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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

active ingredient is released. According to the agrochemical industry, re-formulating
pesticides in microcapsules can also extend patent protection, increase solubility, reduce the
contact of active ingredients with agricultural workers and may have environmental
advantages such as reducing run-off rates. Previous studies confirmed that metal
nanoparticles are effective against plants pathogens, insects and pests. Hence, nanoparticles
can be used in the preparation of new formulations like pesticides, insecticides and insect
repellants. Nanotechnology has promising applications in nanoparticlemediated gene (DNA)
transfer. It can be used to deliver DNA and other desired chemicals into plant tissues for
protection of host plants against insect pests. Porous hollow silica nanoparticles (PHSNs)
loaded with validamycin (pesticide) can be used as efficient delivery system of water-soluble
pesticide for its controlled release. Such controlled release behaviour of PHSNs makes it a
promising carrier in agriculture, especially for pesticide controlled delivery whose immediate
as well as prolonged release is needed for plants. Oil in water (nano-emulsions) can also be
useful for the formulations of pesticides and these could be effective against the various
insect pests in agriculture.

Polymers used as drug delivery systems (DDS) that can carry an active agent such as a drug to
the needed site of action have been extensively studied since 1960’s. Poly(ethylene glycol)
(PEG)-based (co)polymers have been utilized as one of the primary components of DDS, not
only because PEGs have been shown to be nontoxic, biocompatible and durable enough for
biological systems, but also because of their good solubility, low cost, easy availability, and
ease with which these can be chemically modified or linked with other polymers. A key
property of PEG is its attachment to other molecules and surfaces to provide a biocompatible,
protective coating. This protective coating slows the rejection of materials in biological
systems ( such as human body ) and greatly reduces bacterial adsorption. Also, it can be
attached to other molecules without effecting their chemistry, but can control their solubility
and increase their sizes. These novel properties can be further enhanced by chemical
modification of the molecular structure.

Chemical modifications of PEGs for applications in DDS may be categorized into three types
dependent upon the method of delivery of the desired DDS: 1) PEG– conjugates of drugs,
proteins, and many other biological materials, 2) surface modification of biological materials
with PEG and 3) synthesis of PEG-based polymers/ copolymers.

The presence of just two terminal groups in PEG limits its utility to attach drugs which in turn
effects the drug loading capacity. In order to make the drug delivery systems more versatile,
researchers the world over have attempted to synthesise copolymers based on PEGs. It is a
well-known fact that cancer and AIDS chemotherapies suffer from the toxic side effects
associated with the anti-cancer and anti-HIV drugs. This is due to the fact that these drugs
lack sufficient selectivity towards their targets. Studies are underway to attach these drugs
(drug-polymer conjugates) with polymeric carriers so that the toxic side effects can be
reduced and also their efficiency towards targetted cells can be enhanced.

The applications of PEG are diverse, such as: 1) PEG proteins for pharmaceutical uses; 2) PEG-
liposomes for drug delivery; 3) PEG-molecules for biological purifications; and PEG
attachment for control of solubility. As far as drug delivery is concerned, PEG-liposome
systems are used frequently for controlled release and selective delivery of drugs. The
problems with such systems are that the liposomes do not degrade in biological systems, are

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huge in size, their structures are not well defined and also they work in aqueous systems only.
The above drawbacks can be overcome if PEG is modified by the synthesis of PEG-based
polymers/ copolymers by taking the PEGs of different molecular weights and polymerizing
them with a moiety having a hydrophobic segment so that the polymer formed is amphiphilic
in nature. It is desirable that in order to design a micelle that is able to physically encapsulate
small active reagents (i.e. the drugs), the polymers should have amphiphilic structures. By
attaching the hydrophilic PEG segment with one or more hydrophobic ligand(s) or segment(s),
an amphiphilic polymer can be prepared. The amphiphilic polymer should be able to self-
assemble into micelles in a specific solvent system, such as water.
Amphiphilic block copolymers with hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments have been
investigated extensively not only because of their unique self-organization characteristics but
also for their wide range of potential applications, such as in drug delivery and separation
technology systems. The micellar characteristics of amphiphilic block copolymers depend on
the nature of each block and surface properties of self-organized micelles are highly
dependent on the structures of the hydrophilic blocks. The formation of micelles by the self-
assembly of amphiphilic copolymers in aqueous media as shown in Figure - 1:

Figure -1
As shown above, by changing the type of solvents, i.e. from organic to an aqueous system,
the polymer does self-assemble into a stable aggregation or micelle. The hydrophobic side
chains were most likely in the core of the micelle. The radius of gyration of these micelles fall
within the nano range and hence it is possible to develop slow release nano formulations of
bioactive molecules based on PEG-based polymers.
Nanotechnology has emerged as a highly attractive tool for the formulation and delivery of
active ingredients as well as enhancing their application efficiency. It has the potential to
revolutionize the agricultural and food industry with new tools for the molecular treatment
of diseases, rapid disease detection, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients etc.
Smart sensors and smart delivery systems will help the agricultural industry combat various
crop pathogens. In the near future nanostructured catalysts will be available which will
increase the efficiency of pesticides and herbicides, allowing lower doses to be used.

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Earlier, the synthesis and self-assembly of copolymers derived from PEGs and diester and
their use in drug delivery systems capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
drugs has been reported. This approach was based on the formation of nanomicelles by the
self-assembly of amphiphilic copolymers in aqueous media as explained above. The
amphiphilic polymers used in the self-assembly are based on poly (ethylene glycol) and
various diesters, synthesized by chemical and enzymatic methods. The design of the system
and synthetic strategy is very flexible and provides a high degree of control over the polymer
structures. This allowed the tuning of the properties of the micelle disruption, the critical
micelle concentration and the size of micelles. The micellar characteristics of amphiphilic
block copolymers depend on the nature of each block and surface properties of self-organized
micelles are highly dependent on the structures of the hydrophilic blocks.

Our group has been actively involved in the synthesis of environmental friendly amphiphilic
polymers having the tendency to aggregate in aqueous medium into nanospheres. These
polymers have been utilized to developed slow release formulations of various pesticides
analogous to drug delivery.

The amphiphilic polymers have been used to develop controlled release formulation of
carbofuran, thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, β-Cyfluthrin, thiram, carbendazim, azoxystrobin,
mancozeb and azadirachtin. It is believed that nanoencapsulated pesticide formulation will
be able to reduce the dosage of pesticides and human exposure to them, which is
environmental friendly for crop protection. Different nanoencapsulation materials have
already shown their potential, promising results and applications by encapsulating the
available pesticides and biocides. Among them polymer, porous silica, clay and LDHs-based
nanomaterials were found to be very important. Further studies are required to understand
the compatibility between the pesticides and encapsulation materials as well as the
encapsulation mechanism of pesticides formulations.

The data available about the environmental fate of these new products is not sufficient, and
it is not known whether Nano formulations can be evaluated within the current pesticide
regulatory framework. It is a known fact that in most parts of the world, pesticides are subject
to a very strict regulatory authorization process. The possible impact(s) of formulations on
the environmental fate and the effect of active ingredients (AIs) in pesticides have, however,
been evaluated to a limited extent until now. For instance, the assumption is that formulants
and AIs separate rapidly upon application in the field. While this may be acceptable for some
formulations, its validity should be verified for nanoenabled formulations that are designed
to modify the environmental fate of AIs. There are, however, very few available data about
the behavior of the Nano pesticides after their application in the field, and it is not known
whether nanopesticides can be adequately evaluated within the current pesticide regulatory
framework. An adequate exposure assessment of nanopesticides is essential for assessing the
new risks and new benefits associated with these new products. Currently, it is not possible
to detect or quantify polymer nanocarriers in the soil matrix, because of the similarity of the
elemental composition. Further efforts will thus be needed to develop suitable analytical
techniques that support the design of more strategic nanoenabled delivery systems for
pesticides and other bioactive substances, while ensuring a robust assessment of the new
risks and benefits. There is a wide array of other organic nanoparticles that are intentionally
or unintentionally released into the environment (e.g., organic nanocarriers used in the food,

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pharmaceutical, or cosmetic industry, fragments of polymers, and other plastic residues).
Improved experimental and modeling approaches for assessing their fate in the environment
and how they may interact with contaminants are urgently needed. The controlled release
properties of nanoencapsulation materials to release the AIs to the target area using
autosensing power needs further investigation. Also, lack of knowledge of not having
undertaken a cost-benefit analysis of nanoencapsulation materials hindered their application
in pesticide delivery. Further investigation of these materials behavior and their ultimate fate
in environment will help the establishment of a regulatory framework for their
commercialization.

FURTHER READINGS:

1. Watterson, A.C.; Parmar, V.S.; Kumar, R.; Sharma, S.K.; Shakil, N.A.; Tyagi, R.; Sharma, A.K.;
Samuelson, L.A.; Kumar, J.; Nicolosi, R.; Shea T. (2005) Pure Appl. Chem., 77(1), 201–208.

2. Kumar, R., Shakil, N.A., Chen, M.H., Parmar, V.S., Samuelson, L.A., Kumar, J., and Watterson,
A.C. (2002) Chemo-enzymatic synthesis and characterization of novel functionalised
amphiphilic polymers. J. Macromol. Sci., Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A, 39, 1137–1149.

3. Danprasert, K., Kumar, R., Chen, M.H., Gupta, P., Shakil, N.A., Prasad A.K., Parmar, V.S.,
Kumar, J., Samuelson, L.A., and Watterson, A.C. (2003) Synthesis of novel poly(ethylene
glycol)based amphiphilic polymers. Eur. Polymer J., 39 (10), 1983–1990.

4. Sharma, S.K., Kumar, R., Kumar, S., Mosurkal, R., Parmar, V.S., Samuelson, L.A., Watterson,
A.C., and Kumar, J. (2004) Chem. Commun., 23, 2689–2691.

5. Kumar, R., Tyagi, R., Shakil, N.A., Parmar, V.S., Kumar, J., and Watterson, A.C. (2005) Self-
assembly of PEG and diester copolymers: Effect of PEG length, linker, concentration and
temperature. J. Macromol. Sci. Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A., 42, 1523–1528.

6. Kumar, J., Shakil, N.A., Singh, M.K., Pankaj, Singh, M.K., Pandey, A. and Pandey, R.P. (2010)
Development of Controlled Release Formulations of Azadirachtin A employing Poly(ethylene
glycol) Based Amphiphilic Copolymers. J Environment Science Health, Part B, 45(4), 310-314.

7. Adak, T., Kumar, J., Shakil, N.A. and Walia, S. (2012) Development of controlled release
formulations of imidacloprid employing novel nano-ranged amphiphilic polymers. J
Environment Science Health, Part B, 47(3), 217-225.

8. Adak, T., Kumar, J., Dey, D., Shakil, N.A. and Walia, S. (2012) Residue and bio-efficacy
evaluation of controlled release formulations of imidacloprid against pests in soybean
(Glycine max). J Environment Science Health, Part B, 47(3), 226-231.

9. Gupta, B., Kumar, V., Kumar, G., Khan, A., Shakil, N.A., Dhawan, A., Parmar, V.S., Kumar, J.,
and Watterson, A.C. (2011) Amphiphilic Copolymers having Saturated and Unsaturated
Aliphatic Side Chains as Nano Carriers for Drug Delivery Applications. J. Macromol. Sci. Pure
& Appl. Chem. Part A., 48(12), 1009–1015.

10. Adak, T., Kumar, J., Shakil, N.A., Walia, S., Kumar, A., and Watterson, A.C. (2011) Synthesis
and Characterization of Novel Surfactant Molecules Based on Amphiphilic Polymers. J.
Macromol. Sci. Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A., 48(10), 767–775.

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11. Sarkar, D.J., Kumar, J., Shakil, N.A., Adak, T., and Watterson, A.C. (2012) Synthesis and
characterization of amphiphilic PEG based aliphatic and aromatic polymers and their self-
assembling behavior. J. Macromol. Sci. Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A., 49(6), 455-465.

12. Kumari, A., Kumar, J., Shakil, N.A., Singh, B.B., and Watterson, A.C. (2015) Synthesis and
Characterization of Amphiphilic PEG Based Polymers and Their Self Assembling Behaviour. J.
Macromol. Sci. Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A., 52(6), 417-424.

13. Koli, P., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Singh, B.B., and Watterson, A.C. (2014) Synthesis and
Characterization of Novel Encapsulating Materials based on Functionalized Amphiphilic Block
Copolymers J Environment Science Health, Part B, 51(9), 729-736.

14. Kaushik, P., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., and Watterson, A.C. (2012) Synthesis and
characterisation of novel poly (ethylene glycol) based amphiphilic polymers. J Environment
Science Health, Part B, 49(1), 111-115.

15. Loha, K.M., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Singh, M.K., Adak, T. and Jain, S. (2011) Release kinetics
of β-Cyfluthrin from its encapsulated formulations in water. J Environment Science Health,
Part B, 46(3), 201-206.

16. Loha, K.M., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Singh, M.K., and Srivastava, C. (2012) Bio-efficacy
evaluation of nanoformulations of β-Cyfluthrin against Callosobruchus maculatus
(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). J Environment Science Health, Part B, 47(7), 687-691.

17. Shakil, N.A., Singh, M.K., Pandey, A., Kumar, J., Pankaj, Parmar, V.S., Pandey, R.P. and
Watterson, A.C. (2010) Development of Poly(ethylene glycol) Based Amphiphilic Copolymers
for Controlled Release Delivery of Carbofuran. J. Macromol. Sci. Pure & Appl. Chem. Part A.,
47, 241-247.

18. Pankaj, Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Singh, M.K. and Singh, K. (2012) Bioefficacy evaluation of
controlled release formulations based on amphiphilic nano-polymer of carbofuran against
Meloidogyne incognita infecting tomato. J Environment Science Health, Part B, 47(6), 520-
528.

19. Sarkar, D.J., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., and Walia, S. (2012) Release kinetics of controlled
release formulations of thiamethoxam employing nano-ranged amphiphilic PEG and diacid
based block polymers in soil. J Environment Science Health, Part B, 47(11), 1701-1712.

20. Sarkar, D.J., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., and Walia, S. (2012) Quality enhancement of of
soybean seed coated with nano-formulated Thiamethoxam and its retention study. Pesticide
Research Journal, 24(1), 55-64.

21. Kaushik, P., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Singh, M.K., Singh, M.K., and Yadav, S.K. (2013)
Development of controlled release formulations of thiram employing amphiphilic polymers
and their bioefficacy evaluation in seed quality enhancement studies. J Environment Science
Health, Part B, 48(8), 677-685.

