The musical classroom backgrounds, models, and skills for elementary teaching

Courtesy of Rhythm Band Instruments, Inc.32 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Figure 3.8 Playing the Chromaharp®, Appalachian style.Courtesy of Suzuki
Corporation.
The QChord®, like the Autoharp® and Chromaharp® is an electronic instrument
that is used in similar ways·mostly to accompany singing. It has a built-in amplifier
and is completely portable. It can be played on a tabletop, or in guitar position when
a guitar strap is added. It will simultaneously produce chords in a choice of rhythms
and style.

Figure 3.9 QChord®.

The Qchord® comes with 84 preprogrammed chords, and can be programmed to
play a repeating series of chords for the song of your choice. With just the touch of a
button, the QChord® can provide an automatic bass line for a song, or you can program
an introduction and ending, or add a „drum fill.‰ When a player strums the plate, ten dif-
ferent timbres, e.g., guitar, banjo, and vibes, are readily available. However, rather than
strum, the player can choose from ten preset rhythms, such as waltz, rock, and country.
The instrument offers a multitude of ways for teachers to accompany songs and older
children are fascinated with learning how to play the Qchord® to accompany singing.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 33 SECTION I

More information on these instruments, complete with suggested Musical Class-
room songs to accompany, is included in Appendix B of this text.

Keyboards

The piano and electronic keyboard can both be used to play melodies, chord tones,
song fragments, borduns, ostinatos, and full chords. Playing a keyboard instrument
offers students of all ages concrete experiences with music concepts and notation, and
helps develop spatial reasoning skills. Electronic keyboards are found at every grade
level in many different teaching/learning situations.

Courtesy of Korg Education, a division of KORG USA.

Figure 3.10 Keyboard technology lab.

The keyboardÊs white and black key pattern for both the piano and electronic
keyboard is the same (as is the pattern found on barred and mallet instruments).

CD F GA CD
DE GAB DE

CDE F GABCDE

Figure 3.11

They differ in that electronic keyboards provide chord accompaniments that
are automatic or manual. In addition, they offer preset rhythms (percussion only·no
pitched sounds) of different styles and meters. For example, a preset rhythm might be
in waltz time or in banjo or rock style. What fun to choose a preset rhythm „backup‰
in a suitable style such as banjo for a song such as „Oh, Susannah‰! And given that

Courtesy of Rhythm Band Instruments, Inc.34 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

these keyboards can produce an array of timbres such as a honky-tonk piano, organ or
clarinet, the possibilities for interesting accompaniments are unlimited.

An instructional section for keyboard is provided on the companion website.

Guitar and Ukulele

The guitar and ukulele are stringed instruments that are included in some elementary
classroom music programs. Both can be introduced when a studentÊs small-muscle
coordination is adequately developed. This can be as early as third grade. The instru-
ments are used primarily to accompany songs and require tuning before each use.

There are many types of guitars, from acoustic to electric, with bodies and strings
of different materials. The classical (acoustic) guitar has a mellow tone and is a good
choice for beginner players, as it has nylon strings (rather than steel strings) and a fairly
wide neck. These two features make it easier on the pads of the fingers and allow a
bit more space for fingering chords. Introductory guitar work begins with chord roots,
simplified chords (using only four strings), or chords that use only one or two fingers.

Figure 3.12 Soprano ukulele.

The ukulele is a Hawaiian instrument that was developed from a small gui-
tar brought to the islands by the Portuguese in the late 1800s. The ukulele comes in
soprano and baritone sizes. The smaller soprano „uke‰ has six strings and a somewhat
metallic sound. It is better for small hands because of its size and its higher pitches
match better with the vocal range of young singers.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 35 SECTION I

The baritone ukulele is larger and has a more mellow tone. It has a wider finger-Courtesy of Suzuki Corporation.
board than the soprano, making it somewhat easier to finger chords. Learning the bari-
tone ukulele can precede guitar study, because the baritoneÊs four strings are the same as
the highest four strings of the guitar, making it easy to transfer skills to the guitar.

Chord charts, playing positions, and Musical Classroom songs for guitar and
baritone ukulele accompaniment are presented in Appendix B and additional guitar
information is on the companion website.

Handbells and Chime Bars

Handbells and chime bars are high-quality, expensive instruments used in some ele-
mentary music programs. A handbell is a bell with handle; a chime bar is a tube with an
attached mallet on the top. Both are made of metal and come in sets of graduated sizes
(pitches). Each handbell and chime bar is portable and is held in the hand.

By grades 4 or 5, most children have developed the motor skills to be successful
playing these instruments. They require control and timing to play at a precise moment
in the music. A player is assigned to a specific handbell or chime bar and plays only
that pitch when it is needed. Each instrument has a particular playing technique. Hand-
bells are often used for melody, but they can also be used for harmony. Available chime
bars are called Choirchimes and ToneChimes, each name being the trademark of a
particular manufacturer.

Figure 3.13 ToneChimes.

Virtual Instruments

A virtual instrument is a type of software that acts as a sound module. Virtual instru-
ments use your computerÊs CPU and other resources to create sound and the program
running on the computer is the virtual instrument itself. The types of instruments that
can be created are limitless and you can have as many as you like. The GarageBand
software application is one of the most accessible means for inviting children to try
playing virtual instruments via an iPad. This Apple application offers everything from
a virtual drum set to virtual guitar, bass, strings, and piano. Children as young as pre-
school can experiment with virtual instruments and even create a layered composition
using an iPad and GarageBand (Hanna, 2016: 78).

36 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

PROJECTS

1. Visit two or three websites that sell a variety of classroom musical instruments and
review the availability, prices, and online information. (A list of music suppliers with
websites is provided in Appendix D.) Take notes about the ones you feel offer the
most for elementary music classes.

2. Check out videos on YouTube for playing handbells, tuning a ukulele, demonstrating
a Qchord®, or learning about virtual instruments. Make a list of the videos related to
instruments that you found helpful and pertinent to classroom music.

3. Identify three songs in Section II that can be performed on the Autoharp® or Chro-
maharp® (refer to the 12- and 15-chord models in Appendix B for available chords).
Find a song that can be performed with one chord, one that uses two chords, and a
third that requires three chords for an accompaniment.

LISTENING (RESPONDING)

Listening, or the aural mode, is central to every aspect of music making. In addition
to the aural skills required in playing instruments, singing songs, and creating accom-
paniments, „pure‰ listening or listening for its own sake should be the focus of many
music-learning experiences. Students hear music all around them every day, but pure
listening to music is an active skill, and one that needs to be developed and nurtured.
To become perceptive, critical, and successful music learners, children need to develop
specific listening skills. They need to „learn to listen‰ and „listen to learn.‰

Learning to listen attentively to music is a challenge for children. Music-
listening experiences that involve them as active participants help focus their attention.
For example, movement or visual aids can elicit responses to particular events in the
music. If children are listening to music that has changing tempos, they could respond
with fast and slow walking. Or they could use puppets to show the long and short
sounds in an orchestral piece. These experiences are effective ways to demonstrate
perceptual understanding.

Teaching students to listen to music involves gradually increasing their atten-
tion span. Initially, listening experiences should feature shorter pieces and gradually
increase to longer ones. No matter what the length or complexity of a particular selec-
tion, students need to hear it many times·they need to become „old friends‰ with the
musical work. And they need to listen for something specific in the music each time the
piece is heard. As they engage in repeated listenings, their understanding of the music
will deepen and, as a result, their enjoyment of the music will be greater. Consider the
following guidelines when engaging children in listening experiences.

Table 3.5 Guidelines to encourage students to listen attentively

1 Maintain eye contact with students when music is being played.

2 Be an active participant in the listening experience.

3 Show interest and excitement about the music through facial expressions.

4 Model attentive listening behaviors.

5 Give full attention to the music to encourage students to stay “on task.”

6 Refrain from talking while the class listens—insist that students do the same.

7 Give good oral directions before the listening experience and only visual cues or
non-verbal signals (nod of head, smile, hand gesture) during the listening.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 37 SECTION I

Visual Aids

To facilitate music learning, numerous techniques and teaching aids are used to help
structure and organize listening experiences. Listening maps, guides, and call charts
have proven to be successful tools for focusing student attention on specific events in
a piece of music. Puppets, scarves, or particular objects can also help illustrate and
enhance a musical example.

A listening map, like a road map, guides the listener through the music and pro-
vides helpful information. „Music listening maps consist of pictures, graphs, shapes,
words, and lines that are created and ÂperformedÊ as one listens to music repeatedly and
in Âreal timeʉ (Kerchner, 2014: 92). Listening guides are generally written descrip-
tions of the musical highlights of a composition. Listening maps can be either teacher-
designed or student-designed (with teacher guidance!) while listening guides are
primarily teacher-designed. These visuals can be presented to a class on a board, large
chart, SmartBoard or other projector. Or they can be prepared on paper and dupli-
cated for each student. A call chart, a written or visual guide to the important events
in a musical selection, differs from a listening map in that it identifies the particular
musical events by number. The teacher indicates silently the number, or „call,‰ that
coincides with each music event as it occurs.

Check out the following examples of visual aids for listening experiences used
in this text.

Listening Map for Model 7, „Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks‰ on page 128. This
picture map depicts in sequence the musical events with pictures of a chick in various
stages breaking out of its shell.
Listening Guide for Model 34, „Viennese Musical Clock‰ on page 207. The guide
points out some special characteristic or feature of the same and contrasting sections
of this composition.
Call Chart for Model 41, „Piffle Rag‰ on page 228. This call chart guides students to
discover the structural form of this ragtime selection by involving them in complet-
ing the chart.

Listening maps, grids, guides, and call charts are just several of the instructional tools
that are effectively used to guide the listener through a piece of music. Teachers should
be creative in designing similar tools to facilitate focused listening.

Table 3.6 Planning steps for listening experiences

1 Plan well-organized lessons that will—through movement, visual aids, and the
like—engage students as active participants.

2 Select music of appropriate length and complexity for the age of the students.
3 Direct students to listen for something specific in the music each time the piece is

heard.
4 Engage students in repeated listenings to specific pieces of music.
5 Use quality sound equipment to play recorded selections so that students experience

the very best performances.

1stock©PeopleImages.38 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

PROJECTS

1. Download the music for „Ballet of the Unhatched Chicks‰ listed above. Get
acquainted with the music using both the Listening Guide for Teachers and the Lis-
tening (Picture) Map for Children listed above. Reflect in writing on your experience
becoming acquainted with the music and using the guide and map.

2. Create another version of a listening map for this piece that would engage K-1st
graders.

MOVEMENT (RESPONDING)

Children are naturally physically active. Because they use their bodies and minds
to help them understand their world, movement seems an ideal way for children to
explore music. Through movement, children can experience all three of the artistic
processes·creating, performing, and responding.

Figure 3.14 Swing your partner.

Musicians and music educators have long recognized the importance of move-
ment; for example, two European curricular approaches make extensive use of movement
with music: Dalcroze (eurhythmics) and Orff Schulwerk (see Chapter 5 for both). Both
approaches demonstrate the close association between movement and playing instruments.

All the elements of music can be expressed through movement; melody, rhythm,
form, texture/harmony, and expressive qualities. As a result:

Movement to music aids in understanding music concepts.
Movement to music contributes to physical development.
Movement to music develops creativity and imagination through interpretation of music.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 39 SECTION I

Types of Movement

Movement can be categorized as fundamental movements, creative movements, and
singing games and dances. All three need to be frequent experiences, at every grade level.

Fundamental movements can be either locomotor or non-locomotor. Locomotor
movement may be defined as moving from one place to another or across space. And
donÊt children love to walk, run, hop, jump, gallop, slide, and skip? Since non-locomotor
movement suggests moving within a stationary position or in place, children can swing
arms, bend, twist, shake, and sway in all kinds of interesting ways.

Creative movements are interpretive, sometimes rhythmic, sometimes not. Chil-
dren can express themselves by creating movements to show high and low pitches, fast
and slow tempos, and long and short sounds. Sometimes they may synchronize their
movements to the steady beat of music. Other times they may respond freely to live or
recorded music in their own special ways.

From preschool on, children enjoy being engaged in singing games and dances.
Initially, they create movements that are suggested in their songs. For example, the
action song „If YouÊre Happy and You Know It‰ encourages the children to „clap your
hands,‰ „nod your head,‰ and try all sorts of actions and movements with their bodies.
Simple singing games come next such as „Sally, Go ÂRound the Sunʉ (Model 4) and
folk dances such as „Shoo, Fly‰ (Model 18). These types of movement experiences
provide lots of physical activity, which elementary school children love.

