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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Mastomys eurythrolucus Cereals potatoes, legumes, root crops, cotton, sugarcane
Rattus rattus (Roof rat) Cereal in store, cassava, cotton, potatoes, beans, groundnut
Arvicanthis abyssinicus Rape II Thin stemmed cereals especially wheat, barley, oat millet,
root crops, sown seeds, sugarcane
Arvicanthis nilotius Desmarest Thin stemmed cereals especially wheat, barley, oat millet,
root crops, sown seeds, sugarcane
Arvicanthis neumanni Thin stemmed cereals especially wheat, barley, oat millet,
root crops, sown seeds, sugarcane
Arvicanthis nairobae Thin stemmed cereals especially wheat, barley, oat millet,
root crops, sown seeds, sugarcane
Mus musculus Stored cereals, beans and other stored products
Mus minotoides Cereals
Mus mahomet Cereals
Funisciurus spp (tree Squirrels) Maize, fruits etc.
Heliosciurus spp (Sun squirrels) Maize, fruits etc
Cricitomys gambianus (Giant Cassava, coffee, cereals etc., debarking young tree and
African rat eating roots
Gerbilliscus spp (Gerbils) Root crops (cassava, sweet potatoes) attacks cereals seeds
and seedlings in the fields
Heliophobius spp (mole rat) Root crops (cassava, sweet potatoes), roots of other crops
including cereal crops, cabbage, tomatoes and banana
Tachyoryctes spp. (Orange rhizome
toothed mole rat Roots crops (cassava, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes), cereals
(damaged shoots), Vegetables (cabbage, tomatoes)
Lemniscomys striatus pineapple, forage and banana rhizome
Lemniscomys rosalia Cereals and grasses (Minor damage to a variety of crops)
Lemniscomys barbarus Cereals and grasses (Minor damage to a variety of crops)
Lemniscomys zebra Cereals and grasses (Minor damage to a variety of crops)
Otomys spp (Swamp rat) Cereals and grasses (Minor damage to a variety of crops)
Rhabdomys spp (Four -Stripped Young plantation trees and cereals
mouse) Cereals and young trees
Thrynomys spp (Cane rat)
Dasymys spp, (Short tailed Cereals
mouse Cereals, cassava
Hystrix spp (porqupine)
Cereals, cassava

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES:

There are several methods to manage the rodent population like trapping, biological control,
and habitat manipulations beside chemical control. An effective rodent control program must
employ methods that are relatively easy, inexpensive, and effective under most conditions.
To achieve better control success, it is inevitable to integrate all the available techniques
because a single method may not achieve the goal. The common rodent management
techniques are as below: -

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I) Cultural:
Rodents are highly evolved mammals and its association with the wisest mammal i.e. man,
has made them wiser. Due to their adaptive behaviour, no single control technique can prove
its worth if applied. Therefore, an IPM based on sound eco-biology and ethology of pest
species vis-à-vis population reduction technologies having economic viability and sociological
acceptance should be applied to manage the noxious pest.Basic needs like Food, water and
shelter are major governing factors for rodent in its environment. Manipulating any of these
factors may create stress among the native resultant reduce the carrying capacity of the
habitat holding the rodents. The reduced food and shelter will increase intra and inter specific
competition and aggressiveness among rodents which may result decrease in population
either through mortality of migration. Likewise by doing little modification in crop husbandry
practices like deep ploughing, removal of weeds, reduction of bund size etc. helps to reduce
the rodent population.

 Deep ploughing: At the time of land preparation, deep ploughing helps in destruction
of rodent burrows which exposes the newly born to the predators and adults migrate
to other areas.

 Weed management: Weeds not only act as a hiding placesbut also serve as a food
during lean period. It has also been reported that regular weed management practices
help to reduce the rodent infestation significantly.

 Reduction of bund size: During crop husbandry practices like irrigation, weeding etc.
at early crop stages, rodents inhibit high bunds present around the crop fields, which
remain undisturbed. Such bund should be kept at minimum possible level to reduce
rodent infestation.

 Planting of non-preferred crops: Growing a band (6-10m Strip) of low preferred like
castor or cluster bean around the mail crop can also reduce the entry of rodents.

(II) Mechanical:
Mechanical removing of rodent population is done by using different types of traps. It is one
of the oldest practice of rodent management reported from earliest civilization. Mostly two
types i.e. live traps and kill traps are being used to capture rodents live or dead. Some
commonly used traps are Wonder trap, Sherman traps (for live trapping) and snap trap, urang
o arrow trap, pit fall traps (for dead trapping). The live traps can capture more animals than
kill traps and hence these can also be used on small scale, but to cover a longer area snap
traps are more convenient, because of easy handling and low cost.About 54 Sherman or 60
snap traps per hectare are to be placed.Trapping method is more advisable for small areas
with populations consisting of mostly adult rodents.

(III) Biological methods:
(i) Predators: Over exploitation of natural resources have disrupted the natural control of the
rodents in the country. The major predators of rodents are cats, mongoose, jackals, foxes,
owls, kites, monitor lizards and snakes. It is reported that rodents constitutes prey items for
the Cobra (75%) Russel Viper (75%), Krait (25%) and scaled viper (22%). However, the feeding
rate of captive snakes is one rodent every three days. Rats and mice are the principle food of
the barn owl which possesses a good predatory potential ranging from 1-6 (Avg.1.58)
rodents/night.Success rate of biological control of rodents through predators is not very

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encouraging because rodents do not constitute sole diet of most of the predators and exert
relativelylower predatory pressure as compared to faster turned over of rodents.

(ii) Microbes: The potential of micro parasite (viruses, bacteria and protozoan) and macro
parasites (helminths and arthropods) as bio-control agents against rodents has been ignored
because of health risk to domestic animals and human beings. Salmonellabacteria has been
found to be effective against rats in Europe but ineffective against R. rattus and B.
bengalensisyielding their mortalities to the extent of 16 and 18% respectively in India. The
potential of helminths parasites in regulating the population of Indian rodents is not known.
WHO Committee on zoonosis has also doubted the practical application of microbial
rodenticides due to possible public health hazards.

(IV) Chemical control:

Use of rodenticides is the most common, expedient and humane approach to tackle the
rodent problem in the Indian sub-continent. Since mixed population of several species is
encountered in the field, rodenticides have greater scope in large-scale control operations.
The rodenticides are classified into three main groups i.e. Acute, anticoagulants and
fumigants. Following rodenticides are being commonly used in India:

 Zinc phosphide is the most commonly used acute rodenticides. It is highly toxic to
variety of rodent species with LD 50 value of 25-35mg/kg. It is recommended at 2%
concentration in cereal baits. It yields around 60-70% control success. Zinc phosphide
has some limitations in its frequent use like high toxic to non-target species and
develop bait shyness/poison aversion after consuming sub lethal dose of poison that
may persist 1-3 months depending upon the species. Being high toxicity, it is
recommended only for field rodents.

 Anticoagulants are another category of rodenticides with chronic toxic effects on
target species which inhibit blood coagulation process and animal dies due to
lossblood after 4-10 after consuming lethal dose. Second generation anticoagulant,
Bromadiolone yield effective kill with single dose are recommended for management
of fields rodents as well as commensal. Contrary to the acute zinc phosphide,
Bromadiolone does not induce shyness or aversion.

(V) Application of rodenticides:

 Preparation of bait: Bait technology is very important aspect of the rodent
management. Therefore, emphasis has been givento this aspect so that maximum
rodent population could assess to the bait. Two types i.e. ready to use bait and freshly
prepared bait are available. Generally freshly prepared baits are being used for field
rodents. Proper mixing of toxicant should be maintained. Otherwise too heavy doses
may the pest and too light doses may stop eating before consuming the lethal dose
resulting into development of bait-shyness. A very effective, easy and economic
technique of bait preparation has been developed by CAZRI, Jodhpur which is as
follows:

FOR ZINC PHOSPHIDE:

a) Pre-bait material: (for one kg of bait)
I. Take 960g of locally grown food grain (Bajra, /wheat/rice/ jowar)

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II. Mix 20ml.vegetable oil with bare hand
b) Poison bait: (for one kg of bait)

I. Take 960g of locally grown food grain (Bajra, /wheat/rice/ jowar)
II. Mix 20ml.vegetable oil with bare hand
III. Sprinkle 20g of zinc phosphide and tir with wooden tick till uniform mixing is

achieved. (No house hold utensil be used for this purpose).
IV. Use any plant leaf as applicator for placement of bait inside the burrow.
FOR BROMADIOLONE (0.005%)

I. Take 960g of locally grown food grain (Bajra, /wheat/rice/ jowar)
II. Mix 20ml.vegetable oil with bare hand.
III. Sprinkle 20g of Bromadiolone concentrate powder (0.25%)
IV. Mix this ingredient in a container with wooden stick (No house hold utensil be used

for this purpose).
V. Use any plant leaf as applicator for placement of bait inside the burrow.

(b) Bait application:

(a) Burrow baiting: This method is advisable in field condition where clear rodent burrows
are visible. For effective baiting, all the existing burrow openings should invariably be plugged
in the evening and next morning reopened/active burrows are treated with pre/poison baits.
The treatment of only active burrows saves the poison bait material, labour cost and time and
is very effective. Pre- baiting @ 8-10g pre-bait material per burrow for 1-2 days is essential
before zinc phosphide to achieve the higher kill of the pest. This help the acclimatising the
rodents to feed the on new food at a specific place. After the pre baiting, poison bait (8-10g /
burrow) is rolled deep inside the active burrows to avoid any secondary hazards.To assess the
control success the burrows are plugged again after 3-4 days of treatment and reopened
burrows are examined on the next day. For baiting with Bromadiolone, pre-baiting is not
required and the bait (10-15g/burrow) is rolled deep into the burrows. The mortality of the
rodents starts from 4th day and continues for 11-12 days. At the end of treatment the
unconsumed poison bait and dead rodents should be collected and buried deep.

(b) Bait stations: Several types of indigenous bait containers have been used in India for
keeping the baits. The basic idea of selecting bait containers is that the bait should be easily
accessible to the target species and should reduce the hazard to other animals and man. This
will also protect the baits from rain and other weathering. Indigenously procured items like
mud channels, 'hollow 'bamboo pieces, broken pitchers, coconut shells etc. have been
effectively utilised for this purpose.

(C) Burrow fumigation: Aluminium phosphide, most common fumigant rodenticide is
available in tablet and pellet form. Because of being extremely toxic, it must be used by
trained Plant Protection Personnel and there should be restriction for its use in general public.
This fumigant is a very effective and popular poison. For fumigation, all the existing burrow
openings are pluggedwith wet mud and two pellets (0.6g each)is to be inserted in the active
burrows, which should also be plugged with mud to check the escape of lethal gas. All the
nearby burrow openings need to be plugged with wet mud to check the escape of lethal gas.
The dead rodents are to be collected next day and disposed off. The fumigant is

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recommended to be used after zinc phosphide baiting to control the residual rodent
population. The fumigant is more effective in humid zone and irrigated fields with heavy soil.
It is never recommended for residential premises/indoor use.

Timing of control operation

Symptomatic treatments i.e. controlling rodents after damage seen in the crops, are the
general tendency among the farmers for the control of rodents. Such control operation leads
to partial success because of availability of alternate food in the fields, the bait acceptability
is poor. Studies carried out on population and breeding cycles of rodents in different agro-
climatic zones indicate that control operation is to be taken up before sowing/ planting of the
crops in the fields. It is observed that lowest number of rodents occur in the month of May
and June. The population, therefore, comprises adults only, which can ingest cereals baits.
Their food habit studies revealed that acceptability of bait is maximum during summer
months when the paucity of the food in nature. Prophylactic measures that breaks the natural
cyclicity of the rodents and prevent population explosion during the cropping season, carried
out in lean period. Mostly in cereal crops, rodent damage was experienced in the maturity
stage; in such circumstances, control operation should be carried out at vegetative stage.

Calendar of Operation

Based on various studies on rodent pest management following calendar of operation are
advised for effective management.

Rain fed and dry land agriculture

Time of operation: Before sowing/ transplanting

Day 1: Plugging of burrows/ de-plugging of bandicoot burrows and estimation of bait
and poison etc, removal of weeds, garbage etc.
Day 2: Identification of live burrow/ pre-baiting
Day 4: Zinc phosphide baiting
Day 5: Collection and burying of dead rodents
Day 7: Plugging of burrows/ de-plugging of bandicoot burrow
Day 8: Bromadiolone baiting (loose bait/wax cake) or Aluminium phosphide (ALP
(if available) for heavy soil.
In case of Bromadiolone baiting after 7-10 days remaining burrows may be plugged/

de-plugged (Bandicoot burrows) to assess the control success.

Irrigated agriculture

Time of operation: Before sowing/transplanting

Day 1: Plugging of burrows/de-plugging of bandicoot burrows and estimation of bait
and poison etc., removal of weeds, garbage etc.
Day 2: Identification of live burrow/pre-baiting or ALP fumigation (if available).

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Day 4: Zinc phosphide baiting (if fumigation is not done)

Day 5: Collection and burying of dead rodents

Day 7: Plugging of burrows/de-plugging of bandicoot burrow

Day 8: Bromadiolone baiting (loose bait/wax cake)

After 10 days all burrows to be plugged/de-plugged (Bandicoot burrows) to assess the control
success.

Precautions in handling rodenticides:

 Rodenticides, if handled carefully and sensibly, should present no risk to other animals
or people including the operator himself. Following precautions should be followed to
avoid any risk.

 No eating, drinking or smoking should take place when live or dead rodents or poison
baits are handled.

 All cuts and abrasions on the hands and arms should be covered before starting the
work.

 Any rodent bites should be reported and sought medical advice.
 Poison baits should be prepared in well ventilated room and care should be taken not

to breathe in or absorb any poison.
 After poison bait preparation and field application, hands should be washed with soap

properly.
 All poisons (pure chemicals, baits etc.) should be clearly labelled 'POISON' and held in

a locked almirah and should be away from the reach of children.
 The poison bait should not be touched by bare hands. Any broad leaf or spoon or

gloves, if available, should be used.
 When poison baits are laid, the residents/owner of the area should be cautioned

about the treatment so that children, livestock and pets can be kept away for a day or
two.
 Poison bait should not be laid where the excess bait cannot be picked up in order to
prevent any later danger. A record should be kept of the number and location of
baiting points.
 While placing the baits in the burrow, the poison baits should be rolled deep in the
burrows to protect birds, livestock and other non-target species.
 Fumigation as a rule should not be tried in residential buildings. If aluminium
phosphide is being used for fumigation in the fields, the fumigant should be kept away
from fire or lit cigarette, as it is highly inflammable. Do not handle the tablets; use an
applicator or a long tube to insert them into the burrows.
 After the control operations, the left· over baits, should be picked up and dead rodents
be collected and buried deep in the soil.

