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Published by anmehta25, 2019-09-04 05:49:39

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Table-1. Integrated disease management practices in maize

S. Name of disease Integrated disease management Practices
No.
Seedling diseases:  Eliminate light weight, chaffy, injured seeds
1. Seed and Seedling  Use injury free seed for high germination.
 Ensure proper seed bed preparation, planting seed in
blights
warm, fairly moist soil (above 12.8°C)
Foliar diseases: leaf  Treat seed with thiram 75% WS @ 2.5-3 g/kg seed
2. Turcicum  Correct placement of fertilizer, herbicide and other

blight pesticides

Residue management through crop rotation and sanitation

Maydis leaf blight Resistant varieties/hybrids for TLB- Vivek Maize Hybrid-25,
Brown spot Pratap QPM Hybrid-1, PEMH-5, vivek 21, vivek 23, pratap
kanchan 2, Nithyashree for Karnataka & Andhra regions), For
MLB- Pratap QPM Hybrid-1, HSC 1, PAU-352, HM 10, PAU 352,
Malviya hybrid makka 2, PEMH 1, HQPM 7, HQPM 5, HQPM1,
PEMH 5, shaktiman 3, shaktiman 4, HQPM 4 and HSC 1, For
Common rust- Buland, Sheetal, HHM 1, HHM 2, HQPM 1 and
Nithyashree, for Polysora Rust- Nityashree for A.P. and Karnatak
Foliar Spray of mancozeb (Dithane M 45, Indofil M 45) or zineb
(Dithane M 45) at first appearance of disease@ 2 -2.5g/litre of
water followed by 2 to 4 applications at 10 days interval for
management of MLB.
Foliar Spray of azoxystrobin 25 SC + difenoconazole 25 EC @ 2.5
ml/lit were found effective in the management of TLB
(Veerabhadraswamy et al., 2014).

3. Banded leaf and Stripping of 2 lower leaves along with leaf sheath

sheath blight Seed treatment with Trichoderma harzianum 2.0% WP @ 20

g/kg of seeds

Resistant varieties/hybrids- Pratap kanchan 2, Pratap Makka 3,

Pratap Makka 5, Shaktiman 1 and Shaktiman 3

Seed treatment with peat based formulation @ 16 g/kg of

Pseudomonas fluorescence or as soil application @ 7 g/litre of

water, carbendazim, thiophanate-methyl and captan.

Foliar spray (30-40 days old crop) of Rhizolex 50 WP @ 10 gm/10

litre (2-6- dichloro 4 methyl phosphorothionate) of water

reduces disease incidence. Spray of Sheetmar – Validamycin 2.7

ml/L water for control of BLSB.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

4. Common rust Resistant varieties - Buland, HHM 1, HHM 2, HQPM 1 and
Nithyashree.
Polysora rust Cultivate early maturing varieties
Spray of Propiconazole 75% EC @ 1.5 to 2 ml/L of water at first
Downy mildews appearance of pustule (Shah and Dillard, 2003).
5. Three sprays of fungicide at 15 days interval are recommended
if needed
Brown stripe
downy mildew Planting before rainy season is desirable.
Ensure field sanitation
Rogue and destroy infected plants

Sorghum Seed treatment with fungicides such as metalaxyl (Ridomil 25
Downy mildew WP, Apron 35 SD, Apron 35 FN) etc @ 2.5g/kg of seed in the
endemic areas.
Rajasthan Resistant varieties for BSDM - PAU 352, PMH-2, Pratap Makka
downy mildew 3, Gujarat Makka 4, Shalimar Kg 1, Shalimar KG 2, PEMH 5, BIO
Pre-flowering stalk rots 9636, NECH – X 1280 etc.
6. Pythium stalk Avoid maize-sorghum crop rotation in field and sowing of maize
rot adjacent to a field of sorghum to avoid the spread of secondary
infection
7. Bacterial stalk rot Resistant varieties for SDM– DMH-2, DMH 1, NAC 6002, COH
(M) 4, COH (M) 5, Nithyashree
Post-flowering stalk rots Rogue and destroy infected plants & alternate host
8. Fusarium stalk (Hetropogon grass)
Resistant varieties for RDM- Pratap QPM Hybrid-1, PEMH 5, Bio
rot 9636, NECH- X 1280, etc.
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Planting time between 10 to 20th July in Northern India.
Maintain Plant population around 50,000/ha.
Avoid water logging and close planting.
Removal of previous crop debris
Resistant varieties -PEMH 1, X 1 280 and HQPM 4
Seed treatment with fungicide Metalaxyl-M 31.8% ES @ 2.4
ml/kg of seed
Avoid water logging and field should have proper drainage.
Planting of the crop on ridges rather than flat soil.
Resistant varieties - PAU 352, PEMH 5, DKI 9202, DKI 9304
Avoid use of sewage water for irrigation.
Apply bleaching powder containing 33% chlorine @ 10 Kg/ha as
soil drench at pre flowering stage.

Sanitation and removal of previous crop debris
Lower plant population
In stalk rot affected field, balance soil fertility specially increases
the potash level up to 80kg/ha

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

9. Charcoal rot Use crop rotation with non host crop like soybean
10. Late wilt Avoiding water stress at flowering time reduces disease
incidence
Resistant varieties - HQPM-4, PEMH 1, PEMH 2, Pratap Kanchan
2,Pratap Makka 3, Pratap Makka 5, Sheetal, JH 6805, X 1280,
Pratap QPM Hybrid-1
Use Trichoderma formulation after mixing with FYM @ 10g/kg
and incubate for 10 days covered with wet gunny begs. This
mixture should be used in furrows before sowing.
Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride + bavistin along with
two additional irrigation at tasselling and silking stage reduced
the disease incidence (Khokhar et al., 2014).
Sanitation and removal of previous crop debris
Avoiding water stress at flowering time reduces disease
incidence
Balanced soil fertility, avoid high level of N and low level of K
Resistant varieties - JHMH 1701, JH 6805 and BIO 9639
Add Trichoderma harzianum formulation 2.0% WP in furrows at
the time of sowing prior mixing with FYM @ 10 g/kg FYM &
incubated for10 days in moist condition for Charcoal rot

Avoidance of moisture stress and balanced potash application
reduce the incidence of the disease
Seed from infected areas should not be planted
Rotation with other crops

Reference
Day R, Abrahams P, Bateman M, Beale T, Clottey V, Cock M, Colmenarez Y, Corniani N, Early
R, Godwin J, Gomez J (2017) Fall armyworm: impacts and implications for Africa. Outlooks on
Pest Management 28 (5): 196 - 201.

Reddy YVR, Trivedi S (2008) Maize Production Technology. Academic Press., 1 - 192.

Payak MM, Sharma RC (1985). Maize diseases and approaches to their management in India.
Trop. Pest Mgmt., 31: 302-310.

Oerke, E. C. 2005. Crop losses to pests. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 144: 31- 43.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

WEED MANAGEMENT IN CROPS FOR HIGHER
PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY

T. K. DAS
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Division of Agronomy, New Delhi

Weeds are prolific breeder and seeder, ubiquitous and eternal pest that have efficient seed
dispersal mechanisms (Das, 2008). They are most underestimated in tropical agriculture
although cause higher reductions in crop yields than other pests and diseases. Of the total
annual loss of agricultural produce from various pests in India, weeds roughly account for
37%, insects for 29%, diseases for 22% and other pests for 12% (Yaduraju, 2006). Weeds
decrease quantity and quality of produce/food, fibre, oil, forage/fodder, animal products
(meat and milk) and cause health hazards for humans and animals. A continuous dynamic
occurs both in population and biomass accumulation of weeds in the crop-field ecosystem on
temporal scale mainly due to changes brought about by man in crop cultivation/ management
practices. Many weed control methods/options, e.g., manual & mechanical, biological,
chemical, are advocated, but almost all these methods have inherent limitations. No single
method of weed control can reach to the desired level of efficiency in a certain location or
across locations (Das, 2008). However, among these methods, herbicide is proven easier to
apply, most efficient and cost-effective tool for weed management in crops and cropping
systems. Herbicide replaces or supplements traditional practice of manual weeding and, as a
result, is helpful to economize production cost.

Critical period of weed competition

Usually early season weed competition is most detrimental to crop and, therefore, early
season weed control is indispensable, although weeds present at later stages of crop growth
cause yield loss and other inconveniences. The critical period of weed competition (Table 1)
may be defined as “the short time span in the life cycle of a crop, when weed causes maximum
reduction in its yield or in other words, when weed control measure if adopted may fetch
near maximal or maximum acceptable crop yield (Gupta, 1998).” It is, therefore, simply the
specific duration of weed-free situation of a crop resulting into near maximal yield, which is
sufficiently close or equal to that obtained by the season-long weed-free situation. A “thumb
rule” is that the first one-fourth (1/4th) to one-third (1/3rd) period of the total growing
duration of a crop, irrespective of growth stages, weed species and environmental (climatic
and soil) conditions may be assumed as “the critical period for weed competition.”

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Table 1. The critical period of weed competition in crops

Crops Critical period Crops Critical period
(DAS/DAP/DAT)* (DAS/DAP/DAT)*
First 30 days
Rice (upland) direct- 15-45 DAS Cowpea
seeded 20-60 DAS

Rice (lowland 30-60 DAT Cotton (rainfed) 15-45 DAS
transplanted)
30-60 DAS
Rice (lowland direct- 40-60 DAS Jute, mesta First 4 weeks
seeded) 10-40 DAS
30-45 DAS
Dwarf wheat, barley, pea 30-45 DAS Sugarcane
35-50 DAS
Tall wheat 35-50 DAS Potato 30-60 DAS
First 4 weeks
Maize 30-60 DAS Rapeseed 10-40 DAS

Sorghum 15-45 DAS Dwarf wheat, 30-60 DAP
barley, pea 3 weeks after
planting
Pearl millet 30-45 DAS Tall wheat

Soybean First 60 days Chickpea, lentil

Groundnut 42-56 DAS Potato

Chickpea, lentil 30-60 DAS Rapeseed and
mustard

Green gram 15-30 DAS Onion

Black gram 15-30 DAS Cabbage

* DAS/DAP/DAT, days after sowing/planting/transplanting

Weed flora during rainy (kharif) season

Annual grass weeds

Echinochloa colona L., Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv., Echinochloa glabrescens,
Amischophacelus (= Cyanotis) axillaris/cuculata, Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees, Acrachne
racemosa Heyne ex Rhoem, Panicum sp, Paspalum distichum L., Commelina benghalensis/
nudiflora, Eleusine indica, Brachiaria platyphylla, Setaria glauca/verticillata, Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Dicanthium annulatum, Digitaria sanguinalis/adscendens, Ischaemum rugosum,
Leersia hexandra, Oryza sativa var fatua (wild red rice).

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Annual broad-leaved weeds

Trianthema portulacastrum/monogyna,Digera arvensis, Amaranthus viridis/ retroflexus,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Physalis minima, Phyllanthus niruri, Tribulus terrestris, Ammania
baccifera L., Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa, Celosia argentea, Corchorus aestuans
(=acutangulus), Centella asiatica, Cleome (= Gynandropsis) gynandra/viscosa, Datura
stramonium, Eclipta alba (Linn) Hask, Euphorbia hirta, Galinsoga parviflora, Ludwigia
(=Jussiaca) parviflora/ perennis/ octovalvis, Marsilea quadrifolia/minuta, Monochoria
vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl., Scoparia dulcis, Solanum nigrum, Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn.,
Striga asiatica (lutea), Xanthium strumarium, Caesulia axillaries Roxb.

Annual sedges

Cyperus iria/difformis/compressus/compactus, Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahal., Fimbristylis
tenera/ dichotoma, Scirpus supinus var lateriflorus, Eleocharis atropurpurea.