22. Koli, P., Singh, B.B., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., and Kamil, D. (2014) Development of controlled
release nanoformulations of carbendazim employing amphiphilic polymers and their bio
efficacy evaluation against Rhizoctonia solani. J Environment Science Health, Part B, 50(9),
674-681.

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23. Singh, B.B., Shakil, N.A., Kumar, J., Walia, S. and Kar, A. (2015) Development of slow
release formulations of β-carotene employing amphiphilic polymers and their release kinetics
study in water and different pH conditions. Journal of Food Science & Technology, 52(12),
8068-8076.

24. Sujan Majumder, Najam A. Shakil, Braj B. Singh and Arthur C. Watterson (2016) Synthesis
and characterization of functionalized amphiphilic polymers for utilization as surfactants.
Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A: Pure and Applied Chemistry, 53(2), 75–81.

25. Sujan Majumder, Najam A. Shakil, Jitendra Kumar, Tirthankar Banerjee, Parimal Sinha,
Braj B. Singh and Parul Garg (2016) Ecofriendly PEG-based controlled release
nanoformulations of Mancozeb: Synthesis and bioefficacy evaluation against
phytopathogenic fungi Alternaria solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Journal of Environmental
Science and Health, Part B, 51 (12), 873-880.

26. Pushpendra Koli, Braj B. Singh, Najam A. Shakil, Jitendra Kumar and Deeba Kamil (2015)
Development of controlled release nanoformulations of carbendazim employing amphiphilic
polymers and their bio efficacy evaluation against Rhizoctonia solani. Journal of
Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural
Wastes 50:9, 674-681.

27. Sujan Majumder, Najam Akhtar Shakil, Parimal Sinha, Jitendra Kumar and Parshant
Kaushik (2017) In-vivo Evaluation of Nanoformulations of Mancozeb against Alternaria
solani on Tomato. Pesticide Research Journal Vol. 29(1): 98-102, June 2017.

28. Eisa Osman Mohamed Ali, Najam Akhtar Shakil, Virendra Singh Rana, Dhruba Jyoti Sarkar,
Sujan Majumder, Parshant Kaushik, Braj Bhushan Singh, Jitendra Kumar (2017) Antifungal
activity of nano emulsions of neem and citronella oils against phytopathogenic fungi,
Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Industrial Crops & Products (2017) 108, 379–387.

29. Eisa Osman Mohamed Ali, Najam Akhtar Shakil, Virendra Singh Rana, Chitra Srivastava,
Dhruba Jyoti Sarkar and Parshant Kaushik (2017) Insecticidal effect of Citronella and Neem oil
nano emulsions against Spodoptera litura (Fab.) Annals of Plant Protection Sciences (2017),
25(2), 231-238.

30. Sujan Majumder, Najam A. Shakil, Jitendra Kumar, Rajesh Kumar and Parshant Kaushik
(2017) Bioefficacy evaluation of slow release nanaoformulations of Mancozeb against
phytopathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia bataticola, R. solani, Fusarium oxysporum and
Macrophomina phaseolina. Ann. Pl. Protec. Sci., 25 (1): 126-131.

31. Melanie Kah and Thilo Hofmann (2014) Nanopesticides research: current trends and
future priorities. Environment International, 63, 224-235.

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Use of Predators and Parasitoids in IPM

Surender Kumar Singh
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Biological control is a method of controlling pests (such as insects, mites, weeds and plant
diseases) using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory or other natural
mechanisms. It is an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
There are three basic strategies for biological pest control: classical (importation), where a
natural enemy of a pest is introduced in the hope of achieving control; inductive
(augmentation), in which a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick
pest control; and inoculative (conservation), in which measures are taken to maintain natural
enemies through regular reestablishment. Natural enemies of insect pests include
predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors. With the increased awareness of
integrated pest management concept among the farmers, there is increasing emphasis on the
utilization of bio-control agents. Insect pests cause enormous losses to crops. Sole reliance
on the application of chemical pesticides has led to several side effects like resurgence of
pests, resistance to pesticides and outbreak of secondary pests coupled with problems of
environmental pollution. With increasing hazards due to chemical pesticides, the only answer
to mitigate these ill-effects is the use of safe alternatives. The use of natural enemies
comprising of parasitoids and predators as biological control agents is the most effective,
environmentally sound and cost-effective pest management approach to control insect pests.
The biological control is going to play an increasingly important role in integrated pest
management (IPM) programs as broad-spectrum chemical pesticides’ use continues to
decline. It is also the cornerstone of organic farming. The production of organic commodities
in different countries continues to increase as the demand of these products is increasing;
hence, organic farming is no longer considered a cottage industry. For a given arthropod pest
or weed, a pool of natural enemies often exists which consists of vertebrates, invertebrates
and microorganisms.

Predators

The arthropod predators of insects and mites include beetles, true bugs, lacewings, flies,
midges, spiders, wasps, and predatory mites. Insect predators can be found throughout
plants, including the parts below ground, as well as in nearby shrubs and trees. Some
predators are specialized in their choice of prey, others are generalists. Some are extremely
useful natural enemies of insect pests. Unfortunately, some prey on other beneficial insects
as well as pests. Insect predators can be found in almost all agricultural and natural habitats.
Each group may have a different life cycle and habits.

Major characteristics of arthropod predators:

 adults and immature are often generalists rather than specialists
 they generally are larger than their prey
 they kill or consume many prey
 males, females, immature, and adults may be predatory
 they attack immature and adult prey

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Major Insect Predators

Predator Photograph Source: internet

Spiders
These are among the most neglected and least understood of
predators. They rely on a complex diet of prey and can have a
strong stabilizing influence on them. Because spiders are
generalists and tend to kill more prey than they actually
consume, they limit their preys’ initial bursts of growth. Up to 23
spider families have been documented in cotton and 18 species
have been tallied in apples.

Many spiders live in crop canopies but most inhabit the soil
surface and climb plants. Living mulches or other soil plant covers attract spiders, while
residue from crop plants also harbor spider populations. Conservation of spiders’ fauna in
paddy agro-ecosystems in India has been studied by installing of straw bundles in IPM
experimental fields by ICAR-NCIPM, New Delhi and found effective.

Lady beetles (Coccinellidae, also called ladybugs or ladybird beetles)

With their shiny, half-dome bodies and active searching behavior,
lady beetles are among the most visible and best known
beneficial insects. They are easily recognized by their red or
orange color with black markings, although some are black with
red markings and others have no markings at all.

Lady beetles have been used in biological control programs for
more than a century and are beneficial both as adults and larvae.
Most larvae are blue-black and orange and shaped like little
alligators. Young larvae pierce their prey and suck out their contents. Older larvae and
adults chew entire aphids.

Any crop prone to aphid infestation will benefit from lady beetles. Farmers of vegetables,
grains, legumes and orchard crops have found lady beetles helpful in managing aphids. In
its lifetime, a single beetle can eat more than 5,000 aphids.

While their primary diet is aphids, lady beetles can
make do with pollen, nectar and many other types of
prey, including young ladybugs. Extensive prey range
includes moth eggs, beetle eggs, mites, thrips and other
small insects — makes lady beetles particularly valuable
as natural enemies. These should be conserved in situ
by avoiding unnecessary application of chemical
pesticides.

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Lacewings (Chrysoperla spp.)
Green lacewings have slender, pale-green bodies, large
gauze-like wings and long antennae. They are very
common in aphid-infested crops, including cotton, sweet
corn, potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, leafy greens, apples,
strawberries and cole crops.
The delicate, fluttering adults feed only on nectar, pollen
and aphid honeydew. They are active fliers.
The larvae — tiny gray or brown “alligators” whose
mouthparts resemble ice tongs — are active predators and
can be cannibalistic. The lacewing females suspend their
oval eggs singly at the ends of long silken stalks to protect
them from hatching siblings. Commonly called aphid lions,
lacewing larvae have well-developed legs with which to
lunge at their prey and long, sickle-shaped jaws they use
to puncture them and inject a paralyzing venom. They
grow from less than 0.04 inch to between 0.2 and 0.3
inches (from <1 mm to 6–8 mm), thriving on several
species of aphids as well as on thrips, whiteflies and spider mites — especially red mites.
They can destroy as many as 200 aphids or other prey per week. They also suck down the
eggs of leafhoppers, moths and leafminers and reportedly attack small caterpillars, beetle
larvae and the tobacco budworm. This predatory insect can be mass-multiplied on host
insect Corcyra cephalonica under laboratories conditions and can be released in the fields
to manage insect pests.
Syrphid flies also known as hover flies
They are voracious predators, as larvae, of aphids and
other slow-moving, soft-bodied insects.

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Adult syrphid flies feed on pollen, nectar and aphid honeydew. Each female lays hundreds
of white, football-shaped eggs, about 0.04 inch (1 mm) long, amidst aphid colonies. The
narrow, tapered slug-like larvae that hatch from these eggs can pierce and drain up to 400
aphids apiece during the two to three weeks it takes them to complete development.
Unable to perceive their prey except through direct contact, syrphid fly larvae find their
dinners by flinging their forward ends from side to side. These should be conserved in situ
by avoiding unnecessary application of chemical
pesticides. These remain active in mustard – Brassica
juncea crop and feed upon aphids.

Parasitoids:

A parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host and at the host's
expense, and which sooner or later kills it. Parasitoidism is one of the major evolutionary
strategies within parasitism, an insect whose larvae feed and develop within or on the bodies
of other arthropods. Most are in the Hymenoptera, where the ichneumons and many
other parasitoid wasps are highly specialized for a parasitoidal way of life. Other parasitoids
are in the Diptera, Coleoptera and other orders of endopterygote insects. Parasitoids are
among the most widely used biological control agents. Parasitoids can be classified as either
endo- or ecto-parasitoids. Endo-parasitoids live within their host's body, while ecto-
parasitoids feed on the host from outside. Some parasitoids prevent further development of
the host after initially immobilizing it, whereas other parasitoids allow the host to continue
its development while feeding upon it. Most ecto-parasitoids, as the host could damage or
dislodge the external parasitoid if allowed to move and moult; in case of most endo-
parasitoids - giving them the advantage of a host that continues to grow larger and avoid
predators.

Parasitoid Photograph (Source from

internet)

Trichogramma wasps (Trichogrammatidae)

Trichogramma wasps are the most widely released natural

enemies. The tiny female wasp — generally less than 0.04 inch

(1 mm) long — lays an egg inside a recently laid host egg, which

blackens as the larva develops.

The host range of many Trichogramma wasps spans numerous
species and families of insects. Moths, butterflies, beetles,
flies, wasps and true bugs are all frequent victims. Some
Trichogramma wasps even use their wings in a rowing motion
to reach aquatic hosts. It can be mass-multiplied on host insect
Corcyra cephalonica under laboratories conditions and can be released in the fields to
manage insect pests.

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Bracon hebetor Say
Their body is black. It is an ecto-parasitoids of several lepidopterous larvae. Female sting
host larvae and thus paralyze them. It can be mass multiplied wax moth, Galleria mellonella
(L.). It parasitize Helicoverpa armigera.
It can be mass-multiplied on host insect Corcyra cephalonica under laboratories.

Mass production of natural enemies

Improved techniques have been standardized for the multiplication of about 10 dozen bio-
control agents. In vivo rearing is laborious and unattractive to entrepreneurs. Efforts have
been made for rearing in vitro to reduce costs and make rearing under optimal nutritional
conditions on a large scale possible. In vitro production of Trichogramma spp., coccinellids,
chrysopids, tachinids, etc. has been attempted with varying degree of success in different
countries. In larger facilities for the mass production of Trichogramma spp. in the west,
consistent levels of output of 100 million females/week are not uncommon. Major
commercial facilities are currently found in Europe (France, Holland, Germany and
Switzerland), the USA, Canada, Mexico and government supported facilities in China and
Brazil. Attempts had been made to use the synthetic/ semi-synthetic diets in rearing the host
insects and bio-control agents viz. , Chrysoperla carnea was reared using hydrolyzed soybean
based artificial diet for 10 generations and compared with Corcyra reared, pig liver-based diet
was found to be promising for the rearing of some coccinellids. For rearing host specific
natural enemies, diets were evolved for extensive rearing of Helicoverpa armigera,
Spodoptera litura, Chilo partellus and Opisina orenosella. It is high time that thrust should be
given in evolving chemically defined diets for host insects and bio-control agents.

Mass production of host insect- Corcyra Cephalonica

Corcyra has wide food range. Broken sorghum/maize/millet, whichever is available at low
price in the area is used as food. The rearing cages can be charged with 1000 eggs per 1.5 kg
of sorghum. In less crowded condition, higher percentages of eggs develop into moth.
Optimum environmental conditions (25-30 oC and 75-90% RH), prevention from natural
enemies (Tribolium spp., Bracon sp. infestation) is requisite requirements.

Mass production of egg parasitoids- Trichogramma spp.

The genus Trichogramma is cosmopolitan in distribution and present in all terrestrial habitats
and is one of 80 genera in the family Trichogrammatidae. Trichogramma are primary
parasitoids eggs of Lepidoptera, but parasitism also occurs in eggs of other orders such as
Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Neuroptera. It is important for plant
protection because of its wide spread natural occurrence and its success as biological control
agent by mass releasing. Since this parasitoid kills the pest in the egg stage itself before the
pest could cause any damage to the crop and also that it is quite amenable to mass production
in the laboratories, it has the distinction of being the highest produced and most utilized
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biological control agent in the world. Trichogrammatidae includes the smallest of insects,
ranging in size from 0.2 to 1.5 mm. Trichogramma are difficult to identify because they are so
small and have generally uniform morphological characters. Also, certain physical
characteristics such as body color and the number and length of body hairs can vary with body
size, season, rearing temperature and the host on which the adult was reared. A major
advance in the systematics of Trichogramma was the discovery that characteristics of male
genitalia can be used to identify species. This is the primary means of identification today,
but body color, wing venation and features of the antennae serve as supporting
characteristics. Females cannot be identified with the same level of confidence, so collections
submitted for identification must include males in addition to physical characteristics; studies
of reproductive compatibility and mode of reproduction also have been especially valuable in
identifying species. Trichogramma spp. have been used for control of lepidopteran pests for
many years. They can be considered the Drosophila of the parasitoid world, as they have been
used for inundative releases and much understanding today comes from experiments with
these wasps.