References:

Bernard, J. 1969. The mammals of Tunisia and neighbouring regions, In French,
Bull.Fac.Agron. Tunis, 24-25,41.

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Bernard, J. 1977. Damage caused by the rodents Gerbillidae to agriculture in North Africa and
countries of Middle East. EPPO Bull., 7:283.
Delany,M.J. and Happold, D.C.O.1979. Ecology of Tropical Mammals. Tropical Ecology Series,
Longman, New York. 1-434.
Ellerman, J.R. (1961) .The Fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia.
Second edition, vol. 3 (Rodentia), parts 1 & 2, Government of India, Delhi, 884 pp.
Fiedler, L.A. 1988a. Rodent Problem in Africa. Chapt. 4 in Rodent Pest Management (Ed.
Ishwar Prakash). CRC Press Inc. Boca Raton, Florida. 480pp.
Fiedler, L.A. 1988b. Rodent pest problem and management in Eastern Africa. FAO Plant
Protection Bulletin, 36(3):125-136.
Funmilayo, O. 1980. Mammals and birds affecting food production and storage in Nigera. In
Proc. Vertebrate Pest Conference ( Eds:Clark, J.P. and Marsh, R.) 9:97.
Funmilayo, O. 1982a. Commensal rats: a threat to poultry production in Nigeria. In Proc.
Vertebrate Pest Conference(Ed:Marsh, R.), 9:107.
Funmilayo, O. 1982b. Assessment of damage in field rice in West Africa. In Management of
rice in west Africa (Eds: Akinosala, E.A., quayogode, B., and akintayo, I.). west Africa rice
development Association Regional Training Centre , Fendall, Liberia.505
Funmilayo, O. and Ankande, M. 1977. Vertebrate pest of rice in Southwestern Nigeria. PANS,
23:38.
Funmilayo, O. and Ankande, M. 1974. The black/ grey rat Rattus rattus rattus as pest in a
rabbitery in Ibdan, Western State Nigeria. Nigerian j. For., 4:24.
Gratz, N. 1997. The burden of rodent-borne diseases in Africa south of the Sahara. Belgian.
Journal of Zoology, 127, 71–84.
Maher Ali, A. and Hafez, H.A. 1978. Changing rodent fauna in Egypt, In Proc. Vertebrate Pest
Conf ( ed: Howard,W,E,) , 8:28.
Makundi, R.H., Mbise, T.J. and Kilonzo, B.S. 1991. Observations on the role of rodents in crop
losses in Tanzania and control strategies. Beiträge zur Tropischen Landwirtschaft und
Veterinärmedizin, 4: 465 - 474.
Taylor, K.D. 1968. An outbreak of rats in agricultural area of Kenya in 1962. East African
Afgricultural and Forestry Journal, 34(1):66-77.
Roonwal, M.L. (1987) Records of the Zoological Survey of India:Recent Advances in
Rodentology in India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Miscellaneous Publication No. 105,
pp. 126.

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Development of user & environment friendly new generation
pesticide formulations

Jitendra Kumara and Amrish Agarwalb
aDirector, bSpecialist, Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology

Sector 20, Udyo Vihar, Opposite – Ambience Mall
Guugram – 122 016, Haryana, India

The conventional pesticide formulations like DP, WP, EC, SL etc. being used for longer times
provide sufficient bio-efficacy but have shortcomings related to safety of user and
environment. Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology (IPFT), Gurugram and Division of
Agricultural Chemicals, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute are actively engaged in
development of user & environment friendly new generation pesticides formulations as safer
and better alternative to conventional formulations. Institutes have successfully developed
technologies of various new formulations and many technologies have been transferred to
pesticide industries for commercialization.

The conventional pesticide formulations Emulsifiable Concentrate (EC), Soluble Liquid
Concentrate (SL) and Wettable powder (WP), Dust (DP) are being produced and used for
longer time give sufficient bio-efficacy but have shortcomings in respect of safety to non
target organisms and environment. The most commonly used conventional emulsifiable
concentrate (EC) formulations contains very large amount of petroleum distillate organic
solvents and have the risk of flammability during storage and transportation and application
in the agricultural fields. The presence of organic solvents creates problems of absorption into
the skin of farmers causing higher dermal toxicity during application in the field for crop pest
management. The organic solvents also pose the risk of phytotoxicity to the crops. After
application in the agricultural fields, the organic solvents evaporate and thus create
environmental contamination. The DP and WP formulations contain very fine powder, which
pose the risk of inhalation and contamination of environment at the time of production,
packaging and application during crop pest management. To control the target pests, high
doses of conventional formulations are required, which cause environmental contamination,
health hazards to the farmers and pesticide residue problem in food products. Pesticide
Industries in India and globally have been producing large quantities of conventional
formulations which create hazards to human, non-target organisms and the environment.

To minimize the risks and disadvantages of conventional formulations, IPFT is engaged in
development of various user & environment friendly new generation pesticide formulations
and related activities for safety of user, farmers and environment1. These formulations not
only replace toxic, non-degradable ingredients of the conventional formulations but also
increase the bio-efficacy of the products through incorporating better technologies providing
reduction in dose rates and minimization of pesticide residues. IPFT is the only Institute of its
kind in the country for helping the Indian Agrochemical Industries in the field of pesticide
formulations development.

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IPFT has expertise and infrastructural facilities for doing advanced research & development
work on pesticide formulations. IPFT has developed more than 60 formulation technologies;
various technologies have been successfully transferred to different industries in India and
abroad for commercialization (Table.1).

1.Suspension concentrate (SC/ flowable): Suspension concentrates (SC) formulation is
stable dispersion of micronized active ingredient in water. Water based Suspension
Concentrate formulation provide easy application and minimize disadvantages of solvent
based formulations like flammability, dermal toxicity and phytotoxicity. These formulations
provide Good bio-efficiency due to the fine particle size and Good adhesion and penetration
into target surface. The SC formulations are suitable for high melting and hydrolytically stable
solid pesticides. The SC Formulations developed by IPFT are Isoputron 50SC, Carbendazim
50SC, Sulphur 52SC, Fipronil 5SC, Thiomethxam 14.1% + Lambdacyhalothrin 10.6% SC,
Metamitron 70SC.

2. Water Dispersible Granules (WG/ WDG/ Dry flowable): Water Dispersible Granules
formulation are granules to be used for spray application after dispersion in water. The
WDG formulation easily disperse in water at the time of application. The WDG formulation
minimizes the problem of inhalation, non-target contamination as faced in application of WP/
DP formulations. The WDG formulations have very good potential as safe alternative to WP
formulations. Globally the WDG formulations are becoming most popular formulations in
agriculture. These formulations do not contain any organic solvent and are safe to the
environment.

The extrusion process is industrially feasible and economic process for preparing Water
Dispersible Granules (WDG) formulation. The WDG formulation of liquid insecticide
Triazophos applying extrusion process has been developed. The Low compaction screen
extrusion process has been found suitable for preparing WDG formulation of liquid
pesticides2. The Deltametrin WDG samples prepared at lower screw rotations, dried at lower
temperature were having high dispersibility and suspensibility3. The WDG formulation
containing botanical active ingredient provided good bio-efficacy against different insects4.

The WDG formulations developed by IPFT are : Captan 83WG, Isoprouton 75WG, Metamitron
70WG, Mancozeb 75 WG, Chlorothalonil 75WG, Endosulfan 75WG, Carbendazim 86WG,
Divrinol 50WG, Thiram 80WG, Cypermethrin 40 WG, Thiomethaxam 25WG, Deltamethrin
25WG, Triazophos 20WG.

3. Microemulsion (ME) and Nanoemulsion( NE): Micro and nano emulsions are water based
formulations and are thermodynamically stable over a wide temperature range due to very
fine droplet size. These formulations provide easy dilution in water for spray applications. The
micro and nano emulsions give good bio-efficacy at lower doses due to fine droplet size. These
formulations contain no or minimum amount of organic solvents. The formulations are
environmental friendly alternative to existing solvent base formulations. The phase behaviour
of developed neem oil micro-emulsion has been studied and the formulation was found
thermodynamically stable5. The nano- emulsion formulation of eucalyptus oil with karanja
and jatropha aqueous filtrate shown good insecticidal activity6. The ME formulation of
hydrolytically unstable pesticides were found effective against Periplaneta Americana7 .
Herbicidal micro-emulsion formulation for cotton crop has been developed jointly with M/s

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Godrej Agrovet 8. Other successfully Developed formulation were Pyrithiobac Na +
Quizalofop-P- Ethyl ME, Chloryprifos 5, 10 & 15 ME and Permethrin NE.

4. Capsule Suspension (CS): Capsule Suspension is water based slow release formulation
containing active ingredient encapsulated inside microcapsules up to 10 microns size. The
pesticide from microcapsules gets slowly released after application. The CS formulations are
slow release formulations and theses formulations prolong availability of pesticide at target
site. The formulations are highly suitable for volatile, highly toxic, skin irritant pesticides to
reduce contamination of non target organisms and extend the activity at the target site. The
CS formulation reduces environmental contamination and leaching of pesticide and
degradation of active ingredient by environmental factors like sunlight. Developed CS
formulations: Lambda Cyhalothrion 10CS, Lambda Cyhalothrin 4.9CS (agricultural application)

5. Tablet Formulations : Tablet formulation consists of active ingredient with suitable inert
ingredients for various pest control applications. The tablet formulation is dust and organic
solvent free formulations. These formulations minimize contamination of non-target area
and pollution by evaporation of solvents. The Tablet formulation is low volume-high value
product and has good potential. The herbal tablets prepared at IPFT, in which all the inert
ingredients are from the household waste material. These types of tablets give good results
for cockroach control 9, 10. The controlled release floating tablets suitable for aquatic pest
control have been developed; these tablets have been found effective in mosquito larvae
control11. The other Tablet formulations developed were Deltamethrin 12.5% + Piperonyl
Butoxide 12.5% WT and Botanical Based Tablet for cockroach control.

6. Gel Bait formulation: Gel Bait Contains pesticide & Attractant in gel form suitable for
household pest control. The formulation provides easy and safe application compared to
conventional baits. It is ready to use formulation containing low amount of active ingredient.
For household applications, it is safer formulation compared to sprayable formulations.
Developed formulations by IPFT : Fipronil 0.05 Gel bait, Imidachloropid 2.15 Gel Bait.

7. EW formulation: Emulsion in water (EW) formulation is suitable for liquid or a liquid or oily
active ingredient. These formulations are dispersion of active ingredient in aqueous
continuous phase. The size of the dispersed droplets range generally from 0.5 to 4-5 µm. EW
formulations are obtained by high shear emulsification process. The increase in shearing
intensity reduced the droplet size and resulted in higher stability of Lambda Cyhalothrin EW
formulation. 12. The other EW formulations developed by IPFT was Chlorpyriphos 10 EW.

8. ZW formulations (Combination of CS & EW): ZW formulation is water based mixed
formulation two active ingredients. One active ingredient encapsulated inside microcapsules
and second active ingredient is in the form of emulsion. After application, the first pesticide
is slowly released from the microcapsules and provides prolonged bio-efficacy. The second
pesticide, which is available as emulsified droplets provide immediate bio-efficacy on target
pests. This formulation provides application of two pesticides in single spray. It facilitates
control of a wider range of pests with minimum doses. ZW formulation Lambda Cyhalothrin
25CS + Chlorpropos 10EW was developed.

9. Nano Encapsulated Formulation: Nano Encapsulated formulation contains active
ingredient inside a layer of crosslinked polymer with capsule size maintained in Nano meters
range. Nano encapsulated pesticide formulation has controlled release properties with

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improved stability 13. Release kinetics of nano-encapsulated formulation of chlorpyrifos was
studied14. The synthetic pyrethroid based formulation is suitable for pesticide impregnation
in long-lasting mosquito nets with prolonged and wash resistant effect of active ingredient15.
.

10. Suspo-emulsion (Suspo): Polymer latices have been used for the preparation of
suspension emulsions (or suspeo-emulsions). These formulations are popular for combining
several types of compound into a single formulation. The greatest challenge in the
preparation of suspo is the physical stabilization of the system. The stability can be imparted
through a careful choice of inert components and process control parameters. Much of the
technology employed to produce kinetically stable EWs can be effectively transferred to the
preparation of suspo. Alkylglucoside surfactants have been successfully employed in both
phases of a suspo.

11. Bio-botanical formulations: IPFT has developed various bio-botanical pesticide
formulations as a safe alternative to synthetic pesticides. The botanical base formulations
have been developed for termite control16. botanical synergist based formulation have
developed for insecticidal and larvicidal applications17, 18. The botanical based formulations
for household pests like cockroaches 19, 20; mosquito repellent coil formulations 21, mosquito
repellent cream 22, mosquito attractant trap 23 have been developed. The azadirachtin content
shown good shelf life stability in neem oil formulation 24. The encapsulated formulations of
neem and karanja oil were found effective against mosquito larvae 25.

MISCELLANEOUS FORMULATIONS

1.Fumigants: Fumigants are pesticides that form poisonous gases on application. Sometimes
the active ingredients are gases that become liquids when packaged under pressure. These
formulations become gases when released during application. Other active ingredients are
volatile liquids when enclosed in an ordinary container and so are not formulated under
pressure. They become gases during application. Others are solidsthat release gases when
applied under conditions of high humidity or under the pressure of water vapor. Fumigants
are used for structural pest control, in food and grain storage facilities and in regulatory
pestcontrol at ports of entry and at state and national borders. In agricultural pest control,
fumigants are used in soil, green house, granaries, and grain bins.

