model
experiences and instrumental study is included in Section III.
The Appendices include:

Reference Material for Music Fundamentals

xiv

Preface xv

An Introduction to the Autoharp®/Chromaharp®, QChord®, Soprano Recorder, and
Guitar
A Collection of Chants, Proverbs, and Poems
Resources for Teachers highlighting internet resources for constructing lesson
plans and locating music of various cultures and genres; software for music fun-
damentals study; references for curricular approaches; and lists of music suppliers
and support organizations
Resources for Children featuring books about music, storybooks about songs,
music software, and interactive websites for children
Glossary of important terms used throughout the text
Indexes of the music titles and subjects

WHAT’S NEW IN THE NINTH EDITION?

The 2014 National Core Music Standards
Description, content, and format of the standards introduced in Chapter 1
Artistic processes of creating, performing, and responding put into action in
Chapter 3
Specific grade level performance standards illustrated in all model experiences in
Section II

Multiple curricular connections to other subjects
Curricular theme, integrative area, or holiday identified for most of the 130 songs
in Section III
Additional curricular connections made in the 43 model experiences in Section II
Brand-new Monthly Planners highlight important cultural celebrations, holidays,
and special occasions related to music in The Musical Classroom

Expanded soprano recorder instruction unit (Appendix B)
20 notated songs in sequence (complete with recorder diagrams/fingering charts)
List of 15 additional songs to perform in Section III

Addition of the QChord® with Autoharp®/Chromaharp® instruction unit
(Appendix B)

Introduction of the Qchord®, a digital song card guitar, and its many options for
accompanying classroom singing along with the Autoharp®/Chromaharp®
List of 45 songs (in Section III) to accompany with the three instruments
Updated and expanded prekindergarten section (Chapter 6)
Latest research on the importance of early music learning
Integration of the PreK 2014 National Core Music Standards
Introduction to the music education approaches in the Montessori, Waldorf, and
Reggio Emilia early childhood educational settings

A significant infusion of technology throughout the text
Complete update of technical devices and options in Chapter 6
References and projects for college students using YouTube, visiting interactive
websites, and exploring music software added to chapters in Section I

xvi Preface

Projects for elementary students updated in model experiences (Section II)

Internet resources for constructing lesson plans, locating music of other cultures
and genres, etc., featured in Appendix D
Six new notated mallet-instrument ensemble accompaniments added to appro-
priate model experiences and songs
Newly created companion website with numerous resources for both students
and instructors
Web resources for college students:

Access to all recorded music (54 audio files) included in the model experiences
with streamed audio and links to tracks found on Spotify and iTunes. Students can
choose which service they prefer

A supplementary notated song collection numbering 20

Guidelines and form for evaluating music software programs, forms for self-
evaluation and peer evaluation of model experience presentations

Tuning directions and strumming patterns for the guitar

Autoharp®/Chromaharp® strumming patterns and special effects accompaniments

Information on the adult voice

Specifics for the 13 disability categories in the Individuals with Disabilities Edu-
cation Act (IDEA) and suggestions for engaging children with special needs in
music

Classified lists of songs and listening selections in the text by curricular area (e.g.,
language arts, social studies)

Student interactive quizzes for self-drill
Web resources for instructors:

Suggestions for using The Musical Classroom in the college classroom

An instructional keyboard unit for college classes with piano labs

A compilation of songs to use for instrumental study organized by recorder, Auto-
harp®/Chromaharp®/QChord®, piano/keyboard, guitar, and mallet instruments

Supplementary student projects and assignments

Chapter Quizzes

Acknowledgments

Developing the ninth edition of The Musical Classroom required the help and support
of friends, colleagues, and family. I have many to thank, beginning with the students
of all ages with whom I have taught and shared music with over the years. It is clearly
they who have taught me. I am particularly grateful to the following colleagues who
have provided thoughtful and critical comments and suggestions in the preparation of
this ninth edition:

Wendell Hanna, Professor, San Francisco State University
Jennifer McDonel, Executive Director, Gordon Institute for Music Learning
Barbara Varian Barrett, Music Department Co-Chair, San Lorenzo Unified School
District, San Lorenzo, CA
Martina Miranda, Associate Professor, University of Colorado, Boulder
Kimberly McCord, Professor, Illinois State University
Dorothy Burgess, Special Education Consultant, Savannah, GA
and several anonymous reviewers

Throughout the preparation of this new edition, Senior Editor Constance Ditzel,
of Routledge, has provided the assistance and support that every author needs to bring
a book to fruition. I enthusiastically offer thanks to graphic artist Pamela Burgess for
her creative artwork and photography and to Nick Bacchetto for his specialized help
with engraving the music notation.

Special thanks always go to my husband Al and son David for their help, under-
standing, and support as The Musical Classroom has developed over the years.

Finally, I am incredibly indebted to my original coauthors on this text·the late
Pat Hackett and the late Jim Harris. The development of TMC began some 40-plus years
ago when the three of us, with a shared vision, decided to tackle the project of creat-
ing a textbook that would engage students preparing to teach music in the elementary
classroom. We shared our „tried and true‰ teaching strategies from years of teach-
ing, compiled information on the various teaching approaches and curricular designs,
prepared instructional models for learning to read music and play instruments, and
selected the most exciting music from around the world to include in our teaching
strategies and song section. While Pat and Jim are no longer here to continue sharing
their insights and visions, their spirit and contributions are forever evident throughout
the text. Their voices enlightened this edition as they have all past editions. It is to these
two cherished colleagues and friends that this ninth edition is dedicated.

Carolynn A. Lindeman
February 2018

xvii



ISECTION

Backgrounds for
Teaching Music

1

2 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Teaching music to children is an exciting challenge. This section provides
backgrounds on what elementary school children can learn about the ele-
ments of music as they actively engage in singing, listening, playing instru-
ments, creating, and moving to music. The world is full of wonderful music
and sharing the wide variety with children is a delight. Included in a chapter
in this section is information about everything from classical music to jazz.
Many different approaches to teaching music are used in todayÊs schools
and learning about these ideas will provide an excellent background in pre-
paring to teach. Updates are offered in the latest technology, reaching all
learners, making curricular connections, and the importance of prekinder-
garten music learning. Finally, strategies for planning and assessing music
learning are offered.

1 Music in the Elementary School, pp. 3–10
2 An Introduction to the Elements of Music and Music Concepts, pp. 11–20
3 Music-Making Experiences, pp. 21–48
4 Music of the World, pp. 49–56
5 Curricular Approaches, pp. 57–68
6 Curricular Developments and Integration, pp. 69–92
7 Planning and Assessing Music Learning, pp. 93–98

1

Music in the Elementary
School

Q The Classroom Music Program, p. 4
Q Why Music in the Elementary School?, p. 5
Q What Elementary School Children Should Learn about Music, p. 6
Q National Core Music Standards, p. 6
Q The Amount of Time that Should Be Allocated for Music, p. 9
Q Materials and Equipment Needed to Teach Music, p. 9

Because music and children seem naturally to go together, it is no wonder that music
has long been an important part of the elementary school curriculum. In fact, music
has been part of the school curriculum since 1838, when Lowell Mason, considered
the father of American music education, introduced vocal music into the Boston pub-
lic schools (Brand, 1992). In MasonÊs day, and for many decades after, elementary
music instruction focused mainly on singing and music reading. Gradually the class-
room music curriculum expanded to include listening, playing informal instruments,
and creative and movement activities. Since the 1960s, it has also focused on helping
children develop concepts about music. TodayÊs curriculum is a rich and varied pro-
gram that allows children the opportunity to explore and learn about the worldÊs music
through a variety of means.