The activities that are outlined next describe the kinds of movement experiences
appropriate for students in grades kindergarten through grade 5. These kinds of experi-
ences will help children internalize music concepts and enable them to grow musically.

Movement Experiences in Kindergarten and Grade 1

Most children enter kindergarten with locomotor movements that are well developed;
they can run, slide, jump, and hop. They are beginning to develop skills for gallop-
ing, skipping, and jumping rope. Kindergarten children are ready for simple circle or
follow-the-leader dances and games such as „The Hokey Pokey.‰ (Consider having
a premarked circle or preplaced rubber „Jumbo Markers‰ in the movement area, and
by having a rest between activities that involve holding hands!) Their small-muscle
control needs more refinement through pattern rhythms (such as echo clapping) and
through playing rhythm instruments with their own movements.

Kindergarteners and first graders can express their musical understandings in
all kinds of interesting ways, for example, creatively moving to show high and low
pitches heard in the music. Children of this age often have difficulty adjusting their
movements to fit the tempo of the music, but this improves as they mature. Just as
kindergarten children enjoy simple circle or follow-the-leader dances and games, first
graders enjoy circle and partner-swinging dances that require more structure.

Movement Experiences in Grades 2 and 3

Second and third graders can follow the beat in music and respond through movement to
changes in tempo and dynamics. They also enjoy conducting to demonstrate their under-
standing of beat groupings (meter) and rhythmic accuracy as Maestros (see Model 25)!
They can show their skill in patterned movements when they clap and pat (and even do
a stick game) to show the meter in „The Stars and Stripes Forever‰ (Model 24). Because
their small-muscle coordination is greatly improved, they are ready for opportunities to

40 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

play the recorder and keyboard. Again, creative experiences should be part of the move-
ment curriculum at this grade level and ideas for devising a creative „dragon dance‰ is
offered in the „The Dragon Song‰ (Model 29). The visual below (as are others through-
out the text) are intended to show the movement setup being introduced.

Figure 3.15

More complex folk dances that involve circles, lines, squares, and partners will
also engage children of this age.

Movement Experiences in Grades 4 and 5

Performing more challenging body rhythms and patterns is very appealing and engag-
ing for students in grades 4 and 5. In Section II, the jazz piece „Take Five‰ (Model 42)
challenges students to perform beat groupings of five! And the hand jive for „Piffle
Rag‰ (Model 41) really makes them listen and perform with accuracy. Creative move-
ment experiences should obviously be front and center with this age group. An age-
appropriate example in Section II is Model 34 where students create actions of various
clock figures to fit the rondo form of „Viennese Musical Clock.‰ Older students are
somewhat hesitant to move with music if they have had few previous experiences,
so fairly structured and „adult‰ activities may be in order. More sophisticated Latin
American or Native American dances may interest them.

Table 3.7 Guidelines for movement activities

1 Provide enough space for children to move freely and safely.
2 Create an accepting environment, but establish simple movement rules such as

“move without touching anyone” and “stop when the music stops.”
3 Plan movements carefully making certain to balance structured and spontaneous

responses.
4 Devise procedures and techniques to help move students from one area to

another (such as playing beats on a tambourine or repeating a part of the music
that was just heard).
5 Model specific movements with one or two students before the whole class
moves. Make sure that directions are clear before students begin the activity.
6 Use props (such as streamers, scarves, hats) to encourage creative movement and
encourage students who may be self-conscious.
7 DO participate with the students in the movement activity.

PROJECTS

1. Choose a song that includes a singing game or easy folk dance from Section III.
Select one that is age appropriate for the grade level of your choice. Learn the game
or dance and try teaching it to a child or peer.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 41 SECTION I

2. Check out videos on YouTube for teaching examples of elementary school children
engaged in creative movement. Try to find examples of those illustrating creative
movement, locomotor movement, and folk dances.

CREATING MUSIC

Opportunities to create music should be a part of every classroom music experience,
at every grade level. „All students have the ability to create music that is uniquely
their own‰ (Kaschub and Smith, 2017: 13). Creating is one of the artistic processes
that is integral to the Music Standards (National Core Music Standards, 2014).
The standards specify that children should be encouraged to imagine and generate
musical ideas, develop those ideas, refine them, and finally share them. This is not
difficult for children because they are innately creative, and their creativity should
be cherished, nurtured, and expanded through quality music experiences. Creative
experiences help children understand how melody, rhythm, form, texture/harmony,
and the expressive qualities of music work together. Typically these classroom music
experiences make use of, and are based on singing, playing instruments, and moving
to music.

But how do teachers build creative skills in creating music? First, they engage
children in multiple experiences to build the foundation or vocabulary for creating.
For example, children need to sing a wide repertoire of chants and songs, play small
percussion and other classroom instruments, and move to music in all sorts of ways.
Then, teachers invite children to explore different ways of singing, playing, or moving
to music emphasizing that all choices are „right.‰ For example, children can change the
words to a favorite chant or song, show different ways of playing a familiar instrument,
or find new movements for familiar singing games and dances.

These exploratory experiences naturally progress to improvising and compos-
ing experiences. For example, students can make up „on the spot‰ (improvise) mod-
ified versions of a familiar melody, rhythm or movement pattern (such as singing an
„answer‰ different from a teacherÊs sung „question‰ or playing a rhythmic „answer‰
phrase to a drummerÊs „question‰ phrase). They can also experiment with their own
variations on familiar songs. Since composing is not instantaneous as improvising is,
it requires more planning and time to craft oneÊs ideas as well as reflect and revise.
While teachers often find it challenging to allocate the necessary time for childrenÊs
composing projects, the resultant musical and cognitive growth for children is well
worth it!

Creative Experiences in Kindergarten and Grade 1

For exploratory experiences, kindergarten and first-grade children love to make up
new words and movements for a favorite song. For example, for the song „Riding in
the Buggy‰ (p. 310), children can create new vehicles to ride in (bicycles, buses, space-
ships, etc.) and explore movements depicting them. They especially enjoy creating
dramatizations for a song. „Five Angels‰ (p. 266) is a great song for creating and acting
out the different jobs of the five angels.

They also need lots of opportunities to discover all the different sound possi-
bilities of their voices and mouth sounds (sigh, hum, pop, tongue clicks) as well as
instruments and how to use them creatively. Teachers should use pictorial or iconic
notation to represent a variety of sounds and encourage children to do the same. Ask
„LetÊs make our voices swoop down!‰ Then, ask how you might draw a picture of it.
Or „how would pop look?‰

42 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Figure 3.16a “Swoop down.” Figure 3.16b “Pop.”

Sound stories or instrumental accompaniments to stories and songs are two addi-
tional ways children can express their creative ideas through sound exploration. Such
experiences help heighten aural perception and sensitivity.

Creative Experiences in Grades 2 and 3

Second- and third-grade students can continue their exploratory experiences by cre-
ating a „sound story‰ using a variety of classroom instruments along with a story
which has two contrasting sections, such as Where the Wild Things Are by Mau-
rice Sendak. Encourage and explore pictorial or iconic notation to visualize the
sound story or use recording technology to make an aural record. Their movement
experiences can progress to improvising movements to accompany two contrasting
pieces of music. For example, think of the interesting movements that might accom-
pany the „Russian Dance‰ versus the „Arabian Dance‰ from The Nutcracker Suite
(Spotify/iTunes)!

In small groups, students can create hand games in beat groupings of twos or
threes (for example, clap, snap for twos and clap, snap, snap for threes). They can per-
form and have the class decide whether the example is in two or three. Again, a simple
notation, either iconic or music notation, can be used. More creative rhythmic expe-
riences can include making up „answers‰ to the teacherÊs „questions‰ using clapping
or other body sounds. For example, teacher claps a four-beat rhythm pattern and the
students echo. Then, the teacher challenges the students one at a time to clap a different
„answer‰ to the „question.‰ Or another approach would be after the four-beat echoing
of a pattern by the teacher, individual students become the „teacher‰ and improvise a
pattern for the class to echo.

Creating and arranging ostinatos (short melodic fragments) to accompany songs
are great experiences for trying out musical ideas. The song „Chatter with the Angels‰
(p. 255) is an excellent example where the ostinatos can first be taken from the song
itself and repeated over and over. For example, the rhythm of „chatter with the angels‰
could be a rhythmic ostinato performed on a hand drum, while „all day long‰ could be
used as a melodic ostinato.

Children should be encouraged to create their own ostinatos and plan an intro-
duction to the song and a coda to conclude the arrangement.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 43 SECTION I

Figure 3.17a Rhythmic ostinato. Figure 3.17b Melodic ostinato.

Creative Experiences in Grades 4 and 5

At this age level, many creative experiences might be accomplished best in small groups
and extended to individual creations. For example, working in small groups, fourth and
fifth graders can expand their sound and improvisation experiences by exploring envi-
ronmental sounds and various instruments to create an accompaniment or arrangement
to a poem. (Haiku poems are especially good for this exploration. Find several in Appen-
dix C.) The class can choose ideas from the various group compositions to combine into
a class composition and then make a musical video of their creation.

Students will better understand musical form when they create their own composi-
tions in two sections (AB), three sections (ABA), or rondo form (ABACADA). For exam-
ple, students can clap the rhythm of a familiar melody as the A theme, then, improvise a
contrasting B theme of the same length, returning to the A theme to complete a rhythmic
ABA composition. Using different barred or mallet instruments (such as xylophones,
glockenspiels, and metallophones), they can set up a pentatonic scale, such as G A B D
E and compose a pitched ABA piece. They could again use the rhythm of a familiar song
for the A section and improvise a contrasting B section. (This composing example is an
illustration often used in the Orff Schulwerk Approach; see Chapter 5.) Students at this
age should be able to record their composition in either iconic or music notation.

Table 3.8 Guidelines for creating experiences

1 Create an environment that encourages children to explore, improvise, and compose
music.

2 Be positive with their creations remembering that there are no wrong “answers.”
Strive for many different “answers.”

3 Respect individuality and self-expression.
4 Encourage and acknowledge their “growing” skills in the creative process.
5 Discourage students from being too critical of their own work and the works of others.

PROJECTS

1. Check out one of the numerous music software programs that are available to
encourage and enable children to doodle and invent. See software programs listed in
Appendix E. (One of the more innovative programs is composer Morton SubotnickÊs
„Creating Music.‰)

2. Observe one child or groups of prekindergarten or elementary school children in
an informal setting (home or playground). Make note of and describe what kinds

44 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

of creative activities they explore. Are any of them musical such as movement or
games? Are any applicable in a classroom? Why, and how?
3. Select an elementary grade level of your choice and review the sequence vertically
(imagine, plan and make, evaluate and refine, present) for the „Creating‰ core music stan-
dards for that level. (Go to nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/core-music-standards
and click on 2014 standards (Prek-8 General Music).) Does the sequence seem logical?
Is it challenging for the students in the grade level? Do the standards answer the „essen-
tial questions‰ for Creating? Report your findings.
4. Describe the differences between improvisation and composition. Give an example
of each.

READING AND NOTATING MUSIC
(PERFORMING AND CREATING)

Learning to read and notate music enables students to be musically literate and inde-
pendent music learners. Once students acquire basic music-reading skills, they can
explore music more fully while in school and carry this knowledge into adult life.
Music notation (a visual representation of pitch and duration) has little meaning for
children unless it is associated with sound. The aural and visual connection is crucial
for understanding that what you see is what you hear.

Sound should always precede symbol! Children learn to speak a language before
they read it. The same process should serve as a guide for the teaching of music nota-
tion. Only when children have had many opportunities to experience musical sounds
and only when their sensorimotor and perceptual skills are appropriately developed
should they be introduced to the visual means for representing those sounds.

Children develop their ability and skill to use music notation gradually. At the
prekindergarten level, musical sounds are visualized in pictures. For example, children
can pat steady beats to accompany a chant such as „Hickory, Dickory, Dock.‰ After
becoming well acquainted with the chant and steady beats, the teacher can display a
chart of clocks. As they pat the steady beats, they can follow the teacher touching the
pictures associated with their steady beats.

Figure 3.18 “Hickory, Dickory, Dock” picture chart.

