G-6 Science and Technology

10.2 wft' / cwft'sf] kl/ro (Introduction to metals and non-metals)

xfdLnfO{ yfxf 5, Pp6f 5p] af6 hln/xs] f] bfp/fnfO{ csf{] 5]paf6 5b'F f xfdf| ] xft kf]Nbg}
t/ Pp6f 5]paf6 tflt/xs] f] lrD6fsf] csf]{ 5]pdf 5'Fbf xfdLnfO{ kf]N5 . o:t} u/L ljB'ts\ f
tf/x¿ w]/} h;f] tfdf jf PlNdlgodaf6} ags] f x'G5g\ . vfgf ksfpg ko| f]u xg' ] w]/} h;f]
ef8F fs'F8f kmnfd, tfdf, PlNdlgod, l:6n, cflbaf6 ag]sf x'G5g\ eg] h'Qf, rKkn cflb
/a/ jf Knfl:6saf6 ags] f x'G5g\ . rfFbL, tfdf, kmnfd, PlNdlgod, l:6n cflb s8f xG' 5g\
eg] /a/, Knfl:6s, sf7 cflb g/d xG' 5g\ . s8f jf g/d, tfk ;g{] jf g;g,{] ljB't\ k;| f/0f
x'g] jf gx'g,] 7f]lSsbF f l6ªu\ cfpg] jf gcfpg] h:tf u0' fsf cfwf/df xfdLn] bl} gs ¿kdf
ko| fu] ug{] ;fduL| nfO{ wft' jf cwft' egL 56' o\ fp5F fF} .

lrq g= 10.7 wfta' f6 ags] f ljleGg k|sf/sf ;fdfgx¿
-c_ wft' (Metals)

lj|mofsnfk 10.7
cfˆgf] 3/ jf j/k/af6 h:tfkftfsf 6j' |mf, 9ª' \ufsf 6j' m| f, tfdfsf] efF8f, rf/sfn] , sfO] nf,
;Nkm/, u|fkmfO6, rSs,' lrD6f, xyf}8f, kmnfdsf sfF6L, t/fh', 9s, 9ss} cfsf/sf]
sf7sf] gd'gf 9s, ;fa'g, sf7sf 5:] sf cflb lnP/ tnsf ljm| ofsnfk ug'x{ f];\ M
1. ;a} j:tn' fO{ Ps Ps u/L kmnfdsf] sfF6Ln] sf/] ]/ xg] 'x{ f];\ . sg' j:t'nfO{ sf]bf{

;lhn} ulx/f] bfu a:5 / sg' j:td' f bfu a:bg} , cjnfs] g ug{x' f;] \ .
2. ;a} j:tn' fO{ ;fgf] /8n] lxsf{pg'xf];\ . sg' j:ts' f] cfjfh l6ª cfp5F ,

cjnf]sg ug{'xf;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 195

3. kmnfdsf] 6'j|mf / p:t} cfsf/ k|sf/sf] sf7sf] 6'jm| fnfO{ t/fh'sf 56' \6f5'6\6}
kNnfdf /fvL hfV] g'xf];\ . ;dfg cfsf/ / ;fOh eP klg s'g ux|f}F 5, cjnf]sg
ug'{xf;] \ .

4. kmnfdsf] sfF6L / sf7sf] 6'j|mfnfO{ cfuf]5]p /fVbf sg' af6 tfk ;5{, cjnf]sg
ugx'{ f];\ .

5. kmnfdsf] sfF6Lsf] 6K' kf]nfO{ / 9ª' ufsf] 6'jm| fnfO{ Pp6f s8f 9'ªu\ fdfly /fvL
xyf8} fn] a;] /L lxsf{pFb} hfgx' f];\ . lxsfp{ Fbf s'g kftlnbF } hfG5 / sg' km'6]/
6j' |mf 6'j|mf xG' 5, cjnfs] g ug'{xf];\ .

6. ;a} j:t'nfO{ 3fddf /fv]/ 6lNsG5g\ jf 6lNsbF }gg\, cjnfs] g ug'{xf];\ .

xfdL cfˆgf] b}lgs hLjgdf wft' / cwft' bj' }sf] k|ofu] u5f{+} . logLx¿nfO{ efl} ts u0' fsf
cfwf/df 56' o\ fpg ;lsG5 . tfk / ljBt' \ ;g]{, lk6/] kftnf] agfpg ;lsg], ttfP/ tf/
h:tf] nfdf] agfpg ;lsg,] ;fdfGotof s8f x'g], 6lNsg] / 7fl] SsFbf ljz]if vfnsf] l6ª\u
cfjfh lbg] kbfy{nfO{ wft' elgG5, h:t} M kmnfd, tfdf, ;g' , rfbF L, PlNdlgod cflb .

wfts' f ef}lts u0' fx¿ (Physical properties of metals)

1. wfts' f] 6ns (Lustre) x'G5 . lrq g= 10.8 h:tf kftf
wftx' ¿n] k|sfznfO{ k/fjt{g u5{g\ . o;n]
ubf{ ltgLx¿ rlDsnf bl] vG5g\ jf 6lNsG5g\ .
wfts' f] ;txdf x'g] o:tf] rlDsnfk] gnfO{ wfts' f]
6ns elgG5 . ks| fzsf] pkl:yltdf 6lNsg]
u0' fn] ubf{ sx] L wft' lgs} cfsif{s bl] vG5g\ .
To;n} ] dflg;x¿ ;g' tyf rfFbLsf] ko| fu] af6
u/uxgf agfp5F g\ .

2. ;fdfGotof wftx' ¿ s8f, a9L vlF bnf / 7f;] cj:yfdf xG' 5g\ .
kmnfd, tfdf cflb wft'x¿ s8f x'G5g\ . ;a} wft'sf] s8fkg Psgf;sf] x'Fb}g .
s]xL wft' g/d klg x'G5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu lnlyod, ;f]l8od, kf]6fl;od cflb

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

196

g/d wft' x'g\ . g/d wft'nfO{ ;lhn};Fu sf6\g
;lsG5 t/ s8f wft'x¿nfO{ ;lhn};Fu sf6\g
;lsFb}g . ;fdfGo tfkj|md / rfkdf w]/} wft' 7f];
cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ t/ kf/f] eg] ckjfbsf ¿kdf
t/n cj:yfdf /xg] wft' xf] .

3. wft'x¿af6 ltvf] cfjfh pTkGg xG' 5 . lrq g= 10.9

wftd' f sDkg xF'bf ljz]if k|sf/sf] cfjfh pTkGg
x'G5 . s8f wft'x¿nfO{ lxsfp{ bF f jf wftx' ¿ Pscfk;df
7f]lSsFbf ltgdf sDkg pTkGg eO{ ljz]if k|sf/sf] æl6ªu\ Æ
cfjfh ;l' gG5 . wft'sf] of] u'0fnfO{ ;fg] f]l/6L elgG5 .

4. wft'nfO{ lk6]/ kftnf] agfpg ;lsG5 .

w/} h;f] wft'nfO{ ttfP/ 3g jf xyf8} fn] 7f]s]/ kftnf] lrq g= 10.10

agfpg ;lsG5 . o;/L wft'nfO{ 7f]Sbf kftnf] aGg]

u'0fnfO{ dl] nPlaln6L (malleability) elgG5 . lk6b\ f

kftnf] x'g] u'0fn] ubf{ wftn' fO{ ljleGg cfsf/ / ks| f/sf

kftfdf kl/jt{g u/L h:tfkftf, ef8F fsF8' f cflbsf] lgdf{0f

ul/G5 . lrq g= 10.11
5. wft'af6 tf/ agfpg ;lsG5 .

;'g, rfbF L, tfdf, kmnfd,

PlNdlgod cflb wft'nfO{ ttfP/ lrq g= 10.12
tGsfpFbf nfDrf] / dl;gf] tf/

cfsf/df kl/0ft ug{ ;lsG5 .

o;/L tfGbf nfDrf] xg' ] u'0fnfO{ 8lS6ln6L (ductility) elgG5 . tGsfpbf nfdf] x'g]

u'0fn] ubf{ wftn' fO{ ljleGg cfsf/ / ks| f/sf 58 jf tf/x¿df kl/jtg{ ug{

;lsG5 . oxL u0' fn] ubf{ xfd|f] 3/df ko| fu] xg' ] ;'rfns tf/ -tfdfsf] tf/_, kmnfd]

8G8L cflbsf] lgdf{0f ug{ ;Dej ePsf] xf] .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 197

6. wft'x¿ tfksf ;'rfns x'G5g\ .
wftx' ¿ tfksf ;r' fns xG' 5g\ . wft'af6 tfk ;lhn} k;| f/0f xg' ] ePsfn] vfgf ksfpgsf
nflu wft'sf ef8F fs'8F f agfOG5 . ttfpgsf nflu ko| f]u ul/g] ljleGg ljB'tLo pks/0fdf
klg wft'sf] ko| f]u ul/G5 .
7. wftx' ¿ ljB'ts\ f rfns x'G5g\ .
lj|mofsnfk 10.8
Pp6f 8«fO;n] , tfdfsf] tf/, aNa, l;Ssf / /a/sf] 6'j|mf lng'xf];\ . lrqdf b]vfPh:t}
8f« O;]n, tfdfsf] tf/ / aNa h8fg u/L ljB't\ kl/ky agfpgx' f];\ . Ps k6s tf/sf]
lardf l;Ssf hf8] \bf aNa aN5 ls aNbg} , cjnfs] g ug{'xf];\ . csf]{ k6s tf/sf] lardf
/a/sf] 6j' |mf hf]8\bf aNa aN5 ls aNb}g, cjnf]sg ugx{' f];\ .

lrq g= 10.13
1. o:t} u/L h:tfkftfsf] 6'jm| f], 9ª' \ufsf] 6j' |mf,] tfdfsf] l;Ssf, kmnfdsf] sf6F L, ;fag' sf]

6j' |mf,] sf7sf] 5:] sf] cflb k|of]u ubf{ aNa aN5 ls aNb}g, cjnfs] g ug'{xf;] \ .

h:tfkftfsf 6j' |mf, tfdfsf 6'j|mf, l;Ssf, kmnfdsf] lsnf cflb wft'af6 ljBt' \ kj| fx xG' 5 .
t;y{ wft'x¿ ljBt' s\ f ;r' fns xG' 5g\ . wfta' f6 ljB't\ ;lhn} kj| fx x'g] ePsfn] xfdf| ]
3/df ljBt' \ kl/ky agfpg tfdfsf tf/sf] ko| fu] ul/G5 . tfdf / PlNdlgodsf tf/ ko| fu]
u/L ljleGg ljBt' Lo pks/0f agfOG5 .
bl} gs hLjgdf wft'sf] ko| f]u s] s] sfdsf nflu xbF' } cfPsf] kfOG5 < 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .
-cf_ cwft' (Non-metals)
xfdf| ] j/k/ w]/} ks| f/sf kbfy{ kfOG5g\ h;df wft'sf] h:tf] u0' f x'Fbg} . o:tf kbfyn{ fO{
cwft' elgG5 . xfO8f« ]hg, clS;hg, ;Nkm/, gfO6f« ]hg, sfa{g, rf/sfn] , sf]Onf, u|fkmfO6