Mass -multiplication of Trichogramma

The Trichocards are generally post-card size cards, bearing host eggs parasitized by
Trichogramma sp. Two cards are kept in a polythene bag (30x15cm) so as to expose their egg
side. Two strips of tricho cards from which wasps are likely to emerge are also inserted in the
bag. A thin strip of polythene sheet smeared with honey, folded and stappled in such a way
so that smeared surface form the inner surface of the loop. One such loops is inserted in each
bag. The bags are slightly bloated by making space with the help of hand and the tied with
rubber band. The wasps emerge from the tricho strips feed on honey, mate and parasitize
the eggs glued on cards. Such bags are kept in a controlled conditioned room. After 4-5 days
the eggs turn steal gray. They can be stored for 12-15 days at 10oC. Further storage will
reduce the efficacy of the parasitoid. During this period, they must be dispatched for field
releases.

Method of release

It is advisable to synchronize the release programme after monitoring the onset of moths by
use of pheromone traps, light traps, etc., The trichocards strips are cut into pieces and stapled
in the underside of the leaf. The release of parasitoid should be done preferably in evening
hours. During night the parasitoid will merge and search the host eggs. The parsitization may
be completed before the next noon. The care should be taken that the pesticide spray is not
done immediately before or after release. Project profile for the production of Trichogramma
(Trichocards). The cards can be used in cotton, sugarcane, paddy,Tomato, etc.

Table I. List of some important natural enemies

PARASITOIDS Parasitize/Feeds on
Egg parasitoids Lepidopterous pests of different crops
Trichogramma chilonis
Trichogramma brasiliensis
Trichogramma exiguum
Trichogramma achaeae

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Trichogramma pretiosum Spodoptera litura, S.exigua
Trichogramma embryophagum
Trichogrammatoidea armigera Earias spp. and Pectinophora gossypiella
Trichogrammatoidea bactrae Phthorimaea operculella
Telenomus remus
Egg larval parasitoids Opsinia arenosella
Chelonus blackburni
Copidosoma koehleri Pectinophora gossypiella
Larval parasitoids Pectinophora gossypiella & Earias spp
Bracon brevicornis Chilo spp.
Goniozus nephantidis
B. kirkpatricki Plutella xylostella
Bracon hebetor
Sturmiopsis inferens Scirpophaga excerptalis
Cotesia flavipes Chilo spp.
Cotesia marginiventris
Cotesia plutellae Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
Diadegma semiclausam Pyrilla perpusilla
Isotima javensis
Allorhogas pyralophagus Opisina arenosella
Nymphal parasitoids
Encarsia perniciosi Maconellicoccus hirsutus
Ferrisia virgata
Epiricania melanoleuca Soft bodied insects such as aphids,
Pupal parasitoids
Trichospilus pupivora Aphis craccivora
Tetrastychus israeli Aphis gossypii
Brachymeria spp Mealy bugs
Predators Nilaparvatha lugens
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Scymnus coccivora Tetranychus spp.
Chrysoperla carnea
Mallada bonenensis
Cheilomenes sexmaculata

Brumoides suturalis
Cyrtorhinus lividipennis
PREDATORY MITE
Phytoseiulus persimilis

Implementation and successful biological control programmes of IPM is only possible if
criteria necessary for appropriate decision making are developed. A system management
approach is essential for an effective strategy. The research must be intensified to understand
the interaction between crop, pest, climate, and natural enemies to fine tune our control
approach to particular pest problems in the agro-ecosystem.

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The survey and surveillance programmes must be strengthened and research is needed to
develop effective methodology for sampling, collection and analysis of such data.
Development of forecasting and forewarning systems with corresponding advisory services is
pre-requisites for effective implementation of IPM/biological control programmes. Here, the
role of plant protection advisory services must be emphasized. Trained and specialized
extension personnel are needed to undertake monitoring and scouting to ensure timely
action which can be very critical to the success of biological control and IPM.

In order to achieve the wide-spread adoption of biologically based technologies, considerable
training education and demonstration work is still needed and unless and until the farmers,
extension workers and even researchers and policy makers acquire greater confidence in the
use of these approaches, the long term goal of creating a truly sustainable agriculture will
continue to elude us. The efficacy and dependability of biological approaches must therefore
be adequately demonstrated to the satisfaction of farmers and others. Greater emphasis
must be given to the improvement and wide scale adoption of these methods.

It is very unlikely that the chemicals will be replaced completely in the management of pests
of agricultural crops – at least not in the foreseeable future. IPM, therefore, is the corner
stone of the present day environmentally conscious agricultural order. Short of achieving
maximum productivity without chemicals, our objective must be to maximize the biological
half of the IPM equation.

The initiative for development of what is now described as “Biointensive Pest Management”
will have to continue to come from researchers and policy makers. As far as the farmers are
concerned ideological reasons are unlikely to change their attitude/ideas on chemical control.
Also chemical companies are unlikely to stop the production of broad spectrum pesticides by
their own initiative. The central and state governments must take the lead in changing the
pest control picture through measures that would make chemical control less attractive by
legislation, registration, taxation etc and through encouraging other approaches by funding
research, providing training at all levels, improvement of extension services and incentives to
private companies.

Selected References:

Bigler,F.,1989. Quality assessment and control in entomophagous insects used for biological
control. J.Appl. Ent.108 (1989) 390-400.

Boller, E.F.; Chambers, D.L.,1977 Quality aspects of mass reared insects. In: Biological Control
by augmentation of natural enemies. Ed by R.L. Ridgway, S.B. Vinson. New York :
Plenum Press. pp 219 - 235.

Leppla, N.C.; Fisher, W.R. 1989 : Total quality control in insect mass production for insect
management. J. Appl. Ent. 108 (5).

Leppla, N.C.; King, E.G. 1996. The role of parasitoid and predator production in technology
transfer of field crop biological control. Entomophaga. 41 : 343-360.

Hoffmann, M.P. and Frodsham, A.C. (1993) Natural Enemies of Vegetable Insect Pests.
Cooperative Extension, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. 63 pp.

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Synthesis and Validation of Bio-Intensive IPM
Technology in Rice

R.K. Tanwar, Satyandra Singh and SP Singh

ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

1. Introduction

Rice is the staple food for over half the world’s population and is cultivated in at least114
(mostly developing) countries providing employment to more than 100 million households in
Asia and Africa (FAO, 2004). Nearly 90 per cent of this area falls in the Asian region. Integrated
pest management (IPM) is defined as the intelligent selection and use of pest control tactics
that will ensure favorable economic, ecologic, and sociologic consequences (Luckmann and
Metcalf, 1994). IPM is a broad ecological approach for pest management which employs all
available skills, techniques and practices such as cultural, genetic, mechanical and biological
methods including application of chemical pesticides as a last resort in a harmonious and
compatible manner with a view to suppress pest population below economic injury level,
based on regular crop pest surveillance and monitoring. The IPM is a dynamic approach and
process which varies from area to area, time to time, crop to crop and pest to pest etc., and
aims at minimizing crop losses with due consideration to human and animal health besides
safety to environment. Live and let live is the philosophy behind IPM. IPM approach has been
globally accepted for achieving sustainability in agriculture. Government of India, in the
National Agricultural Policy, has laid special emphasis on integrated pest management (IPM)
and use of biotic agents to minimize the indiscriminate and injudicious use of chemical
pesticides in agriculture.

In tropical Asia out of 800 insect pest species recorded in rice, only 18–20 species are
considered to be the major pests. Insect pest control remains a core problem for Asian rice
farmers. Yield losses of 15 to 25 % or more were attributed to “ravages due to pests” (Oerke
et al., 1994) which are no different from 30 to 40 years ago. Two or three crops a year, often
overlapping of heavily fertilized monocultures of ‘Green Revolution’ (GR), and high yielding
cultivars were considered a vulnerable pest breeding ground (Kiritani, 1979). Of the various
management tactics available, by and large, only chemical pesticides still serve as the primary
component which not only decimates natural enemies but also affect their food supply,
leaving the field open for pest build up by secondary and resurgent pests like the brown plant
hopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Kenmore et al., 1984) and green leaf hopper (GLH)
Nephotettix spp. (Kiritani, 1988). Insecticide application is considered to have accelerated the
adaptation of BPH to resistant varieties by favouring the survival and reproduction of virulent
individuals (Gallagher et al., 1994), thereby causing pest out breaks. In 1993, an estimated US
$1,114 million or 37% of the total was spent on insecticides for rice (Woodburn, 1993) and
interestingly, a large portion of this was in Japan (34%), India (22 %). China (11%) and Korea
(10%) (Kiritani, 1979).

2. Evolving IPM in rice

• IPM in rice has been developing in many countries since the early 1960s, but much of
the development was based on older concepts of IPM, including intensive scouting
and economic thresholds which are not applicable under all conditions (Morse and

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Buhler, 1997) or all pests (e.g. diseases and weeds), especially on smallholder farms
where the bulk of the world’s rice is grown and that often operate under a weak or
non-existing market economy. Moreover, strong influence of agrochemical
manufacturers and distributors in thwarting the holistic adoption of IPM was also one
of the primary reasons for its slow implementation (Murray, 1994; Brader, 1982).

• During the 1980s and 1990s, important ecological information on insect populations
became available, leading to a stronger ecological approach for pest management
and greater integration of management practices that went beyond scouting and
economic threshold levels for decision-making (Kenmore et al., 1984; Gallagher,
1988; Ooi, 1988; Graf et al., 1992; Barrion and Litsinger, 1994; Rubia et al., 1996;
Settle et al., 1996). An ecological and economic analysis approach for pest
management has been adopted taking care of crop development, weather, various
pests and their natural enemies. Operationally, this approach formed the guiding
principles for IPM implementation, clearly setting out in simple language the actions
to be undertaken. These principles were first articulated in the Indonesian National
IPM Programme which further evolved, improved and expanded as IPM programmes.

• Currently, programmes in Africa and Latin America use the term integrated
production and pest management (IPPM), and the IPPM principles are:

o Grow a healthy soil and crop
o Conserve natural enemies
o Observe the field regularly (e.g. soil, water, plant, pests and natural enemies)
o Farmers should strive to become experts.
Within these principles, economic decision-making remains at the core of rice IPM but the
approach also incorporates good farming practices and active pest control within a
production context.

3. Pest scenario of rice

Leaf folder (LF) Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, yellow stem borer (YSB) Scirpophaga incertulas,
Brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens, white back plant hopper (WBPH) Sogatella
furcifera, rice hispa Dicladispa armigera, caseworm Nymphula depunctalis, Gall midge
Orseolia oryzae and gundhi bug Leptocorisa spp are the major insect pests of rice along with
the regional pests prevailing in specific locations. Till mid-eighties bacterial blight
Xanthomonas campestris remained the major disease and there was frequent occurrence
of epidemics. As a result of the research efforts of rice scientists at PAU, bacterial blight
resistant varieties were developed and released in the late eighties and since 1987, no
epidemic of bacterial blight has been reported in the state. However, sheath blight
Rhizoctonia solani, sheath rot, blast Pyricularia oryzae, false smut and brown spot
Helminthosporium oryzae are emerging as serious diseases. Recently foot rot or Bakanae
foot rot disease (Fusarium fujikuroi; perfect stage: Gibberella fujikuroi) has emerged as a
serious pest in Basmati rice.

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4. IPM strategy

4.1. Prevention
Many aspects of farm and crop management reduce sources of primary inoculum and
prevent the initial buildup of pest infestations. Crop hygiene and various agronomic
practices (deep summer ploughing, soil solarization, cleaning of crop refuse, elimination of
weed hosts, crop rotation, selection of crop variety, seed treatment, balanced integrated
nutrient management, proper water management, intercropping, mixed cropping, trap
crops, border cropping, etc.), genetic resistance to pests, and habitat management are
different tools of prevention.

4.2. Monitoring
Agro ecosystem analysis (AESA) is an approach that can be used to analyze field situations
with regard to pests, predators, soil conditions, plant health, the influence of climatic factors
and their interrelationship for growing healthy crop. The methodologies of AESA include:

a) Field observations: Regular monitoring is crucial to pest management. Enter the field
at least 5 ft away from the bund. Select a site with a dimension of 1 sq. mt. visual
observations are recorded on flying insects (both pests and defender), pests and
defenders which remain on plants, pests like stem borer that remain under soil.
Disease incidence, insect damage, types of weeds, their size and population density in
relation to crop plant, soil conditions are also recorded. Rodent live burrows are
observed and climatic. Factors viz. sunny, partially sunny cloudy, rainy etc. for the
preceding week are also recorded. Following tools are generally use for pest
monitoring:

 Pheromone trap-monitoring - 5 traps per ha may be used to monitor moth
population.

 Light trap - NCIPM / Chinsurah light trap or any other light trap can be operated
for two hours in the evening to observe photo-tropic insect pests.

 Sweep-nets - water pans - Besides visual observations sweep-nets and water pans
may also be used to assess the population of insect pests, and biocontrol agents
to determine the type of pesticides to be recommended or used.

b) Drawing: Draw pest and defenders on the chart. Indicate the soil condition, weed
population, rodent damage etc. draw healthy plants with green color, and diseased
plants with yellow color. Pests and defenders are drawn at appropriate part or the
plant where they are seen at the time of observation.

c) Group discussion and decision making: The observation recorded in charts discussed
among the farmers. The extension functionaries during their visit to the village
mobilize the farmers, and critically analyze the factors such as the pest population
defender population, the influence of prevailing weather, soil conditions on the likely
build up of defender/ pest population. Decisions are taken regarding release of
defenders, application of safe pesticides to be used for specific pest situation.

4. 3. Intervention
The aim of intervention is to reduce the effects of economically damaging pest populations
to acceptable levels. Diagnostic techniques, economic threshold level (ETL) and pest

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forecasting models are now available to assist in proper timing of IPM interventions.
Cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control measures are applied individually or
in combination.

ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL (ETL) OF MAJOR PESTS OF RICE

Crop stage Pest ETL
Nursery Yellow stem borer 1 egg-mass/m2
Early to Root-knot nematode 1 nematode/g. soil
late BLB 2-3 plants/m2
tillering Leaf-folder 2 Fully damaged leaves (FDL) with larva/hill
Stem borer 2 egg-mass/m2 or 10% dead heart or 1 moth/m2 or 25
Panicle moths/trap/week
initiation to Gall midge 1 gall/m2 or 10% Silver shoot
booting Brown Plant Hopper 10-15 hoppers/hill
Flowering (BPH)/White backed
to milky Plant hopper (WBPH) 2 adults or 2 dead leaf /hill
grain Rice hispa 2 FDL/hill
Rice caseworm 3-5 lesions/leaf
Foliar blast 2-3 spots/leaf & 2-3 infected plants/ m2
Brown spot Lesions of 5-6 mm in length & 2-3 infected plants/m2
Sheath blight Lesion length 2-3 mm on sheath & 3-5 infected
Sheath-rot plants/ m2
2-3 infected leaves/m2
BLB 1 Tungro infected plants/m2 & 2 GLH/hill (in fungus
Tungro endemic areas)
2 egg-mass/m2 or 1 moth/m2 or 25 moths / trap /week
Stem borers 2 FDL/hill
Leaf-folders 15-20 hoppers/hill
BPH/WBPH 2-5 neck infected plants/m2
Neck blast 5 infected plants/m2
Sheath-rot 2 bugs/hill
Gundhi bug

4.3.1. Cultural Practices
Raise pre-crop kharif grow Sesbania and incorporate 45-50 days old crop in soil during land
preparation wherever possible.