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 45 SECTION I

Children in the primary grades continue to respond to pictorial or iconic notation.
For example, children can first chant and pat steady beats to a favorite chant before
being introduced to a chart of lines associated with those beats. In a later follow-up to
this experience, they can be shown how the lines in the chart can be transformed into
music notation by adding a notehead to the lines. Children at this age also like to be the
„reader‰ and touch the lines/notes as the class chants.

| | ||

| | ||

| | ||

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Figure 3.19

Informal notation for pitch levels is often used for introductory experiences in
melodic direction. For example, first-grade children can learn a new song such as
„Five Angels‰ (Model 10) and both sing and play on resonator bars the songÊs upward
repeating pattern. They can then visualize that pattern by arranging five felt angels on
a flannelboard in the upward direction. That can be followed by adding to the flan-
nelboard display the felt letter names for each pitch in the pattern (see flannelboard
cutouts on page 139). These informal reading or notating experiences are naturally
followed by more formal staff notation. Again, notation should be presented only when
children have an immediate musical need to use it and when it is considered to be
developmentally appropriate.

Older students can trace an entire Native American melodyÊs contour „notated‰
in a continuous line (see drawing in Model 37). As they listen to the „Corn Grinding
Song‰ and trace a line, the ups, downs, and repeats are apparent as are the places where
there are jumps and leaps. This is a challenging listening experience and an excellent
way to „see what you hear.‰

Syllables or related mneumonic devices have been found to be very effec-
tive for teaching rhythm-reading skills (Shehan, 1987). A number of such systems
or approaches exist. In the Kodály Approach, described in more detail in Chapter 5,
rhythm syllables are used from the outset. For example, syllables such as „ta‰ for quar-
ter notes and „ta-a‰ for half notes are spoken as means to read and perform rhythms
accurately. At first, notation is presented without note heads·just beat lines. In the
Music Learning Theory (MLT) approach, also described in Chapter 5, rhythm sylla-
bles are also used with „du‰ for quarter notes and „du-u‰ for half notes. Unique to the
MLT approach is that the syllable „du‰ always falls on a downbeat. This may help to
better understand and perform beat and meter.

Similarly, sol-fa syllables (do, re, mi) or numbers are often used as a tool for
pitch reading. In the Music Learning Theory approach, when children can sing a vari-
ety of tonal patterns, they learn to associate the patterns with the sol-fa syllables. In
the Kodály Approach, physical hand signs are associated with the sol-fa syllables.
Both the syllables and hand signs help students develop inner hearing·the ability to
hear the pitches or melody in oneÊs head. Students are then ready to notate what they
hear in staff notation.

Courtesy NAFME file photo.46 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Figure 3.20 Girl singing (and reading) with others.

Both the Music Learning Theory and Kodály Approach are the music reading
programs found most often in elementary general music classes. There are numer-
ous software programs available to help students practice reading and notating music;
e.g., Music Ace is an excellent one (see Appendices D and E). As with reading lan-
guage, reading music is a complex skill that is developmental and that requires a
knowledgeable teacher, regular instruction, and continuous reinforcement.

Table 3.9 Guidelines for developing music reading and notating skills
1 Engage children in learning a repertoire of easy songs, singing games, rhymes, and

chants.
2 Encourage physical movements with this repertoire, such as tapping, clapping,

moving, and showing pitch levels with hands and body.
3 Involve them in clapping and speaking rhythms of familiar songs, rhymes, and

chants using mnemonic syllables.
4 Use sol-fa syllables in singing familiar melodies.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 while following the music notation.
6 Remember the adage that “practice makes perfect.”

Chapter 3: Music-Making Experiences 47 SECTION I

PROJECTS

1. Review Models 1 and 2 in Section II for examples of children being introduced to
iconic notation for steady beats. Then, choose a chant from Appendix C and devise
an iconic notation, appropriate for kindergarteners and first graders, to use with the
selected chant.

2. Check out the Music Ace software program listed in Appendix D. Try the free demo
and discover how the program introduces children (and adults too!) to music reading.

REFERENCES

Brand, E. (1998). „The process of identifying National Core Music Standards. (2014).
childrenÊs mental model of their own learn- nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/
ing as inferred from learning a song.‰ Bul- core-music-standards.
letin of the Council for Research in Music
Education, 138: 47 61. Rutkowski, J. and Runfola, M. (2010). TIPS:
The Child Voice. Reston, VA: National Asso-
Hanna, W. (2016). The ChildrenÊs Music Stu- ciation for Music Education.
dio: A Reggio-inspired Approach. New
York: Oxford University Press. Shehan, P.K. (1987). „Effects of Rote Versus
Note Presentations on Rhythm Learning and
Kaschub, M. and Smith, J. (2017). Experienc- Retention.‰ Journal of Research in Music
ing Music Composition in Grades 3 5. New Education, 35: 117 126.
York: Oxford University Press.
See Appendix A for the rhythm syllables used
Kerchner, J.L. (2014). Music Across the Senses: in both the Music Learning Theory and
Listening, Learning, and Making Meaning. Kodály Approach.
New York: Oxford University Press.
See www.musicmotion.com for viewing „Jumbo
Klinger, R., Campbell, P.S., and Goolsby, T. Markers‰ (nonskid rubber circles) to use for
(1998). „Approaches to childrenÊs song special placements in movement (and many
acquisition: Immersion and phrase-by- other) experiences.
phrase.‰ Journal of Research in Music Edu-
cation, 46: 24 34.



4

Music of the World

Q Classical Music, p. 49
Q Music from Around the World, p. 50
Q Jazz, p. 54
Q Popular Music, p. 55

The sounds of music seem to be everywhere in our twenty-first-century world. We hear
everything from classic to pop, jazz to the worldÊs many musical traditions, and fusions
of all kinds. Being able to experience music of diverse genres and cultures has never
been easier! Given technological developments and electronic media, not to mention
social and education reforms, it is no surprise that the wide, wide world of music is
open to all of us.

The elementary music curriculum should reflect this diversity and include the
wealth of childhood songs of many traditions as well as classical music, music of many
different cultures, the uniquely American music jazz, and popular music. Children
need to open their ears to the entire world of music as they expand their musical skills
and understanding. In fact, „research suggests that inclusion of more styles of music,
including popular music and music from various cultures, will increase student partic-
ipation and creativity‰ (College Board, 2011: 25).

What follows is specific information about classical music, world music, jazz,
and popular music; their place in the elementary curriculum; and some suggestions and
examples for instructional approaches.

CLASSICAL MUSIC

Classical music is a term for art music of the Western civilization, usually created by a
trained composer. Western art music is the music of Bach (1685 1750) and Beethoven
(1770 1827), or of Clara Schumann (1819 1896) and Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (b. 1939),
and certainly should be an important part of the school curriculum. Many model expe-
riences in this text make use of Western art music, e.g., the music of Tchaikovsky,
Beethoven, Gabrieli, and Stravinsky. To have a frame of reference for the timeline of
Western art music, the chart that follows identifies the historical musical style periods,
with approximate dates and a small sampling of composers from each period.

Some children may have had very little exposure to classical music in their pre-
school years. Therefore, introducing them to the beauty and excitement of Western
art music in their elementary school years can open the door to a lifetime of musical

49

50 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Table 4.1 Western art music timeline

Style Periods Approximate Dates Selected Composers

Medieval 500–1420 Leonin, Hildegard, Machaut
Renaissance 1420–1600 Palestrina, Gabrieli, Monteverdi
Baroque 1600–1750 Bach, Vivaldi, Handel
Classic 1750–1820 Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven
Romantic 1820–1900 Schumann, Chopin, Tchaikovsky
Modern 1900–1975 Schoenberg, Ravel, Stravinsky
Contemporary 1975–present Glass, Reich, Zwilich

enjoyment! Having a teacher who is not only knowledgeable, but also enthusiastic, and
shows his or her own enjoyment of the music helps children appreciate and enjoy the
musical experience even more.

The musical experiences in this text are designed to engage children actively
in the listening experience and turn them on to classical music. In general, the Level
I and II lessons use shorter, „brighter‰ instrumental pieces with a variety of dynamic
levels, driving rhythm, and melodic repeats. For example, „Chinese Dance‰ from
The Nutcracker Suite (Tchaikovsky) is presented in Model 19 to introduce students
to alternating high-pitched and low-pitched phrases while Model 25 engages children
in performing beat groupings of three while listening to BachÊs „Jesu, Joy of ManÊs
Desiring.‰

More complex compositions are included in Level III. Each model experience
focuses on the elements of music, and a studentÊs attention is specifically directed
to a music element such as melody, timbre, or form. For example, Models 33 and 34
focus on sectional form engaging students in discovering that the piece „Carillon‰
by Bizet is in ABA form while the „Viennese Musical Clock‰ by Kodály is in
rondo form. The same approach or a similar one to The Musical ClassroomÊs is used
in lessons presenting classical pieces in the elementary music series print and online
materials (see Appendix D). Many of the planning steps and ideas presented in Chapter
3, „Listening,‰ work especially well with presenting classical music.

Other approaches introduce classical music by playing recordings (without spe-
cific conceptual goals) during snack or naptime, artwork, or movement, or have stu-
dents create mental images while listening. Children are often fascinated by stories
about the famous composers and there are numerous childrenÊs books available to peak
their interest (see Appendix E). September is Classical Music Month and a great time
for orchestras in major cities to offer special events. Many orchestras have a dedicated
interactive website for children and regularly offer concerts for school groups. Check
out the websites for the San Francisco Symphony, Dallas Symphony, and the New York
Philharmonic (Appendix E). Teachers and musicians throughout the United States are
working together to bring more children (and adults) in touch with classical music.

MUSIC FROM AROUND THE WORLD

There is an astonishing variety of music in every part of the globe. Those who study
music and its place in culture (ethnomusicologists) have shown us that there is no uni-
versal language of music but a multiplicity of musical languages. Each expresses the
aesthetic principles of its culture. Each has a history and a repertoire of pieces; each
has its own special approach to composition, performance, and use of instruments.

Chapter 4: Music of the World 51 SECTION I

Photo by Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia/ISME 2006. Each preserves its tradition for future generations·even though styles are changing
and mixing continuously (acculturation).

Introducing the music of different cultures to our children is a must! Not only do
they need to understand that the classical tradition is just one of the musical languages
that exists, but they should experience and learn about the glorious sounds coming
to them from around the world. Given the culturally diverse society that we live in,
children are learning from their classmates and friends about the special holidays,
celebrations, and customs of many different cultures. It is only natural that they should
also experience and learn about the musical traditions of selected cultures and open
their ears (and minds) to the many, many enchanting world musics.

Figure 4.1 Malaysian boys in traditional dress playing the kompang.

The multicultural music curriculum can have both musical and nonmusical
goals. The nonmusical goals of a music curriculum are similar to social science goals.
Both share humanistic goals to promote self-awareness and self-esteem, build empa-
thy for others, and encourage respect for the dignity of all human beings. In exploring
world music, children also (ideally) explore a peopleÊs customs, history, geography,
and beliefs; combining music with social studies enriches both subjects. Such expe-
riences align with social and global rationales for including world music in schools
(Fung, 1995).

Musical goals of the multicultural music curriculum are to help children learn
about the language of music. Teachers can implement musical goals by focusing on
music concepts, performance, and listening. Musical goals are the basis for the model
experiences in Section II of this text. Practical applications of integrated learning (e.g.,
social studies, dance) are presented and highlighted in activities that follow the model
experiences. Integrated learning is also presented in Chapter 6, along with practical
applications from model experiences.

What follows are some examples of model experiences that focus on selected
world cultures. As with all models in this text, music concepts serve as the focus for

52 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

music-learning experiences. For example, a music concept is explored in Model 37
„Corn Grinding Song‰ in which students focus on a Navajo melody that moves
high and low, and repeats. This is expanded to concepts about vocal timbre and rhythm,
suggested in an extension activity, and students notice details such as pulsation in the
singerÊs voice. They are also encouraged to learn more about the Navajos in suggested
books for young readers.

Focused listening is necessary when students explore vibrating objects and iden-
tify the timbre (tone color) of two different African instruments from Nigeria and
Uganda in Model 13. They learn about the importance of drumming in African music
and the special features of a kalimba/mbira/sansa (thumb pianos). Most importantly,
they discover a wider palette of musical sounds.

Figure 4.2 Thumb “piano,” kalimba, mbira or sansa.

Even a larger palette is explored in a listening experience in Model 38 in which
music of North Africa, Vietnam, and Bali is introduced as students identify instruments
by their vibrating material and sound in a classification system used by ethnomusicol-
ogists and organologists (see below.) Extensions to Model 38 include planning a world
music week featuring cultures in the local community. In Level III, fourth and fifth
graders can explore a multicultural unit featuring four model experiences (Models 35,
36, 37 and 38).