2. Smokes: A special form of smoke generator is mosquito coil made from extruded ribbons
of wood dust, starch, various other additives and usually green colouring material along with
pesticides (natural pyrethrum allethrin etc.). Effects of smoke from mosquito coil in sequence
are deterrency, expellency, interference with host location, bite inhibition, knockdown, and
eventually death.

3. Baits (B): A bait formulation is an active ingredient mixed with food or another attractive
substance. The bait attracts the pests, which are then killed by eating the poisoned food or
by other means. The amount of active ingredient in most bait formulations is quite low,
usually less than 5%. Baits are used inside buildings to control ants,cockroaches, files, and
other insects, and for rodent control. Outdoors, they are sometimes used to control slugs and
some insects, but their main use is for control of vertebrate pests such as birds, rodents, and

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other mammals. They are ready to use formulations and entire area need not to be covered,
since pest goes to bait.

4. Controlled release formulation: Controlled release is a technique or method whereby
active ingredients are made available to a specified target at a certain concentration and
duration to produce an intended effect. The initial application level of a conventional
formulation is quite often at the maximum tolerated level at the action, and greatly exceeds
the minimum pest inhibitory concentration. In a controlled release formulation, the levels of
the initial application are chosen in order to maintain the pesticidal concentration above the
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the pest, until the end of the desired period of
effectiveness. The rate of release of the active ingredient depends primarily on the rate of
diffusion out of the capsule matrix and is a function of the formulation ingredients, the degree
of capsule thickness and strength achieved during manufacture. The four main techniques
applied to controlled-release formulations are:

a. Polymer membrane-pesticide reservoir system: These are diffusion controlled and
include micro capsule and macro strips. A dyponate micro capsule was prepared by
using stauffer micro encapsulation process which is based on in situ interfacial
condensation and polymerization of poly isocyanate monomers.

b. Matrix system containing physically trapped pesticides: The matrix system can be
subdivided in to inert and erodible categories. The release of pesticide from an inert
matrix system is diffusion controlled while release of pesticide from an erodible matrix
system is controlled by the rate of degradation of matrix. The polymers generally
employed are cellulose acetate, ethyl cellulose, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene etc.

c. Polymer systems containing covalently bound pesticides: The rate of release of a
pesticide covalently bound to a polymer depends on the rate of cleavage of
susceptible bonds by alkali catalyzed hydrolysis, photolysis or cation exchange
connecting the pesticide to the macro molecular carriers.

d. Coated pesticide granules: Pesticides are granulated for controlled release with starch
or other polyhydric compounds. The process involves gelatinization and dispersion at
pH 3.7, thus avoiding pesticide degradation under the alkaline condition used in
conventional granulation method.

The advantages of controlled-release formulations include that they are used at much lower
concentration of active ingredients and reduce the damage to the environment and to non-
targeted plants and animals. They protect pesticides from environmental degradation caused
by the action of sunlight, bacteria, wind and water. Single application of them provides
protection during the whole crop span due to extended activity.

At Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), several matrices have been explored to
achieve slow/controlled release o fpesticides. Controlled release formulations of butachlor,
phorate imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, thiram, triazophos, acephate, metribuzin, carbofuran,
β-cyfluthrin were developed based on polymers, polymer-clay composites (Table 2). The
developed products increase pest control efficiency through utilization of reduced quantity
of toxicant, reduced toxicity to non-target organisms, reduced leaching and extended residual
activity. These products overcome the limitation of conventional formulations and can play a

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significant role in integrated pest management. The human health and environmental
concerns will dictate adoption of such products and technologies in the future pest control.
FORMULATION SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

The choice of formulation type is very important while applying pesticides in field. Following
factorsshould be considered while deciding pesticide application in the field:

a. Mode of application: Pesticide formulation should be chosen according to their
intended mode of application.They can be grouped as follows:

i. For spraying after mixing with water/oil: Emulsifiable concentrates (EC),
Wettable powders (WP or WDP), Ultra low volume concentrates (ULV)

ii. For dry application directly from the container: Dusts (D), Granules (G),
Encapsulated granules

iii. For application as a gas or vapor: Fumigants, Smoke generators or tablets that
vaporize, Aerosols and pressurized sprays

iv. Other formulations: Seed protectants (dry or liquid), Baits for rodents, slugs,
flies, cockroaches, etc.

b. Pest biology: The growth habits and survival strategies of a pest will often determine
what formulation provides optimum contact between the active ingredient and the
pest.

i. Sucking pest: Soil applied formulations (G, encapsulated granules, WDG, etc.),
Seed coating formulation (Water dispersible powder for slurry seed treatment
(WS) and Flowable concentrate for seed treatment (FS) )

ii. Chewing pest: Sprayable formulations (EC, SC, ULV, etc.)
iii. Storage pest: Fumigants, smoke generators or tablets
iv. Special: Bait for rodents and flies, chalk and gel formulations for cockroaches, etc.

c. Applicator safety: Different formulations present various degrees of hazard to the
applicator. Some products are easily inhaled, while others can penetrate skin or cause
injury when splashed in the eyes.

d. Environmental concerns: Special precautions need to be taken with formulations that
are prone to drift in air or move off target into water. Wildlife can also be affected to
varying degrees by different formulations. Birds may be attracted by granules, and fish
or aquatic invertebrates can prove especially sensitive to specific pesticide
formulations.

e. Available equipment: Some pesticide formulations require specialized handling
equipment. This includes application equipment, safety equipment, and spill control
equipment.

f. Surfaces to be protected: Applicators must be aware that certain formulations can
stain fabrics, discolor linoleum, dissolve plastic, or burn foliage.

Table 1: Formulation Technologies Developed and Transferred to Various Companies by IPFT

S. No. Name of formulation Technology recipient Company
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1. Isoproturon 50 SC Gharda Chemicals Ltd., Mumbai

2. Isoproturon 75 WG Gharda Chemicals Ltd. , Mumbai

3. Captan 83 WG Rallis India Ltd., ,Mumbai

4. Metamitron 70 WG UPL Ltd. ,Mumbai

5. Phosphamidon 42.5 SP UPL Ltd.,Mumbai

6. Chlorothalonil 75 WG UPL Ltd. ,Mumbai

7. 2,4 D Sodium 70 SG Atul Ltd.,Valsad

8. Endosulfan 35 SC Excel Crop Care Ltd. , Mumbai

9. Endosulfan 50 WG Excel Crop Care Ltd. , Mumbai

10. Neemazal 2 S.O (Neem Based Spreading E.I.D Perry Ltd., Chennai

Oil Formulation)

11. Neemazal 30 MEC (Neem Based Micro- E.I.D Perry Ltd., Chennai

Emulsion Concentrate Formulation)

12. Carbendazim 86 WG UPL Ltd. , Mumbai

13. Carbendazim 50 SC Atul Ltd. ,Valsad

14. Hexaconazole 10 SC Atul Ltd. ,Valsad

15. NC-310- 75 WG (Coded Active) UPL Ltd., Mumbai

16. Devrinol 50 WG UPL Ltd., Mumbai

17. Cypermethrin 40 WG (Fluid Bed UPL Ltd., Mumbai

Granulation Process)

18. Sulphur 52 SC AIMCO Ltd., Mumbai

19. Essential Oil EC Formulation NCL, Pune

20. Malathion 50 WP UPL Ltd., Mumbai

21. Storage Stable Cypermethrin 40 WG UPL Ltd., Mumbai

22. SML 16 Capsule Suspension (Coded Sulphur Mills Ltd., Mumbai

Active from the Sponsoring Company)

23. Fipronil 5 SC GSP Crop Science Ltd., Ahmedabad

24. Imidacloprid 2.15 Gel Bait Khaishgi International Agrochemical

Ltd., Khurja

25. Thiomethaxam 25 WG GSP Crop Science Ltd., Ahmedabad

26. Deltamethrin 25 WG Tagros Chemicals Ltd., Chennai

27. Lambda Cyhalothrin 10 CS Tagros Chemicals Ltd., Chennai

28. Lambda Cyhalothrin 4.9 CS Hindustan Insecticide Ltd., Delhi

29. Deltamethrin 12.5 %+ Piperonyl Butoxide Entosav, Turkey

12.5% WT

30. Lambda Cyhalothrin 25 CS Entosav,Turkey

31. Pyrithiobac Na+Quizalofop-P-Ethyl ME Godrej Agrovel Ltd.,Mumbai

32. Thiomethaxam 14.1%+ Nav Agro Ltd.,Chennai

Lambdacyhalothrin10.6% SC

33. Metamitron 70% W/V SC Punjab Chemicals Ltd., Mumbai

34. Triclopyr butoxy ethyl ester 90EC AIMCO Ltd., Mumbai

(Petroleum Solvent Free Formulation)

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Table 2. Bioefficacy Evaluation of Slow / Controlled Release Formulations Developed at ICAR-
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)

FORMULATION TEST ORGANISM REFERENCE
Phorate Panwar et al., (1999)26,
Maize (Field)- Atherigona soccata Kumar et al., (2003) 27
Carbofuran Rice (Field) - Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Choudhary et al., (2006) 28
Kumar et al., (2011) 29
Imidacloprid Tomato(Pot)- Melodogyne incognita
Potato (Field) Aphis gossypii and Ramprasad et al., (2004)30
Cartap leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Kumar et al., (2011) 31
hydochloride
Triazophos Rice (Field) – C. medinalis Ramprasad et al., (2009) 32
Butachlor Potato (Field) Aphis gossypii and
Azadirachtin-A leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula

Carbofuran Rice (Field) – C. medinalis
Nano
Imidacloprid, Brinjal (Pot)- M. incognita Kumar et al., (2007) 33
Thiamethoxam (Pot)- Echinocloa colona Kumar et al., (2003) 34
(Lab)- Culex fatigans Parmar et al., (2006, 2007)
β-Cyfluthrin
Tomato(Pot)- Meloidogyne incognita 35,36

Pankaj et al., (2012) 37

Soybean (field) stem fly, Melanagromyza Totan et al., (2012) 38
sojae Zehntmer and white fly, Bemisia Loha et al., (2012)39
tabaci Gennadius

(Lab) Callosobruchus maculatus

Thiram (Lab) Seed quality enhancement Prashant et al., (2013) 40

Carbendazim Rhizoctonia solani Koli et al., (2015)41

Imidacloprid seed quality enhancement of soybean Totan et al., (2016) 42

Mancozeb Alternaria solani Majumdar et al., (2016,
2017) 43, 44
Nano emulsions Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii
of neem and Mohamed et al., (2017) 45
citronella oils

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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I thank all colleagues of Formulation Division at IPFT and ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute with whom I have worked and authored a number of publications (26-45).

References

1. D.K. Hazra, Megha Pant, S.K. Raza and P. K. Patanjali (2013) Formulation technology: Key
parameters for food safety with respect to agrochemicals use in crop protection. The
Journal of Plant Protection Sciences, 5:1-19.

2. Amrish Agrawal, Dipak Kumar Hazra, PharvendraKumar, P.K. Patanjali, S. K. Raza (2014)
Water Dispersible granules of Triazophos. Indian Patent app. No. 1682/DEL/2014

3. AmrishAgrawal, D. K. Hazra, P. K. Patanjali, S. K Raza (2014) Effects of changes in
Extrusion Process Variables upon Quality Parameters of Water Dispersible Granules
formulation of Insecticide Deltamethrin. Int. J. Adv. Res.11 :572-580.

4. Smriti Kala, Nisha Sogan and P.K. Patanjali (2017) Multiple Activity based Bio-botanical
Water Dispersible Granules Formulation & their Efficacy for Pest Management in
Agriculture. International Journal of Advanced Research. 5(1), 2846-2851.

5. P.K.Patanjali & Manisha Singla (2013) Phase Behaviour of neem Oil based Microemulsions,
Industrial Crops and Products, 44: 421–426.

6. Megha Pant, Saurabh Dubey, S.N. Naik, P.K. Patanjali & Satyawati Sharma (2014)
Insecticidal activity of eucalyptus oil nano-emulsion with karanja and jatropha aqueous
filtrates. International Bio deterioration and Biodegradation 91:119-127.

7. Neeraj Kumar, Megha Pant , Saurabh Dubey, Ompal Singh, S N Naik, Satyawati Sharma
and P.K. Patanjali (2016) Bioefficacy and Stabilization of Hydrolytically Unstable Pesticide
in Water Based Microemulsion against Periplaneta Americana. International Journal of
Advanced Research in Information Technology & Engineering. 5:9-25

8. P. K. Patanjali, Saurabh Dubey, S. K. Raza (2015) Herbicidal microemulsion for cotton crops
and methods for the preparation of the same .Indian Patent Application
No.1033/MUM/2015.

9. P. K. Patanjali, S. Dubey, M. Pant, S. K. Raza , S. N. Naik (2012) Insecticidal compositions
for controlling Household pests. Indian Patent Application No. 2705/DEL/2012

10. Megha Pant ,Saurabh Dubey, Neeraj Kumar, S.N Naik & P. K. Patanjali (2017) Efficacy of
waste biomass based tablet formulation for cockroach control,Waste and Biomass
Valorization (under publication)

11. P. K. Patanjali, Smriti Kala, Amrish Agrawal & S.K. Raza (2012) A composition for preparing
controlled release floating tablets. Indian Patent Application No.880/DEL/2012

12. Amrish Agrawal, D.K. Hazra, Smriti Kala, P.K. Patanjali & S.K. Raza(2014) Effects of
processing shear intensity upon droplet size and emulsion stability of oil- in-water
emulsion formulation of insecticide Lambda Cyhalothrin. . Int. J. Adv. Res. , 11:572-580.

13. Saurabh Dubey, Vishal Jhelum & P.K.Patanjali ( 2011) Controlled Release Agrochemicals
Formulations: A Review, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 70:105-112.

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14. Sandeep Sharma, Nitish Panchal, Rakesh Kumar Sharma and P. K. Patanjali (2016) The
kinetic study of hydrolysis of chlorpyrifos using gallic acid coated silver nanoparticles..
Journal of Advanced Science, Engineering and Medicine 8: 1-6.

