ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
HORMONES FUNCTION
Growth hormone (GH)
• An anabolic and protein-conversing hormone that promotes
total body growth.
• It important effect is on skeletal muscles and bones.
PROLACTIN (PRL) • Stimulates production of breast milk (lactation).
ADRENOCORTICOTROPI • Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release its hormones
C HORMONE (ACTH) (mineralocorticoids,glucocorticoids and gonadocorticoids).
THYROID-STIMULATING • Stimulates the thyroid hormones (throxine and
HORMONES (TSH) triiodothyronine).
GONADOTROPIC 1. Follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH)
HORMONES • Beginning at puberty,stimulates follicle development and
estrogen production by female ovaries,promotes sperm
production in male.
2. Luteinzing hormone (LH)
• Beginning at puberty,stimulates ovulation and stimulates
ovarian to produce estrogen and progesterone,stimulates
the male’s testes to produce testosterone.
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POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
HORMONES FUNCTIONS
OXYTOCIN
• Stimulates powerful uterine
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) contractions (trigger labor and
OR VASOPRESSIN delivery of infant) and causes milk
ejection in the nursing woman
• Also promote sexual arousal
• Causes kidney tubule cells to
reabsorb and conserve body water
and increased blood pressure by
constricting blood vessels
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8
PINEAL GLAND Located in diencephalon-third
ventricle of the brain
(epithalamus)
Release melatonin,which acts
as biological clock;reproductive
behaviour;affects daily
biological rhythms such as body
temperature,sleep and appetite
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THYROID GLAND
10
• Located on the trachea,just inferior to the larynx (in the anterior throat)
• Thyroid hormone (TH) includes thyroxine (T4) triiodothyronine (T3),which increase the
rate of cellular metabolism
• Calcitonin produced by parafollicular (C) cells in response to high blood calcium levels. It
causes calcium to be deposited in bones.
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PARATHYROID
GLAND
12
4 small glands Low blood levels
located of calcium
posterior/dorsal stimulate the
aspect of the release
thyroid glands
parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
• JFAENB PTH causes bone • OJASUUECLN
calcium to be calcium TGP
absorption from food
• SDJNOAUEUOCLNP
and the kidneys to TCGV
increase calcium
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reabsorption
THYMUS GLAND
14
• Located deep to sternum
• Large and conspicuous in infant and children
• Diminishes in size throughout adulthood
• Its hormones,thymosins,thymic factor &
thymopoietins are important to the normal
development of the immune responses
(thymosin promotes maturation of T
lymphocytes, important in body defense)
15
16
ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) ADRENAL CORTEX Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone):
GLANDS ADRENAL MEDULLA regulate sodium ion (Na+) &
potassium ion (K+) reabsorption
by the kidneys. Their release is
stimulated by low Na+ and/or K+
levels in blood.
Glucocorticoids (cortisol): enable
the body to resist long-term stress
by increasing blood glucose levels
& depressing the inflammatory
response.
Gonadocorticoids/sex hormones
(adrogens): responsible for sex
drive in female
Produce catecholamines
(epinephrine & norepinephrine) in
response to sympathetic nervous
system stimulation. Its hormones
enhance and prolong the effects
of the ‘fight-or-flight’ response to
short-term stress.
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PANCREAS
18
Located behind stomach. Composed of both endocrine
and exocrine gland cells.
Hormones produced from Insulin is released when the
pancreatic islets (islets of blood levels of glucose are
Langerhans) containing alpha high. It increases the rate of
(α) cells (glucagon) and beta
glucose uptake and
(β) cells (insulin). metabolism by body cells;
stimulates glycogen formation.
Glucagon is released when
blood levels of glucose are
low,stimulates the release
glucose to the blood.
