Endochondral Ossification Bones increase in length
Most bones are formed (interstitial growth) at the
Bones develop by replacing hyaline epiphyseal plate
cartilage model, resulting bone is Cartilage cells continually
called a cartilage or regenerate and die to be replaced
endochondral bone by bone
Osteoblast beneath the periosteum Bone expand in width,
secrete bone matrix on the diameter/thickness (appositional
cartilage model, forming the bone growth) through production of
collar compact bone by osteoblasts in
Deterioration of the cartilage model the periosteum, and destruction
internally opens up cavities, by osteoclast
allowing periosteal bud entry.
Bone matrix is deposited around New bone is continually deposited &
the cartilage remnants, but is later resorbed (removal) in respond to
broken down as ossification hormonal & mechanical stimuli
proceeds Continuous recycling of bone
(remodeling units) occurs when:
Osteoblast produce new matrix
Osteoclast destroy old matrix
Control of Remodeling (Hormonal
mechanism)
Bone Repair:
Bones are susceptible to fractures or
breaks
FRACTURE
DEFINE:BREAK IN BONE
CAUSE BY TWIST OR SMASHES OF BONES
BONE THINNING AND WEAKEN
CLASSIFICATIONS
• POSITION OF BONES ENDS AFTER FRACTURE
• COMPLETENESS OF BREAK
• ORIENTATION OF THE BREAK TO LONG AXIS OF BONE
TYPE OF BONES FRACTURE
This is example of bone Fractures
Position of bone ends after fracture
1.Nondisplaced fractures (simple)
Bone ends retain their normal position
Nondisplaced fractures are often closed and do not move out of
alignment
They are referred to as greenstick fractures because it resembles when
you are trying to break a small green branch on a tree and it bends
more than it break
2.Displaced fractures (compound)
Bone ends out of normal alignment
Displaced fractures are generally more complex because the bones are
out of alignment, or they may be in several pieces
These fractures can be extremely painful because it may be visible
through the skin; a broken wrist from a hard fall can shove the broken
radius closer to your body, resulting in an oblong section of bone
poking your skin with brute force.
Example Of Displaced Fracture
And Nondisplaced Fracture
Completeness of the break
INCOMPLETE FRACTURE
This is a crack that does not completely break the bone into
two or more pieces.
COMPLETE FRACTURE
This is a fracture in which the bone is completely broken
into separate pieces.
Picture Of Completed AND
Uncompleted Fracture
Orientation of the break to the long
axis of bone
1. Break parallels
the break is parallel to the bone’s long axis
A linear skull fracture is a break in a cranial bone resembling a
thin line, without splintering, depression, or distortion of bone.
2. Break perpendicular
Transverse fractures occur when your bone is broken
perpendicular to its length
The fracture pattern is a straight line that runs in the
opposite direction of your bone.
Example Picture OF Transverse And
linear Fracture
Transverse Fracture linear Fracture
Skin penetration
1. An open fracture is an injury where the fractured bone and/or
fracture hematoma are exposed to the external environment via a
traumatic violation of the soft tissue and skin.
2. The bone is broken, but the skin is intact.
TREATMENTS
• (Reduction= the realignment of the broken bone
ends):
1.Closed reduction
• Closed reduction is a procedure to set (reduce) a broken
bone without cutting the skin open
2.Open reduction
• During an open reduction, orthopedic surgeons reposition the
pieces of your fractured bone surgically so that your bones
are back in their proper alignment
Example Photo For Treament
HEALING (REPAIR)
In simple fracture involves 4 major stages:
1. Hematoma formation
2. Fibrocartilagious callus formation
3. Bony callus formation
4. Bone remodeling
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF
BONE
Imbalance between bone formation & resorption
underlie all skeletal disorders
Osteomalacia & rikets occur when bones are
inadequately mineralized; bones become soft &
deformed; Most frequent cause is inadequate vitamin D.
D
Osteoporosis is any condition in which bone breakdown
outpaces bone formation, causing bones to become
weak & porous; Postmenopausal women are
susceptible.
Puget’s disease is characterized by excessive &
abnormal bone remodeling
Example Picture Of Osteomalacia
And Rickets
Example Picture Of Osteoporosis
Example Picture Of Paget disease
MUSCULAR
SYSTEM
NAME:MUHAMMAD HARIS BIN
ZULKIFLI
NO.MATRIKS:2022821034
CONTENT
1) MUSCLE TISSUES
2) SKELETAL MUSCLE
2
MUSCLE
TISSUES
3
TYPES OF
MUSCLE
TISSUE
SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH
MUSCLE MUSCLE MUSCLE
•- ATTACHED TO - FORMS THE - WALLS OF
THE SKELETON HEART HOLLOW ORGANS
•- STRIATED - STRIATED & - NONSTRIATED
BRANCHING
•- VOLUNTARY - INVOLUNTARY
- INVOLUNTARY
4
SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE
Has narrow, tapered rod- Has striated, tubular, Has striated, tubular,
shaped cells. branched, uninucleated multinucleated fibers.
fibers.