Perennial weeds

Grasses: Cynodon dactylon; Sedges: Cyperus rotundus /esculentus, Scirpus
supinus/maritimus, Scripus tuberosus (Desf.), Eleocharis dulcis, Fimbristylis littoralis/barbata;
Broad-leaved weeds: Ipomoea repens, Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.

Herbicide recommendation for kharif crops

Crops Herbicides Dose Time of Conditions/remarks
Pendimethalin (kg/ha)
Rice 1.0-1.5 application
nursery
Pre-em (1-2 Broad-spectrum control of

DAS) weeds except sedges and

Digera arvensis; do not

spray on dry nursery soil; In

dry nursery, first irrigate

and then spray this

herbicide on optimum

moisture condition;

moisture is a pre-requisite

for its application, but not

standing water; In wet

nursery, drain out water

and spray on saturated soil;

irrigate after 1-2 days

Pyrazosulfuron- 0.020- Pre-em (1-2 Broad-spectrum control of
DAS) or early
ethyl 0.025 post-em (10- weeds except sedges and
15 DAS)
Polygonum; do not spray on

dry soil; In wet nursery,

drain out water and spray

on saturated soil; irrigate

after 1-2 days.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Pretilachlor (S) 0.75 Pre-em (3-5 Broad-spectrum control of
DAS)
weeds except sedges; do
Pre-em (1-2
DAS) not spray on dry soil;

Pre-em (1-2 irrigation should follow
DAS)
immediately if moisture
Pre-em (1-2
DAS) or early less; In wet nursery, drain
post-em (10-
15 DAS) out water and spray on
Pre-em (3-5
DAS) saturated soil; irrigate after
Pre-em (1-2
DAS) 1-2 days
Pre-em (3-5
Butachlor 1.0-1.5 DAT) or early Broad-spectrum control of
post-em (15-
20 DAT) weeds except sedges;
Post-em
(20-30 DAS) Echinochloa colona and

Ischaemum rugosum

reported not being

controlled or resistant; do

not spray on dry soil; In wet

nursery, drain out water

and spray on saturated soil;

irrigate after 1-2 days

Direct- Pendimethalin 1.0-1.5 Broad-spectrum control of
seeded
upland rice weeds except sedges and

Digera arvensis; moisture in

soil is a pre-requisite for its

application;

Pyrazosulfuron- 0.020- Broad-spectrum control of

ethyl 0.025 weeds except sedges;

moisture in soil is a pre-

requisite for its application;

Pretilachlor (S) 0.75 - do -

Butachlor 1.0-1.5 - do -

Oxadiargyl 0.08 Broad-spectrum control of
grass, sedge and broad-
Bispyribac-Na 0.020- leaved weeds; Do not spray
0.025 if rains expected within 6
hours;
Broad-spectrum control of
grass, sedge and broad-
leaved weeds; moisture in
soil is a pre-requisite for its
application; Do not spray if
rains expected within 6
hours; Do not mix with
sulphur- or copper-
containing pesticides

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

2,4-D 0.75-1.0 Post-em Good control of broad-
(25-30 DAS) leaved weeds and few
(ester, Na/K or sedges; Apply if field
Pre-em (3-5 dominated by broad-leaved
amine) DAT) or early weeds
post-em (15- Broad-spectrum control of
Ethoxysulfuron 0.018- 20 grass, sedge and broad-
0.020 DAT) leaved weeds
Post-em (20-
Cyhalofop- 0.100 30 DAS) Good control of grassy
butyl weeds; Apply if field
Pre-em (3-5 dominated by grassy weeds
Direct- Pendimethalin 1.0-1.5 DAT) Broad-spectrum control of
seeded weeds; Drain out water
puddled and Pre-em (3-5 from the field before
transplanted DAT) or early application, apply herbicide
rice post-em (15- in saturated soil and refill
20 DAT) the field with water after 2-
Oxadiargyl 0.08 3 days
Pre-em (3-5 Broad-spectrum control of
Pretilachlor (S) 0.75 DAT) grass, sedge and broad-
leaved weeds; Do not spray
Pyrazosulfuron- 0.020- Pre-em (3-5 if rains expected within 6
DAT) or early hours;
ethyl 0.025 post-em Broad-spectrum control of
(15-20 DAT) weeds; Drain out water
Butachlor 1.0-1.5 Pre-em (3-5 from the field before
DAT) application, apply herbicide
Bispyribac-Na 0.020- Post-em (20- in saturated soil and refill
0.025 30 DAT) the field with water after 2-
3 days
- do -

- do -

Broad-spectrum control of
grass, sedge and broad-
leaved weeds; Do not spray
if rains expected within 6
hours; Do not mix with
sulphur- or copper-
containing pesticides; Drain
out water from the field

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Ethoxysulfuron 0.018- Pre-em (3-5 before application, apply
0.020 DAT) or early herbicide in saturated soil
2,4-D (ester, 0.75-1.0 post-em (15- and refill the field with
Na/K or amine) 20 DAT) water after 2-3 days
0.100 Post-em (25- Broad-spectrum control of
1.0-1.5 30 DAS) grass, sedge and broad-
leaved weeds
1.0-1.5 Post-em (20-
30 DAS) Good control of broad-
1.0-1.5 Pre-em (1-2
DAS) or early leaved weeds and few
0.75+0.75 post-em (15-
20 DAS) sedges; Apply if field

Pre-em (1-2 dominated by broad-leaved
DAS)
weeds; Drain out water
Pre-em (1-2
DAS) from the field before

Pre-em (1-2 application, apply herbicide
DAS)
in saturated soil and refill

the field after 2-3 days

Cyhalofop- Good control of grassy
butyl
weeds; Apply if field
Atrazine
dominated by grassy weeds

Maize Broad-spectrum control of

weeds but basically a

broad-leaved killer; Does

not have effective control

against Acrachne racemosa,

Commelina beghalensis and

sedges; Soil moisture is a

pre-requisite for its action

Pendimethalin Broad-spectrum control,

but basically a grass killer

herbicide; Does not control

sedges, Digera arvensis,

Parthenium hysterophorus

effectively; Soil moisture is

a pre-requisite for its action

Metolachlor Broad-spectrum, but

controls mainly grasses;

does not control Rottboellia

cochinchinensis, but

controls Cyperus

esculentus; Soil moisture is

a pre-requisite for its action

Atrazine + This tank-mix application

pendimethalin controls a broad-spectrum

(Tank-mix) of weeds and can render

104 | P a g e

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Atrazine + 1.0+1.0 Pre-em (1-2 maize field almost free of
metolachlor 0.75 DAS) weeds except sedges
(Tank-mix) Post-em (30- - do -
2,4-D 1.0 & 35 DAS)
0.100 Good control of broad-
(resp.) Pre-em (1-2
1.0 & DAS) leaved weeds and few
0.025 + Post-em (25-
(resp.) 30 DAS) sedges; Apply if field
1.0-2.0 Pre-em (1-2
DAS) + Post- dominated by broad-leaved
0.06 em (20-25
1.0 DAS) weeds
Post-em (15-
Atrazine fb 0.75 20 DAS) This controls a broad-
tembotrione
0.75+0.5 Post-em at 25- spectrum of weeds and can
Atrazine fb 30 DAS
topramezone Pre-em (1-2 render maize field almost
DAS)
Bentazon free of weeds including
Pre-em (1-2
Halosulfuron- DAS) sedges
ethyl
Atrazine Pre-em (1-2 This controls a broad-
DAS)
spectrum of weeds,

particularly more grassy

weeds

Control of broad-leaved

weeds effectively, but

Cyperus esculentus

moderately

Control Cyperus spp along

with other weeds

Sorghum/ Broad-spectrum control of
pearl millet
weeds but basically a

broad-leaved killer; Does

not have effective control

against Acrachne racemosa,

Commelina beghalensis and

perennial sedges

Pendimethalin Broad-spectrum control,

but basically a grass killer

herbicide; Does not control

sedges, Digera arvensis,

Parthenium hysterophorus

effectively; it is less

selective to sorghum and

pearl millet than maize

Atrazine + The tank-mix application

pendimethalin controls a broad-spectrum

of weeds and render maize

field almost free of weeds

except perennial sedges

105 | P a g e

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

2,4-D 0.75 Post-em ( 30- Good control of broad-
35 DAS) leaved weeds and few
Pigeon pea/ Pendimethalin 1.0 sedges; Apply if field
black gram Pre-em (1-2 dominated by broad-leaved
/green gram DAS) weeds
Broad-spectrum control,
Fluchloralin 1.0 Preplant but basically a grass killer
incorporation herbicide; Does not control
Imazethapyr 0.075- (PPI) sedges, Digera arvensis,
(only for pigeon 0.100 Parthenium hysterophorus
pea & Post-em at 20- effectively
green gram) 0.05 25 DAS Control broad-spectrum of
Quizalofop- weeds; After final land
ethyl preparation and before
sowing of a crop, spray
herbicide over soil followed
by slight stirring of surface
soil for incorporation of the
herbicide into soil to reduce
vapourization
Control Cyperus spp along
with other weeds

Post-em at 25- Control grassy weeds
30 DAS mainly with slight sedge
control; Apply if field
Clodinafop- 60 Post-em (25- dominated by grassy weeds
propargyl 30 DAS) Good control of grassy
weeds; Apply if field
Quizalofop- p- 0.050 + Post-em at dominated by grassy weeds
0.100 (20-25 Good control of all weeds
(resp.) DAS)
ethyl +
0.75-1.0
imazethapyr

(Tank-mix)

(Pigeonpea)

Soybean Pendimethalin Pre-em (1-2 Broad-spectrum control,
DAS) but basically a grass killer
Metribuzin 0.400 herbicide; Does not control
Pre-em sedges, Digera arvensis,
DAS) Parthenium hysterophorus
effectively

(1-2 Broad-spectrum control of
weeds including Cyperus
rotundus to a moderate
extent

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Metolachlor 0.75-1.0 Pre-em (1-2 Broad-spectrum, but does
DAS)
0.75 + not control Rottboellia
0.100 Pre-em (1-2
0.75 & DAS) cochinchinensis, but
0.075 Pendi as pre-
(resp.) em (1-2 DAS) controls Cyperus
0.08 + fb Imazetha
0.09 post-em (15- esculentus; soil moisture is
20 DAS)
1.0 Post-em (15- a pre-requisite for its
20 DAS)
1.0 desired activity
Pre-em (1-2
Pendimethalin 0.100 DAS) Broad-spectrum control of
+ imazethapyr 0.5-1.0
(Tank-mix) 2.0  weeds including sedges,
Pendimethalin
followed by (fb) Post-em (20- e.g., Cyperus rotundus
imazethapyr 25 DAS)
 Broad-spectrum control of
Pre-em (1-2
DAT) weeds including sedges,

e.g., Cyperus rotundus

Fenoxaprop-p- Broad-spectrum control of
grass and broad-leaved
ethyl (Whip weeds

Super) +

lactofen (Tank-

mix)

Groundnut/ Pendimethalin Broad-spectrum control,
sunflower but basically a grass killer
Fluchloralin herbicide; Does not control
Sugarcane sedges, Digera arvensis,
Imazethapyr Parthenium hysterophorus
(groundnut) effectively
Control broad-spectrum of
Oxadiazon (for weeds; After final land
sunflower) preparation and before
Atrazine sowing of a crop, spray
herbicide over soil followed
by slight stirring of surface
soil for incorporation of the
herbicide into soil to reduce
vapourization
Broad-spectrum control of
weeds including sedges,
e.g., Cyperus rotundus
Soil moisture is a pre-
requisite for its activity
Broad-spectrum control of
weeds but basically a
broad-leaved killer; Does
not have effective control
against Acrachne racemosa,

107 | P a g e

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Commelina beghalensis and

perennial sedges

Metribuzin 1.0-1.5  Broad-spectrum control of
Post-em at 25-
30 DAS weeds
Post-em (35-
Halosulfuron- 0.09 40 DAT) Control Cyperus spp along
ethyl 1.0
2,4-D Pre-em (1-5 with other weeds
DAS)
Only for broad-leaved weed

control where there is post-

transplanting broad-leaved
Post-em at 30-
35 DAS weed problem
Post-em at 30-
Cotton Pendimethalin 1.0 35 DAS Broad-spectrum control,
108 | P a g e Preplant
incorporation but basically a grass killer
(PPI)
herbicide; Does not control

sedges, Digera arvensis,

Parthenium hysterophorus

effectively; Soil moisture is

a pre-requisite

Diuron 0.5-0.75 Pre-emergence; not to

apply in coarse sandy soil;

crop damage imminent if

seeds are treated with

systemic insecticide

Metolachlor 0.75-1.0 Pre-emergence at 1-2 DAS;

broad-spectrum, but does

not control Rottboellia

cochinchinensis, however,

Cyperus esculentus is

controlled; soil moisture

required for its activity;

effect usually does not

persist more than 30 days.