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

198

cflb cwft' xg' \ . tfk / ljB't\sf sr' fns, ;fdfGotof g/d, g6lNsg] / 7f]lSsFbf ljz]if
vfnsf] cfjfh glbg] kbfy{nfO{ cwft' elgG5 .

cwft'sf ef}lts u0' fx¿ (Physical properties of non-metals)

1. cwftx' ¿ 7f];, t/n / Uof;F cj:yfdf kfOG5g\ .
2. ;fdfGotof cwft'x¿ wft' -ckjfb lx/f_ eGbf g/d xG' 5g\ .
3. cwft'af6 ljzi] f lsl;dsf] cfjfh pTkGg xF'bg} .
4. cwftx' ¿sf] 6ns xFb' g} .
5. cwft'x¿nfO{ lk6]/ kftnf] agfpg ;lsFbg} .
6. tft]sf] cwft'nfO{ tfg/] jf an k|ofu] u//] nfdf] agfpg ;lsbF }g .
7. cwftx' ¿ ljBt' \sf crfns / tfksf sr' fns xG' 5g\ .

cwfts' f] ko| fu] s] s] sfdsf nflu xb'F } cfPsf] kfOG5 < 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ .

wft' / cwftl' ar leGgtfx¿ (Difference between metals and non-metals)

ef}lts u0' fsf cfwf/df wft' / cwft'lar lgDglnlvt leGgtf xG' 5g\ M

wft' cwft'
wfts' f] 6ns xG' 5 . cwft'x¿sf] 6ns xbF' g} .

wft'x¿ s8f xG' 5g\ . ckjfbsf ¿kdf s]xL ;fdfGotof cwftx' ¿ wft'eGbf g/d xG' 5g\ .

wft' g/d x'G5g,\ h:t} M ;f]l8od .

wft'x¿af6 ljz]if lsl;dsf] æl6ªu\ Æ cfjfh cwft'x¿af6 ljzi] f lsl;dsf] æl6ª\uÆ

pTkGg x'G5 . cfjfh pTkGg xFb' }g .

wft'nfO{ ttfP/ lk6b\ f kftnf] agfpg cwft'x¿nfO{ ttfP/ lk6/] kftnf] agfpg

;lsG5 . ;lsFbg} .

Tfft]sf] wft'nfO{ tGsfP/ nfDrf] tf/ agfpg tfts] f] cwft'nfO{ tGsfpg ;lsFb}g .
;lsG5 .

wftx' ¿ tfksf ;r' fns / ljB't\sf rfns cwft'x¿ ljBt' s\ f crfns / tfksf

xG' 5g\ . s'rfns x'G5g\ .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 199

/f;folgs kb| i" f0faf6 x'g] jftfj/0fLo k|efj (Environmental impacts

of chemical substance)

lj|mofsnfk 10.9
tkfO‘{+ cfˆgf] 3/, l5d]s, rp/, af6f]3f6f,] vf]nfgfnf, v]taf/L, ljBfno cflbsf j/k/ s]
s:tf kmfx] f/] j:t' /x]sf 5g\ < cjnfs] g u/L ;r" L tof/ ug'x{ f;] \ .
1. oL kmf]xf/] j:t' 3/, ljBfno, k;n jf sf/vfgf sxfaF f6 cfPsf xf]nfg\ <
2. oL kmfx] f/] j:t' ;/;kmfO, vfBkbfy{, cfi} fwL, dgf/] ~hg jf cGo s] s:tf

;f| t] af6 k|fKt xG' 5g\ < cnu cnu ;r" L agfpgx' f];\ .
3. oL kmf]xf]/ j:t' /f;folgs kbfy,{ wft', cwft', vlgh jf cGo s] s] xg' ,\

atfpg'xf];\ .

-c_ ;/;kmfOdf ko| f]u x'g] /f;folgs kbfy{sf] jftfj/0fdf k|efj (Environmental

effect due to poor management of cleanging chemicals)

;/;kmfOdf ko| fu] xg' ] /f;folgs kbfy{ ;fag' , ;]Dk,' l86hG]{ 6, lkmgf]n cflb pBfu] af6 k|fKt
xg' ] dfgjlgldt{ kbfy{ xg' \ . ko| fu] kj" { tL /f;fogn] dfgj :jf:Yo tyf jftfj/0fdf kfg]{
k|efj cWoog x'g' h?/L xG' 5 . xfdLn] k|ofu] ug{] /f;folgs kbfy{ xflgsf/s x'g ;S5g\ .
/;fogsf] w/] } ko| fu] ul/Pdf df6f,] kfgL, xfjf cflb k|bl" ift x'g'sf ;fy} dflg;nufot cGo
hLjsf] z/L/df gsf/fTds c;/ kg{ ;S5 .

pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fag' df ko| fu] x'g] /;fogx¿ df6fdf ldl;bF f hl} js ljR5b] g eO{
c;/ljxLg aG5g\ t/ l86/h]G6sf cjoj df6fdf hl} js ljR5]bg xFb' g} g\ . o:tf cjoj
df6fdf /lx/xG5g\ . o;n] ubf{ df6fsf] agfj6 lauG| 5 . xflgsf/s l86/hG] 6sf] 3fn]
af]6la?jfdf k/d] f ltgsf] jl[ 4 ljsf;df c;/ u5{ . o:tf /;fog kfgLdf kU' bf hnLo
hLj dg{ ;S5g\ .

-cf_ jftfj/0fdf cJojl:yt wfts' f] k|efj (Environmental effect due to poor

management of metals)

b}lgs hLjgdf cfjZos kg{] ljleGg ;fdu|L wft'sf] k|ofu] af6 agfOG5g\ . xfdL af6fdf
lx8F b\ f slxns] fxLF kmflnPsf] cj:yfdf An]8, kmnfdsf lsnf, l6gsf a6\6f cflb e]6\5fF} .
o:tf j:t' df6fdf ;lhn} sl' xFb}gg\ . ko| f]udf gcfpg] wfts' f j:t' hyfefjL kmfNbf jftfj/0f

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

200

kb| i" f0f xG' 5 . o;sf] lgoGq0f ug{ Jojl:yt ¿kdf wft'hGo kmfx] f/] ;ªs\ ng u/L kg' M k|ofu]
jf kg' M rj|m0f ug{k' 5{ .

sx] L wft' ljiffSt xG' 5g\ . l;;f (lead), kf/f] (mercury), sfa] fN6 (cobalt) cflb dfgj
:jf:Yosf nflu xflgsf/s xG' 5g\ . o:tf wft' kfgLdf ldl;bF f hnLo hLjnfO{ c;/ u5g{ \ . xfdf| ]
:jf:Yodf gsf/fTds ke| fj kfg{] wfts' f] plrt Joj:yfkgn] ltgsf] c;/af6 aRg ;lsG5 .

-O_ jftfj/0fdf cJojl:yt vlghsf] ke| fj (Environmental effect due to

poor management of minerals)

vlgh OGwgsf] cJojl:yt ko| fu] jfo' kb| i" f0fsf] Ps d'Vo sf/0f xf] . jtd{ fg ;dodf
OGwgsf ¿kdf sf]Onf, l8h]n, k6] f« n] cflbsf] cTolws k|ofu] ul/G5 . o:tf OGwg aNbf
xfjfdf wj' fF tyf sfa{g8fOcS;fO8sf] dfqf a95\ . jfo' k|b"if0f lgoGq0f ug{ o:tf OGwgsf]
ljsNkdf cGo ;|ft] sf] k|ofu] ug{k' 5{ .

vlghx¿ kz| fw] g ubf{ klg jftfj/0fdf ke| fj kb5{ . o;n] hn kb| i" f0f, jfo' kb| i" f0f, df6f]
kb| i" f0f xg' ] u5{ . rg' 9ª' u\ faf6 l;dG] 6 agfpbF f l;dG] 6 pBfu] jl/kl/sf] jftfj/0fdf ke| fj k5{ .
o:tf pBfu] sf e66\ Laf6 lg:sg] sfag{ 8fOcS;fO8n] kT| oIf ¿kdf jfo' kb| i" f0f ub5{ .

;f/f+z

tfk / ljBt' \ g;g,{] cwft' s]xL /f;folgs wft' tfk / ljB't\ ;g,]{
;fdfGotof g/d, g6lNsg] ;fdfGotof s8f, 6lNsg]
kbfy{ / 7f]lSsFbf ljzi] f vfnsf]
…l6ªu\ Ú cfjfh lbg]
/ 7fl] SsFbf ljzi] f vfnsf] d]lnPlaln6L / 8lS6ln6L
ePsf kbfyn{ fO{ wft'
…l6ª\uÚ cfjfh glbg] elgG5 .

d]lnPlaln6L / 8lS6ln6L

gePsf kbfy{nfO{ cwft'

elgG5 .

pbfx/0f Concept map 14 pbfx/0f
xfO8«f]hg, clS;hg, ;Nkm/, kmnfd, ;'g, rflF b, tfdf,
gfO6«f]hg, sfag{ , rf/sf]n,
sfO] nf, u|fkmfO6 cflb PlNdlgod cflb

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 201

cEof;

1. vfnL 7fpFdf ldNg] zAb eg'x{ f;] \ M

vlgh k|;f/0f wft' kmnfd

-s_ wfta' f6 tfk / ljBt' \ ;lhn} x'G5 .

-v_ kmnfd, tfdf, ;g' cflb sf pbfx/0f x'g\ .

-u_ nfO{ sfa{g;Fu ld>0f u/L ldl>t wft' O:kft (steel) agfOG5 .