Almost every elementary school district today includes some form of music
instruction·some districts have elementary music specialists, and others rely solely
on classroom teachers to teach all subjects. Most educators believe that the best
instructional format is one in which music specialists have the primary responsibility
for teaching music but work in close collaboration with classroom teachers, who have
the unique opportunity to make music a part of the daily life of the students and inte-
grate music with the total curriculum. Certainly, whoever is responsible for teaching
music to children should be well trained in the subject, understand the developmental
characteristics of elementary school children, and through a personal love of music
and children be able to ignite the spark to turn children on to the exciting world of
music.

3

Courtesy of Sonor Instruments.4 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

THE CLASSROOM MUSIC PROGRAM

Before children ever walk through the doors of an elementary school, they have had
multiple exposures to music and have experienced music in many different ways.
As infants, they naturally „babble‰ and shake rattles; as 2- and 3-year-olds, they invent
little tunes and twirl and sway to music; as 4- and 5-year-olds, they make up songs
to accompany their play, sing lots of familiar songs, and try all kinds of movement
to music. In prekindergarten educational settings and childcare centers, children play
many kinds of classroom instruments; explore sounds; create dramatizations to songs;
play singing games; and respond to music of various types, times, and cultures. Cer-
tainly, children in their preschool years experience music joyfully and playfully·
music and life seem to go together!

Once children enter elementary school, they are ready to embark on an excit-
ing journey that will help them expand their musical understanding and participate
fully in AmericaÊs musical culture. This journey must be well planned and carefully
sequenced. It must include music-learning experiences that will lead to clearly defined
skills and knowledge but at the same time offer the joy and personal satisfaction that
are inherent in music. Music instruction must be offered and available to all children.
„Music for Every Child·Every Child for Music‰ must be the motto for music at the
elementary school level.

Figure 1.1 Making music is fun!

Such a program for all elementary school children is referred to as the „class-
room music program‰ or the „general music program.‰ Its emphasis is on providing a
sequential music-learning curriculum for all children. In addition, children in the upper
grades should be able to elect to study formally a wind or string instrument as well as

Chapter 1: Music in the Elementary School 5 SECTION I

have the opportunity to sing in choral ensembles. These instrumental and choral expe-
riences should augment the classroom music program·a curricular program intended
for all children.

WHY MUSIC IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL?

I would teach children music, physics, and philosophy; but most importantly music,
for the patterns in music and all the arts are the keys to learning.

Plato

Music is a powerful art form, and as children are involved in meaningful musical
experiences, their sensitivity to music and their aesthetic response increase by leaps
and bounds. And to increase childrenÊs enjoyment of and sensitivity to music should
be the goal of elementary school music education. The following rationale for „Why
Music?‰ articulates clearly and forcefully why music must be at the core of the ele-
mentary school curriculum.

Music is worth knowing. It is a field of study with its own body of knowledge,
skills, and ways of thinking. The ability to perform, create, and listen to music with
understanding is desirable for every member of society. Studying music transmits
cultural heritage, develops each personÊs music potential, provides an opportunity for
creativity and self-expression, helps students understand the nature of humankind,
enables students to become sensitive listeners, cultivates a unique symbol system,
and enhances the quality of life.

(Teaching General Music, 1991: 1)

As a core subject, the study of music contributes significantly to a childÊs complete
education. It helps children understand their own culture and the cultures of others. It
enables them to develop creativity, learn self-discipline and teamwork, increase their
sense of self-worth, develop listening skills, and engage in creative problem solving
and abstract thinking. It allows them to explore and develop their musical intelligence
as well as their linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interper-
sonal, and intrapersonal intelligences (Gardner, 2011).

To ensure that all American students have access to the study of core subjects in
their school curriculum, the U.S. Congress passed the Goals 2000: Educate America
Act in 1994. This legislation established music and the other arts as one of the core
academic subjects in which students should be able to demonstrate competence. The
1994 legislation was followed in 2015 with the passage of the Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA), Public Law 114 95, 2015, which outlines the subjects, including music,
that are important for a well-rounded education. Music, for the first time, is listed as a
stand-alone subject.

The elementary school curriculum includes a plethora of subjects·mathematics,
English Language Arts, social studies, science, visual arts, and music. Since children
seem to learn best when connections are made between subjects, an integrated cur-
riculum is a high priority. Music can be infused and integrated with other subjects in
the curriculum throughout the school day just as other subjects can be integrated with
music. By integrating and relating these subjects one to another, learning becomes

6 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

more meaningful and children can begin to see the relationships between subjects. An
integrated curriculum contributes to excellence in ALL subjects.

WHAT ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN SHOULD
LEARN ABOUT MUSIC

Experiences in music should help children grow in the three domains of learning: the
cognitive, the psychomotor, and the affective (Bloom, 1956). The cognitive domain
encompasses intellectual learning: knowing, understanding, and thinking. The psycho-
motor domain focuses on the manipulative or physical skills: singing, playing, moving,
and performing music. The affective domain emphasizes the feeling response to music.

The three domains do not exist in isolation but are related to one another. For
example, when children identify the steady beat in a march such as SousaÊs „The Stars
and Stripes Forever,‰ cognitive learning is implied. And when they march or respond
with some other movement to the steady beat of the music, psychomotor learning is
specified. Finally, if the children are enjoying and valuing the music, the „feeling‰
response or affective learning is involved. When a student can verbally identify the
steady beats and then move to the music with sensitivity, all three domains are present.

NATIONAL CORE MUSIC STANDARDS

All children should have the opportunity to develop knowledge, skills, and concepts
about music. To help states and school districts design school music programs to
achieve that goal, national and state standards have been established. With the pas-
sage of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994, voluntary national content
and achievement standards were defined for music, theatre, dance, and the visual
arts, and the music standards spelled out what musical skills and knowledge stu-
dents should have when they exit grades 4, 8, and 12 (National Standards for Arts
Education, 1994). Most states developed and implemented standards similar to the
voluntary national ones.

In 2014 a new set of National Core Art Standards were released that describe what
students should achieve in music, visual arts, theatre, dance, and the media arts. This
update of standards was followed in 2015 with legislation (Every Student Succeeds
Act) once again identifying music as one of the subjects required for a well-rounded
education. The 2014 standards again incorporate the musical skills and knowledge
identified in the 1994 standards, but align directly with the new Common Core Stan-
dards developed in other subjects.

The National Core Music Standards are designed to guide teachers as they
help their students achieve the goal of independent artistic literacy. Artistic literacy
is defined as the „knowledge and understanding required to participate authentically
in the arts‰ (Glossary, National Core Music Standards, 2014). Performance standards
are presented in a grade-by-grade sequence from prekindergarten through grade 8,
and discrete strands address common high-school music classes, such as Ensembles
and Music Composition/Theory. The standards emphasize conceptual understanding
in areas that reflect the actual processes in which musicians engage. Therefore, all
music performance standards are grouped under the Artistic Processes of Creating,
Performing, or Responding (CPR)·leading to music literacy.

Chapter 1: Music in the Elementary School 7 SECTION I

Figure 1.2

This organization of outcomes by Artistic Process helps facilitate sequential
instruction and provides a framework for curriculum. Because music connections are
an essential part of each Artistic Process, open-ended Connecting outcomes cross-
reference users to Creating, Performing, and Responding performance standards.