Pyrithiobac-Na 0.0625 Control broad-leaved

weeds along with other

weeds

Quizalofop- 0.05 Control grassy weeds
ethyl 0.75-1.0
mainly with slight sedge
Trifluralin
control

Control broad-spectrum of

weeds; After final land

preparation and before

sowing of a crop, spray

herbicide over soil followed

by slight stirring of surface

soil for incorporation of the

herbicide into soil to reduce

vapourization

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Weed flora during winter (rabi) season

Annual Grass Weeds
Avena fatua, Avena sterilis ssp ludoviciana, Phalaris minor, Polypogon monspeliensis,
Asphodelus tenuifolius, Lolium temulentum and Poa annua

Annual Broad-leaved Weeds
Chenopodium album, Chenopodium murale, Melilotus alba, M. indica, Malva parviflora,
Coronopus didymus, Spergula arvensis, Carthamus oxycantha, Anagalis arvensis, Medicago
denticulata, Fumaria parviflora, Argemone mexicana, Vicia sativa, V. hirsuta, Lathyrus
aphaca, Orobanche sp, Polygonum aviculare, Sisymbrium irio, Galium aparine, Stellaria
media, Papavar rhoeas, Rumex dentatus and Sonchus oleraceous

Biennial/ Perennial Weeds
Convolvulus arvensis, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus /esculentus, Cichorium intybus,
Cirsium arvense, Daucus carota and Sonchus arvensis

Herbicide recommendation for rabi crops

Crops Herbicides Dose Time of Conditions/remarks
Wheat (kg/ha) application Broad-spectrum weed control; can control
Sulfosulfuron 0.025 Post-em resistant Phalaris minor; Slight phytotoxicity
(30-35 DAS) observed on the succeeding sorghum, cotton.
Sulfosulfuron+ 0.025+ Ensures broad-spectrum weed control; can
metsulfuron- 0.005 Post-em control resistant Phalaris minor;
methyl (resp.) (30-35 DAS) - do-
Clodinafop- 0.06+
propargyl + 0.005 Post-em - do-
metsulfuron- (resp.) (30-35 DAS)
methyl - do-
Clodinafop- 0.06 & Post-em
propargyl + 0.02 (30-35 DAS) - do-
carfentrazone- (resp.)
ethyl Post-em
Pinoxaden + 0.05 & (30-35 DAS)
metsulfuron- 0.005
methyl (resp.) Post-em
Pinoxaden + 0.05 & (30-35 DAS)
carfentrazone- 0.02
ethyl (resp.)

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Isoproturon 0.75- Post-em Highly economical herbicide; controls both
1.0 (30-35 DAS) grass and broad-leaved weeds; however, in
Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P., resistance
Chickpea/ Fluchloralin 1.0 Pre-plant in Phalaris minor has cropped up against it,
lentil/ pea incorporati should not be applied in those areas.
on (PPI) Control broad-spectrum of weeds; After final
Pendimethalin 1.0 land preparation and before sowing of a crop,
Pre-em (1-2 spray herbicide over soil followed by slight
Rapeseed Fluchloralin 1.0 DAS) stirring of surface soil for incorporation of the
& herbicide into soil to reduce vapourization.
mustard Pre-plant Broad-spectrum control, but basically a grass
incorporati killer; Does not control sedges, Parthenium
Pendimethalin 1.0 on (PPI) hysterophorus effectively.
Broad-spectrum control, Sprayed into soil
Potato Isoproturon 0.75- Pre-em (1-2 before sowing of a crop followed by slight
1.0 DAS) stirring of surface soil for incorporation into
Oxadiazon 0.50 soil to reduce vapourization.
Pendimethalin 1.0  Broad-spectrum control, but basically a grass
killer; Does not control sedges, Parthenium
Metribuzin 0.5  hysterophorus effectively.
Paraquat 0.5 Pre-em (1-2 Broad-spectrum weed control; Does not
DAP) control sedges.
Tomato/ Isoproturon 0.75- Broad-spectrum weed control.
brinjal Pendimethalin 1.0  Broad-spectrum control, but basically a grass
1.0 killer; Does not control sedges, Parthenium
Post-em at hysterophorus effectively; moisture in soil is
Fluchloralin 1.0 2 - 5% essential for activity.
sprouting Broad-spectrum weed control; controls
only Parthenium hysterophorus and Cyperus
Pre-em (1-2 rotundus fairly.
DAP) Delay in spraying beyond 5% sprouting may
Pre-em cause phytotoxicity to potato plants and
reduces its plant stand
PPI
Broad-spectrum control.

Apply before transplanting followed by
irrigation or post-transplanting pre-
emergence; one hand weeding at 35-40 DAT
is supplementary to herbicide
Sprayed into soil before planting followed by
irrigation for incorporation into soil to reduce
vapourization; one hand weeding at 35-40
DAT is highly useful.

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Metribuzin (in 0.5 Pre-em Avoid contact with tomato plants; Apply
tomato only) before transplanting followed by irrigation;
Pre-em one hand weeding at 35-40 DAT is highly
Cabbage/ Pendimethalin 1.0 useful.
cauliflowe Fluchloralin 1.0 PPI Apply before transplanting followed by
r/ irrigation or post-transplanting pre-
knolkhol  emergence at 2-3 DAT; one hand weeding at
35-40 DAT is supplementary to herbicide
Trifluralin 1.0 Pre-em(1-2 Sprayed into soil before planting followed by
DAS) irrigation for incorporation into soil to reduce
Onion/ Pendimethalin 1.0 vapourization; one hand weeding at 35-40
garlic Pre-em (1-2 DAT is highly useful.
DAP) Sprayed into soil before planting followed by
Oxyfluorfen 0.25 Post-em irrigation for incorporation into soil to reduce
(25-30 DAP) vapourization; one hand weeding at 35-40
Bentazon 1.0-1.5 Post-em DAT is highly useful.
(25-30 DAP) Apply before transplanting followed by
Beet/radis Quizalofop- 0.050 Pre-em (1-2 irrigation or post-transplanting pre-
h/ carrot ethyl 1.0 DAP) emergence; one hand weeding at 35-40 DAT
Pendimethalin is supplementary to herbicide
--- do ---

Apply as post-emergence to control broad-
leaved weeds and sedges.
Apply as post-emergence to control grassy
weeds.
Broad-spectrum control, but basically a grass
killer; Does not control sedges, Parthenium
hysterophorus effectively; moisture in soil is
essential for activity; one hand weeding at 35-
40 DAT is supplementary to herbicide.

Herbicide recommendation for fruit and plantation crops

In the fields of established fruit and plantation crops, post-emergence directed
spray/application of some non-selective herbicides on the actively growing weeds may be
advocated as follows:

I. Glyphosate @ 1.0-1.5 kg/ha as directed spray can be applied at later stages on the
actively growing perennial weeds. Use clean water, low drift nozzle and do not mix
with other herbicides. Do not apply if rain expected within 8 hours.

II. Paraquat @ 1.0-1.5 kg/ha as directed spray also controls broad-spectrum of weeds.
Bright sunshine is a pre-requisite for its greater efficacy.

III. Glufosinate-AM @ 0.35-1.0 kg/ha can also be applied as directed spray to control
broad-spectrum of weeds.

IV. In the transplanted new/young plantations or forest, non-selective herbicides, namely
glyphosate, paraquat, glufosinate-AM could safely be used if the individual sapling/

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seedling of the fruit crops is covered by earthen pots or by some other means. By
doing so, the herbicide droplets or drift won’t come in contact/touch with the
seedlings/saplings while spraying. This will give a very effective control of annual and
perennial weeds as well as ensure crop safety.

Herbicide recommendation for non-crop situations (railway tracks/roadsides/river
banks/factory&refinery premises etc.)

Under non-crop situations, many annual, but predominantly perennial weeds thrive well.
These weeds could be Parthenium hysterophorus, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon,
Amaranthus sp, Boerhaavia diffusa etc. These weeds could be controlled with the following
treatments.

I. Glyphosate is a systemic/translocated herbicide and proves more efficient for annual
as well as perennial weed control under non-crop situations. It can translocate to the
under-ground rhizomes as well. Glyphosate can be applied with (NH4)2SO4, urea,
sucrose or common salt (NaCl) in the following combinations to increase the
translocation efficiency of glyphosate that results in excellent control of weeds.
(a) Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg/ha + (NH4)2SO4 (2%) + sucrose (2%)
(b) Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg/ha + urea (2%) + sucrose (2%)
(c) Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg/ha + common salt (2%)

II. Paraquat @ 1.0 kg/ha as post-emergence on actively growing weeds results in quick
mortality of weeds. It is a good measure against annual weeds growing on the road
sides, bunds, channels, etc. It, being a contact herbicide, is not much effective against
perennial weeds since it controls their top growth, but not their under-ground
perennating structures.

References
Das, T. K. 2008. Weed Science: Basics and Applications. 1st edition. New Delhi: Jain Brothers
Publishers. 901p.
Gupta, O. P. 1998. Modern Weed Management, Bikaner, India: AgroBotanica Publishers,
488p.
Yaduraju, N. T. 2006. Herbicide resistant crops in weed management. In: The Extended
Summaries, Golden Jubilee National Symposium on Conservation Agriculture and
Environment. Octo., 26-28, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, pp 297-98.

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Integrated Pest Management Strategies for Pulses

Jitendra Singh
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Pigeonpea

Insect Pests

1. Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Diagnostic symptoms:

i) Flowers are also eaten

away by the caterpillars.

ii) Dropping of the flower

buds and young pods.

iii) Large and irregular holes

on pods.

iv) Faeces can be found on

the infested plant

v) Larvae feed on the Larva feeding on pod Damaged pods

protein rich seed within the pods.

Crop stage: Flowering and podding stage

Variation in Helicoverpa larvae

2. Tur Pod Fly (Melonagromyza obtusa) Adult

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Thin papery window on pods
ii) Small holes on pods
iii) Upon opening the pods maggots and pupae can be seen

Crop stage: Podding stage

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Maggot feeding of pod

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

3. Legume Pod Borer (Maruca vitrata)

Diagnostic Symptoms:

i) Adults have distinctive

white bands on brown

forewings.

ii) A full grown larva has a

pale body lined by rows of

conspicuous black spots on

its dorsal surface.

iii) Eggs are laid in small

clusters of 10 to 15 on Adult Larva

leaves, buds, and flowers.

iv) Larvae feed from inside a webbed mass leaves, buds and pods.