2. tn lbPsf dWo]af6 ;xL ljsNk 5fGgx' f;] \ M
-s_ cwfts' f] u0' f tnsf dWo] s'g xf] <

-c_ lk6]/ kftnf] xg' ] -cf_ tf/ agfpg ;lsg]

-O_ ljB't\ kj| fx x'g ] -O_{ tfksf] s'rfns x'g]

-v_ tnsf dWo] sg' rflxF cwft' xf] <

-c_ l;;f -cf_ h:tf

-O_ clS;hg -O{_ ;g'

-u_ lbOPsf dWo] s'g kmnfdsf] ko| f]ucGtut{ k5{ <
-c_ h:tf;uF ld;fO lkQn (brass) agfpg
-cf_ 58, kftf, tf/ cflb agfpg
-O_ bj] Lb]jtfsf dl" t,{ l;Ssf, tSdf cflb agfpg
-O{_ bfFtsf] vfnL 7fpF eg{ tyf bftF df vf]n (crown) /fVg

-3_ wftx' ¿sf] ;d"x lrGg'xf;] \ .
-c_ sf7, /a/, Knfl:6s, h:tf
-cf_ kmnfd, sf7, tfdf, ;g'
-O_ rfbF L, kmnfd, tfdf, ;'g
-O_{ Knfl:6s, h:tf, tfdf, /a/

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

202

-ª_ s'g ljsNk al] 7s xf] <
-c_ kf/f] t/n cj:yfdf /xg] wft' xf] .
-cf_ k|foM cwftx' ¿ wfte' Gbf sd vFlbnf x'G5g\ .
-O_ cwft'x¿af6 ljzi] f lsl;dsf] æl6ªu\ Æ cfjfh pTkGg x'G5 .
-O_{ l;;f (lead) / kf/f] (mercury) dfgj :jf:Yosf nflu xflgsf/s xG' 5g\ .

3. km/s nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ wft' / cwft'
-v_ dl] nPlaln6L / 8lS6ln6L

4. tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ nV] gx' f;] \ M
-s_ wft' egs] f] s] xf] < wft' lrGg] sg' } tLg u'0f atfpgx' f];\ .
-v_ lbOPsf] j:t' cwft' xf] egL s;/L 7Dofpg ;lsG5 < sg' } bO' {cf6] f u'0fsf
cfwf/df nV] gx' f;] \ .
-u_ wfts' f s'g bO' c{ f6] f u0' fn] ubf{ logLx¿af6 efF8fs8F' f agfOG5 <
-3_ cwft' egs] f s] x'g\ < s'g} b'Oc{ f]6f pbfx/0f lbg'xf];\ .
-ª_ wft' / cwfts' f sg' } b'O{ bO' {cf]6f u0' f / b'O{ b'O{cf]6f pkofl] utf nV] gx' f];\ .
-r_ kmnfd, tfdf / ;g' sf b'O{ b'O{cf]6f pkofu] n]Vg'xf];\ .
-5_ bl} gs hLjgdf k|of]u x'g] ;fduL| sf] cJoj:yfkgn] jftfj/0fdf kg]{ ke| fjsf
af/d] f 5f6] s/Ldf JofVof ug{x' f;] \ .
-h_ tkfO‘s{ f] ljBfno jl/kl/ s:tf kmf]xf]/ 5g\ < pSt kmfx] / s;/L sd ug{
;lsG5, ljBfno kz| f;gsf nflu ;e' mfj tof/ kfg'{xf;] \ .
-em_ ;do ;dodf k6] «f]ndf l;;f ldl;Psf] ;dfrf/ ;'Ggdf cfpF5 . o;df jftfj/0f
ljbx\ ¿n] lgs} cfklQ hgfPsf] klg ;'lgG5 . o;/L cfklQ hgfpgk' g{] sf/0f
s] xfn] f, :ki6 kfg{x' f;] \ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 203

-`_ tkfO‘s{ f] j/k/sf] ;/;kmfO cj:yf, kmf]xf]/sf sf/0f, c;/ / ;dfwfgsf pkfo
;d6] L æxfdf| ] ufpF ;G' b/ 7fpÆF ljifodf Ps lgaGw tof/ kfg{'xf];\ .

zAbfy{
zNolrlsT;f M lr/kmf/ u/L ul/g] pkrf/ k4lt
:6]g l/d'e/ M /ª jf bfu x6fpg] /;fog
ljiffSt M z/L/sf] ;Dksd{ f cfpFbf xflg ug{] kbfy{
k;| f/0f M Ps :yfgaf6 csf{] :yfgdf ;g]{ sfd
;r' fns M ;lhn};uF k|;f/0f ug{]
ckjfb M ;fdfGo lgodleq gk/s] f] l:ylt
cJojl:yt M hfyfefjL ¿kn] k|ofu] ug{,] Jojl:yt gePsf]

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

204

PsfO 11 kY[ jL / cGtl/If

(The Earth and Space)

11.1 Dff6f] (Soil)

lj|mofsnfk 11.1
cfk\mgf] j/k/af6 b'O{ 566\ f56' \6} 7fpsF f] df6f] ;ª\sng ugx{' f];\ . tL b'O{ gd'gfsf]
tn' gfTds cWoog ugx{' f];\ . ;"Id ¿kdf cjnfs] g ug{ xft] n]G;sf] ko| f]u ugx'{ f;] \ .
cWoogsf tYofª\snfO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf eg'{xf;] \ / ;fyLx¿;Fu 5nkmn u/L lgisif{
lgsfNg'xf];\ .

tflnsf g= 11.1

gdg' f df6fdf s] s] s0fsf cfsf/ sqf /ª s:tf] cfl] ;nf] 5 ls

gdg' f ! 5g\ < sqf 5g\ < 5< 5}g <
gd'gf @

ljm| ofsnfk 11.2
;'Svf df6f] lngx' f];\ . Pp6f ljs/df cfwf kfgL /fVgx' f];\ . df6fnfO{ kfgLdf /fVgx' f;] \ .
s] kfgLaf6 xfjfsf] kmfs] fx¿ cfPsf] b]Vge' of] < o;af6 s] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;Sg'xG' 5 <

ljm| ofsnfk 11.3
Ps d7' L df6f] ljs/df /fVg'xf;] \ . o;nfO{ jfr Unf;n] 9fSgx' f];\ . s]xL a]/ ttfpg'xf];\ .
ca s]xL ;do lr:ofpg'xf;] \ . jfr Unf;sf] leqL efudf kfgLsf yf]kfx¿ sxfFaf6 cfof]
xf]nf < o; lj|mofsnfkaf6 s] lgisif{ lgsfNg ;Sgx' G' 5 <

k[YjLsf] clwsfz+ hldgsf] efu df6fsf] txn] 9fs]sf] 5 . df6f] Ps dxìjk"0f{ k|fsl[ ts
;|ft] xf] . r6\6fg tyf vlghsf 6j' |mfx¿ / hl} js kbfy{x¿ ldn]/ df6f] ags] f] x'G5 .
df6f]df r6\6fgsf 6'j|mfx¿ w'nf,] afn'jf jf 9ª' \ufsf] ¿kdf /x]sf x'G5g\ . hLjx¿ d//]

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 205

df6f]df ldN5g\ . o;/L ag]sf] kbfy{x¿ hl} js kbfy{ x'g\ . sDkf]:6 dn h}ljs kbfys{ f]
pbfx/0f xf] . ljleGg k|sf/sf ls6f0f', 9;' L, u8\ofn} f / sL/fx¿n] hl} js kbfy{ agfpg
of]ubfg k¥' ofpF5g\ . la?jfsf efux¿ s'lxP/ ag]sf] hl} js kbfyn{ fO{ x\od' ; (Humus)
elgG5 . r6\6fgdf kfgL / xfjf klg ldl;Psf] x'G5 . df6fdf a:g] ;;fgf hLjx¿ ToxL
xfjf / kfgLsf sf/0f afFRg ;s]sf x'g\ . df6fd] f xg' ] kbfyx{ ¿sf] lsl;d / k|sf/cg';f/
df6f] ljleGg k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . h:t} xo\ 'd; w]/} ePsf] df6f] dlnnf] xG' 5 . anf}6] df6fdf
afnj' fsf] dfqf w]/} xG' 5 .

df6f] aGg] kl| j|mof (Process of soil formation)

ljm| ofsnfk 11.4
b'O{cf6] f 9ª' u\ fsf 6'jm| fx¿ Ps cfk;df /u8\gx' f;] \ . s] eof] cjnf]sg ug'{xf;] \ . o;
lj|mofsnfksf cfwf/df df6f] aGg] kl| jm| ofsf] af/]df 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .

r66\ fg lj36g k|ljm| ofaf6 df6f] aGg] u5{ . k[YjLsf] ;txdf ePsf r66\ fg / vlghx¿
6l' jm| g] k|ljm| ofnfO{ lj36g (weathering) elgG5 . r66\ fgsf] lj36g k|lj|mof dV' otof xfjf,
kfgL / hnjfoå' f/f x'G5 . hldgdf df6f] lgDglnlvt kl| jm| ofx¿af6 aGg] ub5{ .
-s_ gbLgfnf, vfn] f, em/gf cflbn] kxf8af6 7n' f 7n' f 9ª' u\ f aufP/ Nofp5F g\ . To;/L

kfgLdf au/] cfPsf 9ª' u\ fx¿ cfk;df 7fl] sP/ 6l' jm| G5g\ . of] kl| jm| of nfdf] ;do;Dd
rln/xG5 . o;af6 ;;fgf s0fx¿, luvf{ cflb aG5g\ . o; kl| jm| ofaf6 df6f] aGg kU' 5 .
-v_ lbgsf] tftf] / /ftsf] lr;f]n] ubf{ r6\6fgx¿ tfTg] / ;n] fpg] eO/xG5g\ . w]/} jif;Dd
of] kl| jmof rln/xbF f r6\6fg 6'ljm| g uO{ ;;fgf 6j' m| fx¿ aG5g\ . oL 6'j|mfx¿af6 df6f]
aG5 .
-u_ r66\ fgsf] l5b| jf Kjfndf kfgL l5bf{ klg r66\ fgnfO{ 6j' m| ofpg dbt ub5{ / df6f] aG5 .
-3_ r6\6fg kmf6]sf] 7fpFdf pd]s| f af]6 la?jfx¿n] la:tf/} r6\6fgnfO{ sdhf]/ agfpF5g\
/ r6\6fg 6l' jm| g yfN5 . o;/L r66\ fg 6'ljm| P/ df6f] aGg dbt ub5{ .
-ª_ hf]8;Fu xfjf axbF f r6\6fgsf] ;tx lvOg uO{ afn'jf h:tf s0fx¿ lg:sG5g\ /
df6fd] f kl/0ft x'G5g\ .