The music performance standards are organized and coded according to the pro-
cess components or „steps‰ of the Artistic Processes. The components for each process
are presented in Table 1.1.

Music Performance standards are specified for each model experience in
Section II of this textbook. All the music performance standards for prekinder-
garten through grade 8 can are found at www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/
core-music-standards and click on „2014 music standards‰ (Prek-8 General Music).
The National Core Art Standards in music are available online at www.nationalarts
standards.org.

The 2014 standards were written to be measurable and to help teachers assess stu-
dent progress in valid and reliable ways. Model Cornerstone Assessments (MCAs) have
been developed by the National Association for Music Education to provide methods
for assessing each music standard. A list of the model cornerstone assessments may be
accessed at www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/mcas.

Teachers can review state music standards from their respective state depart-
ments of education, where they are available online.

8 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Table 1.1 National Core Music Standards: three artistic processes and process components

Creating Performing Responding

Imagine Select Select
Generate musical ideas Select varied musical works Choose music
for various purposes and to present based on interest, appropriate for a specific
contexts. knowledge, technical skill, purpose or context.
and context.
Plan, Make Analyze
Select and develop musical Analyze Analyze how the
ideas for defined purposes Analyze the structure and structure and context of
and contexts. context of varied musical varied musical works
works and their implications inform the response.
Evaluate, Refine for performance.
Evaluate and refine musical Interpret
ideas to create musical Interpret Support interpretations of
work that meets appropriate Develop personal musical works that reflect
criteria. interpretations that consider creators’/performers’
creators’ intent. expressive intent.

Rehearse, Evaluate, Refine Evaluate
Evaluate and refine Support evaluations
personal and ensemble of musical works and
performances, individually performances based
or in collaboration with selected on analysis,
others. interpretation, and
established criteria.

Present Present

Share creative musical Perform expressively with
work that conveys intent, appropriate interpretation
demonstrates craftsmanship, and technical accuracy, and
and exhibits originality. in a manner appropriate to
the audience and context.

CONNECTING
Embedded within Creating, Performing, and Responding

© 2015 National Coalition for Core Arts Standards. Rights administered by State Education Agency
Directors of Arts Education (SEADAE). All rights reserved. www.nationalartsstandards.org.

Chapter 1: Music in the Elementary School 9 SECTION I

THE AMOUNT OF TIME THAT SHOULD BE
ALLOCATED FOR MUSIC

To ensure that children can develop their musical skills and knowledge, sufficient time
in the school day must be allocated for music instruction. At the prekindergarten level,
at least 12 percent of total student contact time should be devoted to experiences in
music and music should be integrated throughout the school day. At the elementary
school level students should continue to have music on a daily basis. The recommended
amount of classroom music instruction per week in grades K through 5 (excluding
time devoted to elective instrumental or choral instruction) is not less than 90 minutes.
(Review the Opportunity to Learn Standards, 2014 at www.nafme.org/my-classroom/
standards/core-music-standards and click on „Opportunity to Learn Standards.‰)

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT NEEDED TO TEACH MUSIC

To offer a viable elementary classroom music program, it is necessary to have basic
instructional materials and equipment. It is recommended that every room in which
music is taught should have convenient access to a variety of pitched and non-pitched
instruments, including electronic ones; include childrenÊs books containing songs and
other instructional materials in music; sound recordings of a variety of music styles
and cultures; and a software library that can either be accessed online or downloaded
to the class computer.

Certainly every room where music is taught should have enough uncluttered
space to accommodate the largest group of children taught. It should be equipped
with current technology, with at least some of the equipment able to be operated by
children. Space should be available for one computer with appropriate power and an
Internet connection. (For additional information on materials and equipment, review
the Opportunity to Learn Standards, 2014 at www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards
and click on „Opportunity to Learn Standards.‰)

PROJECTS

1. Gather information about the music program at an elementary school. Find out:
a) Who teaches music? The music teacher? The classroom teacher? Both?
b) How much time is allocated weekly for music?
c) What kind of curriculum framework or guide is used?
d) Is the curriculum framework/guide based on state standards in music?
e) What equipment, textbooks, and technology are accessible for music?

2. Identify the music performance standard and record itsÊ coding in Model Experi-
ences 14, 21, and 33 in Section II. Then, go to nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/
core-music-standards and click on „2014 music standards‰ (PreK-8 General Music).
As you review the standards for the PreK-5 level, locate the performance standard by
code from which these models were drawn. Is the standard modified for the model?
If so, why?

3. Review the music standards for a particular state by going to your selected stateÊs
department of educationÊs website. How do the state standards compare with the
national 1994 and 2014 standards? Why are standards important for music learning?

10 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

REFERENCES

Bloom, B.S., ed. (1956). Taxonomy of Edu- National Core Music Standards. (2014).
cational Objectives: The Classification of www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/
Educational Goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive core-music-standards.
Domain. New York: David McKay.
National Standards for Arts Education. (1994).
Brand, M., ed. (1992). „Lowell Mason: A Real- Reston, VA: Music Educators National Con-
istic Portrayal.‰ Quarterly Journal of Music ference. https://rowman.com.
Teaching and Learning, 3(3): 3 75.
Opportunity to Learn Standards. (2014).
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of Mind: The Theory www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/
of Multiple Intelligences. 3rd ed. New York: core-music-standards.
Basic Books.
Teaching General Music: A Course of Study.
National Core Arts Standards. (2014). www. (1991). Reston, VA: Music Educators
nationalartsstandards.org. National Conference.

2

An Introduction to the
Elements of Music and
Music Concepts

Q The Elements of Music, p. 11
Q Expressive Qualities, p. 12
Q Rhythm, p. 14
Q Melody, p. 15
Q Form, p. 17
Q Texture/Harmony, p. 18

Elementary school children need to be involved in musical experiences that help them
develop musical skills and formulate concepts or understandings about music. Chil-
dren naturally develop music concepts as they explore music through singing, listen-
ing, moving, creating, reading, and playing instruments. Understanding the process of
how concepts develop, which music concepts may serve as the basis for instruction,
and how this fits in with a childÊs entire development is important for teachers of chil-
dren in grades K through 5.

„Music concepts are understandings or generalized ideas about music that are
formed after learners make connections and determine relationships among ideas‰
(Glossary, National Core Music Standards, 2014). Concepts cannot be taught·they
are formed through meaningful experiences. For a concept to be truly understood, it
must be transferred to another setting. For example, if children have had a number of
experiences with the music concept that a song can have parts that are contrasting or
the same, they can apply this knowledge to a new song. Think of „Jingle Bells‰ with
two contrasting parts (a verse and a refrain) and applying this same concept to „Yankee
Doodle.‰ Of course, for this concept to become part of a deeper understanding, it must
continually be experienced in a variety of contexts. Conceptual learning is a spiraling
or cyclical process requiring teachers to plan instruction to facilitate that process.

THE ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

The Musical Classroom, and most of the grade-level music books and online mate-
rials, focus music learning on teaching concepts about the elements of music to ele-
mentary school children. Music concepts are generally categorized by the elements of

11

12 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

music: melody, rhythm, form, texture/harmony, and expressive qualities (timbre, dynam-
ics, articulation, tempo). These elements may serve as a „cognitive map‰ for the teacher in
planning conceptual experiences for elementary school students. The elements and their
descriptions as used in this text are identified and defined in the following chart.