Crop stage: Early flowering and bud stage.

4. Blister beetle (Mylabris pustulata)

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Adult beetles feed on flowers and tender pods and may have

a significant impact on yields especially on short duration
genotypes.

Crop stage: Flowering

Beetle feeding on flowers

5. Plume moth (Exelastis atomosa)

Diagnostic symptoms:

i) Adults have brown

plume-like wings.

ii) Green oval eggs are laid

singly on buds and pods.

iii) Larvae are green or

brown, spindle shaped

and covered with short

spines. Adult Larva feeding on pod

iv) Larvae feed on buds,

flowers and developing pods.

v) The pupae which look like the larvae, are usually found attached to the pod surface

or on the pedicel.

Crop stage: Flowering and pod formation stage

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6. Pod Sucking Bugs (Anoplocnemis sp., Riptortus sp., Clavigralla gibbosa)

Diagnostic Symptoms: Eggs of bug
i) Nymphs and adults of these bugs suck
the liquid from the developing seeds
by piercing mouth parts
ii) Damaged seeds become shriveled and
develop dark patches.
iii) Damaged seeds do not germinate.

Crop stage: Pod formation stage

Diseases Adult of Riptortus spp. Adult of Anoplocnemis spp.

1. Phytophthora Blight (Phytophthora
drechsleri Tucker f. sp. cajani)

Diagnostic Symptoms:
i) Brown to black water soaked lesions can be seen on
the leaves.
ii) Slightly sunken lesions on their stems and petioles.
iii) Foliage above the lesions dies up.
iv) Disease is common in short duration pigeanpea.

Crop stage: 1-7 weeks old crop

2. Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium udum) Infected plants

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Medium and long duration suffer more from this disease.
ii) Patches of dead plants in
flowering or podding stage.
iii) Purple band extends
upwards from the base of the
main stem.
iv) Browning or blackening of
xylem.

Crop stage: Flowering and podding.

3. Cyst Nematode (Heterodera cajani)

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Source: Photo: ICRISAT, India

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) It forms dark brown lemon shaped cysts.
ii) No typical symptoms, generally poor crop, chlorotic, unthrifty shoot growth with
numerous white females or brown cysts attached to the roots
iii) Rhizobium nodulations on the roots of legume are also suppressed

Crop stage: 30-45 days after sowing

IPM Module

KEY PESTS AND DISEASES: Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera), Tur pod fly (Melanagromyza
obtusa), legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata), Blister beetle (Mylabris pustulata), plume moth
(Exelastis atomosa) and pod sucking bug (Clavigralla gibbosa). Diseases; Phytophthora Blight
(Phytophthora drechsleri), Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium udum) and Cyst Nematode (Heterodera
cajani)

 Deep summer ploughing to destroy immature stages and pathogen propagules.
 Prior to sowing, soil application of Trichoderma harzianum @ 10 g in 1 kg of FYM for

controlling the pigeonpea wilt
 High yielding and pest/disease tolerance varieties. Sowing of pigeonpea crop in ridges

for suppression of Phytophthora disease
 Installation of pheromone traps @ 10/ha in the month of September
 Erection of bird perches @ 25/ha for facilitating predation of Helicoverpa larvae
 Neem oil 2.0% -1 spray and two applications of NSKE 5.0% in September and October
 If available, spray of Ha NPV @ 500 L.E/ ha in September and October- when small

larvae are noticed
 As per ETL of pod borer; 2-3 eggs/5 twigs or 1 larvae/2 plants or 1 larvae/plant at

flowering stage or 5-10 per cent pod damage. Similarly, ETL of plume moth, pod fly
and spotted pod borer @ 5 larvae/10 plants is observed, the application of
Chlorantraniliprole 20 SC @ 150ml/ha or Emamectin benzoate 5SG @ 250g/ha or
Indoxacarb 15.8 SC @ 500ml/ha or Profenophos 50 EC 1.5 l/ha can be applied as foliar
application

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Chickpea

Diagnosis of Insect Pests and Diseases

Insect Pests

1. Chickpea Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
Hot spot: Fatehpur (Kota), Gulbarga, Hisar
Diagnostic symptoms:

i) Young larvae feed on tender foliage
ii) Older larvae bore pods and feed on seeds
iii) Larvae usually keep half body out of pod while feeding

Crop stage: Seedling to pod formation

2. Gram Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon)
Hot spot: Fatehpur (Kota), Gulbarga, Hisar
Diagnostic symptoms:

i) Larvae cut the plants from just above the ground or
below the ground surface during night

ii) Larvae hide in cracks and crevices of soil during day
time

iii) Cutworms destroy more plants than they actually
feed upon and thus cause serious losses

Crop stage: Seedling to flowering

3. Termite (Odontotermes spp.)
Diagnostic symptoms:

i) Termites attack just under the surface of the soil
and eat all the fibrous roots of the plant

ii) The attacked plants dry up and die ultimately
iii) Attacked plant can be easily uprooted and in

severe conditions there are no fibrous roots
Crop stage: Seedling to pod formation

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4. Wire Worm (Agriotes spp.)

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Larvae feed on seeds and young seedlings
ii) Affected seeds become hollow, leaving only
seed coat
iii) Feeding destroys the growing points and finally
leaves and roots are dried
iv) It causes wounds on roots resulting in rotting of
roots

Crop stage: Young seedlings

Diseases

1. Collar Rot (Sclerotium rolfsii)

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Seedling mortality up to 35-40 days.
ii) Affected seedlings turn yellow and may
collapse.
iii) Collar region and roots of infected
seedlings show white cottony growth of fungus along with
brown coloured rapeseed like sclerotia.

Crop stage: Up to 3-6 weeks after sowing.

2. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium spp.)

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Initially drooping takes place in upper portion of plant and later on (24-48 hrs.) it is
seen on the entire plant.
ii) In severe infection, all the leaves turn yellow and then light brown or straw coloured.

Crop stage: Any stage of the crop.

3. Stem Rot (Sclerotinia sclerotium)

Diagnostic symptoms:
i) Drooping of adult plant without turning yellow.
ii) Initially infected plant shows white cottony growth (Mycelium) on lower portion of
the stem; however, in severe condition such growth may be seen on any part of the
plant along with black sclerotia.

Crop stage: Initiation of the flowering to pod formation stage.

4. Root-knot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)

Diagnostic Symptoms:
i) Axial root swellings (galls) are produced.

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ii) Root growth is hampered and sometimes a number of Infected field of chickpea
lateral roots are produced just above the gall giving
rise to excessive branching (witches broom)
symptoms.

iii) Crop shows chlorotic, stunted and patchy growth.
Crop stage: After seedling stage.

3.2 IPM Module

Key pests and diseases: Pod borer (H. armigera),

gram cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon), termite (Odontoterms sp), wireworm (Agriotes sp); diseases-
dry root rot (Rhizoctonia bataticola), collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsi), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium
oxysporum f sp. ciceris), stem rot (Sclerotinia sclerotium) and root knot nematode
(Meloidogyne incognita)

• Seed treatment with Rhizobium (Mesorhizobium ciceri) culture @ 3 packets /ha

• Prior to sowing, soil application of Trichoderma harzianum/T. viride @ 10 g in 1 kg of
FYM for controlling the fusarium wilt and dry root rot.

• Seed treatment with chlorphyriphos 20 EC @ 8 ml/kg seed (mix the chemical in 15 ml
of water) for control of termites.

• Pre-emergence spray of alachlor @ 2 kg/ha for the management of weeds.

• Monitoring of H. armigera through pheromone trap @ 5/ha starting from 30 DAS.

• Installation of T-shaped perches @ 20/ha, 20-30 cm above crop height.

• Application of HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha + 0.01% sticker for the management of H.
armigera.

• Spray NSKE 5% or 1500 ppm azadirachtin (Neem oil) @ 2.0 L /ha (2.0 L/600-800 lit
water)

• If population level of H. armigera is above ETL (1 to 1.5/metre row in length), the
application of chlorantraniliprole 20 SC @ 150ml/ha or emamectin benzoate 5SG @
250g/ha or indoxacarb 15.8 SC @ 500ml/ha or profenophos 50 EC 1.5 l/ha can be done
as foliar application.

• Strict removal of bird perches at the time of grain ripening.

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Impacts of Changing Climate on Insect Pests and Diseases in
Context of India

S. Vennila
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Climate change threatens food cum nutritional security besides livelihoods of millions of
people across the world and in India. Climate change projections made up to 2100 for
India indicate an overall increase in temperature by 2 to 4°C with no substantial change in
precipitation quantity. Analysis of data for the period 1901 to 2005 by Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) suggested that annual mean temperature for the
country as a whole increased by 0.51°C over the period. Climate change has the potential
to affect the behavior and biology of crop pests both direct and indirect ways; increase
pest populations with impact on their management, crop yield, quality, and
environmental health. Increasing temperature, altered precipitation and humidity,
increased frequency of extreme weather events (frost, variable and unseasonal rainfall,
drought, cyclones etc.,) and increasing CO2 levels are the major climate change factors
that influence the pest scenario. Effects of climate change are increasing species diversity
and geographical distribution, increased abundance manifested through emerging pests
and pest outbreaks and reduced efficacy of applied pest management options. Current
write up furnishes the expected effects of climate change on pests (insects & diseases)
and their natural enemies in addition to some of the documented evidences of changing
pest scenario on selected crops in India where climatic variability/change has played a
role.

General Effects of Climate Change

Geographic range of species, timing of their lifecycles and population dynamics are some
direct effects of climate change on the ecology of animals including insect pests and
diseases of crop plants. Diversity, distribution and behavior of pests and their response
to changing climate could range from geographical shifts, increased or decreased

populations to extinctions or explosions.

While higher temperatures could reduce the
reproductive potential of key agricultural pests, increasing winter temperatures would
increase the density of insects and winter mortality would be less besides the reduction
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of hibernating insects which means additional generations, increased pestilence and
greater economic loss to farmers. Bioclimatic studies on insect hosts and their natural
enemies have confirmed potential physiological limitation for their geographical spread.
Higher temperature, humidity and greater precipitation, on the other hand, are likely to
result in the spread of plant diseases, as wet vegetation promotes the germination of
spores and the proliferation of bacteria and fungi, and influences the lifecycle of soil
nematodes. Higher levels of carbon di oxide could stimulate the growth of crops and some
weed species. Higher temperatures will favour parasitoids than their hosts. For those
insects and their parasitoids with lower developmental threshold, their relationship might
not be affected dramatically under global warming. Species that do feed longer to
compensate the decreased nitrogen may become more vulnerable to natural enemies. As
the climate change would affect the crop phenology and the associated crop production
practices the implications that the pest phenology, their management and effectiveness
would change. New environmental pests could emerge through invasion of new pests into
ecosystems. On the positive side there would be space and time for the natural mortality
factors that could bring equilibrium of agro ecosystems. The climate change altering the
susceptibility or resistance of host plants - tri trophic interactions and management
options under the IPM umbrella would be the scenario in a world of changing socio-
economic and environmental milieu.

Documented impacts of CC through studies under controlled conditions

Experiments conducted using open top chambers to study the impact of elevated CO2
levels on insects revealed the influence of elevated CO2 concentrations of 70025 ppm
and 55025 ppm against ambient CO2
on larval duration from hatching to
pupation in larvae of semilooper,
Achaea janata and tobacco caterpillar,
Spodoptera litura on castor. Larval
duration of both species was extended
by about two days when fed with
foliage at elevated CO2. Larvae
ingested significantly higher foliage
under elevated compared to ambient
CO2. A. janata consumed 62.6% more
in 700 CO2 than 350 CO2 chamber. The
efficiency of conversion of digested
food into body mass was lower with elevated CO2 castor foliage for both species of larvae.
The digestibility of elevated CO2 foliage was significantly higher than ambient CO2 foliage
for both species, more so in S. litura. Influence of elevated CO2 on life history parameters
of S. litura on groundnut indicated that the percent reduction of nitrogen content and
increased percent of carbon, C:N ratio and tannic acid equivalents was significant in
groundnut and castor foliage under elevated CO2.