Has nonstriated, Is usually attached to
uninucleated fibers. Occurs in walls of heart. skeleton.
Is involuntary.
Occurs in walls of internal Is voluntary
organs and blood
vessels. 5
Is involuntary.
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC /
BASIC PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
TISSUE
1. EXCITABILITY 2. CONTRACTILITY
(IRRITABILITY)
The ability to contract or shorten
The capability to received and respond
to a stimulus
3. EXTENSIBILITY 4. ELASTICITY
The ability to be stretched The ability to return to its original
shape after being stretched or
contracted
6
MUSCLE FUNCTIONS
4 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS :
1) PRODUCE MOVEMENT
2) MAINTAIN POSTURE
3) STABILIZE JOINTS
4) GENERATE HEAT
7
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
8
GROSS ANATOMY OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE IS COMPOSED OF
INDIVIDUAL CELLS CALLED MUSCLE FIBERS
MUSCLE FIBERS (CELLS) ARE PROTECTED &
STRENGTHENED BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE
COVERINGS / SHEATHS. DEEP TO SUPERFICIAL :
1) ENDOMYSIUM
2) PERIMYSIUM & FASCICLES
3) EPIMYSIUM
9
12345
10
11
Fascicles are groups of fibers and muscle are
group of fascicles
Fascia is a sheet of fibrous tissue enclosing of
muscle or group of muscle
A sheath of connective tissue called :
1) Endomysium surrounds each muscle fiber.
2) Perimysium surrounds each fascicle.
3) Epimysium encases muscles.
Muscle are supplied with blood by arteries and
nerves (motor neurons)
12
STRUCTURE OF A SKELETAL
MUSCLE
13
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER
Myofibrils are contractile elements that
occupy most of the cell volume.
Their banded appearance results from a
regular alternation dark (A) and light (I)
bands.
Myofibrils are chains of sarcomere; each
sarcomere contains thick (myosin) and
thin (actin) myofilaments arranged in a
regular array.
14
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER
The heads of myosin molecules form cross
bridges that interact with the thin filaments.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a system of
membranous tubules surrounding each myofibril.
Its function is to release & then sequester
calcium ions.
T tubules are invaginations of the sarcolemma
that run between the terminal cistern of the SR.
They allow the electrical stimulus to be delivered
quickly to deep cell regions.
15
THANK
YOU
SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL OF CONTRACTION RELAXED CONTRACTED
• Rest • Contraction
1. Uncharged ATP cross-bridge 1. ATP → ADP + Pi + energy
2. Energy swivels cross-bridge
extended 3. Muscle shorten (actin slides over myosin)
2. Actin and myosin uncoupled 4. Tension developed
3. Ca2+ stored in sarcoplasmic
reticulum
• RELAXTION
1. Nerve impulse ceases
2. Ca2+ removed by calcium pump
3. Muscle returns to resting state
• Excitation-coupling • Recharging
1. Nerve impulse generated 1. ATP resynthesized
2. Ca2+ released from 2. Actomyosin dissociates →
vesicles actin + myosin
3. Ca2+ saturates troponin, 3. Actin and myosin recycled
turning on actin
4. ATP cross-bridge
“charged”
5. Actin and myosin coupled
(actomyosin)
PHYSIOLOGY OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER • Excitation-contraction Coupling
• Generation & Transmission Of An • Action potential is propagated down the T tubules, causing calcium to be
Action Potential (Electrical Current) released from the SR into the cell interior.
Along The Sarcolemma
• Sliding of the filaments is triggered by rise in intracellular calcium ion
• Skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by motor neurons. The level.
axon of each motor neuron divides profusely as it enters the
muscle. • Troponin binding of calcium moves tropomyosin away from myosin
binding sites on actin, allowing cross bridge.
• Each axonal ending forms a branching neuromuscular junction
with a single muscle fiber. • Myosin atpases split atp, which energizes the working strokes & is
necessary for bridge detachment.
• An end plate potential is set up when neurotransmitter
acetycholine (ACh) released by a nerve ending binds to Ach • Cross bridge activity ends when calcium is pumped back into the sr.
receptors on the sarcolemma, causing changes in membrane
permeability that allow ion flows that depolarize the
membrane at the motor end plate.
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS
ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS • Tightening
(Contractions) Of A
• Occur When The Muscle Shortens (Concentric Specific Muscle Or
Contraction) Or Lengthens (Eccentric Group Of Muscles
Contraction) As The Load Is Moved.
• Muscle Doesn't
• Produces Limb Movement Noticeably Change
• Load Needed Length
• Muscle Tension Produces
SMOOTH MUSCLE
MUHAMMAD DANISH HAIKAL BIN JASNI
2022465542
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF
SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER:
1.Spindle shape
2.Uninculculate (single nucleus)
3.No striations (align)
4.Arranged in sheets
5.Lack of connective tissue coverings
6.Poor SR developed
7.No T tubules & sarcomere
8.With actin & myosin filaments
9.Intermediate filaments & dense bodies
form an intracellular (within a
cell)network
10.Involuntary