Table 2.1 Elements of music chart Definitions
Elements of Music
Melody A linear succession of sounds (pitches) and silences
Rhythm moving through time; the horizontal structure of music

Form The long and short durations of sounds and silences
that occur in music as well as to the organization of
Texture these sounds and silences in time
Harmony
The overall structural organization of a musical
Expressive composition and the interrelationships of musical
qualities events within the overall structure; the order of same
and different musical events
Dynamics
Tempo The layering of sounds; the thickness or thinness of
Articulation music
Timbre
The simultaneous sounding of two or more pitches; the
vertical structure of music moving through time and
supporting the melody

Those qualities such as dynamics, tempo, articulation
and timbre, which, when combined with the other
elements of music, give a composition its unique
musical identity

The degree of loudness or softness of music

The rate or speed of the musical sounds and silences

The characteristic way musical tones are connected,
separated, or accented in performance

The unique tone color of a voice, instrument or sound
source

In the following section, each element of music is introduced, music concepts
within each element are described, and information is offered that suggests how and
when each element or concept might be introduced to children. A music concept map
illustrating the connection between sample music concepts and the elements of music
follows. It is important to remember that the elements never occur singly in music;
rather, they are combined and interrelated·they are woven together into a „moving
tapestry‰ of music.

EXPRESSIVE QUALITIES

Tempo, dynamics, articulation, and timbre are the elements of music that often com-
municate most directly and forcefully. Even young children readily perceive and
respond to these expressive qualities.

Tempo refers to the rate or speed of the musical sounds and silences. Children
demonstrate their perceptions and understandings of tempo through movement and

Chapter 2: The Elements of Music and Music Concepts 13 SECTION I

MUSIC CONCEPT MAP

Timbre Tempo Borduns/ostinatos

Expressive Chords
qualities Harmony/
Dynamics Texture High/low

Up/down/same

Articulation Elements of Melody Steps/skips
Phrases Music
Major/minor tonality
Long/short durations

Sections Form AB/ABA Beat Rhythm Rhythm pattern
Rondo

Call/response Beat groupings

Figure 2.1 Music concept map.

action-oriented experiences. For example, young children love to show their fast
movements to the „Russian Dance‰ from The Nutcracker Suite (Spotify/iTunes), and
create slower movements to match the slower tempo of „Aquarium‰ from Carnival of
the Animals (Spotify/iTunes). Older students can remember and compare a graduated
series of tempos from slow to fast, plus learn the musical terms for different tempi
(see Appendix A).

The louds and softs in music, the dynamics, are easy to hear and identify. Chil-
dren can readily sing one of their favorite songs, experimenting with singing it soft,
then loud, and variations in between. They may sometimes mistakenly associate the
words „down‰ or „lower‰ with soft and „up‰ or „higher‰ with loud dynamics. There-
fore, it is important to help children learn and apply the terms loud and soft correctly.
Older children like to learn the Italian terms/symbols used in music beginning with
forte (f) for loud and piano (p) for soft (a variety of dynamic terms are identified in
Appendix A).

Just as children easily hear and identify the louds/softs and fasts/slows in music,
so do they perceive and respond to smooth and connected music (legato) versus music
that is short and detached (staccato). For example, engaging children in responding
to music such as the mostly staccato „Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks‰ from Pictures
at an Exhibition in contrast with the mostly legato „The Swan‰ from Carnival of
the Animals (Spotify/iTunes) will help them show that they perceive the differences.
Legato and staccato, the „official‰ Italian terms for connected and disconnected, are
types of articulation.

Timbre (pronounced TAM-ber) is the characteristic sound (tone color or quality)
of a voice, an instrument, or a sound source. Very young children explore vocal timbres
with their speaking, singing, and whispering voices, and learn about instrumental tim-
bres when they compare classroom instruments made out of wood versus metal. And
environmental sounds are everywhere they turn! Older children can tell the difference
between individual instruments and their timbres (e.g., tuba vs. flute), and learn to
categorize instruments by orchestral families (strings, brass, etc.) in Western music.
In music of the worldÊs cultures, instruments are classified by their vibrating materials

14 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

(e.g., skins or drums referred to as membranophones and strings as chordophones). To
thoroughly explore the many types of timbre, children need to be exposed to a wide
variety of musical styles and cultures.

RHYTHM

Rhythm refers to all of the durations of the sounds (and silences) in the musical flow.
Rhythm also refers to the organization of these sounds and silences in time. Because
movement is one of the best ways to experience rhythm, elementary classroom music
programs always include such experiences.

A recurrent pulse is called a beat. Even young children can perform steady
beats, but they may have difficulty adjusting their beat to the music or coordinat-
ing their beats with others. Children can initially tap the steady beat to music such
as SousaÊs „The Stars and Stripes Forever‰ , and then progress to marching to
the music.

In most music, certain beats are emphasized or stressed more than others. This
creates groupings of strong and weak beats called meter. When beats are grouped in
sets of two (strong/weak or 1 2), it is referred to as duple meter. And when beats are
grouped in sets of three (strong/weak/weak or 1 2 3), triple meter results. Body rhythms
such as pat/clap works well to accompany the beat groupings of two, e.g., in the Sousa
march suggested above. And changing to pat/clap/clap will help students feel the beat
groupings of three with music such as „The Elephant‰ from Carnival of the Animals .
By the age of 9 or 10, children are able to clap, tap, or sing to identify beat groupings
they hear in music and eventually will be able to identify beat groupings by internalized
means instead of by overt actions. At this point, they are ready to be introduced to time
or meter signatures (the visual symbols used to show meter). For example:

Figure 2.2

For a listing of various time signatures, see Appendix A.
A piece of music always contains tones that are longer or shorter than the beat.

Through movement experiences children can physically feel and perform the long and
short durations they hear in the music. For example, they can sing and tap the long
and short sounds in a familiar song such as „Frère Jacques!‰ („Are You Sleeping?‰),
page 268, and younger children can tap the short sounds and freeze on the long sounds
in „Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks‰ from Pictures at an Exhibition .

A specific combination, generally brief, of long and short sounds and silences is
called a rhythm pattern. The distinctive „Bingo‰ songÊs rhythm pattern (B_ I_ N G O_),
page 252, is one that young children love to perform. By placing strips of masking tape
on the floor to show the „long, long, short-short, long‰ ( ___ ___ __ __ ___ ) durations,
children can „walk the pattern‰ one after another while the class sings the song.

After multiple experiences feeling and exploring rhythm, children will be ready
to associate the visual representation with those sounds. Early experiences may include
informal rhythmic notation as illustrated in the long/short lines above or with note
stems only. Reading more formal rhythms is easier for most children when verbal
cues are associated with specific notes, such as „ta‰ for a longer duration and „ti‰ for
a shorter one (Atterbury, 1992: 595). See the „Bingo‰ rhythm pattern notated below in
formal notation.

Chapter 2: The Elements of Music and Music Concepts 15 SECTION I

ta ta ti ti ta
Figure 2.3

However, the system used by musicians includes a series of symbols representing
how long a sound or silence is to last. For example, the system begins with a whole
note having the longest duration and the shortest durations might be a sixteenth note.
There are corresponding rests for silences as illustrated in the following Rhythm Nota-
tion chart.