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The toxic effect of Bt in cotton leaves was diluted when grown under elevated CO2 as
evidenced by increased larval survival (H. armigera) than on Bt cotton plants grown under

ambient CO2. Biology of two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae and tobacco
caterpillar, Spodoptera litura was studied under ambient (380 ppm) and elevated
(550ppm) CO2 on tomato at 300 C indicated that T. urticae took an additional 12 hours for
completion of development as against eight days under ambient conditions. Total
phenols, total sugars and reducing sugars were more in tomato plants and the mite
fecundity was low grown under elevated CO2.

Field level impacts

Invasion of Alien Species
Many pests such as Coconut eriophyid mite, Coffee berry borer, Potato golden cyst
nematode, Coffee rust, Wheat leaf rust, Parthenium and Water hyacinth have moved
beyond their natural geographical
boundary into India causing recurring
economic impact not only to agriculture
but also to environment. The recent
incursion of Papaya mealybug in 2008
alone caused economic loss to the tune
of Rs.500 crores in the States of Tamil
Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Recently,
Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae) commonly referred as
South American tomato moth (leaf
miner) has been recorded on tomato in
India at Pune in poly house and fields during October 2014, at farmers’ fields adjoining
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru during November 2014 followed by
its spread to Rajendranagar and Warangal (Telangana). Major tomato growing districts of
Maharashtra viz., Pune, Ahmednagar, Dhule, Jalgaon, Nashik, and Satara, and Bengaluru
Rural, Bengaluru Urban, Kolar, Chikkaballapur, Ramanagara and Tumkur district of
Karnataka have registered the incidence ranging from scanty to a maximum of 87%. India
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is still free from many devastating pests such as Cotton boll weevil, Wheat stem rust race
Ug99, Coconut lethal yellowing disease, Granary weevil and Mediterranean fruit fly.

Host Range Expansion and Geographical Distribution

The Celosterna scabrator (Cerambicidae: Coleoptera), powder post beetle, Sinoxylon
anale Lesne (Bostrichidae; Coleoptera) and Phyllody (mycoplasma disease) in Anantapur
(ANDHRA PRADESH) and Ghujhia weevil, Tanymecus indicus Faust (Curculionidae;
Coleoptera) damaging the germinating seedlings at Kalaburagi (KARNATAKA) are new
records on pigeonpea. Mylabris pustulata Lefroy (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera) and Anarsia
ephippias (Meyrick) (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera) are new insects on Groundnut at
Vridhachalam (TAMIL NADU).

Evidences of new records of pests on new hosts or at new locations
Crop: Pigeonpea

Celosterna scabrator Sinoxylon anale Tanymecus indicus

Crop: Groundnut

Mylabris pustulata Anarsia ephippias Cyrtozemia dispar

Crop: Tomato

Bagrada hilaris Corynespora Bud necrosis virus
cassicola
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Cyrtozemia dispar Pascoe was first report on groundnut as defoliator at Junagadh
(GUJARAT). Begrada hilaris (Burn) (Pentatomidae:Hemiptera) in UP, Corynespora leaf
spot at Kalyani (WEST BENGAL) and Xanthomonas vesicatoria Amritsar (PUNJAB) on
tomato and blackfly Aleurocanthus terminaliae (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera) in mango
orchards are the reports of insects and diseases indicating host range expansion and/or
their geographical distribution.

Climate Induced Pests of the Current Decade on Select Crops

Rice- Relative importance of leaf folder

(Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) at Ludhiana (PUNJAB)

among Lepidopterans, higher incidence of

Scirpophaga incertulas at Chinsurah (WEST

BENGAL) in response to higher rainfall with

reduced minimum temperature, emerging

problems of caseworm (Nymphula depunctalis) Cyclonic rains of 238 mm in 13 rainy days
associated with late plantings and blast (Pyricularia led to blast severity of >60% at Mysore
oryzae) due to mid-season high rainfall at Raigad

and Thane (MAHARASHTRA) were noted. While

well distributed rains (>1100 mm), early transplanting and continuous rainfall during

third week of October (>100mm) with high humidity and cloudy conditions led to

Nilaparvata lugens outbreak at Nalgonda district (TELANGANA STATE), intermittent rains

due to cyclonic storms increased the rice blast (P. oryzae) at K.R. Nagara and Nanjangud

tehsils of Mysore (Karnataka). Rice mealybug, Brevenia rehi outbreak in direct seeded rice

(cvs. CR1009 and BPT5204) in Kilvelur block of Nagapattinam district (TAMIL NADU)

during October 2013 was noticed following prolonged dry spell of 2 - 3 weeks followed

by rains where upon mealybug crawlers were transported through water movement from

affected to nearby unaffected fields and the high weed density along bunds (Echinocloa

spp,) serving as alternate host. At Karjat (MAHARASHTRA) kharif season had high rainfall

of 1210.7 and 1990.7mm in July and August, respectively. Excess rainfall had affected

nurseries as well as transplanted rice leading to replanting. This situation was favorable

for caseworm occurrence during July and August. Late planting combined with excess

rainfall (more number of rainy days) compared to normal during September resulted in

outbreak of case worm in about 3000 acres of Cauvery command area at Mandya (KA).

Also more than 1000 acres had severity of neck blast caused by the excess rainfall

brought about by Pilene cyclone vis a vis lowered night temperatures during November.

At Raipur (CHHATTISHGARH), stem borer and brown plant hoppers were the pests limiting

grain yield. While the intensities of stem borer infestation observed as dead hearts ranged

between 6.5 and 36.2%, white ear was up to 23.7%. The symptom of hopper burn was

observed at the several places at the panicle stage, and the rains and cloudy weather

favoured the severity.

Pigeonpea- Kalaburgi (KARNATAKA) had more than double the abundance of Empoasca.
kerri on pigeonpea during 2015 over 2014 with its onset during August and the highest
peak during October. Abundant population of Clavigralla associated with decreasing
temperature and increasing evening relative humidity besides first time occurrence of
Phytopthora blight and Alternaria were observed on pigeonpea at S.K. Nagar (Gujarat).

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Frequent dry spells facilitated E. kerri and reduced Fusarium wilt on pigeonpea at
Warangal (Telangana). Rainfall in terms of amount and distribution was deficit between
July 2013 and January 2014 affected pigeonpea growth with flowering delayed to second
fortnight of October at Anantapur (ANDHRA PRADESH) and the pod borer and pod fly
damage was dominant between November and December months. The higher rainfall
years (655 and 640 mm in respect of 2011 and 2013) had higher M. vitrata damage over
low rainfall year (466 mm during 2012). More than the direct effect of rainfall, it is the
rainfall influence on crop phenology in turn affecting the damage due to M. vitrata was
inferred. Fusarium wilt at S.K. Nagar (GUJARAT) was higher during 2013 (1032 mm) and
rainydays (40) during 2013) over 2011 (950 mm in 34 rainydays) and 2012 (630 mm in 22
rainydays).

Groundnut- Outbreak of red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta spp. for the second successive
season (2012 & 2013) of Kharif at Chinnavadavadi village of Vridhachalam (TAMIL NADU)
was noticed from 35 SMW mainly attributable to the receipt of continuous rains during
all weeks of August and first fortnight of September (esp.35 & 36 SMW) besides
monocropping of groundnut. Junagadh (GUJARAT) had the lower insect pests (aphids,
jassids, thrips and leaf miner) and highest severity of foliar diseases during 2011 Kharif
mainly due to the narrow differences between maximum and minimum temperature
regimes in addition to higher rainfall (> 800mm) with the reverse trend noticed at Kadiri
(ANDHRA PRADESH) and Dharwad (KARNATAKA). Leaf miner infestation was higher during
Kharif over Rabi, in general. Jalgaon (MAHARASHTRA) had the highest thrips infestation
during Kharif of 2012 (>70%) and 2013 (>90%), and Rabi of 2012 (>80%). Virudhachalam
(TAMIL NADU) had the least infestation levels of sap feeders and leaf miner mainly due to
the higher regimens of both maximum and minimum temperature during Kharif as well
as Rabi seasons. The lower minimum temperature at Jalgaon (MAHARASHTRA) and
Junagadh (GUJARAT), and highest maximum and minimum temperatures over other
locations were responsible for absence of foliar diseases during Rabi.

Tomato- Sap feeders viz.,Tetranychus urticae and Bemisia tabaci were significantly higher
in summer compared to kharif, and the incidence of H. armigera was greater in kharif
compared to summer. Virus diseases viz., tomato leaf curl Bengaluru virus, cucumo
mosaic virus (mosaic and leaf distortion), and groundnut bud necrosis virus (necrosis
ring spots similar to topso virus) were confirmed at Bengaluru during 2013-14. Incidence
of tomato leaf curl virus was B. tabaci (Bt) population dependent and higher during
summer over kharif. Aphids and whiteflies were low at Ludhiana (PUNJAB) during kharif
with the leaf miner population increasing from 2nd week of November to mid-December
with peak in December. Leaf miner population declined to traces with lowering of
temperature and frost from December last week (frost days on 25,-30th December, 2013
and 4-7th January 2014). Kalyani (WEST BENGAL) had the incidence of target spot
Corynespora during Rabi since 2011 with differences in its onset between 44 and 50 SMW.
Both hemipterans (sap feeders) and lepidopterans (chewing insects) had different
periods of initiation and peak during different years of rabi indicating the effect of weather
variability on the pest dynamics.

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ORIENTATI

Initiation and peak periods of insect pests on Rabi tomato at Kalyani (WES

2011-12 2012-13 2

Insect pests Initiation Peak Initiation Peak I

Aphids 40 46 42-43 50 4

Whiteflies 37 46 40-41 45 4

Mites 40 44 43-44 49 4

Thrips 37-38 46 43-44 50 4

S. litura 38-39 46 41-42 47 4

H. armigera 42-43 48 49-50 3 2

Values in the table represent to Standard Meteorological weeks (SMW)

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ST BENGAL) Peak 2014-15 Peak 2015-16 Peak
2013-14 50 Initiation 47 Initiation 49
Initiation 47 40 43 42 47
47-48 51 37 46 42 50
45-46 49 40 47 45 50
47-48 47 41 45 42 47
47-48 5 38 50 39 7
46-47 45 47
2

ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Papaya ring spot, leaf curl in tomato and cotton, yellow vein mosaic in legumes and
bhendi, tobacco streak in sunflower, groundnut, cucumber and bhendi citrus mosaic, ring
spot and tristeza, banana streak, bract mosaic and bunchy top in banana are some of the
important viruses in India which are of serious concern to be taken care with the climate
change scenarios.

Projection of Pest Scenarios for future Climatic Scenarios

Influence of climate change on future potential distribution of Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera
dorsalis, a polyphagous pest on a wide variety of fruit crops in India using CLIMEX predicts
the regions of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Haryana and Punjab to
be more climatically suitable by 2030 and thereafter increasing through 2050, 2070 and
2090. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur would become marginally suitable by 2090.
Future projections of rice yellow stem borer implied increasing moderate severity of rice
yellow stem borer at Ludhiana(PUNJAB) and Chinsurah (WEST BENGAL) in 2050 and high
severity levels increasing between 2030 and 2050 at Madhya (KA) and lowest severity
almost through all periods at Aduthurai (TAMIL NADU). Future projections imply lesser
significance of the of leaf folder at Aduthurai (TAMIL NADU), its careful monitoring until
2020 at Raipur (CHHATTISHGARH) and relatively increasing and continued importance at
Ludhiana (PUNJAB). High brown planthopper (BPH) severity increasing at Raipur
(CHHATTISHGARH) between 2016 and 2050, beyond 2020 at Ludhiana (PUNJAB) and
during 2080 at Aduthurai (TAMIL NADU) were projected. Raipur (CHHATTISHGARH) and
Ludhiana (PUNJAB) would continue to have moderate and high BPH severity under the
changing climate of present century, requiring monitoring strategies put in place from
now on.