Table 4.2 Classification system for instruments of the world

Aerophones (Aero means “air” and phone means “sound” from Greek and Latin
Chordophones roots) are instruments in which the sound-producing agent is a
Electrophones vibrating column of air. Examples are flutes, trumpets, oboes, and
Idiophones recorders.
Membranophones
(Chord means “rope or string”) are instruments that produce their
sound by setting up vibrations in a stretched string. Examples are
ukuleles, sitars, violins, and guitars.

(Electro means “electric”) are instruments that produce vibrations that
must be passed through a loudspeaker before they are heard as sound.
Examples are electric guitar and electric bass.

(Ideo means “personal” or “self”) are instruments in which the sound-
producing agent is a solid material capable of producing sound by
setting up vibrations in the substance of the instrument, such as wood
or metal. Examples are gongs, chimes, and xylophones.

(Membran means “skin”) are instruments in which sound is produced by
vibrations in a stretched membrane (skin). Examples are mainly drums.

Chapter 4: Music of the World 53 SECTION I

Courtesy of Musical Instrument Museum. Integrated learning incorporates cultural traditions into the music-learning
experience, and is not developed around a music concept. Though a music concept
may not be the focus, music performance will be included, and music concepts can
be introduced as appropriate. Cultural topics for children in elementary grades would
include some of the following: the people, their land, language, education, ways of
making a living, customs, courtesies, music, recreation, holidays, and even food!
For example, in an extension to Model 32 „Haiku Sound Piece,‰ students create the
environment of a Japanese home, and also learn about culture, customs, and music.
Well-planned integrated learning experiences also can meet musical goals in the
curriculum.

Resources for the Multicultural Music Curriculum

Ethnic musicians (and parents) in the community are a valuable resource, and they
often are delighted to perform for students and introduce their culture. Culturally
authentic materials of the highest quality are readily available to use in the elementary
classroom. The elementary music series publications and their online materials offer
all kinds of music from around the world, performed by standard-bearers of the cul-
tural traditions, with indigenous language and instruments (see Appendix D). Numer-
ous websites, books, recordings, etc., exist to offer musical avenues for exploring
music of specific cultures (see Appendix D). The Smithsonian Folkways recordings
are particularly excellent and offer a wealth of music from around the world (www.folk
ways.si.edu). A helpful „Checklist for Evaluating Multicultural Materials‰ is available
on the World Music Press website (www.worldmusicpress.com). Instruments from a
wide variety of ethnic groups can be purchased from a number of sources (see Appen-
dix D, „Music Suppliers‰). And the Musical Instrument Museum (www.mim.org) is a
valuable resource for instruments (and music) from around the world.

Figure 4.3 An exhibit featuring the country of Nigeria including instruments, audio, video, and
costumes associated with the masquerades’ tradition of the Yoruba people.

54 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

For examples of selected ethnic celebrations that occur throughout the year, see
the chart below and the Monthly Planners in Section II.

Table 4.3 Selected ethnic celebrations

January Martin Luther King Jr. Day (3rd Monday), Chinese New Year (China, Korea,
Taiwan, Vietnam, variable)
February
March African American History Month, Chinese New Year (variable)
May
Irish American Heritage Month, Greek American Heritage Month
June
August Asian and Pacific American Heritage Month, Lei Day (Hawaii, May 1),
September Cinco de Mayo (May 5), Jewish American Heritage Month
October
November Caribbean American Heritage Month

Bon Festival (Japan)

Hispanic Heritage Month

Italian American Heritage and Culture Month

National American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month, Chinese and
Vietnamese Moon Festivals

JAZZ

African Americans created jazz, one of AmericaÊs original art forms. Blues and rag-
time music of the late 1800s were influential in the development of traditional (or
Dixieland) jazz at the beginning of the twentieth century in New Orleans. Two main
musical features of jazz are syncopation (putting accents in unexpected places) and
improvisation (creating music spontaneously).

After more than a century of development, jazz is celebrated as an important
art form in the United States. In fact, the U.S. Congress passed legislation in 2003
declaring April to be „Jazz Appreciation Month,‰ or JAM. (Even the acronym refers to
jazz·improvisation in a jam session!) Congress further noted that Americans should
„explore, perpetuate, and honor jazz as a national and world treasure.‰

Some major jazz styles and performers of jazz are identified below. Keep in mind
that dates shown are approximate, new styles do not necessarily extinguish earlier
ones, and most styles continue to be popular today.

Table 4.4 Jazz styles and performers

Styles Approximate Dates Performers

Traditional (or Dixieland) early 1900s Joe “King” Oliver
Chicago Style 1920s Louis Armstrong, Bix Beiderbecke
Swing, Big Band mid-1930s–mid-1940s Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington,
Mary Lou Williams
Bebop 1940s–1950s Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie
Cool 1950s–1960s Dave Brubeck, Miles Davis
Fusion 1970s Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock
Current present Wynton Marsalis, Joshua Redman

(Parallel to these styles has been the rhythmically exciting Afro-Cuban and Latin jazz that influenced
American jazz throughout its history.)

Chapter 4: Music of the World 55 SECTION I

Elementary school children should have experiences with this exciting, dis-
tinctive American creation. Jazz can be explored through its musical elements (e.g.,
melody, rhythm, and form) and through singing, playing instruments, movement,
listening, and creating. In this text, two early forms of jazz·the 12-bar blues and
boogie-woogie·are presented. Fourth and fifth graders discover the three phrases in
the 12-bar blues form of „Lost Your Head Blues‰ (Model 40), while kindergart-
eners and first graders explore the fast and slow tempi of „Boogie-Woogie Walk‰
(Model 5). Ragtime music, another influence on jazz, is the focus in Model 41
„Piffle Rag.‰ Sections of this rag may be accompanied by improvised movements
that repeat in accordance with the phrases and sections of the rag. In Model 42 „Take
Five,‰ the Dave Brubeck QuartetÊs „cool jazz‰ composition, students are challenged
to perform the five-beat groupings (meter) using body movements.

Models 40, 41, and 42 can serve as the basis for a jazz unit for fourth and fifth
graders. In addition, jazz pieces are listed in the „Other Music‰ suggestions of the
model experiences throughout Section II.

Resources for Jazz

Some examples of jazz are included in the elementary music series books and their
online materials (see Appendix D). Specific publications have been released to help
teachers introduce jazz to children. Chop-Monster Jr. is a jazz handbook that helps
elementary teachers discover and explore jazz performance techniques with chil-
dren. The Jazz for Young People™ Curriculum provides a wealth of teacher and
student materials for jazz appreciation. The Smithsonian Institution has produced a
fine series of online lessons on jazz for young people, ages 8 to 15, called GroovinÊ
to Jazz. In Appendix E, you will find a list of the many available childrenÊs books
about jazz performers.

POPULAR MUSIC

Popular music includes rock, soul, country/bluegrass, rap, Broadway musicals, and
many other genres. Often popular music is the choice of students outside of school
today. For many years, music educators avoided introducing popular music in the
classroom·mainly questioning its musical merit. However, when suitable materials
are available, popular music can be presented in a way that has musical integrity·and
not just as a social or psychological support for students (Cutietta, 1991: 27).

This means that instruction should be standards-based and focused on the elements
of music (e.g., melody, harmony, rhythm, form) and on the special sound (expressive
quality) of pop instruments. From this perspective, popular music can be integrated into
the curriculum on the same basis as classical music, world music, and jazz.

The challenge is being able to include popular music in instructional materials for
the classroom. Copyright fees are extremely expensive, lyrics may not be appropriate,
currently popular songs may have a very short „shelf life,‰ and the list goes on. In fact,
these are the same reasons that popular music is not included in this text. A bluegrass
example is part of Model 39 and follow-ups to models often suggest online searches
for popular music illustrating a particular concept. Some popular music is nominally
represented in the elementary music series books and online materials·usually older
pop songs and Broadway show tunes, but few rock or Top 40 songs.

Imaginative teachers can find ingenious ways to bring popular music into the
classroom. For example, by finding out what students are listening to outside of school
and asking them to download and share with you (on their electronic device), the

56 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

suitability of lyrics, etc., can be checked. Also, assignments can be given for finding
a popular song that illustrates one of the music concepts that they have been studying
in class. Teachers can also explore how popular music techniques can enhance a class-
room song students know by adding dance movements, changing the dynamics, or
creating „riffs‰ (ostinatos) on different instruments.

PROJECTS

1. Search the Internet for information about the music of a selected culture. Prepare a
presentation using PowerPoint or similar presentation software to share what you
have learned.

2. Visit the Musical Instrument MuseumÊs website (www.mim.org) and review the edu-
cation section for information about instruments of various cultures. Summarize and
share the educator resources that can be helpful for elementary teachers.

3. Check out teaching videos on YouTube that engage children in music of other
cultures, classical music, jazz or popular music.

REFERENCES

College Board. (December 2011). Child Devel- Fung, C.V. (July 1995). „Rationales for Teach-
opment and Arts Education: A Review of Cur- ing World Musics.‰ Music Educators Journal
rent Research and Best Practices. New York: 82(2): 36 40.
The College Board. www.advocacy.college
board.org/preparation-access/arts-core. Marsalis, W. (2002). Jazz for Young People Cur-
riculum. Miami: Warner Bros.
Cutietta, R.A. (1991). „Popular Music: An
Ongoing Challenge.‰ Music Educators Jour- Smithsonian Institution (2004). GroovinÊ to Jazz.
nal 77(8): 26 29. www.americanhistory.si.edu/Smithsonian-
jazz/education/grooving-jazz-ages-8 13.
Fitzgerald, M., McCord, K., and Berg, S. (2003).
Chop-Monster Jr. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred
Publications, Inc.

5

Curricular Approaches

Q The Dalcroze Approach, p. 57
Q The Orff Schulwerk Approach, p. 58
Q The Kodály Approach, p. 62
Q Music Learning Theory: Edwin E. Gordon, p. 64
Q Other Approaches to Curriculum, p. 66

Various curricular approaches, pedagogical techniques, methodologies, philosophies,
and learning theories abound for teaching music to children. Three European curric-
ular approaches to music education have been imported and adapted for American
classrooms. The most popular ones are the Orff Schulwerk Approach, developed by
the German Carl Orff, and the Kodály Approach, developed by the Hungarian Zoltán
Kodály. In addition, some teachers incorporate movement elements from Dalcroze
eurhythmics, an approach formulated by the Swiss Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, in their ele-
mentary curricula. The influence of American approaches such as the Music Learning
Theory developed by Edwin Gordon and the Comprehensive Musicianship Approach
is also present in elementary classrooms. While some teachers may focus their teach-
ing on a single approach, many incorporate several approaches, creating a personal or
eclectic one.

What follows is an introduction to the main components of the following
approaches to curriculum: the Dalcroze Approach, the Orff Schulwerk Approach,
the Kodály Approach, and Music Learning Theory. Two other approaches to curric-
ulum are also presented: the Comprehensive Musicianship Approach and the Eclec-
tic Approach.

THE DALCROZE APPROACH

Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865 1950), a Swiss musician and educator, was the founder
of the Dalcroze Approach. He was a pioneer of music and movement education and
as a professor of solfège (sol-fa syllables), harmony, and composition at the Geneva
Conservatory he explored various approaches to ear training.

The Dalcroze Approach uses body and mind integration in developing musi-
cianship and includes the following three components: eurhythmics (Greek for „good
rhythm or flow‰), ear training (solfège), and improvisation. The eurhythmic compo-
nent is the one that receives more attention in current application and is often incorpo-
rated in elementary general music.

Eurhythmics refers to a form of rhythmic movement. In eurhythmics, the focus
is on developing the childÊs rhythmic potential through his or her own body (the

57

58 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

whole body primarily involving the larger muscle groups). Free body movement
in response to the teacherÊs improvised piano music is encouraged and developed.
Movements are to show the constantly changing flow of motion and express phys-
ically what one hears and feels in the music (e.g., dynamics, phrasing, form, and
style). In eurhythmic experiences, children use their bodies as musical instruments;
they show their musical understanding through movement. The approach encourages
eurhythmics beginning at an early age. Beginning experiences might include stepping
the beat of the teacherÊs piano music and moving expressively to any changes such
as dynamics or phrasing. Or more complex responses might involve dual coordina-
tion, such as stepping the beat to the teacherÊs improvised melody while clapping the
rhythm of its melody.

Ear training is an important component of the Dalcroze Approach. This includes
the use of solfège or sol-fa syllables (do, re, mi). Children are engaged in learning to
sing all the scale tones and understand their relationships in songs. Often singing is
accompanied by hand gestures to show pitch position. In the Dalcroze Approach, chil-
dren can sing familiar songs using sol-fa syllables and even conduct the beat groupings
while singing.