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

206

df6fsf] kf| k] mfOn (Soil profile) lrq 11.1

ljm| ofsnfk 11.5
sg' } 7fpFsf] df6fsf] gd'gf ;ªs\ ng ug{x' f];\ . Pp6f kf/bzL{
sfFrsf] a66\ fdf cfwf hlt kfgL /fVg'xf;] \ . ;ªs\ lnt df6f]nfO{
kfgLdf vGofpgx' f];\ . df6fn] fO{ kfgLdf /fdf| ;] Fu ld;fpg a6\6fnfO{
sx] L ;do xNnfpgx' f;] \ . To;kl5 pSt a66\ fnfO{ grnfOsg
s]xL ;do l:y/ /fVg'xf];\ . ca ;Fu}sf] lrqdf bv] fOP h:t}
5'6l\ 6g] txx¿sf] cjnf]sg ug{x' f];\ .

df6fdf h}ljs kbfyx{ ¿

hDdf x'G5g\ / kfgLdf

ldl;P/ jm| dzM tnlt/ topsoil
;b{} hfG5g\ . o;/L tnlt/

;b{} hfFbf df6fdf ljleGg subsoil
txx¿sf] ljsf; xG' 5 . sg' }

7fpsF f] hldgsf] ;txbl] v

tn leqL efu ;Ddsf parent rock C-horizon
df6fsf txx¿ bl] vg] u/L
bedrock

lvlrPsf] lrqnfO{ ;f]

7fpF sf] df6fsf] k|fk] mfOn lrq 11.2 df6fsf] k|f]kmfOn

elgG5 . ctM df6fsf

ljleGg txx¿ eP/ hfg] Ps 7f8f] v08nfO{ df6fsf] k|fk] mfOn elgG5 . df6fsf] k|f]kmfOndf

k|Tos] txsf] agfj6, /ª, ulx/fO / /f;folgs ;+/rgfdf km/s km/s x'G5 . df6fsf dV' o

txx¿ lgDgfg';f/ /xs] f xG' 5g\ M

!= klxnf] tx (Top soil or A- horizon)

of] df6fsf] kf| k] mfOnsf] ;ae} Gbf dflyNnf] tx xf] . o;df k|foM uf9f /ªsf] df6f] xG' 5 .
of] dn, kfgL, xfjf / vlghaf6 ags] f] x'G5 . o; txdf xg' ] dnn] df6fnfO{ v'sn' f]

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 207

agfpg] / kfgL wf/0f Ifdtf a9fpg] u5{ . of] tx af]6la?jfx¿sf] j[l4 / ljsf;sf
nflu pkofu] L x'G5 .

@= bf];f| ] tx (Sub soil or B-horizon)
o; txdf dnsf] dfqf sd x'G5 eg] vlghsf] dfqf clws x'G5 . klxnf] txaf6
;fl] ;P/ hfg] kfgLn] vlghx¿nfO{ o; txdf k'¥ofp5F . of] tx ;fdfGotof vfFlbPsf]
/ s8f xG' 5 .

#= t;] |f] tx (C- horizon)
of] dn lagfsf] tx xf] . o; txdf r66\ fgsf ;;fgf luvfx{ ¿ ldl;Psf x'G5g\ . of]
tx d'VotofM d"n r66\ fg (parent rock) af6 ags] f] xG' 5 . o;sf] tn s8f r66\ fg
(bedrock) sf] tx x'G5 .

eI" fo (Erosion) / lgIfk] 0f (deposition)

cfˆgf] j/k/ Ps 7fpF sf] df6f] csf{] 7fpdF f p8fPsf], aufPsf] jf v;s] f] cj:yf cjnf]sg
ug{'xf];\ . o;f] x'g'sf sf/0f s] xf]nf < 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ .
hldgsf] ;tx lvOP/ hfg] jf elTsP/ hfg] ljm| ofnfO{ eI" fo (erosion) elgG5 . klx/f]df
hldg elTsP/ tnlt/ v:g,' kfgLn] hldgsf] ;tx aufP/ n}hfg', xfjfn] Ps 7fpsF f] df6f]
p8fP/ csf]{ 7fpFdf nh} fg' cflb eI" fosf pbfx/0fx¿ x'g\ . xfjfsf] a]un] p8fP/ jf kfgLsf]
au] n] aufP/ Ps 7fFpsf] df6fnfO{ csf]{ 7fpF df nu/] y'kfl/lbG5 . o;/L Ps 7fpsF f] df6f]
cGo 7fpFdf uP/ y'lk|g] ljm| ofnfO{ lgIf]k0f (deposition) elgG5 . eI" fo / lgIf]k0f Ps;F+u}
csf]{ :jefljs ¿kn] x'g] k|ljm| ofx¿ x'g\ . eI" fo kf| oM anf6} ] df6f] ePsf :yfgx¿df /
af6] la?jf gePsf v'nf hldgx¿df x'G5 .

df6fsf] ;+/If0f (Conservation of soil)

s] tkfO‘{n] vfn] f jf gbL lsgf/df kmnfd] hfnL;lxtsf kvf{n nufPsf] b]Vg'ePsf] 5 < s]
vfn] f lsgf/f jf vfnL 7fFpdf jI[ f/f]k0f u/]sf] b]Vg'ePsf] 5 < le/fnf] hldgdf u/f agfP/
vt] L u/s] f] bV] g'ePsf] 5 < oL ;a} ugs{' f] p2Z] o s] xf]nf <

xfdf| ] bz] df jiff{ ofdsf] af9L / kxf8L eu] df hfg] klx/fn] ] a;l]{ g e"Ifo x'g] u5{ . tLj| ultsf]

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

208

xfjfn] klg e"Ifo xg' ] u5{ . o;/L x'g] eI" fo sd ug]{ jf /fS] g] lj|mofnfO{ df6fsf] ;/+ If0f
elgG5 . df6fsf] ;+/If0fsf nflu lgDglnlvt pkfox¿ ckgfpg ;lsG5 M
!= gbLsf] s6fgn] xg' ] e"Ifo /fS] g gbL 5]p5fpsf] hldgdf alnof] afwF afFWgk' 5{ .

@= xfjfn] ubf{ x'g] eI" fo /fS] gsf nflu hf]8n] axg] xfjf 5S] g] u/L ?vx¿ /fK] gk' 5{ .

#= af6] la?jfx¿sf h/fn] df6fnfO{ sl;nf] agfP/ /fV5g\ . To;}n] gfFªu\ f 8fF8fx¿df
klx/f] hfg glbg j[If/f]k0f ug'{k5{ .

$= hª\un km8fgL tyf ?vla?jfx¿ hyfefjL sf6g\ fn] df6f] vs' n' f] aG5 . o;n]
eI" fosf] ;Defjgf a9g\ ] ePsfn] o:tf lj|mofsnfkx¿ ug{' xFb' g} .

%= dflg;n] le/fnf] hldgdf ug]{ v]ltkftLsf sfdx¿n] xg' ] eI" fo sd ug{ tx txsf
u/f agfP/ vt] L ugk'{ 5{ .

ljm| ofsnfk 11.6

eI" fo / lgIfk] 0faf/] >JobZ[ o ;fdu|Lsf] cjnf]sg ugx{' f;] \ . s'g sg' sf/0fn] s:tf]
:yfgdf eI" fo x'G5 < To;n] kg{] c;/ / /f]syfdsf pkfo tnsf] h:t} tflnsfdf
eg{'xf];\ . lgIf]k0fsf ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds kIfx¿af/] sIffdf 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .

tflnsf g= 11.2

eI" fosf sf/0fx¿ ;Defljt :yfg kg{] c;/ /f]syfdsf] pkfo

klx/f] ========================== ========================== =============================

df6f] k|b"if0f (Soil pollution)

dflg;n] cTolws pTkfbgsf nflu df6fdf ljleGg k|sf/sf /;fogx¿sf] ko| f]u ug]{
u5g{ \ . ;fy} b}lgs ljm| ofsnfksf j|mddf Knfl:6s tyf xflgsf/s wftx' ¿, snsf/vfgfaf6
lg:sg] /;fogx¿ clb df6fd] f ld;fpg] u5g{ \ . o:tf lj|mofsnfkx¿n] df6fsf] u0' f:t/
lauG| 5 . o;/L df6fdf afXo ¿kdf cgfjZos /;fog jf cGo kbfy{ ldl;P/ o;sf]
u0' f:t/ lau|g'nfO{ df6f] k|b"if0f elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 209

df6f] k|b"if0fsf sf/0f, c;/ / lgoGq0fsf pkfox¿

ljm| ofsnfk 11.7
j/k/sf] df6fsf ;DaGwdf bx] fPsf cj:yfx¿ cjnfs] g ugx'{ f];\ .

tflnsf g= 11.3

cjnf]sg ug]{ kIf cjnf]sgsf jm| ddf bl] vPsf] cj:yf

df6fdf s:tf kmfx] f]/x¿ ld;fOPsf 5g\ < s'lxg] gs'lxg]

df6fdf ld;fOPsf] dnsf] ks| f/ uf]j/ dn÷sDkf:] 6 dn /f;folgs dn

df6f] ld;fOPsf cGo kbfy{x¿ ================= ======================

=================================== ============================== ======================

cjnfs] gaf6 kf| Kt tYofª\sf cfwf/df df6f] k|bi" f0fsf sf/0fx¿sf ;DaGwdf s] lgisif{ lgsfNg
;lsG5 <

df6f] k|b"lift x'g'sf] d'Vo sf/0f dfgjLo ultljlw xf] . dfgjLo lj|mofsnfkn] xg' ] df6f]
kb| "if0fsf sf/0f, c;/ / lgoGq0fsf pkfox¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M
1. dflg;x¿ df6faf6 pTkfbg a9fpg cToflws dfqfdf /f;folgs dn / sL6gfzs

cfi} fwLsf] k|ofu] u5g{ \ . o;/L k|of]u ul/g] /f;folgs dn / sL6gfzs cf}ifwLn]
df6f]df kfOg] pkof]uL ;"Id hLjx¿nfO{ df5g{ \ / df6fn] fO{ ;S' vf agfpF5g\ . o;/L
pTkfbg ul/Psf pAhgLx¿sf] pkef]u ubf{ dfgj :jf:Yodf klg c;/ k5{ . t;y{
/f;folgs dn / sL6gfzs cfi} fwLsf] ​k​o| f]u 36fO{ h}ljs dn / hl} js sL6gfzs
cfi} fwLsf] k|ofu] a9fpg' /fdf| ] x'G5 .
2. snsf/vfgfaf6 lg:sg] kmfx] /x¿nfO{ df6f]df kmfNgfn] o;sf] u0' fdf xf| ; cfp5F .
o;n] df6fdf a:g] hLjx¿nfO{ klg c;/ u5{ . t;y{ snsf/vfgfaf6 lg:sg] kmf]xf/]
jf /;fogx¿ df6fd] f ld;fpg'cl3 xflg/lxt ug{'k5{ .
3. kfl] nlyg emf]nf / cGo Knfl:6sx¿ df6fd] f kmfNgfn] ToxfF a:g] hLjx¿ db5{ g\ .
To:tf 7fpdF f af]6la?jfx¿ /fdf| ;] uF pdg| / xs' g{ ;Sb}gg\ . To;}n] kfl] nlyg emf]nfx¿
/ cGo Knfl:6ssf ;fduL| x¿sf] k|ofu] 36fpgk' 5{ .