Reduced population of Helicoverpa armigera during whole of current century was
worked out for S.K.Nagar (Gujarat). Projected changing climate did not have any impact
on jassid infestation on groundnut at Kadiri (Andhra Pradesh). Projection of Aphis
craccivora on peanut based on PRECIS A1B emission scenario for eleven locations of India
for near and distant future climate change periods showed increased finite and intrinsic
rates of increase with varied net reproductive rate and reduced generation time. Similarly,
increasing status of S.litura with the projected increase in temperature and CO2 levels
have been reported for groundnut growing locations of India.

Way Forward

Documented evidences of effect of climate change on pests and their management
options are amply available globally and within India. Population/severity of pests across
seasons and locations indicates the dominant role of ecological interactive forces (both
biotic and abiotic) determining the population dynamics, although glimpses of effect of
weather extremities at a given space and time could be inferred relatively easily. Use of
seasonal forecasts in relation to weather, and systematic and successive monitoring of
the pest species, and population changes in crop fields should be a priority. A careful
assembly of past studies on population dynamics, and examination of changes in
conjunction with proclaimed future changes in climate would serve for forewarning
purpose and a ready reckoner for action on needful pest management strategies. The
policy framework of plant protection in our country under changing climate should
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integrate simple but accurate ICT tools of crop-pest surveillance for implementation by
agencies and digital delivery of area wide pest management decision support systems
towards minimizing losses at pre and post-harvest levels, for arresting trans boundary
pest movements and limiting pest spreads.
Acknowledgements: Case studies presented are based on the database contributed by
the project associates directly or through their publications from across the country under
the project on “Pest Dynamics in relation to Climate Change (Target crops: Rice,
Pigeonpea, Groundnut and Tomato)”. Funding made by National Initiative in Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) through
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad is acknowledged
gratefully.

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Android Mobile Apps for an Enhanced Extension of Integrated
Pest Management Tools

S. Vennila
ICAR- National Research Centre for Integrated Pest management, New Delhi

Recent advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) tools have a
significant role in spreading of agricultural information to the farmers. World Wide Web
also makes it possible to generate customized applications for target customers and make
them available as open source. Additionally, emergence of smartphones as a
communication tool has become popular and that people of different fields including
extension functionaries and farmers use them in their daily lives. In digital era, making
available applications for need based use in pest management is a potential value addition
Integrated Pest Management for a given crop or for a cropping and production system is
knowledge intensive and variable and hence requires ICT tools for dissemination of
technologies. Integrated pest management (IPM), a holistic approach to pest
management requires a continuous watch on status of harmful organisms (be it insect-
pests, pathogens, nematodes, weeds, mites and rodents) and decisions on pest
management using the available knowledge base of plant protection using tools of host
plant resistance, cultural, mechanical, biological, legal and chemicals. Following write up
gives an account of potential outreach of digital technology based on android mobile apps
towards improving extension of technologies of pest management to different target
stakeholders.

Mobile Apps on Pest forewarning

Forewarning is an essential component of IPM, and predicting of pest incidence based on
changing climate is a challenge as its impact on pests is both direct and indirect. Forecasts
are often crop, location and insect/ disease specific and offer scope for preparedness
towards pest management. Weather based forecast tools are immense value to predict
the population levels of along the crop growth during the crop season. Basic premise on
which weather based forewarning has been developed is that factors such as host range,
cropping systems, area under crop over space and time, varietal scenario, natural
biological control forces and cultivation practices including plant protection play a larger
role on pest dynamics but their higher severity or outbreaks are always associated with
congenial weather conditions. Hence, weather based ‘pest alerts’ offer better
preparedness for pest management. Different rule based predictions and empirical
models developed using field level population dynamics of pests in relation to weather
have been coded as Mobile apps (android based) to serve as handy tools for issue of “pest
alerts’ within the framework of ‘integrated pest management’ to take informed and
instant decisions on status and management of pests on target crops.

Pestpredict-RBS

Forewarning of major rice pests for seven locations viz., Ludhiana (Punjab), Chinsurah
(West Bengal), Raipur (Chhattisgarh), Karjat (Maharashtra), Kampasagar (Telangana),

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Mandya (Karnataka) and Aduthurai (Tamil Nadu), severity of Spodoptera litura on
groundnut at Dharwad (Karnataka), Kadiri (AP) and Junagadh (GJ) and early blight of
tomato at Bengaluru (Karnataka) have been developed and tested for use at field level.
Predictions on pest severity were based on light trap catches for rice insect pests,
pheromone trap catches of Spodoptera on groundnut and early blight & target spot
severity on tomato. Named as Pestpredict-RBS (rule-based system), the mobile app
requires the values of weather variables of the current week to be input for the desired
location of prediction so as to know the severity levels of selected insect pest/disease for
the coming week.

Pestpredict-EMS (kharif)

Empirical models using field incidence/severity of insect pests and diseases with their
respective weather patterns of rice, pigeonpea, groundnut and tomato crops for specific
locations have been developed and validated to predict insect pests and diseases for
kharif. Such field validated empirical models have been programmed onto android-based
mobile app named as Pestpredict EMS (empirical model based system). Pestpredict-EMS
is applicable to select insects and diseases in respect of specified locations. Users needs
to have the values of weather variables on weekly basis or any one-day of the current
and/or previous week for use as inputs. Results would be displayed on the population
levels of insect or disease severity as the case may be for the current or future week.

Pestpredict –EMS (rabi)

PESTPREDICT-EMS (rabi), mobile app consists capability to predict six insects, four
diseases and two beneficials of groundnut across locations of Anantapur (AP),
Junagadh(GJ), Dharwad (KA) and Cuddalore (TN) for rabi.

Considerations relating to Pestpredict apps

 Pestpredict applications assist researchers, extension personnel of agriculture and
farmers to get location specific forecasts of desired insect pest(s) or disease(s) for their
effective management on target crops.

 Immediate requirement is the need for locations of target crops to use the application
on regular basis and issue ‘pest alerts’ at times prediction results of ‘high’ severity
levels or population of insect above economic thresholds.

 Usage of Mobile apps can be for taluk level and possible extension to district level
exist.

 Success of predictions can be continuously improved through refinements with your
feed back considering the changing pest scenario and climate.

 The only cautionary statement is that extremes of weather such as floods, drought,
hailstorms, heat wave and unseasonal rainfall often observed with high variability
across seasons for a given location could affect the model validity.

 It is highly pertinent to issue ‘pest alert’ backed up by direct and random field level
monitoring. E-dissemination of ‘pest alerts’ through short mail services (SMS) at times

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of ‘high’ pest severity prediction would be a viable option for an effective crop
protection.

Mobile Apps on Insecticide and Fungicide Calculations (IFCs)

Insecticide and fungicide calculators (IFCs) are mobileapps that provide recommendations
of chemical and biological insecticides and fungicides with label claims. IFCs assist in
calculation of pesticide quantity required to be procured for a given farm area besides
facilitating dilution and method of their application. IFCs are available for 16 crops viz.,
Rice, Cotton, Pigeonpea, Groundnut, Tomato, Soybean, Chickpea, Chillies, Okra, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, Sugarcane, Mustard, Wheat, Potato and Brinjal. Products are generic and
applicable to All India wherever the crops are grown. Cauliflower IFC is bilingual (English
& Hindi) and others are in English. Mobilapps are crop specific. IFCs of sugarcane, wheat
and mustard are combined in one app. IFCs are useful for promotion of scientific crop
production with environmental safety and target users are by researchers, extension
functionaries, pesticide dealers and farmers. All apps are downloadable from Google Play
Store (use search terms IFC or ICAR-NCIPM in Google Play Store on your mobile)

Mobile Apps on Integrated Pest Management

IPM mobile apps have been developed for crops of Rice, Pigeonpea, Groundnut and
Tomato that support smartphones with Android versions 4.1.0 or higher. Each IPM
mobileapp is standalone, occupies a memory size of 10-12 MB and works offline
subsequent to initial installation through Google Play Store.

Mobile apps on IPM allows the users to know information as per requirement in different
ways.
 Selection and access of details on insects, diseases, beneficial for their diagnosis,

sampling and management using different pest management options viz., genetic,
cultural, biological, mechanical/physical besides chemical control based on economic
thresholds linked to insecticide and fungicide calculations IFC.
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 Selection of an independent option of pest management followed by further options
relating to specific pest (insect/disease) through drop down menu.

 Feature of ‘crop calendar based pest management’ provides details of different
management options pertaining to stages of crop growth.

 ‘Good agricultural practices (GAP)’ covering essential agronomic practices including
weed, fertilizer and water management besides operations at pre-sowing, harvest and
post-harvest stages of crop production

 Additional information on ‘safety on pesticide use’ and ‘data sheets and guidelines’
for pest surveillance have been integrated into mobileapps.

 External standalone apps on (1) forewarning system viz., Pestpredict EMS (kharif),
Pestpredict EMS (rabi) and Pestpredict RBS, (2) insecticide and fungicide calculators
and (3) Weather/Light trap catch (specific to Rice) have been linked appropriately
under desired features in respect of target crops.

 ‘More info’ provides details on developers, source and contact information in addition
to ‘Feedback’ button that allows users to interact with developers through inbuilt
email address when in ‘online.

 Current version of IPM mobile apps is in English and their conversions to local
languages of different States would make it more user friendly.

 Students, crop-based researchers, pesticide dealers, extension functionaries and
farmers across India are the targeted stakeholders and its publication under Google
Play Store provides access to anyone including the non-governmental organizations,
pesticide companies, consumers and policy makers.

QR Codes for IFCs and IPM Mobile Apps

Apps are an open source and standalone off-line applications & support all android

smartphones/tablets that can be installed from the links of

http://www.ncipm.res.in/nicra2015/Softwaretools.aspx,

http://www.ncipm.res.in/cropsapifc/AndroidApp.htm and

http://www.ncipm.res.in/technologies.htm through download of .apk files or through

scan of their QR codes given below.

Apps on Pest Forewarning

Pestpredict-EMS Pestpredict-EMS Pestpredict-RBS Weather/
(Kharif) (Rabi) (Vol.2) Light trap (Rice)

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Apps on Insecticide & Fungicide Calculations

Rice Pigeonpea Groundnut Tomato

Brinjal Cabbage Cauliflower Chickpea

Chilli Cotton Okra Soybean

Potato Sugarcane-Wheat Cotton sap feeders
& Mustard

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Integrated Pest Management Apps

Rice Pigeonpea Groundnut Tomato

Conclusion

With the android phones ruling the global customers in all walks of life including
stakeholders relating to agriculture, integration of mobile apps as one of the tools of IPM
provides an opportunity for dissemination of scientific pest management towards
reducing yield losses caused by pests. Current version of IPM mobileapps is are mostly in
English and their conversions to local languages of different States would make it more
user friendly. Cauliflower IFC is bilingual (English & Hindi). The apps of chickpea,
pigeonpea and soybean IFC are also bilingual (English & Marathi). Students, crop-based
researchers, pesticide dealers, extension functionaries and farmers across India are the
targeted stakeholders and its publication under Google Play Store does not limit the
access to anyone including the non-governmental organizations, pesticide companies,
consumers and policy makers. Feedback from users and farmers would further improve
the apps. Mobile apps are effective tools for dissemination of IPM in the ‘Digital era’.