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GONADS
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GONADS
OVARIES TESTES
• Ovaries located in abdominopelvic • Testes located in scrotum
• Ovaries release • Testes begin to produce testosterone at
ESTROGENS PROGESTERONE puberty in response to
• LH stimulation
• Release of estrogens • Release in response to • Testosterone promotes maturation of the
by ovarian follicles LH,works with male secondary sex characteristic,and
production of sperm by the testes
begin at puberty (FSH) estrogens establishing
21
• Estrogens stimulate the menstrual cycle
maturation of female
reproductive organs
and female secondary
sex characteristics
• With
progesterone,they
causes the menstrual
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
NOOR ADIBAH HANIM BT ARIFIN
SR1131B
FACULTY SPORT SCIENCE AND RECREATION
AN OVERVIEW Major controlling system of the body.Through
OF ENDOCRINE hormones it stimulates such long-term processes as
SYSTEM • Growth & development
• Metabolism
• Reproduction
• Body defense
Endocrine glands are
ductless,well vascularized glands
that release hormones directly into
the blood or lymph
Some endocrines organ are parts of
mixed glands(both endocrine &
exocrine in function)
❖ Pancreas & gonads
(ovaries & testes)
2
Controlling activity of specific organ or tissue in maintaining
homeostasis by secreting hormones as in
• Regulator of growth and development
• Regulating the concentration of body fluids(water and
electrolyte)
• Metabolism of carbohydrate,protein and lipids(nutrient)
• Acts together with nervous system to help the body to react to
stress properly
3
Product Endocrine Exocrine Hormones
Hormone Non hormonal • Chemical substances
substance
Duct system Ductless (no duct) Have ducts secreted by cells into
Method of transport Secreted into blood Through ducts extracellular fluid
and transported via (bloodstream) that regulate
Distance of target blood vessel Near the metabolic activity of
organ/cell Away other cells in the body
Example Sebaceous(oil),swea • Affect the target cells via
Adrenal t gland,digestive binding to specific receptor
gland/parathyroid gland • All hormones are amino acid-
based
Function of Hormones Lipids Soluble Water Soluble
Hormones Hormones
~Help regulate
• Chemical composition and volume of internal Types Steroid Hormones Amine Hormones
Produce from
environment (interstitial fluid) Synthesized from Synthesis from
• Metabolism and energy balance
• Muscle activity cholesterol or lipid Amino
• Glandular secretions named acid/protein based
• Immune system
~Control growth and development Only gonadotropin Most of the
~Regulate operation reproductive system (estrogen) and hormone in the
~Recognize circadian rhythms adrenocortical body
hormones are Adrenalin,thyroid
steroids hormone,insulin
5
Mechanism of hormones action 2 main mechanism account for how a hormone
Hormones alters cell activity by communicates with target cells
stimulating or inhibiting characteristics • a.Amino acid – based hormones(second-messenger system
cellular processes of their target cells
• 1.Hormones bind to hormone receptor in the plasma membrane
• Hormonal stimulus produces one or more of (then bind to G protein) which linked to enzyme adenylate cyclase
following changes; which initiate the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP(cAMP)
• Alters plasma membrane permeability or • 2.cAMP (second messenger)activates protein kinases in the
membrane potential,or both by opening or closing cytoplasm
ion channels
• 3.Protein kinase activated other proteins in the cell
• Stimulates synthesis of protein of regulatory
molecules such as enzymes within the cell • 4.Activated proteins induce changes in the cell
• Activates or deactivates enzymes
• Increases secretary activity
• Stimulates mitosis
6
b.Steroid hormones
(direct gene activation)
1. Diffuse directly through plasma membrane
2. Binds with protein receptor and turns into steroid protein
complex
3. Entering nucleus to a specific DNA region (activating DNA
,which initiates messenger RNA formation leading to protein
synthesis)
7
• Synthesis & release of most hormones are regulated by negative feedback system
• Endocrine glands are stimulated to manufacture & release their hormones by 3 major
types of stimuli
■humoral stimuli
■neural stimuli
■hormonal stimuli Types of hormonal stimuli
8
SPS113 CHAPTER 4
BODY FLUID
AND
ELECTROLYTUS
`AQIL BIN ADIB
DR. NURUL DIANA BINTI SANUDDIN
INTRODUCING : BODY FLUID
Body Water
+
Solute (electrolyte & non electrolyte)
BODY FLUID
Body Fluid :
The water and dissolved solute throughout the body constitude
Kidney and Other Organ :
Help mantain fluid balance in the body (urine , sweat)
Fluid Balance :
The require amount of water and solute are present and are correctly
proportioned among various compartment
BODY WATER
BODY WATER CONTENT
Water : Making up 45%-75% of
total body mass
Depanding on age , sex , and
amount of body fat
Infants : 73% or more water
(low body fat, low bone mass)
Adult males : ~60% water
Adult females : ~50% water
(higher fat content , less
skeletal muscle mass)
Water content declines to ~45%
in old age
WATER BALANCE
1.To remain properly hydrated , water intake must equal water
output (2500ml/day)
2.Water Intake
beverages
food
metabolic water
3.Water Output
urine (1500ml)
insensible water loss (skin
(sweat) and lungs (300mL)
perspiration
feces (300mL)
4.Our bodies maintain water balance by mechanisms that control
water intake (thirst) & water excration
5. Low water - kidney conserve water (reabsorb water , decreasing
urine volume , concentrating the urine