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

210

kl/of]hgf sfo{

df6f] kb| i" f0f ug]{ sx] L dfgjLo ultljlwx¿ tn lbOPsf 5g\ . oL / o:t} cGo ultljlwx¿n]

df6fdf kfg{] c;/ / /f]syfdsf sf/0fx¿ cjnf]sg, vf]h tyf 5nkmn u/L tflnsfdf

k|:t't ug{'xf];\ .

tflnsf g= 11.4

ljm| ofsnfkx¿ df6fdf kg{] c;/ /f]syfdsf] pkfo

df6fdf ljleGg ks| f/sf /;folgs dnx¿ /fVg] ======================== ========================

af6] la?jfdf ljiffbL /fVg] ======================== ========================

df6fdf Knfl:6snufotsf j:t' kmfNg] ======================== ========================

pBf]uaf6 lg:s]sf kmfx] f]/ kmfNg] ======================== ========================

====================================== ======================== ========================

==================================== ======================== ========================

11.2 kY[ jL (The earth)

s]xL a]/ ljrf/ u/f}F t xfdL sxfF al;/xs] f 5f}F < xfdf|
3/, uf7] , ljBfno sxfF ag]sf 5g\ < xfdL vn] db} fg,
af6f], gx/, sn' f] cflb sxfF agfp5F fF} < xfdLn] vfg]
cgfh, ;fukft, kmnkm"n cflbsf af6] la?jf sxfF
pd|G5g\ <

oL ;a} j:tx' ¿ k[YjLsf] ;txdf xG' 5g\ . kY[ jL xfdL lrq g= 11.3
;a}sf] ;femf 3/ xf] . o;sf] cfs[lt uf]nfsf/ 5
elgP klg of] esG' 8f] h:tf] ufn] fsf/ 5g} . o;sf]
e"dWo /v] Lo efu kms' ]sf] / w'|jLo efu y]lKrPsf]
5.

:ynd08n (lithosphere), hnd08n (hydrosphere) / jfod' 08n (atmosphere)
u/L kY[ jLnfO{ tLg efudf afFl8Psf] 5 . kY[ jLdf /xs] f] hldgsf] efunfO{ :ynd08n /
kfgLsf] efunfO{ hnd08n elgG5 . kY[ jLsf] ;txnfO{ rf/}lt/af6 xfjfn] 3/] s] f] 5, h;nfO{
jfod' 08n elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 211

kY[ jLsf] leqL agfj6 (Internal structure of the earth)

Pp6f ef]u6,] ;'Gtnf jf crust
sfutLsf] bfgfnfO{ cfwf mantle
cfwf xg' ] u/L sf6f}F / /fd|f;] Fu core
cjnf]sg u/fF} . s] o;sf] leqL
/ aflx/L efu Ps}gf;sf] x'G5,
xb'F g} . o;} k|sf/n] Hjfnfd'vL

lj:kmf6] af6 lgl:sPsf] nfefsf]
cWoogaf6 kd| fl0ft xG' 5 ls
k[YjLsf] aflx/L efu s8f / lr;f]

b]lvP klg o;sf] leqL efu eg] lrq g= 11.4

tftf] / kUns] f] cj:yfdf 5 .

k[YjLsf] aflx/L efudf kxf8, d}bfg, ;db' | / 7f]; r66\ fgx¿ b]lvP klg leqL efudf kUns] f

r66\ fg / wft'x¿ 5g\ . k[YjLsf] leqL efunfO{ r6\6fgsf] cj:yf / agfj6sf lx;fan] tLg
txdf afFl8Psf] 5 M

-s_ j|m:6 (Crust)
-v_ DofG6n (Mantle)
-u_ sf]/ (Core)

lj|mofsnfk 11.8

sv' /' fsf] Pp6f pl;gs] f] cG8f Nofpgx' f];\ .
o;sf] aflx/L afj] |mf] gkmfnLsg bO' { efu x'g] u/L
sf6\gx' f];\ . ca o;sf] agf6] nfO{ kY[ jLsf]
agf]6;uF t'ngf ug{x' f;] \ .

lrq g= 11.5
sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

212

j|m:6 (Crust)

lj|mofsnfk 11.8 df cG8fsf] aflx/L afj] |mf] eg]h:t} kY[ jLsf] ;a}eGbf aflx/L efunfO{ j|m:6
elgG5 . of] kY[ jLsf] 50 ls=ld= tn;Dd km}lnPsf] x'G5 . df6f] tyf r66\ fgaf6 kY[ jLsf]
jm| :6 ags] f] xG' 5 . o; txdf d"ntM l;lns]6 vlgh /x]sf] xG' 5 . hldgdl'g /xs] f] kfgLsf]
efu klg oxL txdf /xs] f] xG' 5 . jm| :6sf] dflyNnf] ;txdf 3/ agfpg,] vt] LkftL ug]{,
la?jf /fK] g], af6f]3f6f] agfpg] cflb sfd ul/G5 . gbL, ;db' ,| hª\un, kxf8 cflb o;}
txsf] ;txdf x'G5g\ . k[YjLsf] oxL efudf r66\ fg, wft', sf]Onf tyf t]nsf vfgL /x]sf
xG' 5g\ .

DofG6n (Mantle)

lj|mofsnfk 11.8 df cG8fsf] ;t] f] efu egh] :t} kY[ jLsf] j|m:6eGbf tn /xs] f] efunfO{
DofG6n elgG5 . o;sf] df]6fO sl/a 2900 ls=ld=;Dd x'G5 eg] tfkj|md 750 b]lv 2500
l8u|L ;l] N;o;;Dd xg' ;S5 . of] efu s8f l;lns6] , kmnfd, DofUg]l;od h:tf vlghaf6
ag]sf] x'G5 . o; txsf r6\6fg jm| :6sf eGbf 2 b]lv 3 u0' ff a9L vlF bnf x'G5g\ .

sf]/ (Core)

lj|mofsnfk 11.8 df cG8fsf] kx]Fnf] efu;uF k[YjLsf] sf/] nfO{ tn' gf ug{ ;lsG5 . sf/]
;ae} Gbf leqL efu xf] . o;nfO{ b'O{ efudf afFl8Psf] 5 .

-c_ aflx/L sf]/ (Outer core)

sf]/sf] aflx/L efunfO{ aflx/L sf/] / leqL efunfO{ leqL sf]/ elgG5 . aflx/L
sf]/sf] df]6fO sl/a 2100 ls=ld= x'G5 eg] tfkj|md sl/a 2500 b]lv 3000 l8uL|
;l] N;o;;Dd x'G5 . o; sf]/df kmnfd, sf]afN6, lgs]n h:tf ux|f}F wft' / r6\6fg
klUnPsf] cj:yfdf /x]sf xG' 5g\ .

-cf_ leqL sf]/ (Inner core)

k[YjLsf] ;a}eGbf leqL efunfO{ leqL sf]/ elgG5 . o; efusf] df]6fO sl/a 1300
ls=ld= x'G5 eg] tfkjm| d sl/a 3000 bl] v 5000 l8u|L ;l] N;o;;Dd xG' 5 . o;
efusf r66\ fgx¿ aflx/L sf]/sf eGbf 5 u'0ff;Dd uxf| F} x'G5g\ . leqL sf]/df
cTolws rfk xg' ] ePsfn] kUns] f j:t' klg sl;P/ 7f]; xG' 5g\ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 213

lj|mofsnfk 11.9

sx] L dfqfdf df6f] jf ux'Fsf] lk7f] jf k'/fgf cvaf/, rf/ k|sf/sf /ª / kfgL Nofpgx' f];\ .
pSt df6f,] lk7f] jf cvaf/nfO{ kfgL;uF ld;fP/ lunf] 8Nnf] agfpgx' f;] \ . o;/L ags] f]
esG' 8f] h:tf] 8Nnf]nfO{ rSss' f] ;xfotfn] laraf6 sf6\gx' f];\ . sf6]sf] pSt leqL
efunfO{ /ª nufO{ kY[ jLsf] leqL ;/+ rgf h:tf] agfO{ sIffdf kb| zg{ ug{'xf;] \ .

lrq g= 11.5

lj|mofsnfk 11.10

kY[ jLsf] leqL agfj6sf ljleGg txx¿sf] cWoog u/L kf| Kt ljj/0fnfO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf
k|:tt' ugx{' f];\ .

tflnsf g= 11.5

j|m=;= tx df]6fO tfkjm| d cj:yf kfOg] kbfy{

1. j|mi6

2. DofG6n

3. aflx/L sf/]

4. leqL sf/]

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

214

;fo} { d08ndf k[YjL (The earth in the solar system)

ljm| ofsnfk 11.11
6]a'ndfly jf hldgdf bL3{jQ[ fsf/ (eliptical) 3]/f agfpgx' f];\ . pSt 3]/fsf lardf
Pp6f ljm| s6] an jf sfutLsf] bfgf /fVg'xf;] \ . ca bL3j{ Q[ fsf/ 3/] f xFb' } Pp6f uR' rf jf
6df6/sf] ;fgf] bfgfnfO{ u'8fpbF } 3d' fpgx' f;] \ .
1. s] uR' rf / lj|ms]6anlarsf] b/' L ;w}F a/fa/ xG' 5 <
2. sg' sg' cj:yfdf uR' rf / ljm| s6] anlarsf] b/' L a/fa/ xG' 5, cjnfs] g ugx{' f;] \ .

lrq g= 11.6
kY[ jLsf] sG] b| eO{ pQ/L / blIf0fL wj'| nfO{ hf8] g\ ] sfNklgs /v] fnfO{ cIf (axis) elgG5 . o:t}
kY[ jLn] ;o" n{ fO{ kl/jm| df ug{] dfun{ fO{ sIf (orbit) elgG5 . kY[ jL lgoldt ¿kdf cfˆgf] cIf /
;o" s{ f] jl/kl/ sIfdf 3D' 5 . kY[ jLnfO{ cfkmg\ f] cIfsf] jl/kl/ 3D' g nueu 24 306f nfU5 eg]
;o" s{ f] jl/kl/ sIfdf 3D' g nueu 365 lbg nfU5 .