15. P.K Patanjali,Megha Pant ,Minakshi Sharma and S.K Raza (2016) Improved encapsulated
formulation of insect repellents for fabric treatment. Indian patent application Jointly filed
with DRDO. (App. no. awaited)

16. Satyawati Sharma, S. N. Naik, P. K. Patanjali, Monica Verma (2013) Eco-friendly
biopesticidal formulation for termite control, Indian Patent app. No. 2966-DEL-2013,

17. P.K. Patanjali, Bhavna Srivastava, Amrish Agrawal, (2009) Synergistic Insecticidal and
Larvicidal Botanical Compositions. Indian Patent Application No. 1627/DEL/2009

18. P. K. Patanjali, Pinki Bhandari, Kumari Richa, Anjali Prabha (2016) A synergistic botanical
adjuvant based pesticidal composition. Indian Patent app. No. IPA: 20161103586,
November 2016

19. P. K. Patanjali, S. Dubey, M. Pant, S. Sharma, S.K. Raza (2015) Biodiesel By-Product Based
Formulations For German Cockroach. Indian Patent Application No.: 1859/DEL/2015

20. Pant M, Kumar N, Singh O, Dubey S, Patanjali PK (2017) Biodiesel Waste based New
Generation Formulation of Permethrin for Cockroach Control. Journal of Scientific &
Industrial Research, 77: 184-186

21. P.K. Patanjali, Saurabh Dubey, Amrish Agrawal, S. K. Raza (2010) A novel synergistic
mosquito repellent composition for preparation of mosquito coils. Application No.
365/DEL/2010

22. Arpana Kumari, Nusrat Siddhiqa, Ranju Sharma, P.K. Patanjali (2016) Activity
enhancement of Neem (Azadirachta indica) based repellent cream using biodegradable
botanical synergist.. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research (ISSN-0975-2366).
(under publication)

23. P. K. Patanjali, Smriti Kala, & Jitendra Kumar (2017) Attractant gel traps for controlling
mosquito. Indian Patent Application No. 201711037491.

24. Ranju Sharma*, Kumari Richa, Anjali Prabha, Arpana Kumari and P. K.. Patanjali (2017)
Stabilization of azadirachtin in neem oil International Research Journal of Natural and
Applied Sciences 7:39-56.

25. Megha Pant, Saurabh Dubey, S.K.Raza & P.K.Patanjali (2012) Encapsulation of Neem &
Karanja Oil Mixture for Synergistic and Enhance larvicidal activity for mosquito control,
Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 71:.348-352

26. Panwar, V.P.S., Kumar, J. and Parmar, B.S. (1999). Field appraisal of starch xanthate
based controlled release formulation of phorate against the shoot fly species infesting
maize. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. 7(1): 80-86.

27. Kumar, J., Chalapathi Rao, N.B.V., Singh, V.S. and Parmar, B. S. (2003). Field appraisal of
controlled release formulation of phorate against the rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Guenee). Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. 11 (1) :129-133.

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28. Choudhary, G., Kumar, J., Walia, S., Parsad, R, and Parmar, B. S (2006). Development of
Controlled Release Formulations of Carbofuran and Evaluation of their efficacy against
Meloidogyne incognita. J. Agric. Food Chem., 54: 4727-4733.

29. Kumar, J., Khan, M.A., Shakil, N.A, Malik, K. and Walia, S. (2011). Field appraisal of
controlled release formulations of carbofuran and imidacloprid against the aphid, Aphis
gossypii and leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida on potato crop. J.
Environment Science Health – Part B 46: 678-682

30. Ramprasad , B., Singh, V.S. Kumar, J., and Chandra, S. (2007). Residue evaluation of
controlled release formulations of imidacloprid against rice leaf folder. Bull.
Environ.Contam. Toxic. 78: 235-238.

31. Kumar, J., Shakil, N. A. Prasad, D. Thomas, V.P. Walia, S., and Parmar, B. S (2007).
Development of Controlled Release Formulations of triazophos and Evaluation of their
efficacy against Meloidogyne incognita. Pesticide Research Journal 19 (2): 160-165

32. Ramprasad , B., Singh, V.S. Kumar, J., and Chandra, S. (2009). Comparative efficacy of
Cartap controlled release and commercial formulations against Leaf folder,
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) in rice. Indian Journal of Entomology, 71:10-14.

33. Kumar, J., Singh, G., Dhandapani, A. and Parmar, B.S. (2002). Release of butachlor from
polymeric controlled release formulations in water. Pesticide Research Journal 14 (1) :
139-143.

34. Parmar, B.S, Ramdas, G., Walia, S., Kumar, J. and Dhingra, S. (2006). Improved neem
larvicidal composition. Patent No. 282129.

35. Parmar, B.S, Ramdas, G., Walia, S., and Kumar, J. (2007). “Improvement in pesticidal
neem preparations with oxime esters”. Indian Patent Application 1809/DEL/2007.

36. Kumar, J. Nisar, K., Walia, S., Arun Kumar, M.B. and Parmar, B.S. (2006). Polymeric seed
coats based on bioactive botanicals. Indian Patent No. 244542

37. Pankaj, Shakil, N.A, Kumar J., Singh, M. and Singh, K. (2012). Bioefficacy evaluation of
controlled release formulations based on amphiphilic nano-polymer of carbofuran against
Meloidogyne incognita infecting tomato Journal of Environmental Science & Health, Part
B 47, 520–528.

38. Adak, T., Kumar J., Shakil, N. A., and Walia, S. (2012) Development of controlled release
formulations of imidacloprid employing novel nano-ranged amphiphilic polymers. Journal
of Environmental Science & Health, Part B 47: 217-225.

39. Loha, K.M., Shakil, N. A., Kumar J., Singh, M. K. and Srivastava C.(2012). Bio-efficay
evaluation of nanoformulations of β-Cyfluthrin against Callosobruchus maculatus
(Coleoptera: Bruchidae) Journal of Environmental Science & Health, Part B 47, 687–691.

40. Kaushik, P., Shakil, N. A., Kumar J. and Singh, M. K (2013). Development of controlled
release formulations of thiram employing amphiphilic polymers and their bioefficacy
evaluation in seed quality enhancement studies Journal of Environmental Science &
Health, Part B 48: 677-685.

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41. Koli, P., Singh, B.B, Shakil, N.A. Kumar, J. and Kamil, D. (2015). Development of controlled

release nanoformulations of carbendazim employing amphiphilic polymers and their bio
efficacy evaluation against Rhizoctonia solani. Journal of Environmental Science and
Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 51: 729-736.
42. Adak, T., Kumar J., Shakil, N. A., Pandey, S. and Walia, S. (2016) Role of nano-ranged
amphiphilic polymers in seed quality enhancement of soybean and imidacloprid retention
capacity on seed coats Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture , 96:4351-4356.
43. Majumder, S., Shakil, N.A. Kumar, J., Banerjee, T., Sinha, P. Singh, B.B, and Garg, P. (2016)
Eco-friendly PEG-based controlled release nano-formulations of Mancozeb: Synthesis and
bioefficacy evaluation against phytopathogenic fungi Alternaria solani and Sclerotium
rolfsii. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, DOI:
10.1080/03601234.2016.1170558
44. Majumder, S., Shakil, N.A., Sinha, P., Kumar, J and Kaushik, P. (2017) In-vivo Evaluation of
Nanoformulations of Mancozeb against Alternaria solani on Tomato, Pesticide Research
journal, 29(1):98-102.
45. Mohamed, E.O.A, Shakil, N.A., Rana, V.S., Sarkar, D.J., Majumder, S., Kaushik, P., Singh,
B.B, and Kumar, J. (2017) Antifungal activity of nano emulsions of neem and citronella oils
against phytopathogenic fungi, Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii, Industrial Crops
and Products108 : 379-387.

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Insect pest management in fruit crops with special reference to
African countries

HS Singh
ICAR: National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Delhi

FAO estimates that by 2020, 24 of the world's 30 fastest growing cities will be African (FAO,
2012). Within 18 years, the urban population of sub-Saharan Africa will double to almost 600
million. This population must be fed and have green spaces. The proportion of
undernourished people in Africa is 21%, and 23.8% in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, IFAD and WFP,
2014). Horticulture gives colour, horticulture gives us the flavours, it gives us all the health
benefits of a balanced diet." (http://www.ishs.org/news). Many horticultural products are
rich sources of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals. Dark green leafy vegetables and
yellow-fleshed fruit such as pumpkins and mangoes are recommended to correct vitamin A
deficiency, a major cause of blindness in African children. An FAO/World Health Organization
(WHO) report has established that eating at least 400 g of fresh fruit and vegetables a day
helps to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies and to prevent chronic diseases associated with
unhealthy urban diets and lifestyles (WHO, 2004).

Horticulture generates local employment, reduces food transport costs and pollution, creates
urban green belts, and recycles urban waste as a productive resource (FAO, 2012). The first
status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa (FAO, 2012). describes how
commercial production of fruit and vegetables provides livelihoods for thousands of urban
Africans and food for millions more. The major fruit crops grown in African countries are
presented in Table-1. Among the important fruits are bananas, pineapples, dates, figs, olives,
and citrus; the principal vegetables include tomatoes and onions.

The banana is well distributed throughout tropical Africa, but it is intensively cultivated as an
irrigated enterprise in Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, and Madagascar. Also widely
cultivated is the pineapple, which is produced as a cash crop in Côte d’Ivoire, the Congo basin,
Kenya, and South Africa. A typical tree of desert oases, the date palm is most frequently
cultivated in Egypt, Sudan, and the other countries of North Africa. The fig and olive are
limited to North Africa, with about two-thirds of the olive production being processed into
olive oil. The principal orange-growing regions are the southern coast of South Africa and the
Mediterranean coast of North Africa, as well as Ghana, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and Madagascar. The largest yields are produced in countries where basin
irrigation is practiced. South Africa is the largest producer of grapefruit, followed by Sudan.

Table-1: Major fruit crops of candidate countries

Country Major fruit crops
Ghana Banana, Mango, Pine apple, Avocado, Butternut Squash, Papaya, Orange,
Egypt Mango, Citrus, Grape, Banana, Date,
Nigeria Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Citrus, Guava, Pawpaw,
Comoros Coconut palms, mangoes, Bananas,
Eritrea Banana, Apple, Guava, Papaya,

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Kenya Avocado, Mango, Passion fruit, Straw berry, Pine apple, Citrus,
South Sudan Date palms, Citrus, Mangoes, Guava, pine apples, Banana, Apples, Grapes,
Strawberries, Sweet oranges,
Tanzania Citrus, Pineapple, Mangoes, Coconut, Grapes,
Zambia Apples, Mangoes, Pineapples, Guavas, Lemons, oranges

In many African countries, horticulture is the fastest growing agricultural sub-sector
contributing significantly to national incomes. Diverse vegetables, fruits and spices are grown
for domestic and export markets. Despite the growth, production has not kept pace with
increasing demand due largely to biotic constraints attributed to arthropod pests. Agricultural
research aimed at reducing insect pest damage can lead to increased horticultural production
and improved rural livelihoods.

National Agricultural Research and Extension Services (NARES) in several African countries
has developed, packaged and disseminated a number of economically and environmentally
viable insect pest management interventions for a range of important horticultural crops. The
introduction of affordable integrated pest management (IPM) technologies based on classical
biological control, baiting techniques, biopesticides, male annihilation technique and orchard
sanitation to control the invasive fruit fly Bactrocera invadens, has led to increased access to
export market among mango growers. Although biocontrol based IPM has so far been a
successful intervention in some of the cases, long-term sustainability is likely to be adversely
affected by emerging issues such as climate change, occurrence of more invasive species,
changing consumer demands related to quality and standards, sanitary and phytosanitary
requirements and trade issues (Sunday et al. 2011).

Scale insects, mites, termites, fruit flies, leaf miners and mealy bugs are major pests inflicting
considerable damage to fruit tree (Siddig, 1984).

Table-2 Insect pests of some of the fruit crops in African countries*

Mango Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae), the mango seed weevil, Sternochetus
mangiferae (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae); the mango scale,
Aulacaspis tubercularis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae); the citrus
thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii Faure (Thysanoptera: Thripidae); the mango gall
fly, Procontarinia matteiana Kieffer and Cecconi (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae); the
African bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
and the coconut bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi Brown (Hemiptera: Coreidae).
Marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker), Natal fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa Karsch,
Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). Oriental fruit fly,
Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), was detected in South Africa for the first time in
2010.

Citrus woolly whitefly ( Aleurothrixus sp.), cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchase ),
citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis sp.), diaspine black scale (Parlatoria sp) and
brown scale (Coccussp.), Red scale, Orange dog, Mediterranean fruit fly,
false codling moth, thrips, aphids and Bud mites.

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Banana Banana weevil, pseudostem weevil, banana scab moths, banana skipper,
banana thrips and banana aphids, spiraling whitefly, mealybugs, big-headed
ant, Chinese rose beetle and coconut scale.

Papaya fruit flies (Toxotrypana curvicauda ) , the two-spotted spider mite, the

papaya whitefly ( Trialeuroides varibilis), and nematodes .

Pineapple Mealy Bugs, Scale Insects, Thrips, Fruit Borer, Bud Moths, Midges, Fruit Flies,
White Grubs, Beetles, Weevils, Termites And Mites

Avocado Natal fruit fly, Pterandrus rosa (Karsch), soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum
L, heart-shaped scale, Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Ckll), palm scale,
Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret), Spanish red scale, Chrysomphalus

dictyospermi (Morgan), bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi Brown, thrips,

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché), redanded thrips, Selenothrips
rubrocinctus (Giard), Pseudococcus longispinus (TT), apple leaf roller, Tortrix
capensana (Walker), codling moth, Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyrick).

*Only major fruit crops are covered in this table

Mealy bug and scale insects

Phenacoccus ssp., Planococcus spp., Pseudococcus spp., Rastrococcus spp., Ferrisia virgata,
Dysmicoccus brevipes, Saccharicoccus sacchari etc are reported to affect fruit crops in African
countries. The citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) attacks a wide range of crops such as cocoa,
bananas, tobacco and coffee and wild trees such as Ceiba pentandra and Leucaena. The long-
tailed mealy bug (Pseudococcus longispinus) is widespread and common on many crops but
it is usually not a serious pest. Major hosts plants of the long-tailed mealybug are citrus, taro,
avocado, guava, eggplant and grapevine. The mango mealy bugs (Rastrococcus
iceryoides and R. invadens) have been reported on a number of economically important
plants, but there are reports of economic damage only on mango and citrus. The pineapple
mealy bug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) attacks pineapple, and other crops including avocado,
banana, celery, citrus, clover, cocoa, coconut, coffee, custard apple, figs, ginger, guava, maize,
mango, oil palm, orchids, groundnut, peppers, plantain, potato and sugarcane. The Kenya
mealybug (Planococcus kenyae) attacks coffee and a large number of wild and cultivated
plants including yam, pigeon pea, passion fruit, sugarcane and sweet potato. The pink
sugarcane mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari) is found primarily on sugarcane and its wild
relatives (Saccharum spp.). It has been recorded occasionally on sorghum, rice and other
grasses. The striped mealybug (Ferrisia virgata). It is widespread and common on many crops
but it is usually not a serious pest.