The third component of the approach is improvisation (making up music extem-
poraneously). If children have had experiences in eurhythmics and ear training, they
are equipped with a musical foundation that will offer them many opportunities for
being creative through improvisation. Their creativity can be expressed through move-
ment, in rhythmic speech, and with instruments. For example, a teacher can play a
short pattern on a rhythm instrument and ask students to improvise a response of the
same length on their instrument.

To use the Dalcroze Approach, a teacher needs direct instruction to thoroughly
understand and use the ideas. Fortunately, there are many institutes, colleges, and
universities that offer courses, with several accredited to award Jaques-Dalcroze cer-
tificates. Go to the Dalcroze Society of America website (www.dalcrozeusa.org) or
Institute Jacques-Dalcroze (www.dalcroze.ch) for more information.

PROJECTS

1. View on YouTube one or two teaching examples of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Summa-
rize your observations.

2. Learn more about the approach by reading one of the references in Appendix D.
Write a report noting a Dalcroze teaching strategy that you would feel comfortable
implementing in an elementary classroom.

THE ORFF SCHULWERK APPROACH

Carl Orff (1895 1982) was a German composer and a man of wide-ranging interests.
He not only distinguished himself as a noted composer of works such as Carmina
Burana but also developed a child-centered approach to music education known as
Schulwerk (German, meaning „schoolwork‰).

Inspired by „the new Dance Wave‰ and by Jaques-DalcrozeÊs eurhythmics, Orff
established a school in Munich with dancer Dorothee Gunther. The Guntherschule, a
professional school for training physical education teachers, dancers, and gymnasts,
opened in 1924. It uniquely combined the study of movement with music. The Gun-
therschuleÊs curriculum was based on what Orff called the „elemental‰ style, meaning
„never music alone, but music connected with movement, dance, and speech not to be
listened to, meaningful only in active participation‰ (Carder, 1990: 142). In elemental

Chapter 5: Curricular Approaches 59 SECTION I

music, Orff suggested a parallel between the historical development of music and the
musical growth of an individual.

Orff not only composed the music for the Guntherschule curriculum, but also
designed special instruments that were in keeping with the elemental style. The instru-
ments, similar to those of an Indonesian gamelan ensemble, included barred or mallet
instruments: xylophones (soprano, alto, bass), metallophones (soprano, alto, bass), and
glockenspiels (soprano, alto), as well as small percussion instruments and drums (pic-
tured on page 61).

The Guntherschule flourished until World War II, when the school was bombed
and all the instruments and materials were destroyed. OrffÊs educational activities were
curtailed until 1948 when he was invited to give a series of educational broadcasts
on Bavarian radio. He was challenged to adapt his ideas and music to the needs and
abilities of children. Over the next few years, Orff, in collaboration with former stu-
dent Gunild Keetman, refined his Schulwerk through programs that involved children
actively in experiencing and making music (and singing became a component of the
program). The curricular result of this development was the five volumes of Music for
Children by Orff and Keetman (see Appendix D).

Gradually, OrffÊs approach to music education was introduced and tried in set-
tings other than the radio broadcasts. Keetman initiated experimental courses with
children in the early 1950s at the Mozarteum Academy of Music in Salzburg, Austria.
Schulwerk became a part of the MozarteumÊs curriculum and Salzburg became its
headquarters. The Orff Approach was first introduced to North America in the 1960s
and its influence has been dramatic in the teaching of music to children.

Components of the Orff Approach

Although the Orff Approach does not follow a prescribed method or course of study,
several components are basic to the approach. The most fundamental components, as
presented in the European approach, are imitation and exploration leading to improvi-
sation. Children are encouraged to explore and experience music through movement,
chanting, singing, and playing instruments. They proceed from the part to the whole,
from the simple to the complex, and from individual to ensemble experiences. In the
United StatesÊs adaptation of the approach, the process expands to four components:
imitation, exploration, literacy, and improvisation.

Children explore and experience first by imitation. They echo their teacherÊs
clapped rhythm patterns or melodic patterns performed on pitched or non-pitched
instruments. Exploration builds on the imitation experiences by encouraging children,
for example, to create instrumental accompaniments for their songs or explore differ-
ent ways to move to a particular chant or song. After multiple experiences in imitating
and exploring, learning to read and notate music leading to literacy is a goal. This goal
can only be accomplished when childrenÊs early experiences involve iconic notation
and progress to traditional music notation. Reading simple rhythms and limited pitch
patterns can begin as early as the first grade and gradually expand as they progress
through the various grades. The final component of the approach is improvisation.
Right from the very beginning, improvisation is an important part of all experiences:
speech, movement, singing, and playing instruments. Improvisation begins with brief
rhythmic/melodic patterns and gradually expands to longer, more complex patterns·
to introductions, codas, accompaniments, and entire melodies.

The approach has a specific sequence for experiencing the elements of music
beginning with rhythm, followed by melody, and finally harmony. Form is introduced
almost from the beginning of rhythmic study.

Courtesy of Sonor Instruments.60 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Rhythm grows out of speech and movement patterns. Children rhythmically
speak chants, rhymes, and sayings and through these experiences explore accent and
meter as well as phrasing and simple sectional forms. Speech experiences are accom-
panied by body rhythms: clapping, patschen (patting thighs), finger snapping, and
foot tapping.

Melody follows rhythm, with singing and playing experiences. The falling
third, sol-mi, is the first interval introduced, followed by the syllables la, re, and
finally do to complete the entire pentatonic (five-tone) scale. After children have
had considerable experience with the pentatonic scale, major and minor scales and
modes are added.

Borduns or drones (open fifths) and ostinatos (repeated rhythmic/melodic pat-
terns) are used for instrumental accompaniments, thus introducing harmony. Harmony
is also experienced through the singing and playing of rounds and canons.

Through the active music making and many creative activities described above, it
is no wonder that the Orff Approach is appealing for the teaching of music to children.
The specific instruments are also a big attraction because they are of extremely high

Figure 5.1 An Orff Schulwerk ensemble.

Chapter 5: Curricular Approaches 61 SECTION I
Figure 5.2 Studio 49 Instruments for Orff Schulwerk.
Courtesy of MMB Music, Inc.

62 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

quality and offer a variety of timbres: xylophones·wood timbre, metallophone·
metal timbre, and glockenspiels·bell-like timbre. Combine these instruments with
the tuned drums and a variety of other percussion instruments (collectively called the
instrumentarium) and quality music making is greatly expanded.

As with the Dalcroze Approach, a teacher needs direct instruction in the Orff
Approach to thoroughly understand and use the ideas. Fortunately, there are many
institutes, colleges, and universities that offer courses, with several accredited to award
Orff Certification. Go to the American Orff-Schulwerk Association (AOSA) website
(www.aosa.org) for more information.

PROJECTS

1. In teams, prepare a list of model experiences in Section II that incorporate the use of
Orff instruments. Some teams may locate only Level I experiences; others, Level II;
and still others, Level III. Each team could select one Orff ensemble from the models
to perform for the class.

2. View videos on YouTube of classes using the Orff Approach. Select one or two vid-
eos that you found interesting and helpful and explain your reasons.

THE KODÁLY APPROACH

The Kodály Approach is a vocal approach to music literacy: the ability to read, hear,
and think music. Based on Hungarian folk music, this program began in Hungary
in the 1930s under the guidance of the composer and musicologist Zoltán Kodály
(1882 1967). As a young man, Kodály (pronounced „KOH-dye‰) began field studies
(with Hungarian composer Béla Bartók) to collect, record, and notate native Hun-
garian (Magyar) folk music. Finding very little music literacy, Kodály saw the need
to make music education available to everyone·and not just the talented few. Using
musical ideas he discovered in Magyar music, he began to compose for childrenÊs
voices, and to put together the curriculum that is known and used throughout the world
as the Kodály Approach. This curriculum eventually gained state support and became
compulsory. His curriculum recommends that music education begins in preschool
and continues through primary and secondary school and that special (public) music
schools be provided for gifted students.

Kodály believed that everyone could be musically literate if instruction began
early and used the musical „mother tongue‰ (folk song) and other music of the „high-
est‰ quality. Singing unaccompanied (a cappella) is the starting point and leads to
musically literate students who can read and write music. In preparation for reading
and writing music, ear training (as in the Dalcroze Approach) is an important part of
instruction. Children learn to perform rhythmic and melodic patterns by ear that they
will later find in their songs. As students work with rhythm and pitch, they are intro-
duced to notation through mnemonic syllables for speaking rhythms, and tonic sol-fa
syllables (do-re-mi) with the Curwen/Glover hand signs.

The mnemonic syllables used for speaking rhythms are introduced from the out-
set and presented in Appendix A. For example, a quarter note is referred to as „ta‰
while two eighth notes are „ti-ti.‰ When children are familiar with the rhythmic syl-
lables, notation for these rhythmic patterns are presented without note heads, which
some refer to as stick notation. An example of ta, ta, ti-ti, ta in stick notation and tra-
ditional notation follows:

Chapter 5: Curricular Approaches 63 SECTION I

Figure 5.3 Two examples of rhythm notation.

Shorter durations (eighth and quarter notes) are presented before longer dura-
tions (half and whole notes). The specific order depends on the music used.

The sol-fa syllables are used to represent the various pitches of the scale and are
movable from one scale to another. For example, do-re-mi in C Major always sounds
similar to do-re-mi in F Major. In the Kodály Approach, the tonic (or tonal center) in
major scales is do and in minor scales, la. Hand signs are used to accompany the sol-fa
system and they help students to physically feel pitch relationships. The hand signs
were first developed by Sarah Glover and John Curwen in the mid 1800s, but adapted
by Kodály for Hungarian schools (see the Curwen/Glover hand signs in Appendix A).
Both the syllables and the hand signs help students develop inner hearing·the ability
to hear the melody in oneÊs head while looking at music notation. The hand signs are
performed by positioning oneÊs hands to show high and low.

Folk songs that use a pentatonic scale (do-re-mi-sol-la) are taught first, and form
the basis for beginning music-reading experiences. The syllables for fa and ti are intro-
duced later because they create half-step intervals that may be difficult to sing in tune.
The letter names for notes are also learned. After children have had considerable expe-
rience with the pentatonic scale, the complete major scale is introduced, as are minor
scales and modes. Although the exact order of introduction of sol-fa syllables depends
on the music used, one possible sequence follows: sol, mi, la, re, do, low la, low
sol, high do, high re, then fa, ti, si. This sequence is cumulative. Students sing many
different combinations of syllables, learning tones in relation to each other (not sin-
gle tones). For example, the first three syllables learned (sol-mi-la) are sung in many
combinations: sol-mi-la, sol-la-mi, mi-sol-la, mi-la-sol, la-sol-mi, and la-mi-sol, and
in many songs.

Adapting the Kodály Approach for American Schools may be a challenge. In
Hungary, the method is taught almost daily in the schools and Hungarian folk music is
at the core of their curriculum. In American schools, this time commitment is a chal-
lenge, but incorporating American folk music, plus songs from many different parts
of the world, is not a problem. Optimum conditions for using the approach include a
relatively stable school population and time in the curriculum for several lessons per
week over the course of several years. However, given these challenges, there are many
American students who, with the guidance of capable teachers, are being taught accord-
ing to KodályÊs principles, are learning to read music as fluently as they read language,
and are able to transfer their music reading from voice to instruments.

As with the Dalcroze and Orff Approaches, a teacher needs direct instruction in
the Kodály Approach to thoroughly understand and use the ideas. Fortunately, there
are many institutes, colleges, and universities that offer courses and instruction in
the method. Go to the Organization of American Kodály Educators (OAKE) website
(www.oake.org) for more information.

PROJECTS

1. Try out the Curwen/Glover hand signs while singing the major scale on syllables.
Practice starting with low do at waist level, sol in front of the face, and high do just
above the head.

64 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

2. In a small group or individually, list the key components of the Kodály Approach.
Create a visual representation such as a web or map to show the relationship between
the various components in the approach.

3. Search the Internet for more information on the Kodály Approach and check You-
Tube for videos of teaching examples.

MUSIC LEARNING THEORY: EDWIN E. GORDON

The Music Learning Theory (MLT) of American music educator and research profes-
sor Edwin E. Gordon (1927 2015) is an explanation of how children and adults learn
music. MLT is the result of GordonÊs extensive research and field-testing over many
years. It is neither a teaching method nor a theory of teaching. Rather it outlines a
sequential, cyclical process for learning music, providing a basis for understanding
what is being learned as we listen to, perform, and create music.