lrq g= 11.7

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 215

ljm| ofsnfk 11.12
Pp6f Unf]a / Pp6f an]sf] d}gaQL Nofpgx' f;] \ . aQLsf] jl/kl/ bL3{jQ[ fsf/ 3/] f
agfpgx' f];\ . Pp6f cFWof/f] sf]7fdf Unfa] nfO{ aQLsf] glhs /fv]/ la:tf/} cfˆgf] cIf
/ aQLsf] jl/kl/ cG8fsf/ 3/] fdf 3'dfpgx' f];\ . Unfa] nfO{ k[YjL / aQLnfO{ ;"o{ dfg/]
lgDglnlvt cWoog ug'{xf;] \ M

lrq g= 11.8
1. kY[ jL cfˆgf] cIfsf] jl/kl/ 3'Dbf lbg / /ft stf stf k5{ <
2. k[YjL ;"os{ f] jl/kl/ 3'Dbf sg' cj:yfdf hf8f] / sg' cj:yfdf udL{ x'G5, cg'dfg

ug'{xf;] \ .
3. kY[ jL ;o" s{ f] jl/kl/ 3D' bf s] ;a} efudf lbg / /ft a/fa/ xG' 5 < olb xbF' g} eg]

sg' cj:yfdf /ft nfdf] / sg' cj:yfdf lbg nfdf] xG' 5, cgd' fg u/L atfpgx' f;] \ .

kY[ jLsf] sIfLo w/ftn (orbital plane) df kY[ jLsf] cIf nDa ¿kdf g/xL 66.5° sf0] fdf
9lNsPsf] 5 . To;n} ] k[YjL sIfsf] ;txdf 66.5° sf] sf0] f agfO{ 3'D5 . o;k|sf/sf]
3d' fOaf6 k[YjLdf lgDglnlvt ke| fj k/s] f] kfOG5 M
1. kY[ jLsf] e"dWo/]vfafx]s cGo :yfgdf lbg / /ft ;w}F a/fa/ xFb' g} g\ . slxn] lbg

nfdf], /ft 5f]6f] / slxn] lbg 5f]6f] / /ft nfdf] x'G5 .
2. k[YjLsf] ;a} 7fpdF f Ps} ks| f/sf] Ct' xFb' g} . Ct'df kl/jtg{ eO/xG5 .
3. k[YjLsf] Ps} 7fpFdf ;"os{ f] ls/0f hlxn] klg nDa ¿kn] kbg{} .

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

216

Ct' kl/jt{g (Season change)

dfly eg]h:t} k[YjLn] 365 lbgdf ;"on{ fO{ bL3{jQ[ fsf/ sIfdf Ps kmGsf nufpF5 . o;/L
3D' bf kY[ jL slxn] ;"o{sf] glhs x'G5 eg] slxn] ;o" {af6 6f9f x'G5 . k[YjL cfˆgf] sIfLo
w/ftndf 66.5o sf] sf0] f agfO{ ;"on{ fO{ kl/jm| df ug]{ j|mddf s'g} :yfgdf ;o" {sf] ls/0f l;wf
kg{] / s'g} :yfgdf 58s\ ] kg{] xG' 5 . l;wf kg{] efu a9L tfltg] / 58s\ ] kg{] efu sd tfltg]
xG' 5 . cGt/f{li6o« ¿kdf Ps jif{nfO{ lgDgfg;' f/ rf/ Ct'df ljefhg ul/Psf] kfOG5 M

-c_ l:kª| l;hg (spring season) : dfr{ 21 b]lv hg' 22 ;Dd pQ/L ufn] fwd{ f l:k|ª
l;hg x'G5 .

-cf_ ;d/ l;hg (summer season) : hg' 22 bl] v ;K] 6D] a/ 23 ;Dd pQ/L ufn] fw{df
;d/ l;hg xG' 5 .

-O_ c6d l;hg (autumn season) : ;]K6]Da/ 23 b]lv l8;D] a/ 22 ;Dd pQ/L
ufn] fw{df c6d l;hg x'G5 .

-O_{ ljG6/ l;hg (winter season) : l8;]Da/ 22 b]lv dfr{ 21 ;Dd pQ/L ufn] fw{df
ljG6/ l;hg x'G5 .

March 21

spring winter

June 21 December 22

summer autumn

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ September 23

lrq g= 11.9

217

l:kª| l;hg (spring season)

pQ/L ufn] fwd{ f lxpFbkl5 l:k|ª l;hg cfpF5 . of] l;hg ;?' ePb]lv lbg nfdf] / /ft
5f6] f] xb'F } hfG5 . gk] fndf of] l;hg kmfu'gbl] v j}zfv;Dd /xG5 . nueu rq} & (March
21) ut] lbg / /ft a/fa/ x'G5 . l:k|ª l;hg ;?' ePkl5 3fF; tyf af6] la?jfsf kft
knfpg yfN5g\ .

;d/ l;hg (summer season)

pQ/L ufn] f4{df l:kª| kl5 ;d/ l;hg cfp5F . o; Ctd' f w/] } udL{ xG' 5 . o; Ct'sf]
cjlwdf lbg nfdf] / /ft 5f]6f] x'G5 . gk] fndf of] l;hg h]7b]lv ;fpg;Dd /xG5 . nueu
c;f/ & (June 21) uts] f lbg ;a}eGbf nfdf] / /ft ;ae} Gbf 5f]6f] x'G5 .

c6d l;hg (autumn season)

;d/kl5 c6d l;hg cfp5F . g]kfndf of] l;hg ebfb} ]lv sflQs;Dd /xG5 . of] cjlwdf
pQ/L / blIf0fL ufn] f4d{ f a/fa/ ¿kdf ;"o{sf] ls/0f kg{] ePsfn] lbg / /ft a/fa/ x'G5 .
nueu c;f]h & (September 23) ut] lbg / /ft a/fa/ xG' 5 .

ljG6/ l;hg (winter season)

c6dkl5 ljG6/ l;hg cfpF5 . of] ;dodf kY[ jLsf] pQ/L ufn] fwd{ f ;"os{ f] ls/0f 58\s] k5{
/ j|mdzM lbg 5f6] f / /ft nfdf xG' 5g\ . gk] fndf of] l;hg dªl\ ;/bl] v df3;Dd /xG5 .
nueu k;' & (December 22) ut] lbg ;ae} Gbf 5f]6f] / /ft ;ae} Gbf nfdf] xG' 5 .

g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df Ct' (Season in contest of Nepal)

gk] fnsf] ;Gbed{ f bO' { b'O{ dlxgfsf] cjlwnfO{ Ps Ct' dfgL hDdf 5cf]6f Ctx' ¿ k|rngdf
/x]sf 5g,\ h'g o;ks| f/ 5g\ M
1. j;Gt Ct' (spring season) M rt} / jz} fv
2. u|Lid Ct' (summer season) M h7] / c;f/
3. jif{f Ct' (rainy season) : ;fpg / ebf}
4. z/b\ Ct' (autumn season) : c;fh] / sflQs
5. xd] Gt Ct' (pre-winter season) : dªl\ ;/ / k';
6. lzlz/ Ct' (winter season) : df3 / kmfu'g

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

218

kl/ofh] gf sfo{
g]kfnsf] ;Gbed{ f rf6k{ k] /df lrq agfO{ ljleGg k|sf/sf Ct'sf] ljzi] ftf / pSt Ctd' f
ul/g] sl[ if sfon{ fO{ bv] fpg'xf;] \ .

11.3 ;f}o{d08n (Solar System)

ljm| ofsnfk 11.13

/ftsf] ;dodf vn' f cfsfznfO{ lgofn/] xg] x{' f];\ . ToxfF bl] vg] ljleGg ks| f/sf rlDsnf
j:t'df s] s:tf] leGgtf kfpgx' G' 5, csf{] lbg sIffdf atfpg'xf;] \ .

-c_ s] tkfOn{ ] bV] g] ;a} cfsfzLo lk08x¿sf] rds p:t} 5 <
-cf_ lbgdf b]Vg] ;"o{ / /ftdf bV] g] tf/fx¿sf] rdsdf s] cGt/ kfpg' xG' 5 <

/ftL vn' f cfsfzdf cgulGt rlDsnf lk08x¿ b]lvG5g\ . tLdWo] clwsf+z lk08x¿
tf/f x'g\ . tf/f afx]ssf bl] vg] cGo lk08x¿ ux| , pku|x, lzzu' |x, pNsf lk08, k'5t]«| f/f
cflb xg' \ . lbgdf bl] vg] ;o" { klg Pp6f tf/f xf] . of] k[YjLsf] ;a}eGbf glhssf] tf/f xf] .
;"o,{ ux| x¿ / ltgsf pkux| Pjd\ cGo ;;fgf cfsfzLo lk08x¿ ldn]/ ag]sf] Pp6f
kl/jf/nfO{ ;fo} d{ 08n elgG5 . ;f}o{d08ndf /x]sf ;a}h;f] lk08x¿n] ;o" {nfO{ sG] b| dfg]/
cfcfkmg\ f] sIfdf /xL ;o" s{ f] kl/j|mdf ub{5g\ .

;"o{ (Sun)

;f}o{ d08nsf] k|d'v sG] b| ;"o{ xf] . ;"os{ f] u'¿Tjfsif{0f lrq 11.10 ;o" {
ansf] k|efjn] cGo cfsfzLo lk08x¿n] ;o" {sf] kl/j|mdf
u5g{ \ . ;"o{ demf}nf cfsf/sf] tf/f xf] . cGo tf/fx¿sf]
tn' gfdf ;'o{ kY[ jLaf6 glhs ePsfn] 7'nf] bl] vPsf] xf] .
;o" { Pp6f UofF;Lo lk08 xf] . ;"o{af6 ckf/ dfqfdf tfk
/ ks| fz lg:sG5 . o;sf] ;txdf neeu 5700 0C /
leqL efudf nueu 1,50,00,000 0C tfkj|md /xs] f] cg'dfg
ul/Psf] 5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 219

ux| (Planet)

;f}od{ 08ndf k[YjLnufotsf

hDdf cf7cf]6f u|xx¿

5g\ . ;a} ux| x¿ cfkmg\ f] cIfdf

3'Dgs' f ;fy;fy} ;o" s{ f] klg

kl/j|mdf ub5{ g\ . u|xx¿sf]

cfkmg\ } ks| fz x'bF g} tfklg

oL ;"os{ f] ks| fz k/fjt{g

u/L rlDsnf b]lvG5g\ .

ctM ;o" s{ f] jl/kl/ kl/jm| df

ug{] cfsfzLo lk08nfO{ u|x lrq 11.11 ;f}o{ d08n

elgG5 . ;a} u|xx¿ ;"o{sf]

u¿' Tjfsif{0f zlStn] ubf{ lglZrt b'/Ldf /x]/ ;o" {sf] kl/j|mdf ul//xG5g\ . a'w, z'jm| , kY[ jL

/ dª\un leqL ux| x¿ x'g\ eg] jx[ :klt, zlg, c¿0f / j¿0f aflx/L ux| x¿ x'g\ . ;o" {af6

b'/Lsf cfwf/df glhsaf6 6f9f /xg] cf7cf]6f u|xx¿ o;ks| f/ 5g\ M

1. aw' (Mercury)

;f}od{ 08ndf /x]sf u|xx¿dWo] aw' ;ae} Gbf glhs /x]sf] / ;a}eGbf
;fgf] u|x xf] . o;n] cfˆgf] cIfdf sl/a 59 lbgdf Ps k6s 3D' 5 .
;o" {nfO{ kl/ed| 0f ug{ o;nfO{ sl/a 88 lbg nfU5 . of] ux| ;"o{sf]
w/] } glhs /x]sfn] lbp;F f] w]/} tftf] / /ftdf w]/} lr;f] x'G5 . o; lrq 11.12 a'w
u|xdf jfo'd08n 5g} . o; ux| sf] pkux| 5}g .