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ICT Based Pest Surveillance and Advisory System in Agriculture

Niranjan Singh
ICAR- National Research Centre for Integrated Pest management, New Delhi

India is a vast country with diverse agro-climatic conditions, numerous varieties of crops and
cropping systems. Expectedly, crops face diverse biotic and a biotic stresses. Thus it is
imperative for different state agencies to record and monitor the pest population to advise
the farmers for effective and timely pest mitigation measures at state as well as at national
level. However considering the mammoth task of pest surveillance, monitoring of pest by the
state agencies has not hitherto been very effective.

Pest surveillance or monitoring is the cornerstone of the philosophy of integrated pest
management (IPM) as compared to calendar-based treatments. IPM stresses monitoring of
pest and determines when the action is necessary to be taken. The basic purpose of
surveillance is to determine whether pests are present in the field at a level to initiate pest
management interventions. Through regular and systematic pest surveillance, epidemic
situations can be avoided by detecting damage before endemic establishment of a pest in any
area. New technologies have made significant impact in the field of pest management but not
much of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is being implemented by the
agencies. Use of ICT for pest surveillance constitutes e-pest surveillance that is basically an
internet-based system of capturing pest information from fields and producing – instant and
customized pest reports to the plant protection experts to advise the state agriculture
agencies who further advise concerned farmers and the same information is available for
agricultural policy planners. The term ‘e-pest surveillance’ encompasses computer-based
storage, transfer, retrieval, sharing, and reporting of pest data for appropriate and timely
decision-making for better pest management.

Why ICT for pest surveillance?

The ICT has become a very powerful information providing system for dissemination of pest
management information. ICT has the potential for improving effectiveness and efficiency of
pest management programmes being carried out across the country. Its ability to allow quick
transfer of information and its ready access as well as the knowledge base assist the plant
protection workers in advising farmers appropriately so as to save the crop from pest damage
and economic losses by judicious use of timely intervention and relevant pest management
inputs.

The goal of using ICT for pest surveillance is to capture the pest information from farmer’s
field, transferring it to a centralized database, compilation, reporting and dissemination of
data to different stakeholders using internet. In fact, pest surveillance provides field-specific
information on pest incidence and crop injury leading to appropriate selection and application
of pest management procedures by pest management professionals. Fields are scouted to
determine what pest management practices need to apply and when? Thus, the success of
the recommended pest management procedures depends on the accurate and timely

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completion of all the pest surveillance activities. So, the use of information and
communication technologies facilitates in reporting pest situations of different locations at a
click of mouse and plays an important role in pest management decision making.

Status of ICT based surveillance

Internationally, ICT is widely being used for pest surveillance and forecasting modeling in
many counties such as Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC) of Oregon State University
which has several online interactive resources including near real-time daily weather data,
various degree-day products (calculators, phenology models, maps, and map calculator), and
weather-based phenology models for pest management decision-making in the four
Northwestern U.S. states. Another example is the Codling Moth Information Support System
(CMISS) This site contains various knowledge bases, databases, phenology models, and links
to worldwide resources on codling moth.

Decision support systems for interactive pest modeling and market information are being
rapidly developed by many countries and made available on the Internet e.g. the Pacific
Northwest IPM Weather Data and Degree-Days Website. At this site, daily temperature and
precipitation data are gathered from 380 public and private weather stations and linked
directly to pest phenology models for 22 insects, 2 diseases, and 2 crop species. Plant
production information system developed by the Danish Agricultural Research and Advisory
Organizations for pest and disease warnings based on weather data-driven forecast models.
Decision support systems and expert systems have been developed in the field of pest
management but no system existed for ICT based surveillance system in the country. NCIPM
has taken initiatives in collaboration with Maharashtra State Dept. of Agriculture in
developing an ICT based surveillance system for Soybean and Cotton in year 2009 under Crop
Pest Surveillance Project (CROPSAP)-Maharashtra and its success has been demonstrated.
The system has been continuing till date in the state. The system was also extended to
horticultural crops under Horticultural Crop Pest Surveillance Project (HORTSAP)-
Maharashtra. The system has also been replicated in other crops and states across the
country as well as to another country i.e. Malawi belonging to Africa continent.

Preparations for pest surveillance

An elaborate preparation is necessary for successful pest surveillance and thus it improves
the efficiency of the activity. Preparation includes pest scouts training, field selection,
sampling plan and material required such as data books, set of guidelines, electronic devices,
software etc. Before starting scouting, a well thought sampling plan should be prepared which
includes crop distribution in the area, field selection, field size, route through the field,
selection of spots in the field and finally the number of plants to be surveyed from different
spots. The sample plan is the procedure to draw a sample to estimate the population of
different pests or the crop damage. A pest scout should also have access to published
information and portable handouts on guidelines for crop pest surveillance. Completely
randomized plan is best for pest surveillance so that each spot in a field has equal chance of
scouting. The scouts should be educated about the identification of pests and their sampling

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plan and its execution. A well thought time schedule is must for taking pest observations
considering pest biology and crop growth. One has to carefully plan surveillance frequency
since the success of any programme heavily depends upon it. Information such as crop
variety, agronomic practices, pesticide applied etc. is also to be recorded. Better preparation
helps to anticipate and measure the economic significance of pest problems and comprise
the baseline information of future planning.

Development of ICT based surveillance system

Keeping in view the size of data and internet connectivity in remote areas, three tier
architecture based system was designed consisting three major functional components viz.
database; offline data entry & transfer application; online pest reporting & advisory
application. Following is the Information flow chart of the system:

Data collection Offline data entry Data verification, compilation and transfer into

database online pest reporting & advisory issuance Pest advisory dissemination

The interconnection and arrangement
of these modules is shown in the
picture below.

Different software components of ICT
based pest surveillance system were
developed to acquire pest data from
fields and to analyze the data for
reporting of pest status in turn for
issuing advisory for pest management
using internet.

The system was developed in ASP.net
environment using C# & Java languages, Google@ API, SQL Server 2000 and XML
technologies. The development of the system was very systematic and accomplished in
different phases, having elaborate discussions with all the stakeholders and insertion of their
valuable suggestion.

DATABASE

The database is the core component of the system. Once the scope of database finalized, the
next step was to define the information needed by users. A blueprint of the database was
developed in consultations with the domain experts, review of published research papers,
pest management guides and pesticide databases. With blue print in hand, we moved to the
physical design of the database by determination of specific storage, access methods and
structures. Database was created using SQL Server 2000. A total of 19 tables consisting 120
data fields were created for storage of information such as user details, location details, field
details, pests and other relevant information such as trap catches, fertilizer, pesticide sprays,
irrigation etc. Relationships were established among these tables to avoid data redundancy.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Various stored procedures were written for data manipulation. Dummy data was entered into
the database for testing purpose since it is easier to change the database during testing phase.

A comprehensive coverage was established by creating a solid foundation for the system
powering its functionality and integration capabilities, efficiently supporting application
workflows and data manipulation. Due emphasis was given on database security and user
access management.

Data entry and transfer application

This is a standalone application for
entry of field details, farmer details,
crop pests and other relevant
information. Once information has
been fed into the application, it can be
viewed and updated if required.

Subsequently, data is transferred to
the transferred to centralized
database through XML. This is also
rights based access application so,
login details are created for data entry
operators and pest monitors of each monitoring unit.

Pest reporting & advisory application

The main purpose of pest reporting is to communicate immediate or potential danger.
Immediate or potential danger normally arises from the occurrence, outbreak or spread of a
pest. The provision of reliable and prompt pest reports confirms the operation of effective
surveillance. Pest reporting allows necessary pest management requirements and actions to
be taken. Pest reports contain information on the identity of the pest, location, pest status,
and nature of the immediate or potential danger.

For this purpose, an online
application was developed using
ASP.net technology as user
interface which provides plant
protection experts the reports for
issuing advisories to different
stake holders. System generates
pest reports in different formats
such as tabular, graphical or GIS
maps. Both current as well as
temporal pest reports are
produced. The system has
provision for producing pest

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

reports for village/ taluka/district having pest population above or equal to the pest ETL
during selected dates that requires attention of pest management experts. On the basis of
pest situation of a particular location, pest experts feed the pest management advisory for
state agencies to further spread it to the farmers through SMS. Accurate information on pest
status facilitates technical justification of measures and helps to minimize losses due to pest
incidence, thereby reducing the fears of their serious buildups.

IMPACT OF ICT BASED SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM IN MAHARASHTRA STATE– A GLIMPSE

Constant and timely watch over pest scenario of the crop with the help of e-pest surveillance
system aided in identifying the pest hot spots across the state. Staff of state agriculture
department was geared up to manage epidemic situations through awareness creation and
supply of critical pest management inputs. The pest affected areas across the crops under
pest surveillance viz., soybean, cotton, rice, tur and gram get implemented with scientifically
based pest management practices over wider area which in turn aids in increased productivity
of the crops per se in the region.

Table 1 & 2 indicate the quantum of advisory advisories issued by experts based on the ETL
for different pests in important crops under various e-pest surveillance & advisory
programme and no of SMSs sent by the system to the farmers for dissemination of these
advisories.

Table 1. Advisories issued in different ICT based pest surveillance &advisory programs

Year CROPSAP-Maharashtra HORTSAP-Maharashtra

2017-18 13055 5099
2016-17 5072 7408

Table 2. Pest management advisory dissemination through SMS under diff. ICT based pest
surveillance & advisory programs

Year CROPSAP-Maharashtra HORTSAP-Maharashtra

17-18 Subscribers SMSs sent Subscribers SMSs sent
2016-17 46,85,000 5,99,81,000 27221 --
50,76,000 3,66,95,000 10044 --

CONCLUSION

While the technological inputs relating to crop production inclusive of crop protection are
yield enhancing, the ICT tools aid in rapid dissemination of information related them
facilitating their adoption at the growers’ level. CROPSAP has been the first successful project
at the National level demonstrating the area wide (statewide) implementation of plant

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

protection in the context of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). It has integrated not only the
pest management options in respect of the target crops for an effective and efficient plant
protection over space and time but also brought personnel of research, extension and farmer
communities under the same umbrella where the information flow is across all directions in
a quicker pace. Success of CROPSAP resulted in replication of e-pest surveillance and advisory
system in various other projects involving different crops and locations. These projects once
implemented, uses multiple type for the researchers and planners alike while the farmers
continue to get the real time pest based management advisories for use at field level creating
exemplified opportunities for increasing and improving the production and productivity of
the crops at regional level.

References:

1. Fishel Fred, Bailey Wayne, Boyd Micheal, Johnson Bill, O'Day Maureen, Sweets Laura
and Wiebold (2009): Pest reporting, FAO ISPM No. 17

2. Xia Yulu, Guru Shalini, VanKirk James (2009). Pestmapper-An Internet-Based Software
Tool for Reporting and Mapping Biological Invasions and Other Geographical And
Temporal Events in Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, pp 209-212

3. Sharma, O.P., Dhandapani, A. and Sigh, Niranjan. 2004. Computer based decision
support system for Integrated Pest Management. In: Validated IPM Technologies for
selected crops. (eds. Amerika Singh, H.R. Sardana and Naved Sabir). National Centre
for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi. Pp. 181-190

4. Antonopoulou E., Karetsos S.T., Maliappis M. Sideridis A.B, 2010. Web and mobile
technologies in a prototype DSS for major field crops. Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture, 70 (2): 292-301

5. Arora, R. and Dhaliwal, G.S. (1996) Agro ecological changes and insect pest problems
in Indian agriculture. Indian J. Ecol. 21 (2): 109-122.