Audiation

Music Learning Theory is based on the concept of audiation·GordonÊs term for the
ability to think music in the mind with understanding. Audiation is to music as thought
is to language. Consider when someone speaks how we must listen and remember his
or her vocal sounds in order to understand the words that the sounds represent. The
same is true when listening to music. We must remember and organize the sounds we
hear. Audiation skill develops as we learn both the surface structure (melody) and deep
structure (tonality, meter, chord functions, rhythm functions, etc.) of music.

Through MLT, Gordon explained what one must know at a particular level of
music understanding/skill to proceed to more advanced levels. Developers of prac-
tical applications have provided techniques for teaching audiation, a multi-layered
process.

The primary objective of MLT-based instruction is to help children develop tonal
and rhythm audiation so they will experience a deeper understanding of the music they
listen to, perform, and create. By knowing childrenÊs music aptitudes and the process
of audiation development, teachers are equipped to develop appropriate music curric-
ula and deliver music instruction in a logical, sequential way that also is differentiated
for individual student success. An example of a sequential music teaching curriculum,
based on MLT, is Jump Right In: The Music Curriculum for Classroom Music (see
Appendix D).

Sequential Music Learning

There are four music-learning sequences in MLT·skill learning sequence, tonal and
rhythm content learning sequences, and pattern learning sequence·which are com-
bined in instruction. In addition, there are five sequential music vocabularies·listening,
singing and rhythm chanting, audiation and improvisation, reading music notation,
and writing music notation. Notice how similar this sequence is to learning a spoken
language·listening, speaking, thinking, reading, and then writing.

A whole/part/whole approach is embedded in MLT. In developing audiation, the
first „whole‰ are songs taught during regular classroom activities. The „part‰ aspect
refers to tonal and rhythm pattern instruction occurring during learning sequence activ-
ities (LSAs). The second „whole‰ occurs when children understand songs more fully
as a result of learning tonal and rhythm elements (the parts) of music.

Chapter 5: Curricular Approaches 65 SECTION I

Discrimination and Inference Learning

Gordon identified an eight-level hierarchy of skill learning. The levels are divided
into two categories·discrimination learning (five levels) and inference learning (three
levels). Discrimination learning, or learning by rote, precedes inference learning (con-
ceptual learning). These levels are defined sequentially below.

Discrimination Learning

The goal of discrimination (rote) learning is to help children build a vocabulary of
tonal and rhythm patterns·much like a vocabulary of words in language. As students
proceed through the following levels, they move from aural/oral experiences with song
literature and patterns to verbally associating (labeling) patterns with syllables to dis-
criminating among groups of patterns, and finally to reading and notating. In discrimi-
nation learning, the teacher teaches students both what to learn and how to learn it.

1. Aural/Oral. In a call and response format, children listen to (aural) and perform (oral)
tonal and rhythm patterns with neutral syllables. The syllables are usually „bum‰
for tonal patterns and „bah‰ for rhythm patterns. When students can sing in tune a
variety of tonal patterns and can chant rhythmic patterns while keeping a steady beat,
they are ready to work with verbal association.

2. Verbal association. Children sing the previously learned tonal patterns with sol-fa
syllables (do, re, mi, etc.) in do-based major and la-based minor tonalities, and chant
the previously learned rhythmic patterns with rhythm syllables such as „du,‰ „da,‰
and so on. (Rhythm syllables are presented in Appendix A.) Children also learn to
associate vocabulary and proper names with these patterns.

3. Partial synthesis. Children aurally recognize and discriminate among groups of pre-
viously learned tonal and rhythm patterns and interpret them as being in meters,
major or minor, and so on. This is similar to hearing groups of words in language and
being able to interpret them as sentences.

4. Symbolic association. Children are now ready to read the written symbols for the
sol-fa syllables and rhythm syllables of familiar patterns and perform them. They
associate these symbols with what they have already audiated and are thus able to
notate these tonal and rhythmic patterns.

5. Composite synthesis. Children comprehend and notate previously learned tonal and
rhythm phrases (a group of patterns in a series). This is similar to aurally discriminat-
ing patterns at the partial synthesis level, but now students can read and write them as
well.

Inference Learning

To learn by inference is to think for oneself or to perform tasks that have not been
learned by rote. Given prior experiences with familiar patterns at various levels of
discrimination learning, children are able to identify, create, and improvise unfamiliar
patterns in inference learning. The goal is for the teacher to teach students how to learn
and then the students teach themselves what they learn.

6. Generalization. Children demonstrate that they can transfer familiar tonal and
rhythm patterns (read/written) to new musical examples. They compare sets of tonal
or rhythm patterns, some familiar and some not, and decide aurally which are the

66 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

same and which are different. In addition, they identify names or labels for patterns
and read or write unfamiliar tonal or rhythm patterns.
7. Creativity/Improvisation. Children create or improvise different but related tonal and
rhythm patterns in response to patterns performed by the teacher. They also can read
and notate these newly created patterns.
8. Theoretical understanding. After children have developed the knowledge and skill
outlined in the previous levels, they are ready to discern why music is what it is. Just
as one would not teach children how to diagram a sentence before they can speak
the language fluently, children need not learn the rules and technical aspects of how
music „works‰ and is put together until they can synthesize, read, write, create, and
improvise music through audiation.

The Music Learning Theory provides some important guidelines for teachers to use to
involve students in meaningful music learning. For example:

Begin with sound and move to symbol·hear, label, symbolize.
Plan music learning experiences sequentially so that learning is not fragmented.
Adjust the music learning sequence to the childÊs readiness.
Follow the same steps in music learning that children demonstrate in language devel-
opment. Listen to a wide variety of speech (music). Learn words (or tonal/rhythm
patterns) first to acquire a vocabulary, and then combine those words (or tonal/
rhythm patterns) into sentences (or phrases).

As with the Dalcroze, Orff, and Kodály Approaches, a teacher needs direct instruction in
MLT to thoroughly understand and use the ideas. Fortunately, there are many institutes,
colleges, and universities that offer courses and instruction. The Gordon Institute for
Music Learning website (www.giml.org) offers a wealth of information. For complete
information on MLT, see GordonÊs Learning Sequences in Music (GIA Publications,
2012), and check Appendix D for more references and classroom resources.

PROJECTS

1. View teaching examples of MLT on YouTube. Select and describe one or two that
you feel are appropriate illustrations of what you have learned from the above
description.

2. If one were following the MLT skill learning sequence, what levels of discrimina-
tion learning would be missing if a teacher started beginning recorder instruction for
fourth graders by teaching them to read notation? Describe.

OTHER APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM

The Comprehensive Musicianship Approach

Comprehensive musicianship, as an educational approach and philosophy, is
designed to help students become comprehensive musicians·to gain insight into the
nature and structure of music, to learn how to relate and synthesize the various facets
and areas of musical experience, and to develop an awareness of the worldÊs music.
The term comprehensive musicianship expresses the goals of the Comprehensive
Musicianship Approach: to understand music „aurally, structurally, historically, and

Chapter 5: Curricular Approaches 67 SECTION I

culturally‰ so that learners can „understand and enjoy music to its fullest potential‰
(Campbell, 1991: 20).

Three broad categories (common elements, musical functions, and educational
strategies) are at the heart of the approach. The common elements aspect refers to
the idea that certain elements of music (such as melody and rhythm) are common to
any culture, tradition, or style. These elements are experienced through performance,
analysis, and composition (musical functions). The educational strategies include a
„hands-on‰ approach to music learning, a study of music of numerous cultures and
historical periods, and an in-depth study of music concepts.

The approach originated in the United States with the Contemporary Music Proj-
ect (CMP), a project funded by the Ford Foundation and developed throughout the
1960s and 1970s. The emphasis of the project was initially to encourage school music
programs to expand and include creativity through composition, and new, experimen-
tal music. However, the CMP sponsored a seminar on Comprehensive Musicianship in
1965 at Northwestern University and, as a result of that seminar, expanded its empha-
sis. The Comprehensive Musicianship Approach was to include the teaching of all
musical styles through performing, listening, analyzing, composing, and improvising.
Through a series of regional meetings, teachers at all levels were introduced to these
ideas and given ways to revise their curriculum to include them.

Although the Comprehensive Musicianship Approach was originally intended
for college students, its main application has been in the elementary music curriculum.
Elementary students must be able to work independently and cooperatively to benefit
from the Comprehensive Musicianship Approach. The validity and the success of indi-
vidual and small-group activities hinge on the quality of planning and evaluation by
teachers (and students).

The Comprehensive Musicianship Approach continues to influence music edu-
cation today. Many of our elementary school music programs include the common
elements approach to music and use the elements of music as the organizing focus for
the music curriculum.

The Eclectic Approach

Although some teachers may use just one of the aforementioned approaches in their
curriculum, most teachers incorporate and integrate ideas and techniques from many
different sources in their teaching. Since each group of students is different, teachers
must select appropriate methods and materials for their particular teaching situation
and teaching style. The individualizing of oneÊs curricular approach offers students an
eclectic music curriculum. This is the approach used in The Musical Classroom.

The model experiences in this text are standards-based and focus on engaging
children in conceptual music learning·creating, while utilizing and adapting, a vari-
ety of curricular approaches and teaching techniques to do so. The ultimate goal is to
help students deepen their understanding of music through conceptual experiences,
to bring them in touch with a variety of ways to experience music and, as a result, to
increase their enjoyment of and sensitivity to music as an art.

END-OF-CHAPTER PROJECTS

1. Prepare a chart highlighting the major components of the Dalcroze, Orff, Kodály,
and Music Learning Theory Approaches. As you prepare the chart, consider how
Comprehensive Musicianship and the Eclectic Approach relate to these other
approaches.

68 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

2. In Section II, review the following model experiences: Models 5, 23, 27, 28, and 43.
While recognizing that these models are eclectic in their approach, determine which
other approach or approaches are evident in either the main sequence of the lesson or
in an extension.

REFERENCES

Campbell, P.S. (1991). Lessons from the World. Reston, VA: Music Educators National
New York: Schirmer Books. Conference.

Carder, P. (1990). „Part Three: Carl Orff.‰ In Gordon, E.E. (2012). Learning Sequences in
The Eclectic Curriculum in American Music Music: Skill, Content, and Patterns: A Music
Education: Contributions of Dalcroze, Kodaly, Learning Theory. Chicago: GIA Publica-
and Orff. 2nd ed. Polly Carder, pp. 107 160. tions, Inc.

6

Curricular Developments
and Integration

Q Integrating Music Technology, p. 69
Q Integrating Music with Other Subjects, p. 72
Q Reaching All Learners in the Music Classroom, p. 76
Q The Prekindergarten Child and Music, p. 81

The curriculum in AmericaÊs elementary schools is always expanding and changing.
Technological developments dictate change and offer unlimited opportunities for
enhancing music learning. A thrust for a stronger curricular focus on integrating the
various subjects in the elementary curriculum requires careful instructional planning.
Changing demographics, the school population, and various legislative updates neces-
sitate varying learning and teaching strategies so reaching out to all learners is critical.
And the ever-emerging research confirming the importance of early childhood music
learning requires teachers to be grounded in „what works‰ in engaging very young
children in music. These curricular developments and approaches to curricular integra-
tion are addressed in this chapter.

INTEGRATING MUSIC TECHNOLOGY

Every sort of technology has made its way into the elementary classroom, the music
classroom, and into the lives of children. We have computers (including tablets), digi-
tal music players, MIDI, smartphones, DVDs, electronic instruments, interactive white
boards, and multimedia. Teachers have wonderful opportunities to use this technology
to enhance music learning and increase childrenÊs fascination with music. A variety of
technology-based resources, including lesson plans, are also available to assist teach-
ers in integrating music with other subjects in the elementary curriculum.

Information about some of this technology, as applied in the elementary class-
room, follows. Specific information about electronic keyboards, QChords® (digital
songcard guitars) and virtual instruments is included in Chapter 3 and numerous appli-
cations of technology are integrated throughout the model experiences in Section II.

Computers are certainly one of the most important educational technology tools
available for teachers and students. For music teaching and learning, computers can
display music notation and sound specific pitches simultaneously and when connected
to electronic keyboards, with MIDI (Music Instrument Digital Interface) capability,

69

Courtesy of Harmonic Vision, Inc.70 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

they can become „instruments.‰ When creative teachers use computer-related technol-
ogies such as music notation software, computer-assisted instruction software (CAI),
electronic and virtual instruments, interactive white boards (such as Smart Boards) and
the Internet, their students will have increased options to experience the three artistic
processes of creating, performing, and responding to music.