Management

Removing mealy bugs by rubbing or picking mealy bugs from affected plants. This is
practicable when infestation is low. Pruning and destroying affected parts. This is particularly
useful at the initial stage of infestation. Removing and destroying heavily infested plants.
Spraying a steady stream of water (reasonably high pressure) on the host plant to knock-off

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mealy bugs. Once on the ground, the fallen ones will be available to ground predators and
this will also make their return to the plant difficult. Make sure that there are no ants tending
mealy bugs, otherwise they will be brought back to the host plants.

Natural enemies: Around 40 species of predators and parasites have been reported to

attack the scale. The most effective has been the parasitic
wasp (Apoanagyrus (=Epidinocarsis) lopezi), which has kept this mealybug at low levels,
resulting on a significant reduction of yield losses in most areas in Africa. Another example is
the mango mealy bug Rastrococcus invadens, which was brought under control in West and
Central Africa by two parasitic wasps (Gyranusoidea tebygi and Anagyrus mangicola)
introduced from India. Another mango mealybug Rastrococcus iceryoides is a major pest of
mango in East Africa, mainly Tanzania and coastal Kenya. Although several natural
enemies are known to attack this mealy bug in its aboriginal home of southern Asia none have
been introduced so far into East Africa. The Kenya mealy bug, which was a major pest of
Arabica coffee in the East Rift Area of Kenya between 1923 and 1939, has been reduced to a
minor pest after the release of natural enemies from Uganda in 1938. Conservation of natural
enemies is important to reduce mealy bug outbreaks.

Limiting insecticidal sprays against other mealy bugs or/and other pests and diseases, and
avoiding use of broad-spectrum pesticides. Controlling ants to facilitate build-up of natural
enemies. Ant control may be either indirect, by excluding ants from the tree (for example, by
applying a barrier around the stems or trunks of the trees) or direct, by destroying the ant
nests. However, it should also be taken into consideration that some ants may be beneficial
as predators by deterring pests such as plant-feeding bugs.Keeping flowering plants at the
boarder of the crops or as companion plant within the crops may help to attract natural
enemies.

Bio-pesticides: Neem has a repellent effect on some mealy bugs. For example, a 1%

hexane extract of neem seeds repelled the mealy bug in a choice test.
Young mealy bugs are sensitive to neem kernel water extract (NKWE). Thus, crawlers
(first instar nymphs) of the mealy bug were repelled by leaves treated with a 10% neem kernel
water extract, and those that settled and started feeding died in the second instar. Treatment
of cassava plants with neem extracts (NKWE) at concentration of between one and 25%
provided good protection against the mealybug. However, some phytotoxicity manifested as
yellow spots on the leaves, was observed on plants treated with neem extracts. Phytotoxic
damage was slight in plants treated with lower concentrations (1% and 10%), but plants
treated with neem extracts at 25% showed severe phytotoxic symptoms on some of the
leaves.

Soap and oil spray: When necessary, spray with soapy solutions (1 to 2%) or insecticidal

soaps. Spraying with a soap and water solution is reported to control mealy bugs. Whenever
possible, spray only infested plants (spot spraying).

Oils such as vegetable oils (e. g. rape oil) neem oil and mineral oils are useful for control of
mealy bugs. Application of soap and oil: Good spray coverage and good timing is important
when using soapy solutions and oils. To be effective they must come in contact with the mealy

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bugs. Crawlers are the easiest to kill, since they are more susceptible and are more exposed
than eggs, older nymphs and adults. As they grow, the wax covering their bodies becomes
thicker, rendering them more resistant to insecticides. Use with caution soapy solutions and
oils. These products may be toxic to some plants causing discolouration or burning of foliage.
Prior to applying them extensively, apply to a small, inconspicuous branch or to a few plants
and after 48 hours check for adverse reactions. Apply them when the air temperature is cool.
Make sure your plants were watered well the day before you apply your control - never spray
wilted plants.

Others: Pruning of infested branches and burning may help in population reduction. Spraying
with malathion 0.08 % or profenophos 0.05 % mix with detergent powder (2 to 3 gram/10 lit
of water) or spreader or sticker (1 ml per litre) + power oil or orchard oil (1 ml per litre) for
killing the pest on foliage. Adults are firmly attached to the plant and remain so after their
death that may give a false impression of the pest status. The application of pesticides may
kill natural enemies of the scale and result in a resurgence of the pest .Flooding of orchards
with water in the month of October kills the eggs and ploughing the orchards in the month of
November exposes the eggs to sun’s heat. Raking the soil around the tree trunk and mixing
of 2 per cent Methyl Parathion dust@250g/tree. The dust may also be sprinkled below the
atkathene band on the tree.

Inflorescence midge: The midge damages the crop in three different stages. The first

attack is at the floral bud burst stage then fruit set and tender new leaves encircling the
inflorescence. The most damaging one is the first attack in which the entire inflorescence is
destroyed even before flowering and fruiting. The flies lay eggs on inflorescence. Upon
hatching, the minute maggots penetrate the tender parts and feed on them. The floral parts
finally dry up and are shed. The mature larvae drop down into the soil for pupation. There are
3-4 overlapping generations of the pest spread over the period from January-March.
Thereafter, as the weather conditions turn unfavourable, the mature larvae undergo diapause
in the soil instead of pupating. They break diapause in following January.

IPM STRATEGY

As the larvae pupate in the soil, ploughing of the orchards expose pupating as well as
diapausing larvae to sun’s heat which kills them.

 Soil application of carbaryl dust also kills pupating as well as diapausing larvae in the
soil. The insecticide in the soil should be applied after monitoring larval population
on white sheet below the tree.

 Spraying of 0.05 per cent Fenetrothion or 0.045 per cent Dimethoate or 0.04 per
cent Diazinon at the bud burst stage of the inflorescence has been found effective in
controlling the pest population

 No definite control measures against mango leaf-gall-makers have been evolved as
yet.

 If infestation is severe, especially in young orchards, spray dimethoate,

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Fruit flies
Fruit flies are a major threat to the horticulture industry in Africa owing to their damage
incidence and economic losses to fruit and vegetable crops, and their quarantine implications.
Numerous studies with different research interests have been conducted on fruit flies
throughout the African continent. Despite these studies, there is little knowledge among
stakeholders about fruit fly pests in terms of the economically important species, their pest
status, economic impact and control strategies. According to White and Elson-Harris (1992),
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a reservoir of 915 fruit fly species from 148 genera, with over 299
species developing in both wild and cultivated fruits. Most species of fruit fly which attack
commercially grown fruit and vegetable crops belong to two genera; Ceratitis and Dacus
(White and Goodger, 2009). A few species belong to other genera such as the coffee fruit flies
(Trirhithrum species) which are close relatives of Ceratitis, or the genus Bactrocera, which are
close relatives of Dacus (White and Elson-Harris, 1992). De Meyer et al. (2012) classified pest
species of fruit flies in Africa into indigenous and invasive species, which belong mainly to four
genera: Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, and Trirhithrum (Table 3).

According to White and Elson-Harris (1992), Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a reservoir of 915 fruit
fly species from 148 genera, with over 299 species developing in both wild and cultivated
fruits. Most species of fruit fly which attack commercially grown fruit and vegetable crops
belong to two genera; Ceratitis and Dacus (White and Goodger, 2009). A few species belong
to other genera such as the coffee fruit flies (Trirhithrum species) which are close relatives of
Ceratitis, or the genus Bactrocera, which are close relatives of Dacus (White and Elson-Harris,
1992). De Meyer et al. (2012) classified pest species of fruit flies in Africa into indigenous and
invasive species, which belong mainly to four genera: Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, and
Trirhithrum (Table 1).

Table-3: Important fruit fly species of African countries

Ceratitis cosyra Commonly called the mango/marula fruit fly. Major pest across Africa.
(walker) Causing 20-90 crop loss(av. 30%). Present in central, Eastern and West
Africa. Primary host plants include mango, marula, guava and custard apple,
but attacks variety of other plants. A major quarantine pest.

Ceratitis capitata Commonly called the Mediterranean fruit fly. Most widespread of all fruit fly
(Wiedemann) species in Africa. Attacks over 300 host plants. Very important quarantine
pest. Capable of withstanding low temperatures.

Ceratitis rosa Commonly called the natal fruit fly. Occurs in Eastern. Central and Southern
(Karsch) Africa Very competitive African species. Known distribution is mainly
southern and eastern Africa. Very important pest of mango and papaya
species. It should be considered as a potential invasive species in other parts
of Africa. A pest of quarantine significance.

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Ceratitis Formerly regarded as a variety of C rose. Occurs in Central. East and West

fasciventris (Bezzi) Africa Major pest of mango and guava but also attacks a variety of other

host plants capable of withstanding low temperatures.

Ceratitis anonae Distributed across East. Central and West Africa. Attacks over 50 fruit
(Graham) species but principal pest of mango in West Africa. Females are extremely
difficult to differentiate from those of C. rosa and C fasciventris.

Ceratitis rubivora Commonly called the blackberry fruit fly. A rare species occurring in Eastern
(Coquillet) and southern Africa. Principal pest of berries such as rasp berry and black
berry.
Dacus bivitattus
(Bigot) Commonly called the pumpkin fruit fly. Occurs in eastern and West Africa.
Mainly pest cucurbits.

Dacus ciliates Commonly called the lesser pumpkin fly. Reported from East West and
(Loew) southern Africa Primary pest of cucurbits recorded from nearly 20
commercial host plants.
Dacus frontals
(Becker) Occurs mainly in East and Southern Africa. Pest of cucurbits principally on
cucumber pumpkin and watermelon

Dacus vertebratuc Commonly called the jointed pumpkin fly. Occurs in East West and southern

(bezzi) Africa Pest of cucurbits with special preference for watermelon

Dacus louncburyil Occurs in East and Southern Africa. Recorded mainly on sweet melon

(Con) watermelons and pumpkins.

Adopted from Ekeshi and Billah (2008); De Meyer et al (2012)
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

Use of para-pheromones: Para-pheromones are lures that attract only male fruit flies. They
are highly species-specific and are known to have a high efficacy in attracting fruit flies from
long distances. The use of para-pheromones in fruit fly control is a technique commonly
referred to as the male annihilation technique (MAT). MAT aims at reducing male fruit fly
populations to low levels such that mating does not occur or are reduced to low levels. Para-
pheromones are available in both liquid form and polymeric plugs (in the form of a controlled-
release formulation). The major types of attractants include; Methyl eugenol (ME) (benzene,
1,2-dmethoxy-4-2-propenyl); Cuelure (CUE) (4-(p-hydroxyphenyl-2-butanone acetate);
Trimedlure (TML) (tert-butyl-4-5-chloro-2-methylcyclohexane-1-carboxylate); Terpinyl
acetate (TA) (alpha, alpha,4-trimethyl-3-cyclohexene-1-methanol); and Vertlure (VL) (methyl-
4-hydroxybenzoate). ME and CUE attract several species of Bactrocera, TML and TA attract
several species of Ceratitis, while VL attract some species of Dacus (Manrakhan, 2006). These
attractants are currently being used in fruit fly management in many countries in Africa (Ekesi
and Billah, 2006). The traps and trapping procedures for monitoring fruit flies are dependent
on the attractant and the nature of the area (IAEA, 2003).

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Use of food baits: Fruit fly suppression is mainly based on the use of food baits (hydrolyzed
proteins or their ammonium mimics) mixed with a killing agent. These are lures that attract
both male and female fruit flies. They are not species-specific and are known to have a low
efficiency compared to male lures. The use of food baits for fruit fly control is a technique
commonly referred to as the Bait Application Technique (BAT). They are available in both
liquid and dry synthetic forms. Available food baits include liquid proten hydrolysates,
yeast products, ammonium salts, and the three-component lure (consisting of
putrescine, ammonium acetate and tri-methylamine).

Others

 Soil raking around and below trees to a depth of 6 cm. Twice – two weeks after start
the fruit maturity and three weeks later. Ploughing may be done in winter.

 Collection and destruction of fallen fruits weekly starting from initiation of fruit
maturity

 One spray of Deltamehtrin 0.0014 percent + Azadirachtin(3000ppm) 2ml/l three
weeks prior to harvest.

 Avoid delay in harvesting
 If needed give post-harvest hot water treatment within 24 hr. after harvest. Hot water

treatment or vapour heat treatment (VHT) of fruits before storage and ripening for
killing the larvae can be done. After proper harvesting select uniform sized
undamaged fruits. Dip them in 5%solution of sodium chloride in cold water for one
hour. This will kill 95% eggs in fruit epicarp and also remove the externally present
pesticide residues.Post-harvest immersion of mango fruits in hot water at 48 + 10C for
45-60 minutes give 100% mortality of fruit fly eggs in the epicarp without affecting
fruit quality.

Bark-eating caterpillar: The old, shady and neglected orchards are more prone to

attack by this pest. Larvae of this moth feed on the bark. The caterpillar spins brown silken
web on the tree which consists of their excreta and wood particles. Larvae also make shelter
tunnels inside the stem in which they rest. Larvae actually feed from April to December. There
is only one generation in a year.
IPM STRATEGY

 The caterpillars can be killed by inserting an iron spike into the tunnels.
 This insect has also been successfully controlled by injecting ethylene glycol and

kerosene oil in the ratio of 1:3 into the tunnel by means of a syringe and then sealing
the opening of the tunnel with mud.
 Another method of control is dipping a small piece of cotton in any of the fumigants,
like carbon bisulphide, or even petrol, and introducing it into the tunnel and sealing
the opening with clay or mud.
 Chloroform or petrol or cheap kerosene oil may be injected into shelter tunnels to
kill the active boring caterpillars.
 Remove the webs from tree trunks and put emulsion of DDVP (0.05%) in each hole
and plug them with mud.
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 Mix chlorpyrphos 2 ml per litre of water and apply the bark eating caterpillar
infested area with a brush at 15 days interval.