2. zj' m| (Venus) lrq 11.13 z'j|m

k[YjLsf] glhs}sf] u|x zj' m| xf] . o;sf] cfsf/ sl/a kY[ jL hq}
5 . of] ;ae} Gbf rlDsnf] ux| xf] . of] ;fFem / laxfgLkv ;a]/}
cfsfzdf b]Vg ;lsG5 . o;n] sl/a 243 lbg nufP/ cfˆgf]
cIfdf 3'D5 . o;nfO{ ;o" {sf] kl/j|mdf ug{ 225 lbg nfU5 . o;
ux| sf] pkux| 5}g .

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

220

3. k[YjL (Earth)

xfdL a;s] f] u|x kY[ jL xf] hxfF ;a} hLjx¿nfO{ rflxg] jftfj/0f
pknAw 5 . o; ux| df kfgL, jfo'd08n / plrt tfkj|md ePsfn]
g} hLjg ;Dej ePsf] xf] . ;"oa{ f6 b/' Lsf] lx;fan] k[YjL t];|f]
:yfgdf kb{5 . o;n] emG8} 24 306fdf Ps k6s cfˆgf] cIfdf lrq 11.14 k[YjL
3'D5 eg] emG8} 365 lbgdf ;o" s{ f] Ps k6s kl/j|mdf u5{ . o;
u|xsf] Pp6fdfq pkux| rGb|df xf] .

4. dª\un (Mars)

cfsfzdf lkmSsf /ftf] b]lvg] ux| dªu\ n xf] . o;nfO{ /ftf] ux|
klg elgG5 . oxfFsf] jfod' 08ndf kfgL / clS;hg e]l6Psfn]
hLj /x]sf] x'g ;Sg] cg'dfg 5 . o;n] cfk\mgf] cIfdf sl/a
;f9] 24 306f nufP/ 3D' 5 . o;nfO{ ;"os{ f] kl/j|mdf ug{ emG8} lrq 11.15 dª\un
687 lbg nfU5 . o; ux| sf kmf]af]; / l8df;] u/L bO' {cf]6f pku|xx¿ 5g\ .

5. jx[ :klt (Jupiter) lrq 11.16 jx[ :klt

;f}o{d08nsf] ;a}eGbf 7n' f] u|x jx[ :klt xf] . o; ux| sf
xfn;Dd ;ae} Gbf w]/} pku|xx¿ kQf nfu]sf 5g\ . ax[ :klt
sl/a 10 306fdf Ps k6s cfk\mgf] cIfdf 3'D5 . o;n]
;o" {nfO{ kl/jm| df ug{ emG8} 12 jif{ nufp5F . o; u|xsf]
sl/a dWo efudf 7'nf] /ftf] bfu b]lvG5 . o; ux| sf 67
cf]6f pkux| x¿ /xs] f 5g\ .

6. zlg (Saturn)

jx[ :klt hq} bl] vg] u|x zlg xf] .

o;sf] aflx/L efudf tLg cf]6f bL3{

jQ[ fsf/ l/ªx¿ xG' 5g\ . o;n] cfkm\ gf]

cIfdf ed| 0f ug{ sl/a 10 306f 30 lrq 11.17 zlg
ldg6] nufpF5 eg] sl/a 29.5 jif{

nufP/ ;o" s{ f] Ps k6s kl/j|mdf u5{ . o; ux| sf 62 cf]6f pku|xx¿ /x]sf 5g\ .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 221

7. c?0f (Uranus)

c¿0f ux| UofF; / t/n kbfya{ f6 ags] f] 5 . of] ux| k[YjLeGbf

emG8} 14 u'0ff a9L lk08sf] 5 . ;"o{af6 w/] } 6f9f ePsfn] of] w]/}

lr;f] 5 . o;n] cfkm\ gf] cIfdf sl/a 17 306f 14 ldg6] nufP/

3D' 5 . o;n] 84 jifd{ f ;o" s{ f] Ps k6s kl/j|mdf u5{ . xfn;Dd

o; u|xsf 27 cf]6f pkux| x¿ kQf nfu]sf 5g\ . lrq 11.18 c?0f

8. j?0f (Neptune)

j¿0f u|x ;a}eGbf 6f9fsf] u|x xf] . o;df sl/a kY[ jL hq} sfnf]

wAaf b]lvG5 . o;sf] cfˆgf] cIf e|d0f ;do sl/a 16 306f /

sIf kl/e|d0f ;do sl/a 164 jif{ /xs] f] 5 . xfn;Dd o; u|xsf

14 cf]6f pkux| x¿ kQf nfus] f 5g\ . lrq 11.19 j?0f

ljm| ofsnfk 11.14
ljleGg ;|ft] x¿af6 vf]hL u/L ;o" { tyf u|xx¿sf af/d] f /f]rs hfgsf/L tflnsfdf e/L
sIffdf 5nkmn ugx{' f;] \ .

j|m=;= ;fo} k{ l/jf/sf ;b:o tflnsf g= 11.5
1. ;"o{ /fr] s hfgsf/Lx¿
2. a'w

kl/of]hgf sfo{
1. ljleGg /ªsf ;fOgkg] x¿, rf6{k]k/, dfs{/k]g, ¿n/, l;;fsnd cflbsf] k|of]u u/L

;o" { / cf7cf6] f ux| x¿ ;dfj]z u/L ;o" {af6 ux| x¿ /x]sf] cg'dflgt b'/L / u|xsf]
/ªnfO{ Wofg lbO{ ;f}o{d08nsf] rf6{ tof/ u/L sIffdf k:| tt' ugx'{ f;] \ .
2. df6f] jf Sn] df6f] jf lk7f] jf ljleGg ;fOh / /ªsf an, ljleGg ks| f/sf /ªx¿, tf/
jf cGo :yfgLo ;fdu|Lx¿ ko| fu] u/L ;"o,{ cf7cf]6f u|xx¿ tyf rGbd| fn] kY[ jLsf]

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

222

kl/jm| df u/]sf] bl] vg] u/L ;fo} {d08nsf] df8] n] tof/ ug{'xf;] \ / sIffdf k|bzg{
ugx{' f;] \ . o;/L df8] n] agfpFbf ;o" b{ l] vsf] u|xsf] cgd' flgt b/' L / ux| sf] /ªnfO{
;dt] Wofg lbgx' f];\ .

pkux| (Satellite)

tkfOFn] kSs} klg /ftsf] ;dodf rGbd| f b]Vg' ePsf] 5 xfn] f . s]
o;sf] cfkm\g} ks| fz xfn] f t < u|xsf] jl/kl/ kl/jm| df ug]{ cfsfzLo
lk08x¿nfO{ pku|x elgG5 . cfkm\gf] ks| fz gx'g] ePsfn] ] oL lk08x¿
klg ux| x¿ h:t} ;"o{sf] ks| fznfO{ k/fjtg{ u/L rlDsG5g\ . rGb|df
kY[ jLsf] Ps dfq k|fs[lts pku|x xf] . k|fsl[ ts / s[lqd u/L pkux| x¿ lrq 11.20 rGb|df
bO' { k|sf/df 5g\ . ax| d\ f08df :jtM pTkGg ePsf pkux| x¿ k|fs[lts pkux| x¿ x'g\
eg] dfgjåf/f lgdf{0f u/L cGtl/Ifdf 5fl8Psf pkux| x¿ s[lqd pkux| x¿ x'g\ . aw' /
z'jm| afx]s ;a} ux| x¿sf pkux| x¿ 5g\ .

ljm| ofsnfk 11.15

sIffsf ;a} ;fyLx¿ rp/df hfg'xf];\ . rp/df Pp6f ;fgf] ufn] f] agfpg'xf;] \ . pSt
ufn] fn] fO{ ;"o{ dfg/] Pshgf ;fyL plegx' f;] \ . cf7 hgf ;fyLx¿ ;o" {sf] ljleGg b'/Ldf
pleg'xf;] \ . k|To]s ;fyLnfO{ ux| sf] gfd lbP/ cfkm\gf] cIf / sIfdf ux| x¿ h:t} 3'Dg
nufpgx' f];\ . cfcfˆgf] efudf k/]sf] ux| sf ljz]iftfx¿ eGg'xf];\ .

ljrf/0fLo k|Zg
xfdLn] bV] g] ;Dk"0f{ cfsfzLo lk08x¿ aX| df08df s;/L cl8P/ /xg ;s]sf xfn] fg\ <
j}1flgs sf/0f kQf nufpgx' f];\ / sIffdf 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \ .

xfdLn] kY[ jLaf6 x]bf{ rGbd| f / ;"o{sf] cfsf/ eG8} pq} b]V5f}F . t/ jf:tljs cfsf/df eg]
;o" { rGb|df eGbf w]/} ug' f 7'nf] 5 . kY[ jLaf6 ;"o{ rGbd| f eGbf w]/} 6f9f 5 To;n} ] rGbd| f
/ ;"o{sf] cfsf/ eG8} pq} b]lvG5 . j:t'x¿ hlt 6f9f eof] x]bf{ plt ;fgf b]lvG5g\ . ;o" {
/ k[YjLsf] cfsf/ t'ngf ubf{ logLx¿sf] Jof; xg] {k' g{] xG' 5 . ;"os{ f] Jof; sl/a 1400000
lsld 5 eg] k[YjLsf] cf};t Jof; sl/a 12735 ls=ld= /x]sf] 5 . o;/L xb] f{ k[YjLeGbf

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 223

;o" { sl/a 110 u'0ff 7n' f] 5 . xfdLn] kY[ jLnfO{ Pp6f s/] fpsf] u8] f / ;o" {nfO{ af:s6] an
dfg/] k[YjL / ;o" s{ f] cfsf/ t'ngf ug{ ;S5fF} . ;"o{ / k[YjLlarsf] b/' L t'ngf ubf{ klg ;o" {
kY[ jLaf6 w]/} 6f9f ePsf] yfxf x'G5 . kY[ jLaf6 ;o" s{ f] b/' L s/La 150000000 lsld 5 .