6. High water - kidney form & excrate a large volume of dilute urine
WATER REGULATION
Regulation of Water Intake
1.More ATP produce , more water form = metabolic water
2.Thirst mechanisme is the driving force for water intake
The hypothalalmic thirst center osmoreceptors are stimulated by ;
Increase plasma osmolality 1% - 2% (increased blood concentration)
Angiotensin II or baroreceptor input
Decrease in blood volume or preasure
Dry mouth
FLUID COMPARTMENT
Total body water = 40 L
Water occupies two main fluid compartments:
Intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment
Extracelullar fluid (ECF) compartment
Fluid compartments are separated by membranes that are freely
permeable to water
A. ICF B.ECF
2/3 or 25L in cells
Low Na+ and Cl- 1/3 or 15L
Major contain : pottasium (K+)
Major anion : hydrogen posphate (HPO42-) 2 subcompartment
>Plasma : 3 L
>Interstital fluid (IF) : 12L in spaces between cells
Other ECF : lymph CSF , humors of eye ,
synovial fluid , serous fluid , and
gestrointestinal
secration s
Higher protien content of plasma
>Major contain : sodium (Na+)
>Major anion : chloride (Cl)
FLUID COMPARTMENTS SUMMARY OF FLUID
COMPARTMENTS
DEHYDRATION
Dehydration
Fluid loss (either the lost of water or the lost of water and
solutes toghether)
Dehydration : water loss > water gain = Negetive fluid balance
ECF water loss due to : hemorrhage , severe burns , prolonged ,
vomating or diarrhea , profuse sweating , water deprivation ,
diurectic abuse
Signs and symptoms : thirst , dry flushed skin , decreased urine
output (oliguria)
May lead to weight loss , fever , mental confusion , hypovolemic
, shock , and loss of electrolytes
REGULTION WATER AND
SOLUTE LOSS
Main factor that determine body fluid volume is urinary salt
(NaCl)
2 main solutes in extracelullar are :
>Sodium ions and clorine ions
3 important hormones regulate sodium and chlorine reabsorption :
> Angiontensin II
> Aldosterone
> Atria natriuretics peptide (ANP)
Osmolarity of body fluid stimulate release of ADH (posterior pitutary
gland)
Result small volume of concentrate urine
MOVEMENT OF WATER
BETWEEN BODY FLUID
COMPARTMENT
Increase osmolarity (interstitial fluid) draws water out from the
cells (shrink)
Decrease osmolarity (interstitial fluid) cause cell swell
CHAPTER 5 : SPS113
THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM
Topic Outline
Body Region
Skeletal Cartilages
Types of Cartilages
Bones
Classification of Bones
Function of Bones
TODAY'S DISCUSSION
BODY REGION
Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton
•Head• • Upper Extremities
•Neck• • Lower Extremities
•Thorax•
•Abdomen•
•Pelvic•
SKELETAL CARTILAGES Structure:
Definition : • Made of cartilage tissue
•Tough,elastic,fibrous (cells: chondrocytes) .
connective tissue. • Contains large amounts
water .
Types :
• No nerves fibers .
• Hyaline Cartilages • Surrounded by a fibrous
• Elastic Cartilages
• Fibrocartilages perichondrium (contain
blood vessels) that
resists expansion .
BONES
(206 bones)
• Flat bone • Short bone
• Irregular bone • Long
bone
Support Protection
Provide the rigid framework Protect vulnerable internal
that support the body organs such as
brain,heart,lungs
Movement
Mineral Storage
Providing anchoring points for
muscles and by acting as levers Serves as reservoir for minerals
(most important-calcium and
at the joints phosphate)
Blood Cell Formation
Occurs within the red marrow
cavities of certain bones
SKELETAL SYSTEM
SPS 113 ANATOMY
DR. NURUL DIYANA BINTI SANUDDIN
AFIF NUQMAN
SR1131B
STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE
1 - DIAPHYSIS (shaft)
Compact bone surround central medullary cavity
(marrow cavity) contains fat (yellow marrow)
2 - EPIPHYSES (Bone ends)
Wider than the shaft
Exterior - compact bone
Interior - spongy bone
3 - MEMBRANES
a. Periosteum b. Endosteum
(external bone surface) (internal bone surface)
Cover the diaphysis Delicate connective tissue
osteoblasts = bone osteoblasts = bone
forming cells forming cells
osteoclasts = bone osteoclasts = bone
destroying cells destroying cells
STRUCTURE OF SHORT , IRREGULAR AND
FLAT BONES
1 - Periosteum (external bone surface)
2 - Endosteum (internal bone surface)
Without diaphysis or epiphyses
Contain bone marrow (between their trabeculae), but
no marrow cavity
In flat bone, spongy bone called diploe
LOCATION OF HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUE IN BONES
In adults, red marrow found within the
diploe of flat
Epiphyses of long bones (trabecular
cavities of spongy bone)
[ in infants red marrow is also found in the
medullary cavity ]
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF BONE
1- Compact bone
outer shell
hard and dense
The structual unit
Haversian System
The osteon consists of a central canal surrounded by concentric lamellae
(layer) of bone matrix
2- Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Consist of trabeculae filled with red or yellow marrow
Withstand stress and support
shiftd in weight
Skeletal Ossification = Osteogenesis, the
system process of bone formation
In embryos this process leads to the
Intramembranous Ossification formation of the bony skeleton
Forms the clavicles and most skull bones Bone growth goes on until early
Bones develop from mesenchymal cells adulthood (growing in thickness
The ground substance of the bone matrix is throughout life)
deposited between collagen fibers within Ossification in adults serve mainly for
the fibrous membrane to form spongy bone bone remodeling and repair
Bone develops from a fibrous membrane
called a membrane bone
Eventually, compact bone plates enclose the
diploe.