 As a preventive measure, spraying of the attacked trunk and branches with
0.05%DDVP may be done.

Stem borer: Grub of this beetle feeds inside the stems boring upward resulting in drying

of branches. Eggs are laid either in the slits of tree trunk or in the cavities in main branches
and stems covered with a viscous fluid. Pupation takes place within the stem. Beetle emerges
in July-August. There is only one generation of the pest in a year.

IPM STRATEGY

 Exclude alternative host trees from mango orchards and remove the dead trees and
infested branches from the garden to prevent the spread of the pest.

 Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1: 2) on the basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet high after
scraping the loose bark in order to deter the females from laying eggs.

 Alternatively, carbaryl 0.1 per cent can be swabbed at bimonthly or put Carbofuron
3G at the rate of 5 g per hole and then plug it with copper oxychloride paste or plug
it with mud. Close the holes by the cotton plugs dipped in chloroform or kerosene or,

 Apply few drops of Carbon disulfide or fenvularate or dichlorovos or keep aluminium
phosphide tablets in the holes and plug the same.

 If infestation is severe then apply the copper oxychloride paste on the trunk of the
tree to prevent disease incidence

Stone weevil: Female lays eggs on the epicarp of partially developed fruits or under

the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat
and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Discolouration
of the pulp adjacent to the affected portion has been observed. This is major pest that
affects the export and processing industry. There is only one generation in a year.

IPM STRATEGY

 Spot application of fenthion (0.05%) or carbaryl (0.1%) during off season (December -
January) on tree trunks up to the height of two metres should be done.

 Sticky bands should be applied at upper end of tree trunk to prevent migration of
weevils to branches for egg laying on fruits during February.

 Collection of all the fallen infested fruits and their destruction.
 Keep the tree basins clean to prevent hiding of adult weevils.
 Spray deltamethrin (0.0025%) six weeks after fruit set and 15 days thereafter spray

fenthion (0.05%).

Banana

Rhizome or corm weevil: Adult is a stout, reddish brown weevil. Eggs are elongated

oval in shape, laid singly in small burrows.Weevils scrape out on the root stock or within leaf
sheaths just above the ground level. Grub is stout, fleshy, highly wrinkled, apodous and
creamy white with reddish head. It pupates within a chamber made near the outer surface of
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rhizome. Pupa is whitish in colour.Grub bores into rhizome and tunnels within it. Adult also
tunnels within stem feeding on its internal tissues. Central shoot is killed. Plants show pre-
mature withering, leaves become scarce, fruits become undersized and suckers are killed
outright.

IPM STRATEGY

 Use insect free planting material and get it from reliable source. For healthy sucker
and plant use tissue culture pant and do clean cultivation.

 Cover the exposed portion of the cut rhizome by a layer of earth to prevent entry
of weevils. Dried old leaves must be removed to allow the detection of early
symptoms of weevil infestation and to increase the efficacy of chemical
application.

 Do not take regular crop in the same field to avoid initial infestation.
 Removal of pseudo stems below ground level. Banana stumps kept in the field

after harvest must be removed and destroyed as they serve as weevil refuges and
breeding sites.
 Mass trapping of adult weevil can be done using pheromone trapping system in
which cosmolure and metalure @5/ha are be used.
 Cut banana plant at the ground level and cover the cut portion with soil.
 Dry the suckers under direct sun light before planting for 3 to 4 days and dip it in
cow dung and ash.
 Hot water treatment of banana rhizomes at 550 C for 5 to 10 minutes.
 At the time of planting in incorporate the carbofuran 3 G 10 gm or Phorate 10G 5
gm per pit and mix thoroughly or clean and trim suckers before planting. In case
of severe infestation spray 0.03% or dimethoate or 0.06% fenitrothion.

Pseudostem weevil : Infestation normally starts in 5-month-old plants which lay eggs

in the slits cut on the leaf sheath. Immediate after hatching the grubs feed on leaf sheath and
then bore inside the pseudostem. Early symptoms of the infestation are the presence of small
pinhead-sized holes on the stem, fibrous extrusions from bases of leaf petioles, adult weevils
and exudation of a gummy substance from the holes on the pseudostem. Rotting occurs due
to secondary infection of pathogens and a foul odour is emitted and in the true stem. The
pest breeds throughout the year but it is more active during summer and monsoon seasons

IPM STRATEGY

 Select healthy rhizomes for planting and monitor the field.
 Proper disposal off the banana plant after harvesting.
 Prepare trap for attracting adult by making 10 cm round pieces from the pseudo

stem of banana. Use two pieces and put small stones between two pieces so that
adult can easily enter in between them, 8 to 10 traps are recommended per hectare.
 Spray chlorpyriphos @ 0.05 per cent for killing attracted adults.

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 For chemical control, inject chlorpyriphos @ 0.05 per cent in the stem with the help
of syringe or spraying of chlorpyriphos @ 0.05 % or spark 0.036 % or Neemazal 1 %
at monthly interval starting from the age of 6 months.

 Remove dried leaves periodically and keep the field clean.
 Prune the side suckers every month.
 Do not dump infested materials into manure pit.
 Uproot infested trees, chop into pieces and burn.
 Application of Phorate or carbofuran @ 5 to 10 gram per plant in the pit prepared

for planting.

Fruit scaring beetle : Adult beetles feed on the surface of the fruits thereby causing

wounds. A clear fluid, which eventually turns black, is exuded from wounds. The wounds are
only superficial and do not extend to the edible portion of fruits. Conditions suitable for the
development of this pest are heavy shade, water logged conditions and poor field sanitation.

Burrowing nematode: Nematode cause extensive root necrosis resulting in serious

economic consequences viz. fertilizers are not effectively utilized; the period from planting to
harvesting is lengthened; maximum bunch weight are not attained; the quality of fruit is
impoverished and fields have to be replanted every 2 to 3 years because of drastic reduction
in plant numbers. The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes is the most important pest.
The disease of bananas caused by the burrowing nematode is known by different names, the
most common of which are rhizome rot, root rot, black head, toppling disease and decline.

IPM STRATEGY

 To avoid introducing inoculums of nematode into a new plantation, banana sets may
be disinfected.

 The removal of infected tissue along with some of the surroundings healthy tissue
would normally disinfect sets. Dip the sets in mud slurry ( made by mixing 40 litres of
clay in 50 litres of water) and sprinkle with 1.2 g a.i. carbofuran per set. The sets can
be dried in shade and used for planting. The pared sets can also be disinfected by
dipping them in a hot water bath at 550 C for 10 min.

Thrips: Flower Thrips: Thrips hawaiiensis Morgan and Banana rust thrips

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis Bagnall (Thripidae : Thysanoptera). Adults and nymphs are
found on lower surface of leaves. Eggs are laid in leaf tissues. They also damage peels of fruits
forming greyish powdery blotches and brown eruptions. Circular rusty-red patches appear on
affected fruits. Cracking of the skin or sometimes splitting of the fruit. Leaves develop yellow
patches and wither if infestation is severe.

IPM STRATEGY

 Destroy all volunteer plants and old neglected plantations and use healthy and pest
free suckers for planting.

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 Bunch covers –protects at early stage. Checking of fruit under the bunch covers is
essential to ensure that damage is not started.

 Bunches, pseudostem and the suckers should be sprayed with Chlorpyriphos and if
need be soil application fipronil or bifenthrin may be done.

 Field release of predators like lacewings, ladybird beetles may be done.
 For controlling thrips infesting flowers and small fruits, spraying of malathion 0.1 %

or quinalphos @ 0.05 %. After spraying of insecticide cover polyethylene bag on the
bunch and removal of unfertile flowers.

Citrus

The key pests of citrus include leaf miner, psylla, mealy bugs, scales, black fly, whiteflies,
aphids, fruit fly, fruit sucking moths, mites and thrips.

Leaf miner: Adult is a tiny silvery white moth with black eyes. The caterpillars are

legless and pale yellow in colour with brownish head. The larvae feed on the epidermis of
tender leaves making serpentine mines of silvery colour. Severely infested leaves become
distorted and crumpled and finally fall off. Attack of leaf miner encourages the incidence of
canker during rainy season. The extent of damage depends upon the new vegetative growth
and number of flushes in a year.

IPM STRATEGY

 For the effective management of citrus leaf miner, clipping of infested leaves and
their pruning should be done.

 Only major flushes should be retained. Intermittent growth should be
removed/destroyed.

 Besides above, with the commencement of new flush, spray neem seed extract (2%)
or fenvalerate (0.05%), alternatively, at 10-12 days interval.

Psylla: Adults are grey coloured .While at rest, they raise their body upward. The nymphs

are orange yellow in colour, flattened and circular in shape. The eggs are anchored by
means of short stalk embedded in the plant tissues. The damage is caused by the nymphs
and adults which suck sap from buds and leaves. The affected leaves get curled and shoots
become dry. The psyllid also acts as a vector of greening disease.

IPM STRATEGY

 At the initiation of new flush, spray monocrotophos (0.025%) or dimethoate (0.03%)
or quinalphos (0.025%).

 If required, repeat the spray at 10-12 days interval, once or twice

Black flies/whiteflies: They are widely distributed in Asia on Citrus spp. In case of black

flies, the nymphs are black in colour. Freshly emerged adults are reddish and within 24 hours,
the body gets covered with a heavy puberulence giving them slaty bluish look. The citrus black
fly, A. woglumi, lays eggs in spiral rings on the lower side of tender leaves. The citrus whitefly,

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D. citri, is a small pale yellow insect with red eyes. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from
tender leaves and reduce the plant vigour. Affected produce a few flowers. Reasons for the
flare up of black fly in India are recurrent drought conditions, dense planting in heavy soils
and indiscriminate use of broad spectrum pesticides.

IPM STRATEGY

 Close planting, dense canopy structure and water stress should be avoided.
 In case of localized infestation, affected shoots should be clipped off and destroyed.
 Excessive irrigation and application of nitrogenous fertilizers shall be avoided to

reduce off season flushes.
 Dimethoate (0.03%) or phosphamidon (0.03%) or acephate (0.05%) or neem seed

extract (4%) can be sprayed. Spraying should be initiated with the emergence of new
flush and repeated at 10 days interval once or twice.

Scales: Aonidiella aurantii, and Coccus viridis are the major scale insects A. aurantii, usually

attacks leaves and tender shoots, but in case of severe infestation fruits are also affected. The
affected shoots and branches get dried and fruits drop. Feeding results in development of
yellow marks on the leaves and fruits. The branches turn scurfy grey.

IPM STRATEGY

 For effective management, orchard sanitation is a must.

 Prune the infested shoots and destroy during winter.

 Open the tree canopy from centre for better light penetration and effective spraying.
Spray 1% pongamia oil or 4% neem seed extracts at 21 and 7days interval,
respectively.

Mealy bugs: Planococcus citri, Planococcus pacificus and Icerya purchasii are the

important mealy bugs. Mealy bugs have segmented and flattened bodies covered with a
white mealy wax. Mealy bugs infest leaves, tender shoots and fruits. Due to severe attack,
growth of plant is arrested and fruits drop is induced. Sooty mould develops on the infested
trees.

IPM STRATEGY

Pesticides give temporary control of mealy bugs. In fact, pesticides aggravate the problem
by eliminating natural enemies. Most effective control could be achieved by releasing
predatory beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.

Aphids: The aphids do not cause serious direct damage but act as vector of tristeza virus.

The damage symptoms caused by aphids are exhibited by curling of young leaves and
premature fruit fall. Normally, aphids attack during flowering but occasionally severe

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outbreaks occur when rainy season is followed by dry weather. There are several natural
enemies which keep aphids populations under check.

IPM STRATEGY

 Insecticidal sprays of monocrotophos, oxydemeton methyl, phosalone and
dimethoate (all 0.025-0.05%) are effective against aphids.

 Single spray of mahua oil or neem oil (1%) can also be used for effective control of
aphids.

Reference

De Meyer M, Mohamed S, White IM (2012). Invasive Fruit Fly Pests in Africa: A diagnostic tool
and information reference for the four Asian species of fruit fly (Diptera, Tephritidae) that
have become accidentally established as pests in Africa.

Ekesi S, Billah MK (2006). Field guide to the management of economically important tephritid
fruit flies in Africa. ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, Kenya P. 160.

Elson-Harris MM White IM (1992). Fruit flies of economic significance: their identification and
bionomics, CAB Int., Wallingford, U.K, P. 601. White IM, Goodger KFM (2009). African Dacus
(Diptera: Tephritidae); new species and data, with particular reference to the Tel-Aviv
University collection. Zootaxa 2127:1-49.

FAO, IFAD and WFP. 2014. The state of food insecurity in the world 2014. Strengthening the
enabling environment for food security and nutrition. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

FAO. 2012. Growing greener cities in Africa. First status report on urban and peri-urban
horticulture in Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (2003). Thematic plan for fruit fly control using the
sterile insect technique. IAEA Publication, Vienna, Australia, TP-NA-D4-02.

Manrakhan A. (2006). Fruit fly monitoring- purpose, tools and methodology. In: Field guide to
the management of economically important tephritid fruit flies in Africa. S. Ekesi, and M. K.
Billah (eds.). ICIPE Science Press, Nairobi, Kenya, C1-D P. 14.

Siddig, S.1984. INSECT PESTS OF FRUIT CROPS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE SUDAN SHS Acta
Horticulturae 143: VIII African Symposium on Horticultural Crops Acta Hortic..143.44

Sunday Ekesi , A Chabi-Olaye,Sevgan Subramanian, Christian Borgemeister 2011. Horticultural
Pest Management and the African economy: Successes, Challenges and Opportunities in a
Changing global environment. Acta horticulturae 911(911):165-183.

WHO. 2004. Food and health in Europe: A new basis for action. Robertson, A., Tirado, C.,
Lobstein, T., Jermini, M., Knai, C., Jensen, J.H., Ferro-Luzzi, A. and James, W.P.T. (eds) WHO

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regional publications. European series; No. 96. World Health Organisation, Geneva,
Switzerland. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/74417/E82161.pdf
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Disclaimer: This lecture note content is based on the information available with the author.
The prevalence of species and use of pesticide may be corroborated with the country record
before applying/ giving any recommendation by the participants of different countries.