RHYTHM NOTATION

Notes Rests

1 whole note whole rest
equals half rest
quarter rest
2 half notes eighth rest
or sixteenth rest

4 quarter notes
or

8 eighth notes
or

16 sixteenth notes

Figure 2.4

Check out Appendix A to see the complete chart for Rhythm Notation and the
various Rhythm Duration and Syllable Systems used to teach rhythmic reading.

MELODY

Melodies consist of a linear succession of sounds (pitches) and silences moving through
time. Each melody is a unique combination of pitches, which together create a sense of
unity. Musical pitches are produced by a vibrating medium with higher pitches vibrat-
ing more rapidly than lower pitches. Children need to use the terms high and low accu-
rately, and not mistake higher for louder and lower for softer (Zimmerman, 1971: 7).

Melodies are no strangers to children·they have been singing songs from their
earliest years. Pitches in a melody can move in interesting ways·they can move up,
down, or remain on the same pitch. For example, the song „Five Angels‰ (p. 266) in
Model 10 has a repeating pattern that illustrates pitches moving up. Children can expe-
rience the upward direction by moving their hands in the air. See the visual here to help
children see what they hear.

16 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Figure 2.5

The „all day long‰ part of the song „Willowbee‰ (p. 336) in Model 20 illustrates
pitches moving down. Again, students can experience the downward direction with
their hands as they sing. Here the visual incorporates a step-like design to help them
see what they hear.

E
D

C

Figure 2.6

The direction of the melody may also be by step (pitches that are close together)
or by skip (pitches that are farther apart). For example, you can see that the pitches
in the „all day long‰ example above moves by step. Again, when children move their
hands in the air, the stepwise movement is visually very apparent. In contrast, the
refrain of „Hop Up, My Ladies‰ on page 278 is a great example of a big skip in the
melody on the words „hop up.‰ See the visual notated on the music staff below.

“Hop up”

Figure 2.7

Pitches in a melody are notated on a staff (five parallel lines). Pitches at the top
of the staff are higher than those at the bottom. Steps are located next to each other,
whereas jumping over at least one line or space creates skips.

S low step step skip skip
T Figure 2.8
A
F
F

high

The letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are used to name pitches on the staff and are
repeated over and over to designate the entire range of pitches. A clef sign must be
placed on the staff though to locate a particular pitch. The treble clef (or G clef) is used
for higher pitches and curls itself around the second line (G) of the staff. Songs for
children are all written in the treble clef.

Chapter 2: The Elements of Music and Music Concepts 17 SECTION I

Figure 2.9 The treble clef staff.

High/low and up/down/same pitches are all governed by a kind of musical gram-
mar called scales. Music that is based on a scale and centered on a particular pitch (the
tonic or tonal center) is considered tonal. The two scale forms most familiar to us are
the major and minor scales. Most of the songs children sing are tonal and based on
major or minor scale. The song „Ebeneezer Sneezer‰ (p. 262) is a great childrenÊs song
that is based on the C major scale (8 pitches·C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C). For other notated
major and minor scales, refer to Appendix A.

Figure 2.10 C major scale.

In addition to the major and minor scales, the pentatonic, blues, and many other
scales and modes also serve as a framework for much of the worldÊs music. Much con-
temporary classical music uses pitch organizations and techniques other than scales,
such as the 12-tone row and octave displacement. Music that is not based on a scale or
centered on a particular pitch is considered atonal.

FORM

The overall structure of a musical composition is referred to as its form. Fundamen-
tal components of musical form are unity and variety, which are achieved through
repetition (same) and contrast (different). Repeating musical ideas provide unity in a
composition, and contrasting ideas offer variety.

The phrase is an important building block in musical form and may be compared
to a simple sentence or a clause in speech. For example, „Happy Birthday‰ has four
phrases and if children draw an arc in the air (from left to right) as they sing, they will
experience and show not only the beginning of each phrase, but the ending as well.

Phrases of a song may be grouped into sections. „Yankee Doodle‰ (p. 338) is an
example of a song with two sections: a verse and a refrain. The sections of „Yankee
Doodle‰ contrast with each other, and its form is referred to as AB (also called binary
form). To demonstrate this recognition, children can create a special movement for the
verse and a contrasting one for the refrain. „Shoo, Fly‰ is an example of a song with
three sections: the first and the third are the same, with the second contrasting. This
musical design is referred to as ABA (also called ternary form). Children love to play a
singing game for „Shoo, Fly‰ (p. 315) in which their movements demonstrate the same
and different sections of the song.

Songs are an ideal starting point for understanding longer compositions that
contain many sections. Longer compositions are more challenging for children to
listen to and understand. To help them learn to hear what is the same and what is
different, teachers need to focus studentsÊ attention on musical elements that will be
meaningful to them. Through overt behavior, students can demonstrate what they
hear and understand about musical form. One technique is to provide shapes or let-
ters for students to manipulate while they are listening. For example, a square might

18 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

represent the opening section of the music, and a circle the contrasting section (and
other shapes or letters for compositions with several different sections). Other tech-
niques include body movements or playing instruments along with the music. Expe-
riences of this kind are important because ultimately teachers do not „teach‰; instead,
they help students identify (and understand) what the students themselves perceive
through their senses.

TEXTURE/HARMONY

Texture refers to the layering of sounds; the thickness or thinness of music. A single
musical line is referred to as a monophonic texture while a melody accompanied by
chords is called a homophonic texture. Chords are the building blocks of harmony and
include at least three pitches sounded simultaneously. A combination of separate, dis-
tinct melodies creates a special kind of harmony and texture called polyphonic.

Figure 2.11 Homophonic texture. Figure 2.12 Polyphonic texture.

Children have lots of opportunities to sing songs performed with or without
accompaniment. The texture is thin when a song is sung unaccompanied (monophonic
texture), but becomes thicker if an Autoharp®/Chromaharp®, guitar, keyboard, or mal-
let instrument is added, performing a chordal accompaniment (homophonic texture).
Even young children can recognize the difference between the two textures.

Harmony can be introduced to children in several different ways. One way to
create harmony is to add a repeated pattern (an ostinato) to a familiar melody. For
example, one group of children can sing the „din, din, don‰ part of „Frère Jacques!‰
(p. 268) while another group sings the melody. Still another way to create harmony is
to perform a round („Frère Jacques!‰ is a great example) where two or more groups
enter at different times. (Circled numbers above the music show when each of the
groups begins singing.) Children can play chordal accompaniments on an Autoharp®/
Chromaharp®, Qchord®, or mallet instruments. Accompaniments that use only one,
two, or three different chords are easiest to play. „Frère Jacques!‰ for example, can
be accompanied by just the F chord, which includes the pitches F A C performed
simultaneously.

Chords relate to melody, and the adult listener nearly always knows when the
chords „fit‰ (are in consonance with the melody). Prekindergarteners show little dis-
crimination one way or the other, but by the age of 9 they seem to develop a preference
for consonant harmony (Valentine, 1962: 217 218).

PROJECTS

1. Review the Scope and Sequence Chart of Music Concepts in Section II, Model Expe-
riences, Levels I III (p. 103). Locate the Sequence of Music Concepts for each level
(pp. 113, 155, 193). Report how the sequence for each level reflects the spiraling or
cyclical process for concept development.

Chapter 2: The Elements of Music and Music Concepts 19 SECTION I

2. Choose a music concept that you would be comfortable sharing with children.
Briefly, describe how you would actively involve children at a particular grade level
in working with this concept through music.