 Select suitable resistant or moderately resistant variety

 Use disease and insect free pure seed.

 Seed treatment (for diseases) with carbendazim (50%WP) 2 gm/kg of seed or
Trichoderma/Pseudomonas 10 gm/kg of seed for seed or soil borne diseases and
carbosulfan (25DS) 80 gm/kg of seed for root nematodes or as per local
recommendations. In termites endemic areas seed treatment with

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chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 3.75 liters/100 kg seed along with 10% solution of gum
arabica or imidacloprid 200 SL (20%) @ 0.25 liter/100 kg seed along with 10%
solution of gum Arabica in 3.75 liter of water just before sowing.

 Timely planting/sowing.

 Pre-sowing irrigation: Many weeds can be controlled by applying pre-sowing
irrigation to area where nursery or seedlings are to be transplanted. The
emerged weeds can be ploughed under.

 Raising of healthy nursery.

 As far as possible rice seedling should be free from weed seedlings at the time
of transplanting.

 Nursery treatment with systemic pesticides a week before uprooting. Seedling
root dip with Pseudomonas fluorescens @10 gm or ml/L of water for 30 minutes
for management of bakanae/ root knot or root nematodes.

 Destruction of left over nursery, removal of weeds from field and cleaning of
bunds.

 Normal spacing with 30-36 hills/ m2 depending on the duration of the variety.

 30 cm alley formations at every 2.5 to 3 m distance in planthopper and sheath
blight endemic areas.

 Balanced use of fertilizers and micro-nutrients as per local recommendations.

 Proper water management (alternate wetting and drying to avoid water

 stagnation) in plant hopper, bacterial blight and stem rot endemic areas.

 Maintain a thin layer of water on soil surface to minimize weed growth.

 In direct sown rice, the crop should be sown in lines at recommended spacing to
facilitate inter-weeding operations. Mechanical methods of weed should be
practiced after 2-3 weeks and second time if necessary after 4-6 weeks of
sowing.

 Harvest close to ground level to destroy insect pest present in the
internodes/stubbles. This will also expose the insects to birds thus help in
natural bio-control of insect pests.

 After harvest, the fields should be thoroughly flooded with water and ploughed
with discs or rotators to kill hibernating larvae of stem borer present in the
stubbles. Summer ploughing of fields also expose larvae and pupae of rice
swarming or ear cutting caterpillar (climbing cutworm) hidden in the soil to birds
and weather factors.

4.3.2. Mechanical Practices
Collection of egg masses and larvae of pest and their placement in bamboo cages for
conservation of biocontrol agents.

 Removal and destruction (burn) of diseased/pest infested plant parts.

 Clipping of rice seedlings tips at the time of transplanting to minimize carryover
of ice hispa, case worm and stem borer infestation from seed bed to the
transplanted fields.

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 Use of coir rope in rice crop for dislodging case worm, cut worm and swarming
caterpillar and leaf folder larvae etc. on to kerosinized water (1 L of kerosene
mixed on 25 kg soil and broadcast in 1ha)

4.3.3. Biological Control Practices:

4.3.3.1 Conservation

 Bio-control agents viz., spiders, water bugs, mirid bugs, damsel flies,
dragonflies, meadow grasshoppers, staphylinid beetles, carabids, coccinellids,
Apanteles, Tetrastichus, Telenomus, Trichogramma, Bracon, Platygaster, etc.
commonly available in nature should be conserved.

 As an alternate to seedling root dip, apply 1.5kg a.i./ha of carbofuran or
phorate granules in nursery 5 days before uprooting the seedlings for control
of nematodes in early transplanted crop.

 Collection of egg masses of borers and putting them in a bamboo cage-cum-
percher till flowering which will permit the escape of egg parasites and trap
and kill the hatching larvae. Besides, these would allow perching of predatory
birds.

 Habitat management: Protection of natural habitats within the farm boundary
may help in conserving natural enemies of pests. Management of farmland and
rice bunds with planting of flowering weeds like marigold, sun hemp increases
beneficial natural enemy population and also reduce the incidence of root knot
nematodes. Provide refuge like straw bundles having charged with spiders to
help in build up spider population and to provide perch for birds

4.3.3.2 Augmentation

Based on monitoring, augmentative release of Trichogramma japonicum and T.
chilonis @ 100,000/ha/10 days for 4-5 times starting from the day of appearance of
the pest (adult moth/egg mass) for control of stem borer and leaf folder, respectively.

4.3.3.3 Pest defender (P&D) ratio

2:1 P&D ratio may be useful to avoid application of pesticides against plant hoppers.

4.3.3.4 Behavioral Control:

Mass trapping of yellow stem borer male moths by installing pheromone traps @ 20
traps/ha with lures containing 10-15 mg pheromone at 20 days after transplanting.

4.3.4 Chemical pesticides interventions

Chemical pesticides are the last option for containing the pest which should be based
upon the Economic Threshold Level (ETL). Among the chemical pesticides there are
chemicals which are safer to our environment especially the natural enemies present
in ecosystem. For safer chemical pesticides the studies have been conducted at
international level on Environment Impact Quotient (EIQ) which indicates the safety

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of the chemical to our environment. Crop Stage wise IPM Interventions including the
pesticides have been summarized in the table.

Crop Stage wise IPM Interventions

Crop stage Target IPM options (including crop management options)

Pest

Before - Make raised beds of 10 m and width 1.25-1.5 for nursery

nursery sowing with a gap of 30 cm in between

sowing - Farm Yard Manure, Urea, Single Super Phosphate, Murate of

Potash :20,80,80,40

During Sh. Bl Selection of seed (Certified seed)

nursery Cleaning Seed treatment with salt solution (200 gms in 10 litres water )

sowing for about 15 minutes) , discarding floating seeds ,wash the

Diseases heavy seeds

Weeds Seed treatment with carbendazim 50 WP @ 2g/kg seed

Application of herbicides butachlor @ 1.5kg/ha or anilophos @

0.4kg/ha within 2-3 days of rice seeding.

Nursery Blast Spray carbendazim 50% WP @ 250-500 g/ha or isoprothiolan

40% EC @ 750 ml/ha or tricyclozole 75% WP @ 300-400 g/ha

BLB Spray of streptomycin sulphate 9% + tetracycline hydrochloride

1% SP @ 100-150 ppm.

Before Soil Sowing of green manure ‘Dhaincha’ / Mung.

transplanti borne Burrying of green manure after 45-50 DAS/Mung residues after

ng diseases picking of mature pods & puddling of field.

Control of grassy weeds and wild rice (alternate hosts)

Gall Avoiding staggered planting (complete planting within 3

midge weeks)

During - Basal fertilizer dose N : P : K and ZnSO4 (As per state

Transplanti recommendation, based on soil testing)

ng YSB Clipping of leaves

- Planting 2-3 seedlings/ hill; spacing row to row 20 & hill to hill

Weeds 10 cm.

Butachlor 50% EC @ 2.5-4 l/ha or pretilachlor 50% EC @ 1.0-1.5

l/ha or oxadiargyl 80% WP @ 0.125 kg/ha or metsufluran

methyl 20% WG @ 20 gm/l or anilophos 2% G @ 20-25 Kg/ha

or ethoxysulfuron 15% WDG @ 83.3-100 g/ha or

cinmethalin10% EC @ 0.75-1.0 l/ha as pre-emergence within 4-

6 days after transplanting.

After YSB,LF Release of egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum @ 1.5

transplanti lakh/ha (affixed as Tricho cards) only when egg masses or

ng moths are observed or apply chlorantraniliprole 0.4% GR @10

kg/ha or flubendamide 39.35% EC@50 ml/ha or flubendamide

20% SG@ 125 g/ha; Cartap

Sh. Bl hydrochloride 4%G @18.7 kg/ha may also be applied

Apply validamycin 3% L @ 2000 g/ha or hexaconazole 5% EC @

1000 ml/ha or propiconazole 25% EC @750 ml/ha or

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BLB propiconazole 10.7% + tricyclazole 34.2% SE @ 500 ml/ha or
difenconazole 25% EC @0.05% .
Blast Draining-off' water.
Spray streptocycline 100 to 150 ppm solution at early root
WBPH/B stage (subjected to symptoms appearance.
PH Remaining fertilizer in two split doses 30 days and 50 days after
transplanting.
Case Spray carbendazim 50% WP @ 250-500 g/ha or isoprothiolan
worm 40% EC @ 750 ml/ha or tricyclozole 75% WP or 70%WG @ 300-
400 g/ha
Gall Or azoxystrobin 18.2%+ difenconazole 11.4%SC@1ml/liter
midge Spray of imidaclopride 70% WG @ 30-35 g/ha or imidacloprid
30.5% m/m SC @ 60-75 ml/ha or ethofenoprox 10% EC @ 500-
Pre YSB 750 ml/ha or acephate 75% SP @ 666-1000 g/ha or buprofezin
flowering LF 25% SC @800 ml/ha or dinotefuran 20%SG @150 g/ha (if the
till crop Gundhi number reaches ETL i.e.10/ hill).
maturity bug Use of coir rope for dislodging larvae on to kerosinized water
(1 L of kerosene mixed on 25 kg soil and broadcast in 1ha)
FS, Sh.Bl Application of carbofuran 3% CG @ 25000-66600 g/ha or
fipronil 0.3% GR @16670-25000 g/ha at 20 days after
BLB transplanting.

WBPH/B Release of Trichogramma japonicum and T. chilonis against
PH stem borer and leaf folder, respectively depending on the pest
infestation.
In case of gundhi bug infestation dusting of malathion/ carbaryl
25kg/ha if the pest reaches the ETL (2-3 bugs /hill).
Spray of propiconazole 25% EC @750 ml/ha or propiconazole
10.7% + tricyclazole 34.2% SE @ 500 ml/ha
Spray streptocycline 100 to 150 ppm solution at early root
stage (subject to symptoms appearance).
Spray as above if number reaches ETL (as above).

5. Procedures and Methodology for on-farm IPM validation

IPM is multidisciplinary, multi-organizational and multi-locational, a participatory approach,
hence involving all the stakeholders including the field technicians and farmers is to be
ensured. The following guidelines should be followed for IPM validation:

5.1. Selection of areas and definition of the pest problems
It is necessary to survey the selected area to gather detailed information on crops, varieties,
crop production and protection practices followed by the farmers and the key pests. An
analysis of the cropping systems, pest problems and their characteristics is necessary.
Historical data can also be useful in the process of defining the key pest problems.

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5.2. Selection of farmers and collection of base-line information
Selection of farmers to participate in an IPM programme, which is new to them, is not easy
in the first year and it needs persuasion to convince the farmers that IPM will be good for
them. Identification and use of key farmers for spreading the IPM message is effective.
Baseline data about the village and the participating farmers are also collected.

5.3. Synthesis of IPM modules
Based on the available information on the pest management tactics for the key pests, IPM
modules are synthesized. Farmers’ practices are also kept in mind while synthesizing the
IPM modules, which are expected to be eco-friendly as well as farmer friendly.

5.4. Orientation of farmers about IPM
Community participation is necessary for success of the IPM. Orientation includes
interaction with the farmers about the crops, varieties, pest problems, production and
protection practices and the constraints in raising crop yields. Audio-visual aids, charts,
photographs, pamphlets, etc. are used to attract the attention of the farmers towards
improved crop varieties, modern production practices, key pests, natural enemies of the
pests and the IPM practices to be validated. The farmers are explained about why, what,
when and how of IPM in relation to the existing practices. The farmers are demonstrated
the new IPM techniques, particularly the use of pheromone traps and bio-control inputs.
Once IPM succeeds with few farmers in the first year, other farmers will join the programme
in the succeeding years.

5.5. Farmers Field School (FFS)
The farmers who are under the IPM programme, regular interactions with them through
holding the FFS at least once a week during the crop season is crucial. Day, time and venue
for the FFS are prefixed. The “Community Centre” has been found the most appropriate; as
its walls can be provided with adequate number of diagnostic charts, photographs, written
instructions about IPM and most farmers prefer it over some private venue. The key farmers
are encouraged to take the leadership of FFS under the supervision of the scientists/field
technicians. Usually crop fields are used as “class rooms” to monitor the crop, pests, natural
enemies and take appropriate decisions for action.

 Peer support and discussion vital to sustainable change: Group work and group
problem-solving and decision-making is essential to the FFS programme. "Peer
support and peer discussions are vital for sustainable behaviour change," said FAO's
Senior IPM Officer, Kevin Gallagher. "IPM is a new technology for many farmers and
on your own it's difficult to make such a change." Farmers are able to measure the
yield of the experimental field against their own yields, and to weigh up the cost of
pesticides they have applied against the cost of extra time spent in the fields
monitoring the situation. But IPM is not based on a static set of rules. It is a dynamic,
farmer-driven approach to solving today's problems - which may be different from
yesterday's and from tomorrow's - in the field.

 Farmers join forces to promote healthy farming practices in Community IPM:
According to FAO's Andrew Bartlett, "a new type of IPM training programme has
evolved over the years in Asia and we have given the name 'Community IPM' to the

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type of locally-driven programmes which are emerging". Community IPM is about
farmers organizing and implementing IPM activities, and becoming the instigators of
IPM rather than the recipients. It is about group action that uses the agro-ecological
concepts of IPM to analyze problems, design field studies and carry out experiments.
Above all, community IPM is about farmers joining forces to promote and protect
farming practices that they know are healthier and more efficient in the fields.

5.6. Provision of Critical IPM inputs
Availability of the critical inputs like seeds, bio-pesticides, pheromone traps, quality
chemical pesticides, application equipments and protective clothing for safe use of
pesticides is to be ensured. It has also been observed that small and marginal farmers are
attracted to adopt new practices, if critical inputs are made available to them.