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Socio-economic considerations in implementation of IPM

Vikas Kanwar
ICAR-National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Agriculture is the lynchpin of the developing economies. Any technology, if it is to be
successful, it has to be economically viable and socially acceptable. The same parameter
applies to Integrated Pest Management also. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the
management of Pest problem through all integrated techniques which is eco-friendly and
economically viable. It focuses on six areas (I) Cultural control, (2) Mechanical control, (3) Host
plant resistance, (4) Biological control, (5) Insecticide control, (6) Legal control. The use of all
these control measures is made in such a way that is acceptable to every section of the
society.

Like other agricultural technology, IPM is also dynamic and is shaped by host of social,
economic & environmental factors. Direct and indirect costs and benefits play a crucial role
while assessing the impact of IPM technologies. This is very essential for all the crops while
calculating the benefits and costs arising from IPM technology, environmental and social costs
of pesticide use should be taken into account so that the true value of the technology advance
is determined.

These losses cannot be eliminated altogether, but can be reduced through use of effective
and environmentally safe pest management agronomic practices and technologies, for
example Integrated Pest Management (IPM), supported by appropriate policies and
institutions. India adopted IPM as a cardinal principle of plant protection in 1985. Since then,
it has taken some measures such as phasing out of subsidies on chemical pesticides, ban on
use of hazardous chemical pesticides, establishment of laboratories for production of bio-
pesticides including herbal pesticides and bioagents, training of extension workers and
farmers in methodology of IPM, and organization of farmers’ field schools to demonstrate
benefits of IPM and to encourage community participation.

Despite, adoption of IPM has not been encouraging. In India during 2006/07, more than 71
percent households have reported use on any of the pest control method. Chemical control
was the most common method (43%), followed agronomic and cultural practices (22%). Over
40 percent households also used some unspecified methods. Biological control was used only
by 5.7 percent of the households. Note that, the sum of the frequencies of users of different
methods exceeds 16 percent of the user households. This indicates that these households use
a combination of pest control measures. We thus can safely conclude that more than one-
fifth of the households in the country have adopted IPM. Biopesticides shared 4.2 percent of
the agrochemical market in 2010, up from a mere 0.2 percent in 2000 (NAAS 2013). The
adoption of IPM in Indian agriculture is low but gaining momentum.

Technical and economic feasibility

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For farmers to adopt IPM it must pass the tests of technical feasibility and economic
efficiency. Technical feasibility can be judged on two criteria: (i) change in pesticide use, and
(ii) change in yield, over alternative technologies or practices. Reducing use of chemical
pesticides is the basic objective of IPM, and there is sufficient evidence to prove that IPM
reduces pesticide use. Its effect on yield could be either way. The inference is that IPM has
the potential to substitute chemical pesticides without demanding any additional resources
and without any adverse effects on agricultural productivity. Nevertheless, inputs prices are
an important determinant of the economic feasibility of IPM, and any increase in prices of
critical inputs may upset its economics.

Policies and Institutions

Despite its technical and economic superiority over conventional chemical control, adoption
of IPM has not been widespread, which could be attributed to a number of factors such as
technology characteristics, availability of technology and inputs, research-extension
linkages, delivery systems, institutions and policies.

Technology characteristics are important determinants of adoption: Technology
characteristics play an important role in farmers’ adoption decisions (Adesina and Zinnah
1993, Lapar and Pandey 1999). IPM draws heavily on the complementarities and interactions
of different of pest control methods (chemical, biological, cultural and mechanical), and each
of these has its own specific characteristics and application requirements. These render IPM
a complex technology from farmers’ perspective. Generally, farmers adopt a step-wise
approach to adoption of such technologies. They adopt those components first which are
easily available, can be easily applied, are cost-effective and provide immediate results. Bio-
pesticides and bioagents are the main components of IPM, and most of these are host-
specific, slow in action if not applied as protective and have short shelf-life. Besides, some of
the components, for example manual collection of larvae, are labour intensive (Birthal et al.,
2000). In other words, farmers are risk averse and in absence of right information on
technology and its application, such characteristics do not favour adoption of IPM. Thus, the
adoption of IPM requires active participation of researchers and extension workers to
demonstrate its impacts to the farmers through participatory research and extension.

The major issues that the researchers would be confronting in the decades to come are
related to the basic research for development of broad-spectrum biological pesticides and
improvements in their efficacy and shelf life. At present, problems of insecticide resistance,
resurgence and secondary pest outbreak are not reported against biological substitutes of
agrochemicals. Maintenance of this property would require sustained research efforts. Bio-
pesticides based on predators, parasites, viruses, fungi, etc. are sensitive to chemical
pesticides. This warrants research emphasis on identification and development of bio-
pesticides having compatibility with recommended and chemical pesticides in use. Role of
extension system goes beyond technology dissemination: IPM is knowledge- and information-
intensive, and its effective implementation requires extension workers and farmers to have a
sound understanding of the components and characteristics of the IPM package particularly
on bio-agents and bio-pesticides in terms of their target hosts, relationships with natural
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enemies, and methods of their application before it is delivered to the farmers. Lack of
understanding of these characteristics and requirements would cause slow adoption of IPM.
An extension worker should act more as a collaborator, consultant, and facilitator in
dissemination of knowledge, and the farmers playing more active role as a decision maker.
Successful IPM programs require interdisciplinary collaboration among scientists,
economists, and farmers. Community participation is key to enhancing adoption of IPM: Pest
has characteristics of a detrimental to common property resource and does not recognize
spatial boundaries. Hence, the successful pest management requires collective efforts by
farmers. Yet, most of the times pest management efforts are individualistic, and give rise to
problems, such as pest resistance, resurgence and secondary outbreak, destruction of natural
enemies of insect pests and other beneficial insects. Collective pest management assumes
greater significance in the context of IPM. There are a number of management practices such
as observance of synchronicity in sowing dates, use of resistant varieties, crop rotations, etc.
that require close cooperation among farmers. Further, many of IPM inputs are derived from
the living organisms, and application of chemical pesticides in the vicinity of bio pesticide
treated field will reduce efficacy of biological inputs and their survival in nature.

Market for pesticide-free products

Financial incentives may not be sustained for long. Alternative is to develop niche markets for
pesticide-free or low pesticide residue products by creating consumer awareness about their
health benefits. And, there is considerable potential for uptake of pesticide-free products in
the high-income segments. At present, there is hardly any price premium for pesticide free or
organic products in India unlike in developed countries where these fetch a minimum
premium of 20 percent. This could be done by developing appropriate certification
procedures and labelling system to gain consumer confidence. The cost of obtaining organic
certification is high for individual farmers. Indian agriculture is dominated by small-scale
producers and cannot afford to pay high costs. These costs can be brought down considerably
following group approach or the concept of bio-village. Besides, government should take
initiatives to establish pesticide- free agricultural export processing zones. The increasing
consumer concerns for food safety offer an opportunity for promoting IPM. Supermarkets
and contract farming offer opportunity to link organic producers with niche markets. Table-1
the correlation between pesticides and other factors like irrigation, crops and wage rate etc
has been shown. The most important factor for increased use of pesticides is the irrigation
followed by cotton, rice and other factors.

Table: 1 The correlation between pesticides and other factors

Factors Correlation

Irrigation 0.637
Cotton 0.541
Rice 0.255
Wage rate 0.298

Note: P.S. Birthal & Others -the estimates

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Socio Economic Evaluation of IPM Programme:

General categories of possible impacts of IPM include impacts on socio-economic conditions,
production/productivity, and cost of cultivation and physical environment. IPM consists of
that set of technologies, which cannot be readily captured, in economic framework. In other
words some of the impacts of IPM are direct and can be easily quantified (Economic effect)
and some are indirect impacts and are difficult to measure (Social effect).

Types of Impact

1 Ex-ante assessment Before the initiation of the programme
2 Ex-post assessment After the implementation of programme

Impact indicators

• Farm Level
• Region Level
• National Level
• Global Level
Farm Level:

1 Efficiency: Increase in profitability due to either increase in yield or reduction in
costs or both
2 Household security and nutritional security
3 Gender issues
4 Risk management
5 Natural resource management

Region level: Employment issues

Regional trade Intersectional linkages

National Level

1 Production
2 Prices
3 National and international trade

Global Level

• Spill over effects
• Post WTO era

Economic Impact

This is the direct impact in which the income of the farmer is influenced by the use of
technology. It is quantifiable and measurable in rupee terms. The use of IPM is encouraged
by the increase in income, which is either through decline in production costs or increase in
productivity or production. Sometimes the production/productivity remains stagnant but
decline in costs because of less use of pesticides pushes the profitability of farmers up. So the
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farmer tends to go in for IPM technology. Increase in production with the use of IPM
technology has

direct bearing on the profits and encourages the use of IPM technology. In Sri Lanka compared
to non-IPM control, IPM has been found to be cost effective in rice cultivation, which led to
decline in cost by 70% and increase in profits by 107%.

Social Impact

These are known as hidden or indirect effects of technology and adoption of

technology depends on the perception of farmers. Evidences on

environmental and social effects of pesticides use from developing countries

are almost non-existent. In a recent study in Philippines, Role and Pingali

(1993) concluded that pesticides entail substantial health costs which if

calculated in farm business analysis reduce net farm income substantially. If

the farmers adopt IPM technology, which reduces environment pollution and is

not hazard to health, then social benefits would encourage farmer to use the

technology even if Income impact is same as before.

Adoption of IPM technology

The following four factors are important for any technology if it is to be successfully adopted
at any level; the same is true for IPM technology adoption:

• Policy
• Institutions
• Technology transfer
• Infrastructure
Socio-economic constraints in adoption of IPM Technology:

The following constraints have been found in the adoption of IPM technology
1. Insufficient production of eco friendly pesticides.
2. Lack of trained manpower.
3. Quality of Bio-pesticides and their slow action.
4. General awareness of farmers about IPM.
5. Lack of co-ordination between research, extension and implementation.
6. Lack of information of availability of various tools of IPM like inputs etc. to
the farmers.

CONCLUSION:
Impact studies at the level of research as well as on farmers' fields are needed to establish
whether IPM strategy is superior to other pest control alternative in term of techno-economic
efficiency and environmental protection. This is the basic step in facilitating adoption of IPM
practices. In cases where the risk is high in rupee terms farmer will not accept the IPM
technique even the social benefits outweigh the private benefits of pesticides use. A variety
of market and government level interventions would be required to ensure the economic
viability of emerging technologies like IPM.

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Use of Important Tools and Gadgets In IPM

Surender Kumar Singh
ICAR- National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

E-mail: [email protected]

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a broad-based approach that integrates practices for
economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury
level (EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organisation defines IPM as "the careful
consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of
appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep
pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or
minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy
crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest
control mechanisms."

Mechanical pest control is the management and control of pests using physical means such
as fences, barriers (e.g., screens or row covers), electronic wires, simple hand-picking, traps,
vacuuming and tillage to disrupt breeding. It includes weeding and change of temperature
also to control pests for example, changing the temperature to make an area unfavorable for
pests. Mechanical and physical controls kill a pest directly or make the environment
unsuitable for it. For example, traps - for pest animals and insects; mulches - for weed
management; steam sterilization - for soil disease management; or barriers - such as screens
or fences to keep animals and insects out.

PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL CONTROL

1. The use of manual labour

It means working with hands, sometimes with the aid of some simple equipment, like bags,
nets, etc.

(i) Hand-picking: This is the most ancient method employed by man in the field, insect can be
hand-picked if they are: (a) easily accessible to the picker, (b) large and conspicuous, and (c)
present in large numbers. This method is recommended for dealing with adults and egg-
clusters of the lemon butterfly, grubs of the mustard sawfly Athalia lugens proxima (Klug) and
all the development stages of Epilachna spp.

(ii) The use of hand-nets and bag-nets.

(iii) Beating and Hooking: On coconut palms, the Rhinoceros beetle can be picked out of the
holes with the of crooked hooks made of iron.

(iv) Shaking or jarring: Shaking small trees or shrubs, particularly early in the morning in the
cold season when the insect are benumbed, and collecting them in open tubs containing

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kerosenized water or simply burying them in pits is effective against locust and the defoliating
beetles (e. g. Adoretus spp.).

(v) Sieving and Winnowing: These are commonly employed against insect pests of stored
grains. A good number are removed with these operations, particularly the grubs of Tribolium
castaneum Hbst. and Trogoderma granarium Everts, which infest wheat.

(vi) Mechanical exclusion: consists in the use of devices by which insect are physically
prevented from reaching crops and agricultural produce. The various methods include : (a)
The application of a fluffy cotton band 6” wide, or a band of a sticky material like `Ostico’ or
a band of a folded slippery sheets like alkathene around the trunk of a mango-tree to prevent
the upward movement of the mango mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae (Green); (b) wrapping
individual fruits of pomegranate and citrus with butter-paper envelopes to save them from
attack of the anaar butterfly (Virachola Isocrates F.) and fruit-sucking moths (Ophideres spp.)
respectively. Maize cobs can be protected from the attack of crows if the nearest leaf is
wrapped around the exposed portion of the cob; (c) trenching fields or erecting barriers, 30
cm. high, in order to save crops from the invading bands of locust hoppers or the red hairy
caterpillar; (d) light reflected by plastic ribbon bands or plastic flags hung in the ripening rice
field will protect the crop from bird attack; (e) scaring birds by creating noise with explosives;
an automatic device is available in which an explosive gas catches fire intermittently and a
loud noise is produced. BARRIERS: In certain instances, barriers may prevent insects from
infesting the crop. Cloth screens over seedbeds protect the younger plants from insects, like
flea beetles, hoppers, armyworms etc. Metal collars around young plants protect them from
cutworms. Trench barriers are used to stop bugs, armyworms, locusts etc. Metal or concrete
barriers are used against termites.