3. Search the Internet for more information on the elements of music.

REFERENCES

Atterbury. B.W. (1992). „Research on the Teach- Valentine, C.W. (1962). The Experimental Psy-
ing of Elementary General Music.‰ In Hand- chology of Beauty. London: Methuen.
book of Research on Music Teaching and
Learning. New York: Schirmer. Zimmerman, M.P. (1971). Musical Character-
istics of Children. Washington, DC: Music
National Core Music Standards. (2014). www. Educators National Conference.
nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/core-
music-standards.



3

Music-Making
Experiences

Q Singing (Performing), p. 21
Q Playing Instruments (Performing), p. 28
Q Listening (Responding), p. 36
Q Movement (Responding), p. 38
Q Creating Music, p. 41
Q Reading and Notating Music (Performing and Creating), p. 44

Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.
Benjamin Franklin

Children learn by doing! Active hands-on music experiences enable children to
demonstrate their conceptual understandings. Learning seems to be most effective
when a concept is experienced through several modes: aural, motor, visual, tactile, and
verbal. Music learning and the three artistic processes of performing, responding,
and creating can be demonstrated through several kinds of behavior such as singing
and playing instruments (performing), listening and moving to music (responding),
creating music, and reading and notating music (performing, responding, and creat-
ing). These music-making experiences are precisely what the National Core Music
Standards (www.nationalartsstandards.org) for prekindergarten through grade 12 artic-
ulate as critical for helping students become musically literate.

In this chapter, the following music-making experiences are described and guide-
lines are offered for teachers to consider as they engage students in active music mak-
ing. While each is addressed separately, almost always children are engaged in several
of these activities during a musical experience.

SINGING (PERFORMING)

Singing has always been an important part of the elementary music curriculum. In fact,
singing (or vocal music) was introduced in 1838 as part of the Boston public school
curriculum. Music educator Lowell Mason persuaded the Boston School Committee
that vocal music met their curriculum criteria because it was intellectually, morally,
and physically of benefit to students. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centu-
ries, music programs in elementary school consisted mainly of singing. Gradually the

21

Courtesy NAFME file photo.22 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

school music program expanded to include other music-making experiences: listening,
playing instruments, moving, creating, and reading music.

Singing is definitely one of the most natural ways for children to make music.
The voice is their own personal instrument that they carry around with them every day!
They need frequent opportunities to sing as they mature physically, emotionally, and
socially. Students need opportunities to sing every day.

Figure 3.1 Something to sing about!

Children’s Voices

Singing is a developmental skill that improves with practice. Young children often need
help in distinguishing among their many voices and to find that special voice just for
singing. For example, their playground voice is different from their singing voice and
their speaking voice is different from their higher singing voice. (See teaching tips in
Rutkowski and Runfola, 2010.) A childÊs singing voice should be clear, open, and light·
not heavy, pinched, or forced. A clear, open, and light voice requires good singing pos-
ture for breath control. When making up singsongs and stories, children can often sing a
wide range of pitches, but their song range at ages 5 and 6 is limited to about five or six
pitches. They increase their singing range to 12 or more pitches by the age of 10 as their
voices develop and their bodies mature. Because the development of singing is depen-
dent on maturation and experience, individual variation can be tremendous and most
children need help with singing in tune and maintaining a light, unforced vocal quality.

The following Developmental Stages in Singing chart outlines what teachers can
generally expect with children and their voices during the elementary school years.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 23 SECTION I

Table 3.1 Developmental Stages in Singing (4–11 years)

Age Developmental Stage
4–5 years
(Kindergarten) · Sings in tune in range of approximately D to A
· Recognizes differences between singing and speaking voices
6–7 years · Echoes tonal patterns
(Grade 1) · Sings with more accurate pitch and rhythm

7–8 years · Sings in tune in range of approximately C to B
(Grade 2) · Begins to develop head voice
· Sings with more expression
8–9 years
(Grade 3) · Sings in tune in range of approximately C to C
· Sings with more attention to dynamics and changes in
9–10 years
(Grade 4) tempo

10–11 years · Sings in tune in range of approximately B to E
(Grade 5) · Varies dynamics and holds pitches longer
· Begins to sing in parts (harmony) starting with a melody over a

simple ostinato

· Sings in tune in range of approximately A to E
· Girls’ voices remain fairly light
· Boys’ voices gain added richness
· Sings rounds, partner songs, descants
· Sings with expression and more attention to phrasing

· Sings in tune in range of approximately A to F
· Boys may begin to experience first vocal change
· Can sing with considerable expression and modify dynamics,

phrasing, and diction
· Can sing two-part songs

Singing in Kindergarten and Grade 1

Many children enter kindergarten with a rich musical background provided by parents,
caregivers, and preschool teachers. They can sing short songs or song fragments fairly
well in tune. However, some children need to learn that singing is different from speak-
ing, shouting, and other vocal expressions. Teachers need to assess what their students
can understand and do, and then plan singing experiences accordingly. For example, to
find out if a student can vocally match pitches, the teacher can create short questions
using the teasing, sing-song chant of childhood (teacher sings: „What is your name?‰
student sings: „My name is Laura‰). Using arm/hand movements at high or low lev-
els also helps youngsters to understand their higher- and lower-pitched voices. In the
photograph below, the children are using Curwen/Glover hand signs to indicate pitch
direction (see the complete hand signs in Appendix A).

Kindergarten children can generally sing in tune within a range of five pitches,
D to A and first graders within a range from C to B (see chart above). Teachers need to
keep these ranges in mind when choosing songs to sing. Songs should be short: eight
(or 16) measures in length and the words need to be age-appropriate. Songs are easier
to learn when they have repeated words or pitches. Children love to accompany their
songs with rhythm instruments and movements. They especially enjoy songs, simple
singing games, and chants about their world of animals, friends, family, neighbors,
make-believe, the seasons, and special occasions. These interests offer multiple oppor-
tunities for curriculum integration.

Photo by P. Burgess.24 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Figure 3.2 Hand signs for sol and mi.

Singing in Grades 2 and 3

The majority of second-grade children can sing familiar, simple songs in tune, and their
voices remain light and fairly thin. (Again, their singing skills and music experiences
may differ markedly.) Their singing range expands, with second gradersÊ range extend-
ing from C to C and third gradersÊ range from B to E (see chart above). Because their
physical control has improved, they can hold pitches longer and can sing with more
attention to dynamics and changes in tempo. Second-grade children can manage more
complex singing games, but songs still need to be short in length and have repeated
words or pitches. They are also able to sing or play simple ostinatos (repeated patterns)
on mallet instruments.

In grade 3, short songs with repetition are still easier to learn and memorize, but
phrases can be longer. However, uncertain singers will need more individual help and
opportunities to sing limited-range songs (four to six pitches). They also can „chime
in‰ when easy song parts repeat.

Some third-grade students are ready to sing in parts (harmony) if they can sing
unison songs accurately and confidently. Teachers can begin with ostinatos, a type of
harmony that is either improvised or derived from part of the song. For example, the
„din, din, don‰ phrase of „Frère Jacques!‰ (p. 268) becomes an ostinato when sung
continuously with the melody. Ostinatos can be created from many rounds, such as
„ScotlandÊs Burning‰ (p. 313). Partner songs create another form of harmony. They
are different songs, but share a similar meter and sequence of chords and may be sung

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 25 SECTION I

simultaneously when they are in the same key and tempo. Each of two groups sings aCourtesy NAFME file photo.
different melody, which makes it easier to „hold on‰ to oneÊs own part. For example,
„Row, Row, Row Your Boat‰ (performed twice) and „Three Blind Mice‰ (performed
once) can be sung together as partners. At this age, children also enjoy singing in a
round (a melody performed by two or more groups entering at different times). For
example, divide the class into two groups and perform „Frère Jacques!‰ with the sec-
ond group entering when the first reaches the second phrase „dor-mez vous?‰

The world of second- and third-grade students expands and they enjoy songs
about early America, great adventures, transportation, fantastic and media characters,
geography, and song of other peoples (including easy foreign language songs). Think
of all the possibilities for curriculum integration!