5.7. Collection of data on pests/ natural enemies and crop yield
Key’ farmers and 1-2 observation boys’ should be deployed for the collection of data on
major pests and natural enemies. If provision exists, some incentive for collection of data
should be given. It should be ensured that the data is collected from all the participating
farmers’ fields on the weekly basis. Data sheets are to be provided to key farmers &
observation boys. Methodology and sampling procedures should be thoroughly explained
to the farmers/ observation boys. The yield data of all the participating IPM farmers should
also to be recorded. On the similar pattern, data from the fields of non- IPM farmers (those
who are following their own practices) is to be collected for making the comparison.

5.8. Economic analysis and impact
Expenditure details of all the inputs from land preparation to harvesting (including labour
cost) from IPM and non – IPM fields are to be collected. Net profit (or loss) and cost benefit
ratio should be worked out in IPM as well as from the non IPM Farmers’ fields. Thus, impact
of IPM and crop yield, biodiversity and profitability can be worked out.

Important References

Barrion, A.T. and Litsinger, J.A. (1994). Taxonomy of rice insect pests and their arthropod
parasites and predators, In E.A. Heinrichs, ed. Biology and management of rice insects. pp.
13–362. New Delhi, Wiley Eastern. 779 pp.

Brader, L. (1982). Recent trends of insect control in the tropics. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 31,111–
20.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). (2004). Rice is life: DAO.
http://www/fao.org/newsroom/en/focus/200436887/indea.html.

Gallagher, K.D., Kenmore, P.E. and Sogawa, K. (1994). Judicial uses of insecticides deter plant
hopper outbreaks and extend the life of resistant varieties in Southeast Asian rice. In
Planthoppers, Their Ecology and Management”. (R. F. Denno and T.J .Perfect Eds.) Chapman
and Hall, New York.

Gallagher, K.D. (1988). Effects of host plant resistance on the microevolution of the rice
brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) (Homoptera: Delphacidae). University of
California, Berkeley, California, USA. (Ph.D. dissertation).
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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Graf, B., Lamb, R., Heong, K.L. & Fabellar, L. (1992). A simulation model for the populations
dynamic of rice leaf folders (Lepidoptera) and their interactions with rice. J.Appl. Ecol., 29:
558–570.
Kenmore, P.E., Carino, F.O., Perez, C.A., Dyck, V.A. and Gutierrez, A.P.( 1984). Population
regulation of the rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stal) within rice fields in the
Philippines. J. Plant Prot.Tropics, 1, 19–37.
Kiritani, K. ( 1979). Pest management in rice. Ann. Rev Entomol, 24, 279-312.
Kiritani, K. (1988). What happened to the rice borers during the past 40 years in Japan? Jap.
Agric.Res. Qrtly. 21,264-268.
Kiritani K. (2000). Integrated biodiversity management in paddy fields: shift of paradigm
from IPM toward IBM. Integ. Pest Manage. Rev. 5,175-183.
Luckmann, W.H. and Metcalf, R.L. (1994). The pest- management concept. In: R.L. Metcalf
and W.H. Luckmann (eds.), Introduction to Insect Pest Management , 3rd edn, Wiley, New
York, pp, 1-34.
Morse, S. and Buhler, W. (1997). Integrated pest management:ideals and realities in
developing countries. Boulder, Colorado, USA, Lynne Rienner. 171 pp.
Murray, D.L(1994). “Cultivating Crisis: The Human Cost of Pesticides in Latin America”.
Austin: University Press.
Oerke,E.C., Denhe,H.W., Schonbeck, F. and Weber, A.(1994). “Crop Production and Crop
Protection.: Estimated Losses in Major Food Crops and Cash Crops”. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Ooi, P.A.C. (1988). Ecology and surveillance of Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) – implications for its
management inMalaysia. University of Malaya. 275 pp. (Ph.D. dissertation).
Rubia, E.G., Heong, K.L., Zalucki, M., Gonzales, B. & Norton, G.A. (1996). Mechanisms of
compensation of rice plants to yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) injury.
Crop Protection, 15: 335–340.
Settle, W.H., Ariawan, H., Astuti, E., Cahyana, W., Hakim, A.L., Hindayana, D., Lestari, A.S.,
Pajarningsih & Sartanto. (1996). Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of
generalist natural enemies and alternative prey. Ecology, 77(7): 1975–1988.

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Integrated Pest Management Strategy for Cotton Crop

Ajanta Birah and Anoop Kumar
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integated Pest Management, New Delhi - 110012

Cotton is an important cash crop playing a pivotal role in sustaining economy of India and
livelihood of the Indian farming community. Various pests like boll worms, leaf eating
caterpillars, borers, sucking pests, weeds and diseases are causing severe losses to different
crops. Generally, efforts are made to minimize losses with the application of insecticides. The
excessive and indiscriminate use of insecticides resulted in high pesticide residues in food,
development of resistance in insect pests, pest resurgence, and ill effects on human health,
killing of non-target organisms and food chain toxicity to natural enemies like parasitoids and
predators. However, considering the ill effects of insecticides, now days much emphasis is
given to manage the pest population through integrated pest management (IPM) so that the
use of insecticides could be eliminated or minimized to their minimum bare level. However,
in integrated pest management programme application of pesticides cannot be stopped
completely. Bt cotton has been commercially cultivated in India since 2002 and now more
than 95 % India’s area is under Bt cotton, with the hope of reduction in number of pesticides
sprays, increase in population of natural enemies, safety of environment and high economic
yield. But during the last few years due to introduction of Bt cotton and weather factors there
is a change in pest scenario. Recently whitefly has emerged as a serious problem in major
cotton growing districts of Punjab and Haryana. During 2015-2016 due to the heavy
infestation of whitefly in Bt cotton and its subsequent threat, the area under Bt cotton
drastically reduced in 2016-17 in North Zone -5.13 lakh ha, out of which in Punjab -2.38 Lakh
ha, Haryana -1.84 Lakh ha and Rajasthan -0.91 Lakh ha compared to normal area in last five
years. During 2017-18 Pink boll worm in central India has caused severe damage (>30 % crop
losses) to Bt cotton. Due to the fear of PBW farmers applied large number of pesticides spray
in cotton crop. Implementation of location specific IPM technology and its popularization is
the need of time.

Biotic Constraints

Insect pests and diseases are the major constrains in cotton production. Out of 1328 species
of insects recorded in cotton, a dozen arthropods causing economic loss to the crop, needs
attention to attain better yield. Farmers use heavy doses of chemical pesticides to control
pest incidence that adversely affect naturally occurring predators and parasitoids in the
ecosystems. Over-reliance on chemical pesticides has caused harm due to pesticide residue,
resurgence, secondary pest outbreak and development of resistance against these chemical
molecules.

Cotton Insect Pests

Indeterminate growth characteristics of the cotton crop offer food and shelter to a broader
class of Insecta both directly as well as indirectly. Nearly 130 species of insect pests occur on
Indian cotton with a dozen of these arthropods requiring their management for realizing
better cotton yields. Existing species associations among insect pests seem to avoid
competition among themselves as well as to match with the phenology of cotton growth.
Sucking pests viz., jassids (Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida), aphids (Aphis gossypii Glover),

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whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) and thrips, (Thrips tabaci Lindeman) are deleterious to
the process of cotton growth and development with their ability to build up to serious
proportions as a result of rapid and prolific breeding in cotton plant. The wide range of
alternate hosts, especially continuous production of vegetables besides wild hosts facilitates
their sustenance in the absence of cotton. While direct effects of sucking pests during early
season are visualized in terms of poor crop stand and yield reduction, their late season attack
(especially aphids and whiteflies) indirectly decreases cotton fibre quality due to deposits of
honey dew on lint. In addition to lint contamination, whiteflies transmit leaf curl virus disease.

The reproductive phase of cotton crop growth suffers damage inflicted by bollworm complex
consisting three genera of bollworms viz., Earias, Helicoverpa and Pectinophora. Associated
with cotton are two species of the former genera viz., E.insulana (Boisd) and E.vittella and
single species of the latter two genera viz., H. armigera (Hubner) and P. gossypiella
(Saunders). While alternate host plants of Earias and Pectinophora are chiefly Malvales,
Helicoverpa is polyphagous and has become the important bollworm of cotton because of the
increased severity of attack in almost all cotton growing areas of the country.

The important foliage feeders are lepidopterans especially semilooper Anomis flava
(Fabricius), and Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) and leaf roller Syllepta derogate (Fabricius),
although grasshoppers and ash weevils chew or notch off the leaves. These are sufficiently
numerous only at times and are insignificant to cause significant yield loss.

Mention has to be made of the stem weevil Pempherulus affinis (Fabricius) with its occurrence
only in Tamil Nadu of south zone deserving control attention during the eighties on account
of its ability to reduce crop stand. The incidence has declined considerably since 1988.
Stainers viz., red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabricius) and dusky cotton bug
Oxycarenus hyalipennis (Costa) are potential late season pests in the rainfed tracts, but have
never deserved any control measures from farmers as their damage is qualitative.

Important Pests and their damage symptoms

Jassids (Amrasca biguttula biguttula) Affected leaves curl downwards, turn yellowish, then
to brownish before drying and shedding, “hopper burn” stunts young plants

Aphid (Aphis gossypii):Leaf crumpling and downward curling of leaves, sticky cotton due to
deposits of honey dew on open bolls.

Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Leaves of seedlings become wrinkled and distorted with white shiny
patches, older crop presents rusty appearance from a distance.

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci): Upward curling of leaves, reduced plant vigour, lint
contamination with honey dew and associated fungi, transmission of leaf curl virus disease

Spotted & spiny bollworms (Earias vittella & E.insulana) :Boremark in main shoot, dried and
withered away shoot, twining of main stem due to auxillary monopodia, feeding holes in
flower buds and bolls blocked by excrement.

American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera): Small amount of webbing on small squares
injured by young larvae, squares have a round hole near the base, larval frass and flaring of

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bracts on larger squares, clean feeding of internal contents of bolls, excessive shedding of
buds and bolls.

Pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella): “Rosetted” bloom pink larvae inside developing
bolls with interloculi movement

Red cotton bug (Dysdercus cingulatus): Feed on developing and mature seeds, stain the lint
to typical yellow colour, reddish nymphs seen in aggregations around developing and open
bolls.

Dusky cotton bug (Oxycarenus hyalipennis): Associated with ripe seeds, all stages
characterized by a powerful smell, discolour the lint if crushed.

Semi-looper (Anomis flava): Causes significant loss of leaf area to young plants, larvae with
looping action are seen on plant parts.

Leaf roller (Syllepte derogata): Leaves are folded and larvae are seen in groups amidst fecal
materials, commonly seen on leaves at the bottom of crop canopy at low infestation levels,
severe infestation defoliates the whole plant.

Spodoptera leaf worm (Spodoptera litura): Young larvae in groups skeletinise leaves and
older larvae voraciously defoliate leaves

Grey weevil (Myllocerus subfasciatus): Marginal notching- off of leaves

I. Prevention

Various agronomic practices such as crop rotations, pest-resistant varieties, intercropping,
field sanitation, removal of alternate hosts, optimum use of fertilizer, irrigation and disease-
free seeds play important role in preventing the occurrence of pest populations before they
cause economic damage. Following agronomic practices have become important components
of IPM module.

1. Cultural:

 After harvesting, removal of cotton stubbles from the field followed by deep
ploughing helps in minimizing the incidence of boll worms, mealybug, soil
pathogen, nematode, etc. "Topping" should be done on 80 – 90-day old crop to
encourage the sympodial branching of main stem that reduce Helicoverpa
oviposition.

 Collection of egg masses, hand picking and destruction of larvae, flared up
squares, rosette flowers, shed floral bodies, etc during peak period of fruiting
phase. Adopt crop rotation with maize or pigeon pea. Timely sowing should be
adopted.

 Deep summer ploughing to expose the hidden egg, larva, pupa, nematode, spores
of disease and other soil inhabitant to sun light for desiccation or to predatory
birds.

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 Removal of alternate weed host like Parthenium hysterophorous (host for
mealybug), Abutilon indicum, Chrozophore rottlari, Solanum nigrum and Hibiscus
sp. (hosts for whitefly), etc from the field and nearby area and proper sanitation
help in reducing the pest population.

 Growing of intercrop like green gram, black gram, soybean, castor, maize,
sorghum, etc. as border crop to reduce the pest infestation.

 Growing two rows of maize or sorghum or cowpea along the border to enhance
the natural enemies populations such as Coccinellid, Chrysoperla, Spiders,
Anthocorid bug etc.

 Planting of trap crops like marigold or okra or pigeon pea along the border and
irrigation bunds to shift the boll worm oviposition from main cotton crop. Planting
of castor as border crop for attracting Spodoptera litura larvae. Earthing up on
45th day give promising result against stem weevil.

 Optimum use of fertilizer based on recommendation for the agro-ecological zone
have been found to aid minimize the insect pest attack and attain higher yield.

2. Resistant/ tolerant varieties:

Growing of pest resistant cultivar against major pest is the key to attaining high quality of lint.
The most valuable contribution of host plant resistance is avoidance or escape from damaging
levels of pest. Suitable variety may be selected based on its performance in the locality during
previous year some of the varieties tolerant to particular pest.

II. Monitoring:

Monitoring of the pest is the most important step for timely IPM interventions. Pheromone
traps, sticky traps and yellow pan are the common tools being widely used for monitoring the
initial pest build-up and checking the ETL status of major pests.

(A) Surveillance:

Recording of observations on insect pests and diseases may be initiated from 20 days after
germination. Observation should be taken in the forenoon (8.00 to 11.00 a. m) by selecting
five spots randomly in zig-zag way as shown in the figure (four in the corners, at least 5 feet
inside the border and one in the centre). At each spot select four random plants for
recording observations. Thus a total of 20 plants /field would be sampled.

(B) Pheromone trap

Pheromones are semio-chemicals which play important role in the behaviour of the insects.
These are species specific, environmentally safe and very well suited in IPM programme,
playing a vital role in monitoring of pest in agro-ecosystem. Pheromones are available only
for a few insects. In cotton pheromone are being use for monitoring of American bollworm,
spotted bollworms, pink bollworm and Spodoptera. Install pheromone traps at a distance of
50 m @ five traps per ha for each insect pest. Use specific lures for each insect pest species
and change it after every 25 days and remove the trapped male moth daily.

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(C) Light traps:

All the phototropic insects are attracted towards light therefore, installation of light traps in
cotton field for 2-3 hours in the evening (7-10 p. m) and daily observations give promising
information about insect pests.