(vii) TRAPPING: Trapping is popular method to lure insects to bait, light etc. to kill
them. Yellow-pan traps containing water and few drops of oil were proved useful. Sticky
traps are boards of yellow color smeared with sticky substance, which trap and kill the flying
insects that are attracted to and try to rest on it. Sticky bands applied around mango tree-
trunks during December-January prevent the upward movement of mango mealy bugs, which
upon hatching begin to crawl up the trunk to reach the leaves. Pitfall traps are pan-like
containers bearing insecticide and embedded below the ground level. Crawling and fast-
running insects often fall into them and die. Pheromoe traps are particularly effective against
the lepidopterous pests. Females release specific pheromone to which males are attracted
from considerable distance.

(viii) Burning: The burning of locust adults or hoppers with the help of flame torches and
flame-throwers, although costly, has a good psychological effect in mobilizing the public for
locust-control operations. To eradicate the pink bollworm dried cotton stalks are piled and
dried. Trash and garbage, weeds etc. are collected and burnt to destroy pest stages.

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2. MANIPULATION OF THE PHYSICAL FACTORS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

(i) application of heat: (a) Superheating of empty godowns to a temperature above 500C for
10-12 hours will kill the hibernating stored-grain pests. (b) Exposing infested grain to the sun
on a pucca floor in June also kills stored-grain insect in the adults stage. (c) If cotton seed is
exposed to 520 C for 5 minutes, the hibernating larvae of the pink bollworm (Pectinophora
gossypiella (Saund.) are killed. DRYING: Insects infesting stored grains require certain amount
of moisture to develop. Neither the rice weevils nor the granary weevils can survive moisture
contents as low as 8.0%. Drying the grains either in the sun or by heat blowers reduces
infestation of majority of stored grain insects.

(ii) Application of low temperature: Refrigeration at 5-100C of all eatables, including dry fruits
and woolen clothes will kill insects. When stored grains are exposed to subzero temperatures
by opening doors and windows of godowns, the insect are killed. Low temperatures are
utilized for the control of insects in flourmills and warehouses. Exposure to subzero
temperature for 24 hours is lethal to most of the insects.

(iii) Manipulation of moisture: By raising or lowering the moisture content of food and other
materials, unfavourable conditions are created for insect pests : Draining stagnant water kills
the breeding mosquitoes. Reducing moisture contents of grains below 8 per cent will make
it unfit for the consumption of stored grain pests. Soaking logs in water over extended periods
(15 days) for drowning the boring weevils, and larvae of the wood wasps.

RADIATION: Gamma radiation kills all stages of the pests in storage conditions. This is a
common method employed to kill insect stages during export or imports of huge quantities
of grains, fruits and vegetables.

SOME PEST MANAGEMENT GADGETS INVENTED AND DEVELOPED AT NCIPM*:

(1) Light trap safer to beneficial insects
Light traps are the most widely used visual traps for the agricultural insect pests, and have
been particularly important in surveillance programme and monitoring of the seasonal
appearance of many species of moths, hoppers, beetles, etc. A light trap basically consists of
a light source above a funnel and a container below to collect the catch.

The present light trap safer to beneficial insects is for monitoring and mass trapping of insects
in the crop fields. The porous insect collection container provided in the system helps in
separating the beneficial (parasitoids) and micro sized non-targeted insect fauna from the
harmful insect pests. The harmful insects can be easily removed from the light trap unit. Mass
trapping of adults of both sexes of insect pests by light trap will help in minimizing their
infestation in the crop fields. The key insect pests of cereal crops (rice, maize, sorghum), pulse
crops (chickpea, pigeonpea), vegetable crops (cauliflower, cabbage, tomato, brinjal),
horticultural crops can be mass trapped by using this light trap. The newly invented trap is an
important tool of eco-friendly integrated pest management technologies.

The precise advantages of this light trap are:

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(i) It can be used to monitor or mass trap the population of phototrophic insects in
the crop fields. The mass trapping of both the sexes may reduce the insect pest
population in the fields.

(ii) The micro sized beneficial/non-targeted insects will come out from the trapping
system of the light trap through the porous means provided in the insect collecting
chamber.

(iii) The application of chemical pesticides may be minimized by the use of this trap.
(iv) It is durable and may be used year after year.
(v) The individual or a group of farmers can use this trap to save the beneficial insects.
(vi) Expenditure on pesticides and their application will decrease. Biodiversity will

increase.
(ix) Decrease in the pressure of pesticides on other natural enemies will allow them to

play an additive part in suppressing the insect pests.
(x) It will control the menace of the insect pests at a very low cost and it would be boon

to the poor farmers as an alternative cost effective method of pest control.
(xi) During rains most of the insecticides are washed away with the hopes of poor

farmers. The light trap on the other hand continues catching harmful insect pests.

(2) Egg cleaning device
This mechanical device was developed to separate Corcyra eggs from dust, insect scales,
insect body parts (antennae, legs, wings etc.) in the biocontrol laboratories. This device
works with the help of vacuum cleaner.

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(3) Aerial Insect Trap
For sampling air born insects i.e., aphids. It is
zero energy trap moves with the help of air
thrust.

(4) Sterilization chamber for Corcyra eggs –
For the mass production of Trichogramma, the Corcyra eggs are to be sterilized before use.
For quick and uniform sterilization of Corcyra eggs a new type of sterilization chamber has
been developed.
The said sterilization chamber comprised of a cuboid box, 105 cm long, 88 cm broad and 105
cm high. It is closed on all the sides except from the front. The chamber is divided into two
equal parts by a horizontal partition. Each partition is provided with a drawer which has a
semicircular base of radius 35 cm. The cross section of this drawer is semicircular. The length
of the drawer is 100 cm. In the inner surface of the semicircular base the drawer is provided
with longitudinal flanges of 2 mm thick and 9 cm apart. These flanges prevent the egg bearing
cards to glide one over the other from the curve surface. 75 post card size cards bearing eggs
on its upper surface (Trichocard) can be arranged in one drawer. There are two such drawers,
which can be pulled out and pushed back in place easily in the manner as table drawers are
operated. The ceiling of each drawer is provided with a 30 W UV tube light. Each tube light is
connected with a 30 minutes timer thus there are two timers. The time of the timer can be
set for a desired time with a least count of one minute.
Features:

 75 cards can be exposed to UV at a time in each drawer.
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 Since the source of light is at the center of the curve exposure by UV rays is uniform

on the surface of the cards.
 Since there are two drawers, the time required to arrange the cards in one drawer is

sufficient to sterilize the cards in other drawer. Thus one can sterilize 75 cards per 10
minutes using these drawers alternately.
 The timers ensure to prevent over exposure or under exposure of the cards.
 Since the cards are exposed to UV radiation in a closed box, the undesired exposure
to UV radiation is ruled out in the structure.

UV chamber for Corcyra eggs sterilization
(5) Foolproof cage for rearing Corcyra cephalonica: It was developed at NCIPM and found
very successful in working i.e., to stop the attack of larval parasitoid - Bracon hebetor on the
Corcyra culture
(6) Mating and oviposition cage for Helicoverpa during winter season: easy to get fertile
eggs of Helicoverpa even during extreme winter season
(7) Corcyra moth collection unit: based upon vacuum cleaner.

*These inventions are patented by NCIPM (ICAR), New Delhi.

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Fumigation Techniques for Managing Stored Grain Insects of
Agricultural Commodities

Sumitra Arora
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

ABSTRACT

A significant amount of post-harvest grains is lost during their storage. Out of a total 10%
post-harvest losses of grains, about 6% are damaged during their storage. To check this
avoidable loss during storage, the common fumigants used are phosphine gas and Methyl
bromide (MB), a cheap, broad spectrum fumigant, which is to be phased out honouring
‘Montreal Protocol’. Phosphine widely used worldwide, is the only fumigant currently used in
majority of the countries, because of its low cost, availability and residue-free treatment. But
development of resistance to phosphine at lower dosage or due to incorrect usage is a serious
limitation of its use, in the major stored grain insect-pests. The several other fumigants,
besides phosphine, are Sulfuryl fluoride, propylene oxide, carbonyl sulphide, ethyl formate,
hydrogen cyanide and methyl iodide which have been found promising but cost & registration
process remains a serious factor, especially for a country like India. However, phosphine has
been observed as an effective alternative fumigant for stored grain insects of cereals and
pulses, if standard fumigation practices are followed.

Introduction

Stored products e.g. cereals and pulses are often infested by a wide range of stored grain
insects, such as Tribolium castenium, Rhizopertha dominica, Sitophilus oryzae, Trogoderma
granarium and Callosobruchus pulse beetle. Most of these insects are cosmopolitan and need
to be removed from consignments to be stored or shipped. Experience from across the world
has shown that using phosphine products for stored products treatment to control pests is
effective.

Beside fumigants, use of Modified Atmospheres (MAs) seems to be the best bet for pesticide
free organic storage. However, the technology of MAs can be well adapted where cheap
sources of nitrogen or carbon dioxide are available and the storage structure is well sealed.
Biogas, produced from the cow dung at farm level in many households of Punjab (India) has
shown promising results to control the insect-pests in stored grains and pulses without
affecting their germination and quality. Ozone, a strong oxidant, has also been successfully
tried for control of stored grain insect pests, but its corrosive property towards most of the
metals, is a concern. Though many volatile plant oils have proved quite effective to check the
stored grain insect-pests but lack of systematic toxicological data has limited their use as
practical agents for the safe storage of food grains. In the present scenario, it seems
worthwhile to continue to use phosphine as fumigant for the control of storage pests with its
improved formulations exercising all the precautionary measures, till a new one equally
competent is made available.

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Moisture content

The water or moisture content is an important component of the grain and is the crucial factor
affecting the storage of grain. The moisture content is taken into consideration During
procurement and marketing. The growth and multiplication of insect pests and fungi are
dependent on the available water in the grain. Grains are hygroscopic and gain or lose water
depending on the water vapor present in them and in ambient air to attain equilibrium. Once
the equilibrium moisture content is reached the grain no longer absorbs moisture from its
surrounding air. Moisture content in the range of 12-14% is favorable for insect development.

Temperature

The optimum temperatures for the growth and multiplication of insects, is considered as 25-
32°C. Development of insects is decreased at temperatures less than 15° C. As the
temperature rises, the rate of respiration of the grain and the pests in it increases.
Furthermore, the enzymatic activity of grains goes up. This enhanced biological activity leads
to rapid quality deterioration at higher temperatures.

When the water activity is low, the pest activity is automatically reduced. Temperature and
moisture together largely determine the length of safe storage life. Respiration of grain and
the pests leads to the consumption of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide during storage.
Composition of the intergranular atmosphere influences the type of metabolism of the
microorganisms and the grain. It also affects nonenzymatic reactions and certain enzymatic
reactions. Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels also affect insect population.

Storage systems

Farm Level Storage: The system should ensure protection against physical factors such as
adverse weather, high temperatures, rain and snow, and keep out biotic factors including
insects, mites, rodents, birds, and microorganisms.

Bagged Storage: In developed countries, grains are stored in bulk in silos, flat storages, and
in grain elevators, whereas in the developing countries, they are generally, stored in gunny or
woven polypropylene bags in the conventional warehouses. If storage flooring is not properly
constructed, water seepage occurs resulting in increasing the humidity in the warehouse,
favoring multiplication of insects.

Bulk Storage: The system of bulk handling and storage in silos or bins and elevators has been
adopted by the industrialized countries as a result of mechanized harvesting and postharvest
operations. Bins and silos of varying capacities are the modem grain storage structures in the
developed nations.

Hermetic Storage: Storage of grains under airtight conditions is an ancient method in which
insect population is checked by natural build-up of carbon dioxide and depletion of oxygen by
the respiration of grains and organisms.

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Fumigants and fumigation

Fumigants are chemicals available as gases, liquids, and in solid formulations, but act on the
insect pests in gaseous state. Fumigation plays a key role in grain preservation by controlling
insects development. Fumigation is a curative treatment with no residual effect. Fumigated
stacks or bulk grains are readily reinfested, if not protected properly, or in the absence of an
effective prophylaxis.

Some of the factors influencing fumigation include temperature, relative humidity, grain
types and their moisture content, storage structure, and type of insect pests and their
resistance status. Fumigants enter the insect mainly through the respiratory system and the
poisoning of insects is influenced by the rate of respiration. The rate of respiration of insects
increases in response to the rise in temperature. Thus, fumigations are generally more
effective at more than 20°C, assuming other favourable conditions exist. At lower
temperatures, sorption of the fumigant by the commodity is increased; therefore, some
allowance in dosage will be needed. For phosphine, fumigation at temperatures less than
15°C is not recommended, as the fumigant is less effective at lower temperatures. Relative
humidity is important in phosphine fumigation when the rate of decomposition of aluminium
phosphide formulations to liberate phosphine gas is determined by the humidity.

Standard techniques for fumigation

The standard of gas tightness of structure, matters in successful treatments. In rigid structures
such as silos and whole godowns, sealing should be done perfectly to prevent the gas loss
through leakage and to achieve target concentrations.

In bag-stack fumigations under gas-proof sheets, the type and quality of the sheet used
influence the retention of gas concentrations.

 The sheet or cover should be properly weighted down to the floor using sand
snakes, loose sand, or adhesive tape. The sheets should pass the test of
phosphine retention during storage (Fig. 1).

 The toxicity of fumigants on insects depends on the species, its life stage,
metabolic state, and resistance status. Sedentary stages such as egg and pupa
are generally less susceptible to fumigants. Additionally, diapausing larvae of
Trogoderma granarium and pyralid moths (e.g., Ephesfia caufella) and hypopi
of mites are tolerant.

 Dosage regimens for currently used phosphine fumigants, take into
consideration the variables such as temperature, gas leakage, insect tolerance
and resistance, and grain types for effective treatment.

 Gas leakage detectors can be used for detection of any leakage (Fig. 2), and
can be mended, if any.

 Gas monitoring is important during fumigation to predict its success and to
supplement dosage or to extend the exposure period if necessary (Fig. 3).

 For phosphine fumigations the success is ascertained based on the final-day
concentration of 100 ppm and higher (for non-resistant strains only).

 Residues are formed in fumigated grains and the residue levels should not
exceed the national and international tolerances.

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 A waiting period for complete dissipation of fumigant should be followed

before consumption of the stored products.

Fig. 1. Grain stacks after fumigation with phosphine

Fig. 2. Detection of gas leakage using leak checker

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Fig. 3. Regular monitoring of gas of fumigated stacks during exposure period

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