Computers are especially good at providing individualized instruction, creative
music activities, and collaborative learning experiences. Teachers can introduce music
concepts and skills in the classroom and then let students practice and expand on them
through carefully selected instructional software. It may be effective to use an inter-
active white board or other projector to demonstrate software to the entire class, and
then students can work individually or in groups of two to four with various programs.

Figure 6.1 Students working with Music Ace software.

Tablet computers (such as iPads or Chromebooks) introduce yet more options
for adults and children alike. These portable tablets are ideal for children with their
intuitive touch-based interface and offer not only access to the Internet, but a plethora
of applications as well. Some music applications allow students to create and compose
their own music and record their work in traditional or non-traditional notation. Check
out the Apple App Store and Android Market for the many applications available.

Digital music players (DMPs) such as iPods are extraordinarily valuable because
they are very small; can access the Internet; run all kinds of applications; and store
digital music, videos, and photos/pictures. For teachers, they offer a way to download
and store all music, visuals, and videos for classroom use in one place. Of course,
smartphones can also access the Internet, run applications, and take photos and videos.

Digital video discs (DVDs) offer high-quality pictures combined with sound.
Many DVDs are available in music and offer examples of music of other cultures (ref-
erences are noted in some model experiences in Section II), performances of ballets,
operas, musicals, movies, and the list goes on. The multimedia feature of combining
audio and visual in DVDs provides students with the complete musical experience.

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 71 SECTION I

Courtesy of Musicfirst. Finally, the Internet itself is an unlimited teaching/learning tool. Students and
teachers alike can access (at any time of day or night) just about any kind of infor-
mation imaginable via the Internet. Throughout Section I of this text, there are many
suggestions for teachers to initiate research on specific subjects related to the elemen-
tary school music curriculum and view various approaches to teaching via YouTube
videos. In Sections I and II of this text, there are recommendations for teachers of
where to download or stream music from for the model experiences, and suggestions
for Internet projects for students as well. Because of the quantity of Internet resources,
it is crucial for teachers to be attentive to the quality of Web-based information. This is
particularly important when downloading music to use with children.

Evaluating Interactive Music Programs and Internet Resources

Because so many interactive music programs (software, apps, organizationsÊ websites)
are available, it is essential that teachers carefully preview, evaluate, and select only
those of the highest quality for use in the classroom. High-quality software not only
offers sequenced individualized instruction but also provides opportunities for creative
activities and a tracking method for the teacher to use to keep tabs on student learning.
Software programs such as Music Ace (Harmonic Vision) and the Groovy Music series
(Sibelius) are excellent examples of well-structured interactive lessons for elementary
school children. „Guidelines for Evaluating Music Software‰ and a Music Software
Program Evaluation Form is found on The Musical Classroom companion website.

Figure 6.2 Screen shot from Sibelius’s Music: Shapes.

The number of apps for children continues to grow by leaps and bounds. There
are apps for playing instruments, composing, and lots more. However, some are
developmentally appropriate and others not. Again, teachers need to be vigilant that
any chosen for classroom use are age appropriate. A number of symphony orchestras
have excellent interactive programs designed just for children (see Appendix E).

72 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Take a look also at websites such as „Go Classical for Kids‰ and the „Canadian
National Arts Center‰ for a plethora of engaging musical experiences for children
(Appendix E).

The abundance of Internet resources requires teachers to be particularly cau-
tious about the quality of any Web-based information they use. Anyone can publish a
website and no one is evaluating the accuracy of the information presented. Teachers
should always pay close attention to who is responsible for the website and where it
„lives.‰ Is it a reputable government agency, university, etc.? And it always is wise to
consider why this website was established and for whom. For guidelines on evaluat-
ing Web-based resources, teachers should check out the Cornell University Library
website at http://www.Librarycornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/webeval/html.

Downloading or streaming music from the Internet requires the same quality
checks as required of any other Web-based resource. The advantages of being able
to download (e.g., iTunes, GoogleMusic, Amazon) or stream (e.g., Spotify) musical
examples is that it can enable you to have great performances all in one place. How-
ever, there are often many performances by various groups and individuals available
for just one piece of music. It is particularly important to choose the best one that
matches what you are teaching and the age of the children who will interact with
the music. For example, if you want to download a particular song for a class of first
graders, it is important that the downloaded song is in an appropriate vocal range and
sung at a tempo that young children can actually perform. If you are selecting music
of a particular culture to share with the class, it is crucial to make sure that the perfor-
mance is authentic, e.g., African drumming performed on African instruments ideally
by African performers. Throughout this text, there are references for where to access
the musical examples via links or downloads/streaming.

PROJECTS

1. Visit an elementary classroom and observe how technology is used. What equipment
and software is available? Are students actively involved in a learning task? Report
your findings and compare them with those of other class members.

2. Download a website Evaluation Form at www.lib.umd.edu/ti/guides/evaluating-check
list and use to evaluate a website of your choice. Or download the form to evaluate
music software from The Musical Classroom website and use to evaluate one or
more of the music software selections in Appendices D and E.

INTEGRATING MUSIC WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

The elementary school curriculum includes numerous subjects·everything from math
to music and science to social studies. Integrating and relating these subjects one to
another makes learning more meaningful for children. The key people making this
happen are the teachers! Classroom teachers have the unique opportunity to work with
the same children day after day and are responsible for instruction in most subjects.
They know their students and the curriculum and can choose the appropriate „cur-
ricular moment‰ to relate and connect music, for example, to the social studies, lan-
guage arts, or science curriculum. The specialist teachers (music, visual arts, physical
education, etc.) bring their specialized knowledge and skills in a particular subject to
the curricular table for sharing and collaborating with the classroom teacher. Work-
ing together they can help children develop comprehensive understandings within and
across the various disciplines in an integrated curriculum.

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 73 SECTION I

An integrated curriculum can only happen when the integrity and uniqueness of
each subject area is acknowledged and respected. When music is integrated with other
subjects, instruction goals need to be established for both music and the other subjects.
For example, a start at integrating music with a social studies unit on the Revolution-
ary War might be to introduce the song „Yankee Doodle.‰ But just singing the song is
only a beginning, because if students are to learn something about music, they must
also explore the songÊs elements (e.g., melody, rhythm, tempo) and the songÊs use and
its importance during the war. A valid integrative experience should deepen the under-
standing of music as well as that of the other discipline(s) involved.

Approaches to Curriculum Integration

There are various approaches and models for curriculum integration. The thematic
approach and the parallel concepts approach are two such organizations. The thematic
or multidisciplinary approach is often used at the elementary school level.

The Thematic Approach

The thematic approach emphasizes how the various disciplines relate to each other and
to a common theme or topic. The integrity of the disciplines as discrete subjects is an
important component of this approach. At times, just one teacher may be involved in
approaching a particular theme, but often more than one teacher is involved to provide
the needed expertise in the subject area and to make the necessary connections to the
district or state standards. The sample thematic web below illustrates the common
theme as the core and the various subjects that can connect to that core. For example,
if „Environment‰ were the theme, what specific learnings would connect to that theme
in the various subject areas?

Visual Arts

Math Science

Theme

Social Studies Music
Language Arts

Figure 6.3 Sample thematic web.

74 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

Themes such as holidays, celebrations, seasons, transportation, animals, and cir-
cus often serve as the focus for many integrative experiences, especially at the primary
grade level. For example, the thematic approach is illustrated in Model 3 in Section II.
The focus of the lesson is on the listening selection „Parade.‰ This experience uses the
topic of parades to help children explore soft and loud musical sounds. Students also
discuss different kinds of parades, their importance, and relate personal experiences.
Several books about parades are shared and an in-class parade is planned. As a result,
students have integrated experiences with music, language arts, and social studies.

Often themes explore the lifestyles, celebrations, and history of various cultures.
For example, the celebration of the Chinese New Year offers multiple ways to engage
children in making all kinds of curricular connections. Model 29 offers such an oppor-
tunity with „The Dragon Song‰ as students learn about the same and different phrases
in the song, try a dragon dance, learn about the Chinese New Year celebration and the
accompanying Lantern Festival, and plan a celebration with Chinese food, traditional
clothing, etc. Or check out Model 22, focusing on the special timbre of instruments
in a mariachi band as well as their importance in many different kinds of celebrations
in the Mexican culture. Think of all the curricular connections that can be made with
these themes!

When choosing a theme for curriculum integration, it is important that teachers
consider the following:

1. Is the theme developmentally appropriate and engaging for the grade level?

2. Is it significant enough to meet state and/or district standards?

3. Does it meaningfully connect several curricular areas?

4. Are resources available to support the theme?

5. Will the result culminate in a variety of ways for students to demonstrate learning?

Every single model experience in this text makes connections with other subjects in
the school curriculum. In the Extend category of each, there are specific suggestions
of how to relate music to the visual arts, language arts, social studies, science, and
other subjects. And almost all songs in Section III identify an integrative area or areas
that can relate to each song. By using the Monthly Planners in Section II, teachers can
readily see what materials are available to integrate music with the various holidays
and celebrations throughout the school year.

The Parallel Concepts Approach

The parallel concepts approach is particularly appropriate for integrating and connect-
ing the various art forms. The arts (music, visual arts, dance, theatre), for example, have
concepts unique to each discipline, but concepts in common (or parallel) as well. Com-
mon concepts include elements such as color, repetition, contrast, unity, and balance.

Music, visual arts, dance, and theatre are special languages of both ideas and
feeling. Each has unique media and symbolic systems. Each has formal elements that
are expressed in different ways but with commonalities that can be compared and con-
trasted. For example:

Music composers use elements such as melody, rhythm, form, and timbre to organize
sounds.

Visual artists explore color, line, and volume in media such as wood or watercolor.

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 75 SECTION I

Dancers explore space, time, and force, as in folk or modern dance.

Actors in theatre focus on language in acting, improvisation, and playmaking; ele-
ments of acting parallel some elements of the other arts, such as tempo, timbre, time,
and space.

The National Core Arts Standards highlight the similarities across the arts disciplines
(Music, Dance, Visual Arts, Theatre, and Media Arts) with 11 Common Anchors.
These common anchors are shared by all five sets of discipline-specific standards
(www.nationalartsstandards.org).

A curriculum for the parallel concepts approach is usually organized so that
students can examine the common elements or concepts from several perspectives.
Each discipline is distinct, with unique skills and symbolic systems, so commonalities
should not be forced. For example, even though the word line is used in both music and
the visual arts, the concept has a technically different meaning in each art.

Several examples of the parallel concepts approach used in this text follow. Rep-
etition is explored when children focus on how unity is achieved when parts of a song
are repeated. They then continue this exploration noting repetition and its importance
in poems and paintings. This concept is illustrated in Model 8. The concept of contrasts
in visual art, dance, and music can be illustrated when students listen to two contrasting
musical selections and create abstract drawings for the connected and disconnected
musical pitches. As an extension, students create contrasting body movements to
match each piece. This approach is used in Model 17.

Many elements can be compared and contrasted across subjects, including

texture (arts, science)

form (arts, architecture, literature, science)

repetition (arts, architecture, literature)

space (arts)

style (arts and architecture)

color (arts, science)

Some broader perspectives could be culture and ethnicity (how our culture is shaped
by various ethnic groups) and migration and immigration (conflicts, effects on resident
populations, homesickness).

Challenges for Curricular Integration

There are many challenges with curriculum integration and a variety of ways to approach
it. Is there time to do the necessary planning? Are there resources to make it happen? Is
there support for ensuring that it happens? Are other teachers willing to work in the spirit
of cooperation? And the list goes on. WhatÊs important is that teachers acknowledge its
importance and do the necessary planning and organizing to make it happen.

There are many reasons for integrating music and the other arts in the elementary
curriculum. They can be an exciting stimulus for many other subjects because they
provide for creative, „hands-on‰ experiences. And they share many educational goals
with other subjects because they help develop

critical and creative thinking

interpersonal skills

76 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

democratic and human values

meaningful social participation

Music and the other arts can play a central role in educating the whole child.

PROJECTS

1. In small groups, select a curricular theme appropriate for a particular grade level.
Brainstorm ideas for how various subject areas might be integrated. Individually,
research and develop those ideas. As a group, incorporate those ideas into a visual
presentation such as a thematic web to present to the class.