Natural control: Naturally occurring native predators viz., Chilomenes sexmaculatus (Fab.)
and Chrysoperla carnea (Steph.) offer significant control of the early season sucking pests.
A predatory prey ratio of 1.5 in respect of jassids and 0.1 for aphids was found optimal for
natural control in presence of coccinellids and chrysopids. As the use of broad spectrum
insecticides like organophosphorus components for sucking pest control eliminates these
natural enemies, strategy of using sucking pest tolerant genotypes in conjuction with natural
enemy exploitation is advocated. Hymenopterous and tachinid parasitoids (Compoletis
chlorideae Uchida, Microchelonus spp, Palexorista laxa Curran, Carcelio illota (Curran) and
Goniophthalmus halli (Mesnil)] are common on H. armigera larvae with parasitisation
ranging from 9-12% while Rogas aligarhensis Qadri. parasitisation on E.vittella larvae varies
between 4 and 18%. Pink bollworm control by Apanteles angalati Mues. and Bracon greeni
Ashm. is 2 and 8% respectively. Natural mortality of A. flava and H. armigera due to
Nomuraea rileyi could be up to 8% during cooler months and years of epizootics. Spiders
and birds also execute a fair amount of natural control of cotton insect pests, however their
potential remains un estimated.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Utilization of mass produced bioagents in a large way are viewed to supplement IPM focused
to reduce over-dependence on insecticides and their consequent ill effects. Release of
Trichogramma chilonis @ 1,50,000 six times starting after six weeks of germination at weekly
intervals supplemented with two to three releases Bracon brevicornis @ 15000 starting after
second release of T.chilonis against spotted bollworm, continuing weekly releases of T.
chilonis against pink bollworm, and release of T.chilonis Bio C1 or C3 @ 1,50,000 six to eight
times after 60 days of germination or after visual observation of infestation supplemented
with HaNPV spray 250 larval equivalents (LE) (one LE=@ 2X 109 polyhedral inclusion bodies)
four to five times during the crop season are recommended in bio-intensive IPM modules.

USE OF BOTANICALS

Neem seed kernel extract @ 5%, neem formulations @ 21/ha and neem or karanj oil @ 1%,
having antifeedent / deterrent properties are recommended against sucking pests as well as
bollworms. All botanicals serve similar purposes of biocontrol agents towards conservation of
native as well as augmented bioagents, and reduction in insecticide use vis-à-vis their
selection pressure on pest population. Their high photo instability, suspected quality and
inconsistent pest control efficiency are serious problems requiring research cum
demonstration before an effective component of IPM.

ECONOMIC THRESHOLD LEVEL

Economic threshold levels in respect of insect pests indicate the “when” of taking up curative
measures especially chemical sprays towards management of pests. It is the level at which

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control measures are to be implemented to prevent the economic damage and hence the loss
in yield. Use of ETL requires the regular monitoring of pests at field level during the crop
season.

The ETLs for major pests are as under

S.No. Insect ETL
1. Leaf hoppers/ More than 2 leaf hopper per leaf and appearance of crinkling
Jassids and curling of few leaves in the lower portion of plant +
2. marginal yellowing of leaves
Whiteflies More than 10 whiteflies found in middle region of the plant
3. in >50% (two out of four) of plants. Flight of adults
4. Thrips producing a smoky appearance when plants are shaken
5. mildly
6. Aphids More than 10 thrips / leaf or silvery patches on underside
7. of leaves above mid canopy in a sample of 10 plants/ acre
8. Mealybug More than 10 % affected plants counted randomly showing
9. symptoms cupping/ crumpling of few leaves on the upper
Spodoptera portion of plant.
American & More than 40 plants per acre exceeds grade-2 (at least one
Spotted stem completely colonized by mealybugs)
bollworm More than 1 egg mass or skeletonized leaf / 10 plants or
Pink more than 5 solitary larvae/plant
bollworm More than 5 % damaged fruiting bodies or 1 larva per plant
Nematode or 3 damaged squares / plant taken from 20 plants selected
at random for counting.

More than 8 moths / trap per nights for 3 consecutive nights
or more than 10 % infested flowers or bolls with live larvae.
1-2 larvae per gm of soil

Stage wise IPM Practices for management of cotton pests

Crop Stage-wise IPM Practices
stage/pest
Pre-sowing  Deep ploughing in summer for removal of weeds as well as
towards destruction of insect stages
At sowing
 Clean up of the fields free of weeds and alternate host plants
including vegetable crops

 Adopt crop rotation with cereals (sorghum) or pulses (soybean)
or green manure crops (sun hemp or dhaincha) at least once in
two to three years

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Soil & seed  Select tolerant/resistant cultivars

borne diseases  Acid delinting treatment for seeds.

 Seed treatment with Thiram 75% WS @ 2.5-3.0 gm/kg seeds.

 Seed borne infection can be eliminated by soaking the seeds in

40 to 50 ppm solution of Streptomycin Sulphate 90% +

Tetracycline Hydrochloride 10% SP for a period of two hours

Sucking pests  Timely sowing of sucking pest tolerant genotypes- Immediate to

receipt of monsoon keeping the fields ready for sowing after the

receipt of first rains, and taking up dry sowing

 Growing refugia (for Bt cotton). Two border rows of non-Bt along

with Bt cultivars

 Seed treatment with insecticide Imidacloprid 48% FS or

Imidacloprid 70% WS @ 500 – 1000g per 100kg seeds

Weeds  Use pre-emergence/post emergence herbicides

*Vegetative growth stage (20-50 days)

Weeds  Inter culture and hand weeding

Sucking pests  Monitoring pest and natural enemy population on attractant/

trap & inter crops

 Inoculative release of Chrysoperla grubs @ 10,000/ha**.

 Spray of neem based insecticides as initial sprays (Azadirachtin

0.03% (300 ppm) Neem Oil Based WSP @ 2.5-0.5 l/ha)

 Spray recommended insecticides when pest crosses ETL

Whitefly  Fix yellow sticky traps for monitoring population

Spotted &  Crushing of larvae in the shoots mechanically
spiny

bollworm

Bollworms  Set up pheromone traps @ 5 traps/ha for monitoring

Stem weevil  Soil application of carbofuran 3%CG @ 33300 g/ha

Root rot & wilt  Remove & destroy root rot/wilt affected plants.

Early fruiting stage (50-80 days)

Weeds  Inter culturing & hand weeding

Sucking pests  Release Chrysoperla @ 10,000 /ha*

Whitefly  Use yellow sticky traps for monitoring population

 Spray recommended insecticides

Bollworms  Use pheromone traps and change lures

 Management of population in trap crops

 Set up bird perches

CLCuD Disease  Destroy affected plants

Parawilt  Foliar application of 10ppm cobalt chloride on infected plants

Peak flowering & fruiting stage (80-120 days)

Whitefly  Use yellow sticky trap for monitoring population

 Spray recommended insecticides

Bollworms  Use pheromone traps @ 5 traps/ha

 Physical collection & destruction of grown up larvae

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 Use of HaNPV 0.43% AS @ 2700 ml/ha

 Removal of terminals (topping) to be done at times of high

oviposition by Helicoverpa

 IRM strategies should be followed (Heading-F.1.4. IRM

Strategies)

Spodoptera  Use pheromone traps@ 5 traps/ha

 Sowing castor seeds at field borders serves as an indicator cum

trap crop

 Hand collection & destruction of egg masses & early instar

gregarious larvae

 Spray recommended insecticides

Black arm  Spray recommended chemicals (Streptomycin Sulphate 90% +

disease Tetracyline Hydrocloride 10% SP). Streptocycline 25-40 ppm to

be sprayed thrice - Before flowering, after flowering and twenty

days after second spray

Leaf reddening  Foliar application of urea (1-2 %) with 15-20 ppm chlormequat

chloride and 0.10 % citric acid, 2-3 times at weekly intervals.

Parawilt  Foliar application of 10 ppm cobalt chloride on infected plants

Boll opening stage (120-150 days)

Whitefly  Use yellow sticky trap for monitoring population

Bollworm  Need based application of recommended insecticides
complex  Don't extend the crop period

 Use pheromone traps for monitoring of Helicoverpa, Spodoptera

and pink bollworm

 Spray recommended insecticides keeping in focus of IRM

strategies

Black arm/leaf  Spray recommended chemicals (Streptomycin Sulphate 90% +
spot & boll rot Tetracycline Hydrocloride 10% SP) Streptocycline 25-40 ppm to

disease be sprayed thrice. Before flowering, after flowering and twenty

days after second spray.

After last picking of cotton

Bollworms and  Allow grazing by animals (cow, buffalo, sheep, goat etc.,)
mealybugs immediate to final picking

 Avoid staking of the cotton stalks near the fields. Pulled out stalks

should be burnt off in situ before ploughing the field.

 Shredding and incorporation of crop residues.

References

Vennila S, Ramasundram P, Raj S and Kairon MS (2000) Cotton IPM and Its Current Status,
CICR Technical Bulletin, p8.

S Mohan, D Monga, Rishi Kumar, V Nagrare, Nandini Gokte-Narkhedkar, S Vennila, R K
Tanwar, O P Sharma, Someshwar Bhagat, Meenu Agarwal, C Chattopadhyay, Rakesh Kumar,
Ajanta Birah, N Amaresan, Amar Singh, S N Sushil, Ram Asre, K S Kapoor, P Jeyakumar and K
Satyagopal (2014) Integrated Pest Management Package for Cotton. p. 84.

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Practical emphasis on mass production of microbial
bio-agents

Jitendra Singh and Nasim Ahmad

In order to address the issues of quality and timely available of bio-agents, such as fungi

(Trichoderma harzianum, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae etc) and bacteria

(Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus thuringiensis.). A novel methodology

has been developed for on-farm production of these biocontrol agents. Ensuring the

availability of live inoculum of bio-agents at household level while multiplying the bio-agents

remains the matter of concern. So, efforts were addressed by providing live spore/mycelium

in case fungus and for bacteria live cells were preserved in liquid medium in the ampules. The

process involved propagation of sufficient quantity of spores, its harvesting, preparation of

spore stock solution and ampuling for liquid preservation for long time storage and need

based use (Fig 1). Similarly, bacterial culture or multiplication in broth medium, when attain

the log phase of growth is preserved by adding preservative and ampuling is done under

aseptic conditions for

further use. The fungal

and bacterial mother

cultures remain live for

more than 15 months in

preservatives at ambient

temperature, which can

be used by end users while M. anisopliae
mass multiplying the bio- Figure. 1: T. harzianum B. bassiana

agent.

Preparation for culture of bio-agents using household materials

A) Preparation of substrate in polybags for fungi culture:

In laboratory conditions, fungi and bacteria are cultured in specific culture medium such as,
potato dextrose agar and broth (PDA and PDB) for fungi and nutrient agar and broth (NA and
NB) for bacteria are used as routine experimentation and mass multiplication. Generally,
farmers unable to get available these standard culture media. So following efforts were made
to ease the process using household materials for rapid application.

1) The grains such as, sorghum, maize, wheat, millet or mixture of grains can be used as
substrate for fungi multiplication. The selected grains are soaked in water for at least
12 hrs or overnight for sufficient absorption of water into the grains, then buoyant
debris of grains should be removed. If the grains are not adequately acquired turgidity,
soaking time may be increased up to 24 hrs. During winter season soaking of the grains
must be carry out in lukewarm water.

2) Remove the water in which grains were soaked and add sufficient amount of fresh
water and boil the grains in a pain for 20-30 minutes. Then cool down the grains at
room temperature.

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3) Wring out the water completely when grains Fig. 2: filling sorghum in polybags
are slightly warm (30-40oC), but should not be
dried. Thus sufficient moisture must be
remained.

4) Add 20 gram gypsum and 10 gram chalk
powder at the rate per kg grains, and mix
properly to maintain pH of the substrate near
to neutral (6.8-7.2).

5) Take around 100-150 gram of the mixed grains
in polythene (polycarbonate) bags and close
the bags by rubber bands at top (figure 1) of
the polythene.

6) Boiled and mashed potatoes can also be used
for mass multiplication of fungal bio-agents.

B) Autoclaving of the substrate

Almost all the materials, used for microbial culture in laboratories are autoclaved properly
under standard conditions using electrical autoclave
machine. But in household level such type of facilities
could not be available. So, the procedure has been
modified according to microbiological concepts and
as per available household materials. Nowadays,
pressure cooker is generally used in kitchen and in
most kitchens induction pressure cooker and
induction heaters are routinely used. Thus pressure
cooker can be used as autoclave machine for
sterilization of the household materials to be used
for microbial culture.

1) Around 3-4 inch capacity of pressure cooker Fig. 3: Polybags inside pressure cooker
should be filled by water and put two-three Fig. 4: wrong way to close the polybags
cups or bowls in bottom to hold the grain
filled polybags above water level (Fig. 2).

2) Put all the polybags and other required
materials inside the pressure cooker and
close the cooker. Then put on the pressure
cooker on flame or induction heater for
aseptic cooking of grains under high pressure
conditions.

3) It should be remember that the polybags
must not be closed by turning or inward
folding of the polythene as shown in figure 3.
Since, high pressure will be generated inside
polybags during cooking, then such types of
packing may be ruptured.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

4) Cooking should be carried out for at least 20-30 minutes or at least 10 whistles of
pressure release should be completed.

5) After cooling when pressure is released completely, open the pressure cooker and
take out the polybags. The spread the grains inside polythene by gentle moving. So
that clumping of the grains may not be occur.

Bacterial culture in glass bottles

Bacteria could not be

cultured directly on grain

substrates as used to culture

of fungi. Keeping in view, the

efforts were made to

develop an effective broth

culture medium using a

mixture of different grain

extracts to accomplish the

nutritional requirement for  Figure: 5: DiffFeirge.n6t:bsaucctkeirnigalogfroaiwr tihntoinsgyrraininge
bacterial growth and

development. The developed broth culture medium

has been used successfully used for mass

multiplication of Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas

fluorescens, Bacillus thuringiensis. Actinomycetes

sp. Rhizobium sp. Azotobacter sp, Azospirillum sp

and Clostridium sp. last four are bio-fertilizers.

Bacterial culture was carried out in disposed bottles
using 100 ml of the broth (Fig 5). Fig. 7: filling of inoculum in syringe

Inoculation of mother culture

Inoculation of the mother culture is a precarious Fig. 8: inoculation for fungus culture
step during which contamination of unwanted
microbial organisms may occur. Rubber band can’t
be opened to avoid penetration of external air. So,
a flame and syringe method has been developed
and evaluated for safe inoculation inside the
polybags and glass bottles, respectively for fungi
and bacterial inoculum through following stapes.