Singing in Grades 4 and 5

Upper elementary school students may differ greatly in their singing experience. GirlsÊ
voices remain fairly light, and boysÊ voices gain added richness (resonance). Their
vocal range expands from approximately A (below Middle C) to F above high C (see
chart above), but teachers will once again find tremendous variation. (Uncertain sing-
ers still need limited-range songs to develop their vocal skills.) And some boys at this
age may begin to experience their first vocal changes. Because most students will have
greater physical control of their voice, they can handle songs with more challenging
rhythms, dynamics, articulation, and sustained pitches. This means that they can sing
with considerable expression and modify dynamics, phrasing, and diction·producing
an artistic interpretation.

Children in grades 4 and 5 continue to „grow‰ their harmonic experiences by
singing ostinatos and progressing to rounds that are more challenging. They like to
perform easy rounds in two parts, but as they become more secure in „holding their
own‰ in part singing, they can move on to three-part rounds. Teachers need to remind
students to listen carefully to one another and work on balancing the two or three parts.
Also, a reminder about „follow the conductor‰ is always in order.

Figure 3.3 Fourth- and fifth-grade singers.

26 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Two tips for helping students be successful in singing in harmony are: (1) Assign
special seating arrangements for music, so hesitant singers are seated in tandem with
stronger ones·without singling out either type of singer for attention. (2) Divide the
class into groups of unequal size and have the larger group sing harmony (especially
if the harmony part sounds weak). Since boys are often the most hesitant singers, they
should not be automatically grouped together.

ChildrenÊs interest at this level includes history, adventure, and transportation,
and contemporary popular songs and songs from other cultures and countries intrigue
them. Again, given the range of topics that interest them, there are numerous options
for curriculum integration.

Selecting, Teaching, and Leading Songs

Every teacher needs to learn how to select, teach, and lead songs appropriate for the
level of their students. It is important to select a song that is developmentally and musi-
cally appropriate. The song should also match the childrenÊs song interests and offer
opportunities for increasing their understanding of music. Use this checklist as a start
in the selection process.

Table 3.2 Checklist for selecting age-appropriate songs

† Is the song in the appropriate vocal range for the specific class?

† Does it match the song interests of this age level?

† Are the words appropriate—not too “childish,” or too “mushy”!

† Are there specific rhythmic or melodic concepts that can be emphasized?

† Are there obvious repeated patterns or words to focus on?

† Would you feel comfortable singing and teach this song or is there an available
recording to help?

† Can the song be integrated with other activities or subjects in their curriculum?

A song may be taught by rote (imitation) or by note (reading music notation).
In the rote approach, students hear the song over and over. Then, they echo parts of
the song, presented sequentially. Gradually, they put the parts together until the whole
song is learned. In the note approach, they learn the song by reading music notation.
They may begin by chanting the rhythm of the song. Or they may discover particular
rhythmic or melodic patterns to read first. The goal is that the song will be learned
through music reading.

There are also variations or combinations of approaches. For example, the „whole
song‰ or immersion method is similar to the rote method and actually the way children
teach songs to one another: they repeat the song over and over again, with children
joining in when and where they can, until the whole song is learned „by heart.‰ Teach-
ing a song one phrase at a time is the „part‰ or segmented method. When all the phrases
are learned, they are joined together to form the complete song. In studies comparing
the two approaches, children heard a new song repeatedly and joined in singing when
they felt comfortable; the immersion method was determined to be the better approach
(Brand, 1998; Klinger et al., 1998). Each method has a long history. However, many
teachers use a combination of these ideas.

Whatever approach or combination of approaches is used, it is important to
introduce a new song using techniques that will „grab‰ the studentsÊ interest and
attention. Some ways to motivate singers include giving background information

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 27 SECTION I

about the song or telling its story. Asking students to show what they hear allows
the teacher to actually observe what the students perceive as they listen to the song.
What follows are some ideas for introducing a song by asking them to do one of the
following:

Tap the songÊs steady beats.
Clap hands on the very last word or note.
Listen for the name of the songÊs person, place, animal, and so on.
Pantomime recurring words of the song as they hear them.
Sing (or clap) the repeated parts.
Watch the teacherÊs hand and „do as I do.‰ (Teacher uses hand/arm to show pitch
levels, rhythms, or both.)

This „introduction‰ to the song can be repeated, with students doing the same activity
or a different one. Repeat the song several times, and if they are ready, invite them to
join in. Or have them echo parts of the song until they have learned the entire song.

When leading a song, a teacher needs to consider some basic techniques to make
the process move quickly and keep the singers on task. Before the „leading‰ process,
the teacher should decide whether he or she will sing or play the song or use a record-
ing. An analysis of the song is important to determine the starting pitch, the meter of
the song, on what beat the song begins, etc. Memorizing at least one verse of the song
is a must! What follows are some tips for leading a song.

Table 3.3 Tips for leading a song

1 Sing the song, perform on an instrument, or use a recording to introduce the entire song
(unless it is already familiar to students).

2 Think the first few words of the song to yourself (and the rhythm and pitches, too!)
before singing or playing the starting pitch of the song.

3 In the tempo of the song, sing or say “one, two, ready, sing” and give a clear signal for
the singers to start. Use a hand gesture or nod of the head. If using a recording, make
sure that you are familiar enough with the music to be able to give the signal to start.

4 Keep the singers together by using conducting (or any gesture) that would indicate a
steady beat and give them a sense of the timing.

5 Maintain eye contact with the students at all times; show your enjoyment of the song!
6 On the song’s last note, give a clear signal so the singers end together.

As soon as they are able, children should sing independently and unaccompanied
without the help of the teacherÊs voice or recordings. Keys to independent singing
include knowing a song well·probably from memory. At that point, singers can con-
centrate on achieving high levels of accuracy in pitch, rhythm, diction, dynamics, and
the other elements that are necessary for an artistic performance.

The Role of the Classroom Teacher in Singing

Some school districts have an elementary music specialist for classroom music and
some do not. When a specialist is available, the classroom teacher helps implement the
music curriculum and reinforces learning between the specialistÊs visits. A classroom

28 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

teacher who sings confidently and accurately can be very effective in helping children
develop their singing skills. But a teacher who does not feel vocally secure can use
song recordings. What is necessary is that a teacher has an understanding of childrenÊs
voices, the need for age-appropriate songs, and the willingness to engage children as
often as possible in singing. Since every child with normal hearing and vocal physiol-
ogy can learn to sing, every teacher needs to be encouraging and positive toward the
singing efforts of each and every student.

PROJECTS

1. In teams, choose three songs from Section IV that meet the criteria for a selected
grade level. Use both the Checklist for Selecting Age-Appropriate Songs (p. 26) and
the Developmental Stages in Singing Chart (p. 23) in making your choices. Share
the songs with the class, justifying your selections.