2. In teams, review Extend activities that feature arts integration in Level I or Level II
model experiences. Prepare two original correlations for a selected Level I or II
model experience. One correlation could use the thematic approach and the other the
parallel concepts approach. Share your ideas with the class.

3. Check out the Math, Science, and Music website for free, interactive tools for learn-
ing STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) through music
(https://mathsciencemusic.org). And/or visit the Phoenix Symphony website (www.
phoenixsymphony.org/education) to learn about their „Mind Over Music‰ program
using music to teach STEM-based curriculum in the schools.

REACHING ALL LEARNERS IN THE MUSIC CLASSROOM

TodayÊs classrooms include an amazing mix of individual students with varying abil-
ities, disabilities, interests, and diverse backgrounds and cultures. Teachers are chal-
lenged, as never before, to provide educational opportunities for each and every learner
in a truly inclusive classroom. Since music is an important part of the education of all
students, teachers need to continuously adapt, accommodate, and modify their teach-
ing strategies and procedures to meet the differing needs of students. „More impor-
tantly, it is good teaching to treat each student as an individual and to give everyone the
tools they need to be successful in the music classroom (those with special needs and
those without special needs)‰ (Hammel and Hourigan, 2011: 78).

Before 1975, students with special needs were generally isolated in special
self-contained classes. With the passage in 1975 of Public Law 94 142, followed by
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, students were to be
placed in the least restrictive environment, which, in many cases, became the regular
elementary school classroom. Individualized education programs (IEPs) also were to
be developed annually for each student. The IDEA has been revised many times since
1990 with the most recent amendments passed by Congress in 2004, with final reg-
ulations published in 2006 (Part B for school-aged children), and in 2011 (Part C for
babies and toddlers).

Under the IDEA, states are responsible for meeting the special needs of eligi-
ble children with disabilities (www.parentcenterhub.org). The IDEA lists 13 disabil-
ity categories under which children and youth ages 3 through 21 may be eligible for
special education and related services. Those categories are: autism, deaf-blindness,
deafness, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, multiple
disabilities, orthopedic impairment, other health impairment, specific learning dis-
ability, speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment
(including blindness). For a student who has a disability that is included in IDEA, but

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 77 SECTION I

does not need the same level of services of an IEP, or a student who has a disability
that is not included in IDEA, a 504 Plan may be developed that includes more general
adaptations of the general classroom environment.

Learners with Varying Disabilities

As a result of the IDEA, both classroom and music teachers have been challenged
to learn how to reach and teach students with special needs and to provide a learn-
ing environment in which all students can succeed and grow in the elementary
classroom.

All students can participate in meaningful musical experiences, gaining skills,
knowledge, and satisfaction. Those with exceptionalities can refine their auditory, lan-
guage, visual, and motor skills through music. In fact, many students respond best to a
music modality and many classroom and special education teachers use music to help
teach the basic skills.

The music concepts introduced may well be the same as those for the other stu-
dents, but teaching strategies, equipment, or musical instruments will need modifi-
cation. For example, students with physical or health disabilities do not always need
more time to complete their music activities but frequently need modified equipment.
Instruments can be altered to have larger handles or straps, or they can be hung (with
Velcro® straps) from overhead supports. Mallets can be attached to hands or gloves
with Velcro®. Or easy participation is possible by using electronic instruments that
respond to a light touch (such as electronic keyboards) or that include a pressure-
sensitive board.

Assistive Technology (AT)

Fortunately, there are a number of assistive technology (AT) devices available to enable
students with a disability to participate in musical experiences. It is important to note
that schools are required by law to consider the need for AT devices when developing
IEPs for students (Lewis et al., 2017). Therefore, any accommodation included in an
IEP can be purchased through special education funds. AT devices are being developed
continuously and keeping on top of the latest advances is crucial. Some examples of
current assistive devices include the following.

Students with a mild to moderate vision loss can benefit from the Lime Lighter, a
product that magnifies music up to ten times its original size (www.dancingdots.com/
limelighter). A Soundbeam device is available for youngsters who have limited motor
skills (www.soundbeam.co.uk). Its ultrasonic beam plays MIDI sounds when triggered
(interrupted) by movement·from sensing movement in a wheelchair across a stage to
a movement as minimal as the raise of an eyebrow!

Students with physical or communication-related disabilities are able to commu-
nicate responses through a device such as GoTalk9® (www.attainmentcompany.com).

Basic information and suggestions for teaching music to students who have
exceptional learning needs is provided on the companion website. Specifics for the
13 disability categories identified in the IDEA are addressed. Do remember that it
is very important that classroom and music teachers consult and work with the spe-
cial education facilitator, teacher, and/or paraprofessional in their school to learn
how best to maximize the music-learning experiences for students with any kind of
exceptionality.

Courtesy of Soundabout/The Soundbeam Project, UK.78 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music
Figure 6.4 Soundbeam translating body movements into sound.
Figure 6.5 Electronic communication aid—GoTalk9®.Courtesy of Attainment Co., Inc.

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 79 SECTION I

Learners Who are Gifted and Talented

Our classrooms include not only students with disabilities (covered in the IDEA), but
also those who have special gifts and talents (not covered in the IDEA). Students who
are gifted are usually extremely bright while students who are talented possess special
abilities or talents in disciplines such as art or music. Some students may be both gifted
and talented.

Teachers may recognize these students by their ability to pick up ideas quickly
and relate those ideas to other contexts. Or they may be identified by the depth of
their thinking and questioning·even their solutions to problems and questions. Stu-
dents with musical talent may quickly learn to read music, show great skills and musi-
cianship in learning to play an instrument, or demonstrate exceptional creativity in
composing and arranging activities. To help these students achieve their full potential,
teachers need to offer numerous opportunities for them to be challenged, often with
small group or individualized projects.

English Language Learners

The increasing population of English language learners (ELL) in our schools chal-
lenges teachers to meet the individual needs of students who come from a variety of
countries and cultures. These students are not identified as students with a disability
nor do they come under the IDEA. However, just as students who have exceptional
learning needs or are gifted and talented need opportunities to reach their full learning
potential so do the learners who may speak little or no English. All students should
have the opportunity to speak the „international‰ language of music.

As a teacher, it is important to obtain as much information as you can about the
English language learners in your classroom·the range of English proficiency may
vary greatly as might their level of academic achievement. Consulting with their ESL
teachers and counselors is the key to learning how best to serve their needs in the
inclusive classroom.

Ideas and strategies are provided throughout the model experiences in Section II
to help with engaging English language learners in both music learning and English
language learning. There should be many opportunities in these lessons to tap into the
natural resource of having students with diverse and rich cultural backgrounds in your
classroom. Just think how they will enrich the classroom learning of all students as
they build confidence and self-esteem in their new language environment!

Classroom Strategies

Almost every model experience in Section II includes suggestions (adaptations) for
ways to maximize learning. Some model experiences include classroom strategies such
as peer-assisted learning (PAL) and others incorporate cooperative learning groups.
Both approaches work especially well with meeting the divergent needs of learners.

The peer-assisted learning approach usually means two students working together
with one in the role of teacher and the other as the learner·roles that are rotated as
well („pair share‰). Sometimes the pairs are structured for work over a certain period
of time and sometimes just for a specific task. PAL allows for differentiated instruction
with partners working simultaneously on various teacher-directed tasks.

The cooperative learning approach involves students working together in small,
interdependent teams of two to six students to complete assignments or activities. The

80 Section I: Backgrounds for Teaching Music

teams are usually grouped heterogeneously. Teachers play an important role in ensur-
ing that a student with a disability has a reasonable and structured role within the team.
Each member of the group actively participates in the assigned task and interacts with
other group members. Generally, each group member is assigned a role, such as: facil-
itator, reader, timekeeper, checker, praiser. All team members share responsibility for
group leadership, and teachers continually observe and assess group functioning and
interaction. For example, in Model 32 in Section II, fourth- and fifth-grade students
form groups of five (with assigned tasks for each) to create a sound piece based on a
haiku poem.

Peer-assisted learning and cooperative learning groups can be used for part of
a lesson or for an entire lesson. Examples of such strategies are highlighted and inte-
grated into the model experiences in Section II. As students in inclusive classrooms
learn to work in pairs and small groups cooperatively, they develop not only music
skills but also important social ones. Additionally, the music classroom becomes a more
exciting and interesting learning environment. See „Tips for Cooperative-Learning
Strategies‰ on the companion website.

What Works for All Students

As teachers apply appropriate adaptations and accommodations, they will find that
many of these strategies and procedures work for all students. When teachers pro-
vide different avenues for acquiring information and knowledge, offer students var-
ious ways to demonstrate what they know, and engage and motivate students with

Table 6.1 Ten tips for reaching all learners in the music classroom

1 Consult and work cooperatively with the school or district special education or ESL
facilitators/teachers/paraprofessionals, speech and language pathologists, and/or
occupational and physical therapists to plan instruction.

2 Establish clear objectives and evaluate each student’s readiness to meet the objectives.
3 Plan concrete, action-oriented music experiences that allow students to explore

through a variety of multisensory modes (visual, tactile, kinesthetic, etc.). Modify or
adapt when needed.
4 Use assistive technology devices and strategies, and adapt materials and instruments
to meet individual needs.
5 Try different music-making activities—singing, playing instruments, movement, etc.
Match songs to the child’s vocal register and tempos to the child’s.
6 Increase support for each child by regularly assigning peer partners and organizing
cooperative learning groups.
7 Give clear, concise directions one step at a time. Break complex tasks into smaller
parts. Provide many opportunities to practice a new concept or task and allow for
many opportunities to be “right,” giving praise when it is earned.
8 Be consistent in expectations and procedures. Post classroom rules and procedures
(with picture cues), signing charts, and other visuals.
9 Keep the noise level in the classroom to a manageable one for the auditory-sensitive
student (and be aware that some students may be visually sensitive).
10 Provide recordings for students to learn the songs by ear before introducing songs in
class so the in-class experience will be successful.

Chapter 6: Curricular Developments and Integration 81 SECTION I

appropriate challenges, their classrooms are often structured or based on the universal
approach or Universal Design for Learning (UDL).

A universal approach moves in a direction that, to the extent possible, increases
opportunities for students with disabilities and those who are struggling academ-
ically and/or socially to participate successfully in the same types of activities as
those experienced and enjoyed by their classmates.

(Jellison, 2015: 101)

It is an approach to curriculum development, instruction, and assessment that uses
instructional and assistive technology to accommodate individual learners differently
while engaging all learners.

Students in the twenty-first-century classroom are diverse·culturally, econom-
ically, and linguistically, with varying needs, disabilities, and abilities. Teachers of
the twenty-first century must use every teaching strategy, technological device, and
resource available to create an inviting, effective learning environment that enables
each individual student to be a successful learner in the elementary classroom. To get
started with „What Works,‰ consider the ten tips for reaching all learners on p. 80.

PROJECTS

1. Visit an elementary inclusive classroom and, if possible, observe the class during
music. Notice how the teacher adapts for students with varying abilities and disabili-
ties, and students who are English language learners. How do they respond? Prepare
a report (oral or written) to share.

2. Review the model experiences in Section II and choose an example of a music activ-
ity for learners with a hearing loss, an orthopedic disability, a visual impairment, and
a speech or language disability. Summarize how each example would be appropriate
for these students.

3. Review information about the IDEA and the 13 disability categories on the compan-
ion website. Note the suggested adaptations for the music classroom.

THE PREKINDERGARTEN CHILD AND MUSIC

Music and very young children just naturally go together! As infants, they coo and
babble; as toddlers, they make up little „singsongs‰ or tunes and twirl and rock to
music. As prekindergartners, they create songs to go along with their play, learn to
sing familiar songs, explore and play rhythm and melody instruments, and listen and
move to music in all kinds of interesting ways. And as parents, caregivers, and teachers
watch and guide this musical exploration, they observe and note, almost intuitively,
how critical and positive these experiences are to a childÊs total development.

Research tells us that the years before children enter kindergarten are critical for
childrenÊs overall growth and development and especially significant for their musi-
cal growth and development. Many educators believe that music aptitude is present
at birth and flourishes in a nurturing environment (Gordon, 2013). The psychologist
Howard Gardner suggests that music is one of the first intelligences to manifest (Gard-
ner, 2011). Gardner also asserts that if a potential intelligence is not nurtured, it may
not develop. This puts a great responsibility on parents, caregivers, and teachers of
young children to provide musical experiences that will nurture their musical potential.

Play is central to the young childÊs learning. Everything we know about young
children tells us that they learn through play. Those who work (and play) with children