6. Dhaliwal, G.S. and Koul, O. (2010) Quest for pest management: From green revolution
to gene revolution, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.

7. Fishel Fred, Bailey Wayne, Boyd Micheal, Johnson Bill, O'Day Maureen, Sweets Laura
and Wiebold (2009). Introduction to Crop Scouting in MU manual IPM1006 pp 3-22

8. Grant Jennifer, Ferrentino Gerard and Neal Joseph. Pest Monitoring: A Key to IPM for
Turfgrass. In Fact Sheet, Audubon International 2006, Cornell University

9. Tokihiro Fukatsu, Tomonari Watanbe, Haoming Hu, Hideo Yoich, Masayuki Hirafuji
(2010). Field Monitoring Support System for Occurrence of Leptocorisa Chinensis
Dallas Using Synthetic Attractants, Field Servers and Image Analysis.

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ORIENTATION OF RECENT ADVANCES OF IPM TECHNOLOGY THROUGH EXTENSION SKILLS

Integrated Rodent Pest Management

Md. Idris
ICAR- National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi

Introduction:

Rodents are the most destructive non insect pests of agricultural crops serious. It includes
porcupine, squirrels, rats, mice, bandicoots, bamboo rats, voles and desert dwelling gerbils.
Of the 2277 living rodent species in the world, 128 species of rodents belonging to 46 genera
are present in India (Ellerman 1961, Roonwal 1987). Out of these, a dozen species qualify as
a pest. Some are localized pest and some of them are pest of National significance. They cause
considerable direct damage to crops from sowing to harvesting in fields and storage and
indirect damage by spoilage, contamination and hoarding duringon farm and post-harvest
stages. Rodents can transmit more than 60 diseases to humans and other animals. Being
reservoir or vector of various dreaded diseases like Plague, Leptospirosis, Murine typhus etc.
They are creating lots of health problems in human beings and domestic animals.

In India, overall loss of grains were estimated, approximately 25% in pre harvest and 25-30%
in post-harvest situation bringing the loss at least 5 billion dollar annually in crops and in
storage by rodents. Rodents inflict 15% damage in major cereal crops of rice and wheat
(Sridhara 1992, Islam et al. 1993, Jain et al. 1993a).

In the quest of more agriculture production to feed the ever growing population, newer
technologies are being adopted by the farming community that caused imbalance in natural
and ecological conditions. Moreover, intensive agriculture creates conducive environment to
the pest and diseases. Rodents are highly evolved mammal and adaptive to all type of
ecological conditions. Adaptability enables them to fight against management strategies
applied by the researchers to control them. Therefore, no single method of rodent control is
applicable to all pest situations.

What are Rodents?

Rodents are the quadruped mammals having their body completely covered with fur. They
are having a pair of sickle shaped ever growing incisor teeth in each jaw adopted for gnawing.
But they lack canine teeth. They posses diastema (gap between incisor and cheek teeth).
Cheek teeth as a rule are adopted for dealing with veg food. The presence of these two pairs
of teeth makes the rodent class separate from other mammals.

Classification Hierarchy:

India is inhabited by around 128 species of rodents. Out of them 18 species are harmful to
the mankind. Rodents not only cause damage to the basic needs like food, clothes and shelter,
but also destructive towards the agricultural field. Here the complete narration, regarding
their habitat, food habit and life cycle, has been given on some of the important
species.

Kingdom: Animalia; Phylum: Chordata; Class: Mammalia; Order: Rodentia

Order Rodentia divided into five major suborders:
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1. Anomaluromorpha – eg. scaly tailed squirrels, spring hares.
2. Castorimorpha- eg. bevers, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, kangaroo mice.
3. Hystricomorpha-eg. capybara, porcupine.
4. Myomorpha- eg. mice, rat, gerbils, voles, mole rats.
5. Sciuromorpha-eg. squrrels.

Six Families of order Rodentia:

Ellerman (1961): 6 families:

 Sciuridae (Squirrels)
 Hystricidae (Porcupines)
 Dipodidae (Jerboas and birch mice)
 Muscardinidae (Dormice)
 Rhizomydae( Bamboo rats)
 Muridae (Marmots,voles,rats, mice, Gerbils etc)

Four Sub families of sub family Muridae

Ellerman (1961): 4 subfamilies

a. Cricetinae: Hamsters
b. Microtinae: Voles
c. Gerbillinae: Gerbils
d. Murinae : Rats & Mice

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RODENTS:

 Very good swimmer
 Well-developed sense of smell, hear and touch
 Colour blindness but distinguish shades
 Use runways
 Cannot vomit
 Transmit several diseases
 Mostly nocturnal
 Omnivorous/ cannibalistic
 Highly adaptive
 Neophobic and Neophilic
 Life span 1-2 years
 Incisor growth 0.4mm/day or 12cm/ year
 Age at puberty 6-16 weeks
 Oestrous cycle 3-7 days
 Duration of heat 9-24 hours
 Mating habit – Promiscuous
 Gestation period 18-30 days
 Breeding season- Throughout the year
 Litter size- 1-22

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 Post –partum heat 4-96 hours
 One pair may become 800-1200 rodents in a year
Rodent species associated with the crops of Africa:

In spite decades rodent research on taxonomy, biology, ecology and diseases, the research
on agricultural rodent pests’ problem is lagging far behind in Africa. African ecological and
climatic conditions are favouring to flourish rodent fauna. Resultant, it has 12 rodent families
with 240 species (Delany and Happold, 1979). Of these, 77 species belongs to 45 genera and
11 families were identified as agricultural pests (Fiedler, 1988a,b). Out of 77, six species have
been identified as most frequently involved in damaging several crops. These also have broad
range of distribution. African farmers experience post –harvest losses upto 5-20%. However,
these losses vary from region to region depending on the crops grown and the local rodent
population. Post harvested losses are reported in East Africa to be as high as 48% for maize,
sorghum and pulses (Makundi et. al., 1991). Rodents play an important role as reservoirs and
carriers of zoonotic diseases for which some epidemics have afflicted mankind for centuries.
Indeed, in Africa, some rodent-borne diseases constitute a serious burden on the human
population in those areas where they are endemic (Gratz. 1997). Brief description of major
six species are as follows:

Multimammate rat, Praomy(= Mastomys) natalensis:
It is medium sized (50g) rat and most economically important of all rodent species of Africa.
It ranges from Western, Central and Eastern Africa to the Southern tips. It is often found in
association with human dwellings and considered an indigenous commensal and regarded as
a semidomestic rodent in most of Africa. It caused damage to several crops at various crop
development stages. Rattus rattus being a dominant species, replacing Praomy natalensis in
many parts of Africa. Litter size upto 24. It damaged to maturing rice. Major vertebrate pest
of cotton growing areas. It also consumed, contaminated and damaged stored grains and
feeds. Sugarcane, tree sampling, sorghum, millets sesame and mealies have also been
damaged.

Unstriped grass rat, Arvicanthis niloticus:
It is medium sized (50g), primarily herbivorous, feeding on grasses and diurnal in habit. It has
coarse almost spiny hairs and heavily speckled black with grey belly. A smaller whit form is
sometimes found in drier habitat (Kingdon, 1974). The tail is shorter (125mm) than Head and
body length (HB) (145mm) and Hind Foot (HF) is about 25mmmm. Tail has Its preferred
habitat is grass land with sufficient cover to it from predators. It found in modified natural
crevices. It shares occasionally its burrows with other species like Lemniscomys striatus,
Lophyromys flavopunctatus and P. Natalensis. Home range of males varies according to
season i.e. in wet season more (2700m2) than dry season (1400m2).It is also hoarding food
in their burrows. It is serious pest of cereals, cotton, sugarcane, ground nut and several other
crops. During out breaks, the damage was experienced in rice and wheat crops upto 100%.

The four-striped grass mouse, Rhabdomys pumilio:
This is small (35g) rodents are easily recognizable by the four stripes on their backs. The fur is
coarse and the background coloration in the back varies from lighter to darker shades of grey
or brown. The dorsal region is much lighter. The scaly tail is shorter (80-35mm) than the HB
(90-135mm) and contain many short hairs. The average length of HF is 24mm. The females
have 4 pairs of mammae. It is distributed in Eastern Africa from Kenya and Uganda south. R.

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pumilio was one of the three rodent species causing widespread damage in wheat, barley and
maize fields during a 1962 rodent outbreak in Kenya (Taylor, 1968). This species is a potential
reservoir of two rickettesial diseases, bountonneuse fever and Q- fever.

Marsh cane rat/ greater cane rat/ larger cane rat, Thryonomys swinderianus and Savanna cane
rat/lesser cane rat, T gregorianus:

Marsh cane rat is having 4.5-8.8kg weight, HB length 432-584mm, a short tail 170 -262mm
and HF 65-89mm (Kingdon, 1974). It is larger size, heavy build; short rounded ears, coarse or
spiny hairs, and grooves on the orange upper incisors readily distinguish the genus from
others. Both the species of cane rat are found in Eastern Africa can be separated by the groove
pattern on the upper incisors: the marsh rat has outer of the three grooves located near the
mid – line of the tooth while the Savanna cane rat has the groove near the outside edge.
Mammae of both females varies in number, marsh cane rat female has 3 pairs while savanna
cane rat female has 2 pairs. Both the cane rats have scales and few short hairs covering the
tail, which is lighter below. Eyes are small fur colour is variable. Marsh rat is non-burrowing,
good swimmer and mostly nocturnal in habit. Gestation period is about 205-3.0 months or
larger and breeding occurs mostly in wet season. Litter size 4 young ones. Sexual maturity
(age of puberty) is reached at 12 months. Considering the meat (as bush meat), a delicacy,
the peoples of the region also utilize the cane rat as a food source. The crops grown nearby
wet land are more prone to damage. Sugarcane, maize, millet, cassava, ground nut, sweet
potato, pumpkin and rice are damaged by the cane rats. Marsh and savanna rat have no
known diseases that affecting human being.

Shaws’ Jird, Meriones shawi:
This gerbil is medium sized (130-200), found only in North Africa. Measurements are: HB
143(128-160) mm, HF 35(32-37) mm, Tail 140 (122-155) mm and weight: 91 (70-120) g.
Gestation: 21 days and litter size: 5(3-8). Dorsal pelage brown/ochre to pale tawny, hairs
medium grey on basal half, ochre or pale tawny on terminal half, guard hair black. It is
extensive burrowing gerbil and covered 15x7m area (Bernard, 1969). M. Shawi has been
responsible for serious damage to cereals and forage crops (Bernard, 1977). It is also hoarded
seeds in its burrows. Two other species of genus Merion i.e M. libycus and M. crassus are also
causing damage to cereals (Maher and Hafez, 1978).

Roof rat, Rattus rattus:
Rattus is originated from India and South East Asia and spread throughout the world. It is
commensal pest, damaging house hold commodities and stored food in rural and urban
residential areas. Colour ranges from black to gray tan with light belly. Tail is longer than head-
body length. Mammae 10-12 and adult weight 100-300g.HB- 150-164 mm; T- 180-225mm;
HF- 30-32 mm; E- 20-22 mm. It is considered the main rodent pest in Egypt, causing 4-5%
losses in agricultural crops including poultry (Funmilayo, O. 1980, 1982a,b, Funmilayo, O. and
Ankande, M. 1974a, 1977b ). It also damaged rice, sugarcane and maize (Maher Ali, A. and
Hafez, H.A. 1978). It is serious pest coconut crop.

RODENT PEST SPECIES IN AFRICA:

Pest Species Crop Attacked
Mastomys natalensis Smith Cereals potatoes, legumes, root crops, cotton, sugarcane

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