1) Avoid a direct flow of air such as, fan or open air during inoculation. Open the middle
portion of aluminium seal of the ampule of mother culture (Fig. 1). Then ignite a candle
and open a disposable syringe (5-6 ml) and needle pouch (available in medical stores)
and fit the needle in syringe.

2) Heat up the distal part of needle in middle portion of candle flame and suck air into
syringe (fig. 6).

3) Inject the sucked air into ampule and suck in lieu the liquid mother culture (inoculum)
from ampule (fig 7).

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

4) Inject the inoculum in pre-prepared substrate in polythene (in case fungi). An utmost
care must be accomplished during inoculation. Always remember that the injection of
inoculum should be done on upper portion of polybags as shown in figure 8. When
needle is ejected out from the polybags, immediately close the pore by finger made
during injection. Then move the rubber band below that pore to avoid any
contamination through the pore.

5) In case of bacterial mass multiplication
only broth (liquid) medium is applicable.
Preparation of the broth medium has
already been described above. As grain
filled polybags are used for fungi culture,
similarly disposed glass bottles of liquor
or any other can be used for bacterial
culture. The bottles should be filled by the
broth media up to 2/3 part of the bottle
and around 1/3 should be blank. The
bottles must be closed tritely by cotton
plug and finally cotton plug should be
closed by paper and rubber band during
autoclaving. The broth inside the bottles
is sterilized by autoclaving as described Fig. 9: inoculation for bacterial culture
earlier. The process involves IPR issues,
hence detailed description of the composition of bacterial broth medium is not
mentioned hereby.

6) Injection of bacterial inoculum in culture bottles can be done by penetration of needle
of syringe through cotton plug or more precisely through inner margin of the bottle’s
mouth.

Incubation of fungus and bacterial cultures

Both the fungal and bacterial inoculated substrates (medium) must be avoided from direct

exposure of sunlight and high temperature conditions. Thus incubation should be done in cool

and dark places at room temperature. Full growth of entomopathogenic fungi can be

achieved in 10-15 days. During growth period or formation of mycelium, polybags should not

be disturbed or not to be mixed again and again. Whereas, bacterial growth in broth medium

is faster than the fungal growth. Contrarily, bacterial broth culture needs to frequent mixing

and shaking of the bottles to breakdown the

clumping of bacterial cells. Clumped bacterial cells

get settle down in bottom of the bottles. Bacterial

cultures probably attain log phase in three-four

days only. But in some cases (Mesorhizobium

ciceri) adequate growth (log phase) needs around

7-10 days for incubation and broth medium

converted from transparent to turbid in

appearance (fig. 5). While in case of fungal bio-

agents grain based medium become green, dark Fig. 10: T. harzianum grown in polybags
green, white or creamy white in colour. Full grown

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS
Trichoderma sp. in sorghum grain becomes green or dark green in colour depending on
species, T. harzianum exhibit dark green colour on grain substrates (fig. 10).
Thus the process consists of preparation of substrates, its filling in polybags, cooker based
sterilization, flame and syringe method of inoculation and then incubation for multiplication
stapes. Once ready, the end product can be used as spray, diluted in water or with irrigation
water as per target and need. The products obtained by this procedure, have been found
much superior than market available materials at lower investment. The process of mass
multiplication using above described methodology has been evaluated in farmers set up at
various locations and found to be highly successful. The process involves IPR issues, hence
detailed description of preservative and ingredients of broth medium for bacterial culture are
not mentioned hereby. Similarly, a selective culture medium for T. harzianum and T. virede
has also been developed, which is highly useful for isolation of Trichoderma from different
soils.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Integrated Pest Management in Mustard crop through Farmers
Participatory mode

M.S. Yadav
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

India is world’s fourth largest edible oil economy after United States, China and Brazil.
Although, India is the Largest cultivator of oilseed crops (28.52 m ha), yet it is also a major
importer of edible oils (11.0 metric tons). India is third largest rapeseed- mustard producer in
the world after China and Canada with 12 per cent of world total production. Rapeseed-
mustard ranks second among the edible oilseeds in production and contributes to more than
30% of edible oil production in India. Major species of oilseed Brassicas in India are Brassica
juncea (90% area); B. napus (canola) and B. rapa. Mustard oil contains high amount of
essential fatty acids and is the richest source of essential fats-Omega-3 alpha-Linolenic acid
(ALA). The crops occupy an area of 6.01 million hectare, yield 8.04 million tons with average
productivity of 1339 kg/ha (AICRPRM,2018). Indian mustard is mainly cultivated in India,
which contribute about 90 per cent of the total rapeseed-mustard production. These crops
are predominately grown in Rabi (post rainy) season in India. The important factors causing
low and fluctuating production of these crops in India are low or non-adoption of package of
improved production and protection technology and susceptibility of mustard varieties to
pest and diseases. The loss in yield may depend upon the nature of the pest and severity of
attack. Considerable advancement in research has led to an increase in the productivity of the
rapeseed-mustard, particularly in China and India. The earlier studies, in general were based
on rapeseed which is widely grown in U.S., Germany and Canada but in India Indian mustard
is predominately grown in which integrated pest management (IPM) is urgently required.
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) has been working
on synthesis and validation of IPM in mustard over two decades. Extensive surveys of mustard
growing areas revealed excessive and injudicious use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers
that aggravated the pest menace, secondary pest outbreaks and caused environmental
degradation. The major insect-pests of mustard includes Aphid (Lipaphis erysimi), Painted bug
(Bagrada hilaris) and Leaf miner (Chromatomyia horticola) threatening right from sowing
until end of crop season. Among diseases white rust (Albugo candida), Sclerotinia rot
(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), Alternaria blight (Alternaria brassicae) and powdery mildew
(Erysiphe cruciferum) are the major diseases, which reduced the yield potential of rapeseed
mustard substantially (Chattopadhyay et al., 2015) Recently a holoparasitic weed Broomrape
(Orobanche aegyptica) has emerged as a serious pest in rapeseed mustard.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Brief description of key pest are as follows:

Mustard Aphid (Lipaphis erysimi): This is a major pest of
rapeseed-mustard. It causes loss to the crop from December
to March. This insect can cause loss from 25-40 per cent.
Both nymphs and adults suck cell sap from leaves, stems,
inflorescence and developing pods, as a result plants remain
stunted, reduced pod and grain number, pod shrivel up and
seed do not develop. Economic threshold level (ETL) of this
pest is when pest population reaches 20-25 aphids/plant
and when 30 per cent plants are infested.

Painted Bug (Bagrada hilaris): This pest attacks the crop at two
stages in the season i.e. at initial stage in October-November
and crop maturity stage in March-April. The nymphs and adults
suck cell sap from leaves and pods, which eventually wilt and dry
up. This insect also reduced the oil quantity by sucking pods,
pods shrivel up and seed do not develop.

Alternaria blight: In rapeseed-mustard crops, this disease is
mainly caused by Alternaria brassicae. However, other species
of Alternaria that is, A. brassicicola, A. raphani and A. alternata
have also been reported parasitizing these crops in India. This is
widely distributed, more destructive and most damaging
disease under epiphytotic conditions, causing yield loss up to 70
per cent. The shrivelled and discoloured seeds fetch lower
market price. The disease is characterized by formation of small
light brown round spots on lower leaves. Later on these spots
develop into big circular dark coloured with concentric rings
clearly visible in these spots. Pods may show sunken, dark brown
to black circular lesions. Deep lesions on the pods cause infection
in the seed. Alternaria brassicae survives on diseased plant
debris in the soil and many alternate cruciferous hosts like,
cauliflower, cabbage, turnip, radish, etc.

White rust: It is caused by fungus Albugo candida and attacks all
the plant parts except roots. The disease appears as prominent
white creamy scattered raised and roundish pustules on the
under surface of lower leaves. Many pustules coalesce and form
large patches which cover entire lower surface of the leaf. This
disease when appears on stag head phase distorts inflorescence,
where it causes hypertrophy and hyperplasia causing heavy loss
in yield. White and creamy pustules also appear on the
hypertrophied parts.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Sclerotinia rot: Sclerotinia rot caused by fungus Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum is the major pest in mustard. Its infection at early
stages of plant growth results in complete failure of the crop
whereas late infection lowers the yield quantity and quality as
well. Disease increases with monocroping of mustard. In
individual affected plants some time no grain is formed. The
disease appears as elongated, buff to light brown water soaked
lesions which later rot and are covered with white, cottony
mycelial growth of the fungus. All the affected parts of the plants
rot in cool and wet weather. The affected plants show stunting
and premature ripening, shredding of stem, wilting and drying. A
large number of black sclerotia appear in fungal growth around
the rotted stem.

Powdery mildew: It is caused by Erysiphe cruciferarum which is
a pathogen of warmer and drier tracts, where mustard is
grown. The disease is gradually becoming quite severe in
Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and
Gujarat with shortening of winter and climate change resulting
in considerable loss in yield. The disease usually arrives in later
part of crop. However, it is also observed during vegetative
stage, whereby the pathogen appeared, could cause significant
loss to the crop.

Broomrape (Orobanche aegyptica): This parasitic weed grows
on the roots of mustard plants in response to germination
stimulants secreted by its roots and looks like a beautiful plant.
As infestation of this weed starts after 7-10 days of sowing of
mustard. Therefore, control measures in early stages of crop
growth should be applied. The seed of the parasite survives in
soil or as seed contaminants along with mustard seed and serve
as source of inoculum. It survives many years in the soil.

IPM Strategy

An inter-disciplinary and inter-institutional team to address these problems through holistic
tactics has synthesized IPM strategies. Validations of IPM in farmers’ participatory mode on
farmers’ fields were done along with demonstrations. The validated interventions of IPM for
mustard across locations over seasons are furnished. IPM is a systems approach that
combines a wide array of crop production and protection measures to minimize the economic
losses caused by pest. Hence, use of low or judicious dose of pesticides, integrated with other
means like growing pest tolerant cultivars, sanitation, crop rotation, use of bio-agents and
plant extracts seems to be best method of pest management without environmental
pollution. ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi
conducted multilocational field trials of IPM technology of mustard in farmers’ participatory

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

mode in Haryana and Rajasthan. On the basis of which IPM interventions at different growth
stages of the mustard crop were developed which are as follows:

Pre-sowing stage

 Deep summer ploughing to kill fungal spores and residual population of pests
 Ensure proper drainage of water, Preparation of level and well drained field
 Crop rotation and balanced quantity of seed and fertilizers as per location specific

recommendation of the region
 Apply 15 kg of Zinc sulphate + sulphur per hectare as per location specific

recommendation
 Sesbenia green manuring along with soil incorporation of mustard waste @ 2.5 t/ha

in Kharif season
 Removal of pest debris and residue of previous crop to avoid painted bug infestation

and disease causing pathogens

Sowing Stage

 Sowing at proper time (01-31 October) which escape the incidence of aphids and
diseases

 Use of disease resistant hybrids and varieties recommended for the region.
 Soil incorporation of Trichoderma based product @ 2.5 kg/ha pre-incubated in 50 kg

of well rotten farm yard manure for management of soil borne pathogens
 Seed treatment with freshly prepared aqueous garlic bulb extract (2% w/v) or

Trichoderma based product @ 10 g/kg or metalaxyl-M 31.8% ES @ 6 ml/kg seed for
the management of seed-borne pathogens.
 Avoid narrow spacing/heavy seed rate for the management of Sclerotinia rot.

Seedling and Vegetative stage

 Maintain recommended spacing of plants or optimum plant population by thinning
 Irrigation of crop at seeding stage to protect against painted bug
 Maintenance of weed free crop by clean cultivation which act as collateral hosts for

pathogens
 Regular monitoring of crop and destroying of pest infested/ infected plants
 Spray application of micronutrients like boron and zinc are also very useful practice

in pest management
 Judicious use of irrigation depending on soil type and rain fall. Irrigation after

vegetative stage should preferably be avoided to reduce Sclerotinia rot.
 Hand picking of aphid-infested twigs in the initial attack.
 Conservation of natural enemies of Aphids namely Coccinella septempunctata,

Chrysoperla carnea, Syrphid fly, etc.
 Panicle initiation of Orobanche starts early so post-emergence application of

glyphosate at 25-50 g/ha at 30 and 50 days after sowing holds some promise with 60-
80% control of broomrape.
 Release Chrysoperla for control of aphid
 Rogueing/thinning of crop

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 Destroy the pest infected/infested plants
 Spray of freshly prepared aqueous garlic bulb extract @ 2% (w/v) or Trichoderma

based product @ 0.2% for management at early bloom stage

Flowering and Pod formation stage

 Regular monitoring of field for pest monitoring
 For environment friendly management of mustard aphid, spray of dimethoate 30 EC

@ 1 ml/l of water followed by release of 5000 adult/ha of Coccinella septempunctata
 If mustard crop is sown late and fertilized excessively with nitrogen, the crop tends to

get affected more severely by white rust but can be protected from major diseases by
spraying the crop at flowering-to-early pod formation stage with a mixture of
metalaxyl 4% and mancozeb 68%.
 In case powdery mildew becomes severe, spraying the crop with Karathane or
carbendazim @ 0.05-0.1%.
 Follow spray schedule in standing crop when pest attack is more than tolerance limit.

Harvest and Post-harvest stage

 Harvest at the right stage of maturity
 For drying seed, resort to sun drying. Moisture in the dried pods should be brought

down to less than 10% to avoid microbial activity.
 Grading with winnower is to be done to remove defective and discoloured pods.

Economic Analysis

Crop stage based implementation of IPM module was undertaken in 60 ha in famers’
participatory mode on farmers’ fields in state of Haryana and Rajasthan of India in
collaboration with adopted Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) during 2014-17. The key determinants
of cost and returns in crop were compared across the IPM technology and farmers’ practice,
which provided 10% advantage to IPM. Each additional rupee invested in the adoption of IPM
technology gave 5.1 in return, thus giving good economic logic for adoption of the technology.
Studies on prioritizing components of package of integrated pest management in Indian
mustard (Brassica juncea) in India for better economic benefit were conducted during 2014-
2017 (Yadav et al., 2019). The studies highlights the impact of input costs, which allows
growers to decide inputs based on the prevalence of biotic stress (es), the decision on
intervention based on the importance of the same with an idea about the resultant
quantifiable and monetary impact.