2. Check out videos on YouTube that show teachers engaging children in singing. Sum-
marize your observations based on age-appropriate songs and singing skills. Note the
approach the teacher used for teaching the songs.

3. Review the following two model experiences in Section II and decide which
approach(es) is/are primarily used for teaching the songs: Model 4 „Sally, Go
ÊRound the Sun‰ and Model 14 „Wake Me!‰. Give reasons and examples for your
decisions.

PLAYING INSTRUMENTS (PERFORMING)

Playing instruments is great fun for children so it is no surprise that musical instru-
ments are an exciting part of music-making in elementary classrooms. Playing instru-
ments is also an excellent way to help them improve their motor skills and coordination
as they develop concepts about music. Children can play and create songs on melody
instruments, create and play accompaniments to songs with a variety of rhythmic and
harmonic instruments, and create sound effects for movement, stories, and poems with
all sorts of interesting instruments.

The array of instruments available is amazing. Instruments that are typically
used in elementary classrooms include: rhythm instruments; recorders; barred or mal-
let instruments such as xylophones; Autoharps®/Chromaharps® and Qchords® (digital
guitars); acoustic and electronic keyboards; stringed instruments such as guitars and
ukuleles; and handbells and chime bars.

As teachers, it is important to keep in mind the following guidelines in using
instruments with children.

Table 3.4 Guidelines for choosing and using instruments with children

1 Choose instruments that match the level of the student’s musical and motor development.
2 Purchase high-quality instruments and maintain all instruments in good working order

(store in a secure place, check instruments that need to be tuned, etc.)
3 Establish routine classroom procedures for distributing and collecting instruments.
4 Teach children how to handle the instruments properly and develop correct playing

techniques.
5 Make sure that ALL children have the opportunity to play.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 29 SECTION I

Courtesy of Sonor Instruments. Rhythm Instruments

Small percussion instruments, playable with a minimum of instruction, are usually
referred to as rhythm instruments. A variety of durable instruments with good musi-
cal tone should be available in every classroom or school. Sets of rhythm instruments
often include several types of drums, tambourines, sleigh bells, rhythm sticks, sand
blocks, wood blocks, finger cymbals, and triangles. Percussion instruments of var-
ious cultures should also be available such as maracas, guiros, gongs, and a conga
drum.

Young children learn much about their world through experiences with objects,
texture, and shape. As soon as children can stroke or tap, instruments should be made
available to them. They can use rhythm instruments for sound effects with songs and
stories such as using higher-pitched and lower-pitched instruments to fit the Mama
Bear, Papa Bear, and Baby Bear in „The Three Bears.‰ When they can tap a steady
beat with a song or listening selection, they can transfer their tapping to rhythm sticks
or a drum.

They can also learn to classify rhythm instruments by how they are played·
ringing instruments (triangles), scraping instruments (sandblocks), and tapping instru-
ments (rhythm sticks). Or learn to classify by the material from which the instruments
are made, for example, skins (drums), metals (finger cymbals), woods (wood blocks),
and gourds (maracas).

Figure 3.4 Playing the guiro and the tambourine.

Older children can learn a classification system developed by world-music
specialists in which instruments are categorized by the vibrating material that pro-
duces their sound: for example, the vibrating skin or membrane on a drum results in
drums being classified as membranophones. For a teaching strategy using this clas-
sification system, turn to Model Experience 38 and learn about membranophones,
idiophones, chordophones, and aerophones. Older children can also make and play
their own replicas of rhythm instruments. For example, students can use two smooth
pebbles to serve as ili ili (stone castanets) to accompany a song from Hawaii such as
„Hawaiian Rainbows‰ on page 273. And they can choose a variety of rhythm instru-
ments to use as they create a sound piece accompanying a haiku poem as illustrated
on page 200.

Courtesy of Rhythm Band Instruments, Inc.30 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Recorders

Recorders, small wind instruments, are included in many classroom music programs.
They are relatively easy to play for both teachers and students. While the recorder
comes in several pitch ranges and sizes, the soprano recorder is usually chosen for
elementary school children because it is small enough for childrenÊs hands. It has a
brilliant tone, is high in pitch, and is a good match with childrenÊs voices. The soprano
recorder is used mostly for melody playing.

Figure 3.5 Playing the soprano recorder.

Instruction usually begins in third or fourth grade, when most students are able to
coordinate finger placement with breathing. While almost any song can be played on
a recorder, instruction usually begins with songs limited to three pitches (usually B, A,
and G). „Hot Cross Buns‰ is a favorite starter song and creating „BAG‰ tunes is also a
part of early instruction. An instructional section for soprano recorder, complete with
many appropriate recorder songs, is included in Appendix B of this text.

Barred or Mallet Instruments

Barred or mallet instruments come in many sizes, have either wooden or metal bars,
and are played using mallets. The smaller instruments are placed on tabletops or desks,
and the larger ones, built with legs, are played while standing. Many are constructed
so that bars can be removed when not needed. Examples include xylophones, metallo-
phones, glockenspiels, resonator bars, and step bells. (See the Orff Approach in Chap-
ter 5 for more information on xylophones, metallophones, and glockenspiels.)

These instruments can be played by students of all ages, according to their level
of physical development. They are used for both melody and harmony. Young children
can play a single bar as an accompaniment for a melody·for example, playing the

Courtesy of Rhythm Band Instruments, Inc. Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 31 SECTION I

Figures 3.6 and 3.7 Resonator bars (left) and step bells.

C bar to accompany „Sally, Go ÊRound the Sun‰ (p. 312). Slightly older children can
progress to playing two pitches simultaneously·C and G (called a bordun or drone)
as an accompaniment to the song. Full chords can be handled next by playing C, E, and
G simultaneously as an accompaniment. Complex mallet work should be delayed until
students are older and have greater eye hand coordination.

Autoharp®, Chromaharp®, and QChord®

The Autoharp®, the Chromaharp®, and the QChord® (Digital Song Card Guitar) are
primarily harmony instruments because they are used for accompanying songs. All
three are popular instruments in elementary classrooms.

The Autoharp® and the Chromaharp® are trade names (each being the trademarks
of a particular manufacturer) for the chorded zither·a chordal, stringed instrument
that is strummed while chord bars are depressed. (See chord bar chart in Appendix B.)
Because both are relatively easy instruments to learn to play and are portable, they
have become a valued instrument to accompany classroom singing. The easiest play-
ing position and the one generally used for children is placing the instrument on a
table, oneÊs lap, or on the floor. The other playing position is to hold the instrument
upright (in a slightly diagonal position) with the left hand pressing the chord bars and
the right hand crossing over the left to strum the strings. This position is called the
Appalachian style.

Both students and teachers can learn to play Autoharp®/Chromaharp® accom-
paniments by reading the chord names that appear above the melody and pressing
the designated chord bar while strumming the strings. Chordal harmony is the result.
Prior to learning to read notation and follow the chord symbols, children can experi-
ence the instruments in several different ways. Kindergarteners are thrilled to strum
as the teacher presses the chord buttons for favorite songs such as „London Bridge‰
(p. 290) or „A Tisket, A Tasket‰ (p. 245). First and second graders can share these
roles, with one pushing the chord button and another strumming (best to start with a
song that requires just a one-chord accompaniment!). When students are ready, teach-
ers can display a chart of just the chords for easy reading. Fourth and fifth graders
can play the instrument by themselves, but they need practice time before they can
keep a steady rhythmic accompaniment as they finger different chord buttons and
follow the music.