VALIDATION OF IPM IN MUSTARD IN FARMERS’ PARTICIPATORY MODE: A SUCCESS STORY

ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) has been working
for synthesis and validation of IPM in mustard for more than decade. The technology has been
successfully demonstrated at village level in Haryana and Rajasthan in farmers’ participatory
mode (Yadav et al. 2012). As IPM is location specific and dynamic, therefore, need regular
updating because of changes in pest scenario due to introduction of new hybrids and
monoculturing in large tract of irrigated and water logged soil, where close spacing and heavy

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

fertilization was practised. In 2010, after introduction of high yielding hybrids by ICAR-AICRP
on rapeseed-mustard, Sclerotinia rot disease (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) emerged as a serious
problem in mustard because few hybrids are highly susceptible to this disease. Desperate
mustard growing farmer of Siyali Khurd village (District Alwar of Rajasthan) approached
NCIPM because of severe incidence of Sclerotinia rot. Siyali Khurd Village (latitude N27o 54’
23.2’’ longitude E 76o 36’ 27.7’’) is about 150 km away from IARI Campus, Pusa, New Delhi in
flood prone eastern plain zone III b of Rajasthan. Baseline information of village indicated that
the farmers of the area, prior to IPM implementation were taking monoculture of mustard
without crop rotation & deep summer ploughing and no seed treatment with Trichoderma
was undertaken. In addition to this recommended dose of fertilizer along with gypsum @250
kg/ha and Potash @40 kg/ha, soil incorporation of Trichoderma @ 2.5kg/ha pre-incubated in
50 kg well rotten FYM and seed treatment with Trichoderma @ 10g/kg seed were followed.
By destroying the previous crop residue in IPM, crop was avoided from painted bug
infestation and loss due to disease causing soil-borne pathogens. In IPM practices appropriate
seed rate of 4 kg/ha was followed along with regional specific optimum sowing time which
escape the incidence of aphids, Alternaria blight, white rust and Sclerotinia rot. Farmers were
not aware of IPM concept and were not able to identify insect-pests, diseases and beneficial.
Based on baseline information collected at Siyali Khurd in 2011, the IPM module was fine
tuned and implemented in 40 ha in 2011-12 in Haryana and Rajasthan, which was
subsequently implemented in 40 ha during 2012-13 and 2013-14, as more and more farmers
become part of IPM programme. Implementation of IPM resulted in significant reduction in
the severity of Sclerotinia rot with higher yield as well as benefit cost ratio in IPM as compared
to farmers’ practices. Recently in 2017-19, need based regular updating of IPM mustard was
undertaken and crop stage based IPM interventions are being validated in 20 ha in farmers’
participatory mode on farmers‘ field in district of Alwar (Rajasthan) and Jhajjar (Haryana) in
collaboration of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Navgaon, Alwar of Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture
University, Jobner, Rajasthan and Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Jhajjar of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India.

References
AICRP-Rapeseed-Mustard (2018). Annual Progress Report. ICAR-Directorate of

Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Sewar, Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

Chattopadhyay, C, Kolte, SJ and Waliyar, F (2015). Diseases of edible oilseed crops. CRC Press,
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Yadav, MS, Ahmad, N, Singh, S, Yadava, DK, Godika, S and Gaur, RB (2012). Multilocational
validation of integrated management practices for Sclerotinia rot of Indian mustard
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Yadav, MS, Godika, S, Yadava, DK, Ahmad, N, Mehta, N, Bhatnagar, K, Agrawal, VK, Kumar, A,
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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Integrated Pest Management in Maize with Special Reference to
Fall Armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda

Suby SB, Lakshmi Soujanya P, Sekhar JC, Anoop Kumar* and M.K. Khokhar*
ICAR- Indian Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana, Punjab

*ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a potential crop for doubling farmer’s income and is one of the most
important cereals as food, fodder and industrial purposes. In India, maize is grown in 9.2 mha
with production of 28 mt. Diseases are one of the major constraints in realizing the potential
yield of this crop. As 141 insect pests cause varying degree of damage to maize crop right from
sowing until harvest (Reddy and Trivedi, 2008), Fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E.
Smith) is a new pest in the list that has potential to cause substantial damage to the crop. Fall
armyworm is native to Americas and is known as a pest in the United States since 1797.
Outside America’s, FAW was first noticed in Africa in 2016. In the absence of any control
measures, FAW is predicted to cause 21% - 53% loss of the annual maize production in Africa
(Day et al. 2017). The incidence of fall armyworm was first observed in Shivamogga district of
Karnataka in May, 2018 and by August 2019, it has spread to all maize growing states except
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.

Identification

The larvae of fall armyworm appear in shades of green, olive, tan and grey with four black
spots in each abdominal segment (Fig. 1) and has three creamy yellow lines running down its
back (Fig. 1 a, b & c). It is easily identified from any other armyworm species by its tail end,
where the black spots are bigger and arranged in square pattern on abdominal segment 8
(Fig. 1e) and trapezoid on segment 9 (Fig. 1 f). The head has a predominant white, inverted Y
- shaped suture between eyes (Fig. 1d). Male moth has two characteristic markings, viz., a
fawn colored spot towards the centre and a white patch at the apical margin of forewing
(Figure 2A). Forewing of female is dull with faint markings (Figure 2B).

cba
e

fd

Fig. 1. Fall armyworm larva with Fig. 2. Fall armyworm Male moth (A) has
fawn coloured spot (a) and white a patch
Characteristic identification marks, viz., (b) at the apical margin of the wing.
Female (B) is dull with faint marking
three prominent lines on back (a, b & c);

white Y- shaped suture on head (d); and

90abbi|gdgoPemraingsapleostesgmaernratn8g(eed) in square on
and trapezoid on

abdominal segment 9 (f).

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Fall armyworm’s life cycle

A female moth lays over 1000 eggs in single or multiple clusters, covered with hairs (Figure
3A a). Incubation period varies from 4.30±0.57 to 5.67±0.58 days. New born larvae in groups
disperse from the hatching site and reach to feed on epidermal layers of lower surface of
young leaves. Larvae undergo 6 stages called instars (Figure 3B 1st to 6th) in its growth of
14.33±0.58 to 17.60±0.57 days and then undergo pupation. Pupa is reddish brown in colour
(Figure 3A c) and takes 7.33±0.58 to 8.30±2.30 days to emerge into adult moth (Figure 3A d).
Adult moth can survive 3.67±0.58 to 6.30±1.52 days. The total life-cycle takes 30.67±1.15 to
34.60±2.88 days (Figure 3A) as observed from August to January under natural rearing
conditions in ICAR-IIMR Winter Nursery Centre, Hyderabad. Only the larval stage of FAW
damages maize.

14-18 days

b

4-6 days a Life cycle of fall c 7-8 days
armyworm
32-46 days

♀ d♂ sn r t t t
e Illustration -ICAR-IIMR©
4-6 days 12 3 4 5 6

Fig. 3: A Life-cycle of fall armyworm a. Fig. 3B. First (1st) to sixth (6th) larval instars of fall
Egg mass; b. Larva; c. Pupa; d. Adult armyworm
female (♀) and male (♂) moths.

Fall Armyworm incidence and damage

FAW attacks all crop stages of maize from seedling emergence to ear development. First and
second instar larvae of FAW feed on the opened leaves by scraping and skeletonising the
upper epidermis leaving a silvery transparent membrane resulting into papery spots (4 a). The
damage by third instar result in shot hole symptoms on the leaves (4 b). The size of the hole
increases as the larva grows and damage by late instars results in extensive defoliation of
leaves and presence of large amounts of faecal pellets in whorls (4 c, d & e). If infestation
continues during reproductive stage it may damage tassels (Fig. 5A) or may bore inside the
developing ear ((Fig. 5B) and eat away the grain (5C). The whorl damage by fall armyworm
result in significant yield losses while ear feeding results in both quality and yield reduction.

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Fig. 4 Progression of symptoms of FAW infestation a. 1st and 2nd instar, b. 3rd instar c. 4th instar d. 5th instar e. 6th instar

Fig. 5 Damaged Tassel (A) and developing ear (B) and sweet corn (C) by FAW larvae

IV. Infestation threshold for the crop growth stages and spray schedule

A few plants showing FAW damage need not warrant pesticide application; it would not be
economical. The threshold level of infestation for initiating control measures increase with
crop growth (Table 1).

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Table 1 Infestation threshold for the crop growth stages and spray schedule

Crop stage Action Spray sequence
threshold

Seedling to early First catch of 1 First spray: 5% Neem Seed Kernel emulsion (NSKE) or
moth/ trap and azadirachtin 1500ppm @ 5ml/l water
whorl stage (0-2 /or 5% infested Second spray after a week if needed: Bacillus
plants thuringiensis variety kurstaki commercial formulations
weeks after @ 2g/l water

emergence)  Spray any of the chemical pesticides listed if the
infestation crosses 10% at this stage

 Spinetoram 11.7 % SC @ 0.5 ml/l
 Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.4 ml/l
 Thiamethoxam 12.6 % + Lambda cyhalothrin

9.5% ZC @ 0.25 ml/l

Early whorl to mid- 5-10 % infested First spray: Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki
plants commercial formulations @ 2g/l water .
whorl stage (2-4 Spray any of the chemical pesticides listed for the second
spray and/ or if the infestation crosses 10%
weeks after
I. Spinetoram 11.7 % SC @ 0.5 ml/l
emergence) II. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.4 ml/l
III.Thiamethoxam 12.6 % + Lambda cyhalothrin
9.5% ZC @ 0.25 ml/l

Mid-whorl to late- 10-20 % First Spray: any of the chemical pesticides listed.
Alternate the pesticide for second spray.
whorl stage (4-7 infested plants
 Spinetoram 11.7 % SC @ 0.5 ml/l
weeks after  Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.4 ml/l
 Thiamethoxam 12.6 % + Lambda cyhalothrin
emergence)
9.5% ZC @ 0.25 ml/l
 Apply Thiodicarb 75% WP based poison bait if

bigger larvae are found feeding inside the whorl

Late-whorl stage (7 ≥ 20 % infested First Spray: any of the chemical pesticides listed.
weeks onwards of plants Alternate the pesticide for second spray.
emergence)
≥10% ear  Apply Thiodicarb 75% WP based poison bait if
Tasseling stage to bigger larvae are found feeding inside the whorl
harvest damage
No insecticide application, but manually pick and destroy
the larvae.

Determination of action threshold

It is done by a leisure walking in “W” pattern in the field after leaving 4-5 outer rows. Observe
10 plants at each stopping point representing the corners of “W” (Figure 8) and record the
number of damaged plants. Derive the percent infested plants at each stopping point. For

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

instance, if 1 out of 10

plants sampled is

infested by FAW, the

percent infestation is

10%. Derive average

percent infestation of

all stopping points. It

warrants a pesticide

spray if the average

percent infestation is

10% at seedling to mid

whorl stage, but 20% if

the mid-whorl stage is

crossed. Scouting

should be conducted

every week from seedling emergence.

integrated pest management for fall armyworm

Crop management practices along with systematic plant protection in an area wide manner
can manage FAW population below economically damaging levels. An integrated pest
management (IPM) approach is to be followed as described below.

 Selection of Single cross maize hybrids. Choose cultivars with tight husk cover,
especially for sweet corn.

 Deep ploughing after harvest of crop to open up the soil to expose FAW pupae to sun
light and predators. If zero-tillage is practiced, spread neem cake @ 500kg/ha.
Maintain fields weed free and follow balanced fertilizer application.

 Plan for maximizing plant diversity by intercropping of maize with suitable pulse crops
of particular region. Eg: Maize + pigeon pea/black gram /green gram. Plant Napier
grass in the border rows to act as FAW trap crop.

 Hill planting of maize is to be avoided; one plant should be maintained per hill by
thinning.

 Application of nitrogen and irrigation after control measures will boost up the crop
growth.

 Plan the sowing time at community level to follow synchronous planting.
 If staggered sowing is unavoidable as in peri-urban baby corn and sweet corn

cultivation, spray the crop with 5% NSKE or azadirachtin 1500 ppm @ 5ml/l at weekly
interval Or Release Trichogramma pretiosum @ 50,000 or Telenomus remus @ 10,000
adults hectare at weekly intervals, starting within a week of germination till harvest.
 Install FAW pheromone traps @ 4/acre on or before germination of the crop to
monitor pest arrival and population build-up. Use 15 traps/ ac for mass trapping of
male moths to keep population build-up under control.
 Erect bird perches @ 10/acre as soon as sowing is completed.

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 Follow weekly scouting and adopt symptom based control measures on action
thresholds (Table1).

 While scouting, hand pick and destroy egg masses and larvae by crushing or immersing
in kerosene water.

Notes:

 Use gloves and mask while preparing and application of poison bait and pesticide
spray.

 All the pesticide spray and poison bait should be applied only to the whorls.
 Enter the field only after a minimum period of 48 h followed by a pesticide spray.
 Avoid cattle grazing in pesticide sprayed and poison baited fields at least for a month.

Major maize diseases

Maize is attacked by as many as 112 diseases in the world posing major constraints in realizing
the potential yield of maize. In India, about 35 diseases reported from different locations are
predominantly of fungal and bacterial origin. The yield loss of 13.2 percent has been recorded
due to these diseases (Payak and Sharma, 1985). Their geographical distribution in the agro-
climatic zones is influenced by temperatures (high/low), humidity, cultural practices and; the
type and diversity of maize cultivars used. Under favorable environmental conditions, these
diseases play havoc and cause immense losses both in quantity and quality as well. Globally,
about 9% yield losses have been estimated in maize due to diseases (Oerke, 2005). This varied
significantly from 4% in northern Europe and 14% in West Africa and South Asia
(http://www.cabicompendium.org/cpc/economic.asp). Turcicum leaf blight, maydis leaf
blight, post-flowering stalk rots, ear and cob rot; and banded leaf and sheath blight are
prevalent throughout the country. Bacterial stalk rot, brown stripe downy mildew and brown
spot are reported from northern India whereas downy mildews are confined to peninsular
India (Karnataka & Tamil Nadu) and Udaipur region of Rajasthan. Polysora rust is emerging as
a potential threat in Karnataka and central Andhra Pradesh. Plant diseases represent
important preventable hazards to grain production which limits the productivity adversely.

Management of maize diseases

Numerous options have been recommended for the control and management of maize
diseases. Integrated disease management (IDM) is an interdisciplinary way of disease
management that uses various methods of disease control, energy conservation and
environmental protection (Table 1). The success and sustainability of IDM strategy, especially
with resource poor farmers greatly depends on their involvement in helping generate location
specific techniques and solutions suitable for their particular farming systems and integrating
control components that are ecologically sound and readily available to them. Training and
awareness of farmers, disease survey teams, agricultural development officers, extension
agents and policy makers continue to be an important factor for the successful
implementation of management strategies on sustainable basis.

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