pNsf / pNsflk08x¿ (Meteors and meteorites)

slxns] fxL‘ xfdLn] /ftsf] ;kmf cfsfzdf tf/fx¿ v;] h:tf] bV] 5fF} . To;nfO{ pNsfkft
ePsf] elgG5 . cGtl/Ifdf ePsf ;fgf ;fgf cfsfzLo lk08 ha 3'Db} kY[ jLsf] cfsif{0f
Ifq] leq tLj| j]un] k|j]z u5{g,\ ta jfod' 08nLo 3if{0fn] ubf{ ltgLx¿df tfk kb} f x'G5 /
oxL tfksf] sf/0f t]lhnf] eO{ rDsg yfN5g\ . To;df ePsf kbfy{x¿ Uof;F jf afkmdf
ablnG5g\ / lard} f lanfP/ hfG5g\, h;nfO{ pNsf elgG5 . sg' } sg' } pNsfx¿ cTolws
7'nf x'G5g,\ h;n] ubf{ an/] afkm xg' afsF L /xs] f lk08 kY[ jLsf] ;tx;Dd cfOkU' 5g\ .
logLx¿nfO{ pNsflk08 (meteorites) elgG5 .

lrq 11.21 pNsf lrq 11.22 pNsflk08

kR' 5]| tf/f (Comet)

;"os{ f] rf/l} t/ cG8fsf/ sIfdf 3l' d/xg] sr' f] csf/sf Uof;F Lo a/kmsf 8Nnfx¿nfO{ k'R5«]|

tf/fx¿ elgG5 . logLx¿sf] cfkmg\ f] k|sfz x'Fbg} . ;fo} { tfksf] sf/0fn] ubf{ k'R5]«| tf/fx¿sf]

aflx/L efudf /xs] f] a/km klUnP/ afkmdf kl/0ft x'G5 /

7f]; kbfy{x¿ w'nfsf s0fsf] ¿kdf aflx/ lg:sG5g\ . o;/L

ags] f] UofF; / a/kmsf s0fx¿ ;f}o{ atf;n] ubf{ ;"o{sf]

pN6f] lbzflt/ p8]/ hfG5g\ / k|sfzsf ljls/0fx¿ o;df

kg{ hfFbf aflx/af6 k'R5/sf ¿kdf b]lvG5g\ . lrq 11.23 k'R5|] tf/f

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

224

;f/fz+

1. df6f] Ps dxìjk0" f{ k|fs[lts ;f| t] xf] . o;df hLjxx¿ xs' g{ ] / a9\g] ub{5g\ .
2. df6f] r66\ fgsf ;;fgf s0f, vlgh kbfy{ / hl} js kbfyx{ ¿ ldn]/ aG5 .
3. s'g} 7fpF df df6f]sf ljleGg txx¿ eP/ hfg] Ps 7f8f] v08nfO{ df6fsf] k|f]kmfOn

elgG5 .
4. hldgsf] ;tx lvOP/ hfg] jf elTsP/ hfg] lj|mofnfO{ e"Ifo elgG5 eg] Ps 7fFpsf]

df6f] cGo 7fpdF f uP/ yl' k|g] lj|mofnfO{ lgIf]k0f elgG5 .
5. df6fdf afx\o ¿kdf cgfjZos /;fog jf cGo kbfy{ ldl;P/ o;sf] u'0f:t/

laug| 'nfO{ df6f] k|b"if0f elgG5 .
6. ;o" s{ f] k|sfz k[YjLdf l;wf / 58s\ f] kg{] xbF' f s'g} efu a9L tfT5 eg] sg' } efu sd

tfT5 . tfltg] / lrl;g] ePsfn] g} kY[ jLdf Ct' kl/jtg{ xG' 5 .
7. Ps jifn{ fO{ rf/ Ct'df ljefhg ul/Psf] 5, u|Lid Ct,' z/b\ Ct,' lzlz/ Ct' /

j;Gt Ct' .
8. k[YjLsf] leqL efunfO{ r6\6fgsf] cj:yf / agfj6sf cfwf/df j|m:6, DofG6n / sf]/

u/L tLg txdf afFl8Psf] 5 .
9. ;"o,{ k[YjLnufotsf cf7cf6] f ux| x¿ / ltgsf pku|x Pjd\ cGo ;;fgf cfsfzLo

lk08x¿ ldn/] ags] f] Pp6f kl/jf/nfO{ ;f}od{ 08n elgG5 . o;df kY[ jLnufotsf
hDdf cf7cf6] f ux| x¿ 5g\ .
10. ;"os{ f] jl/kl/ kl/jm| df ug{] cfkm\ g} ks| fz gePsf cfsfzLo lk08nfO{ u|x elgG5 eg]
u|xsf] jl/kl/ kl/j|mdf ug]{ cfsfzLo lk08x¿nfO{ pku|x elgG5 .
11. ;fgf ;fgf cfsfzLo lk08x¿ kY[ jLsf] ;txlt/ v:g] / k[YjLsf] jfo'd08ndf 3if{0fsf]
sf/0fn] an]/ jfo'd08ndf lanfpg] lk08nfO{ pNsf elgG5 .
12. slxn]sfxL‘ cTolws 7'nf pNsfx¿ an/] g;lsbF } kY[ jLsf] ;tx;Dd cfOk'U5g\
h;nfO{ pNsflk08 elgG5 .
13. ;"os{ f] rf/l} t/ cG8fsf/ sIfdf 3l' d/xg] s'rf] csf/sf Uof;F Lo a/kmsf 8Nnfx¿nfO{
kR' 5|]« tf/fx¿ elgG5 .

lj1fg tyf k|ljlw sIff ^ 225

cEof;

1. vfnL 7fpdF f ldNg] zAb egx{' f];\ M lgIf]k0f z/b\ Ct' aw'
lj36g zj' |m
j;Gt Ct' 5000 ;"o{
3000 lzlz/ Ct' j|m:6

-s_ k[YjLsf] ;a}eGbf aflx/L efunfO={ ===============elgG5 .
-v_ leqL sf]/sf] tfkjm| d=============bl] v==============0C x'G5 .
-u_ Ps jifd{ f uL| id Ct', ==========, ================ /==========x'G5g\ .
-3_ r66\ fg / vlghx¿sf] efl} ts lvofO / /f;folgs ljR5b] gnfO{===========

elgG5 .
-ª_ k[YjLaf6 ;a}eGbf glhssf] tf/f ================= xf] .
-r_ ;o" {af6 ;aE} fGbf glhssf] ux| ============ xf] .
-5_ ;fo} d{ 08ndf ;ae} Gbf rlDsnf] u|x ============== xf] .
-h_ xfjfn] Ps 7fpsF f] df6f]nfO{ p8fP/ csf{] 7fpFdf df6f] hDdf xg' ] kl| j|mofnfO{

============= elgG5 .

2. tn lbOPsf ljsNkx¿af6 ;xL pQ/ 5fGgx' f];\ M

-s_ leqL sf]/df ePsf wft' / r6\6fg lsg 7f;] cj:yfdf /xG5g\ <
-c_ cTolws tfk eP/ -cf_ cTolws rfk eP/
-O_ cTolws tfk / rfk eP/ -O{_ ;ae} Gbf ef/L eP/

-v_ df6fsf] k|f]kmfOndf dflyaf6 bf;] f| ] txnfO{ s] elgG5 <

-c_ 6k ;fo] n -cf_ ;a ;f]on

-O_ a]8 /s -O{_ Xo'd;

-u_ ;o" s{ f] rf/l} t/ cG8fsf/ sIfdf 3'Dg] sr' f] csf/sf Uof;F Lo a/kmsf

8Nnfx¿nfO{ s] elgG5 <

-c_ pNsf -cf_ pNsflk08

-O_ pku|x -O{_ kR' 5]«| tf/f

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf k|ljlw

226

-3_ g]kfndf Ct'sf] nflu s'g ;dx" ;a}eGbf l7s 5 <

-c_ df3 / kmfug' -cf_ c;f/ / ;fpg

-O_ ;fpg / ebf} -O_{ j}zfv / h]7

-ª_ k[YjLdf dfq hLjx¿sf] cl:tTj sfod xg' 'sf] sf/0f s] xf] <
-c_ kof{Kt dfqfdf kfgL /xs] fn]
-cf_ hLjx¿sf nflu ;x' fpFbf] tfkj|md ePsfn]
-O_ hLjx¿sf nflu pkoS' t xfjf, kfgL / tfkjm| d ePsfn]
-O_{ hLjx¿nfO{ hLljt /fVgsf nflu cfjZos kg{] xfjf kfOg] x'gfn]

3. tnsf jfSo k9L l7s / a]l7s 56' \ofpgx' f];\ M
-s_ j?0f ux| ;ae} Gbf 6f9fsf] ux| xf] .
-v_ k[YjLn] bL3{jQ[ fsf/ af6faf6 ;"on{ fO{ kl/jm| df ub{5 .
-u_ rGb|dfn] kY[ jLnfO{ kl/j|mdf ug{ nueu 365 lbg nufpF5 .
-3_ ;f}od{ 08nsf] ;a}eGbf lr;f] ux| zlg xf] .
-ª_ k[YjLsf] leqL agfj6df ;ae} Gbf w]/} df]6fO ePsf] efu j|m:6 xf] .

4. km/s nV] g'xf];\ M
-s_ u|x / kR' 5]|« tf/f
-v_ e"Ifo / lgIfk] 0f
-u_ jm| :6 / sf/]
-3_ pNsf / pNsflk08
-ª_ tf/f / ux|

5. sf/0f lbgx' f;] \ M
-s_ k[YjLsf] leqL sf]/df j:t'x¿ 7f;] x'G5g\ .
-v_ eI" fo / lgIfk] 0f ;F+u;u+F } x'g] kl| j|mof xg' \ .
-u_ ;"o{ tfk / k|sfzsf] k|d'v ;|ft] xf] .

lj1fg tyf kl| jlw sIff ^ 227

6. tnsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ n]Vg'xf;] \ M
-s_ df6f] egs] f] s] xf] <
-v_ df6f] aGg] kl| j|mofsf] JofVof ug'x{ f];\ .
-u_ df6fsf] ;/+ If0f lsg ugk{' 5{ <
-3_ k[YjLsf] cIf / sIf egs] f] s] xf] < lrq agfO{ bv] fpgx' f;] \ .
-ª_ kY[ jLsf] leqL agf6] sf] ;lrq j0fg{ ug'{xf];\ .
-r_ kY[ jLsf] sIfLo 3d' fOsf sf/0fn] kg]{ ke| fjsfaf/] a'Fbfut ¿kdf n]Vg'xf;] \ .
-5_ Ct' kl/jt{g s;/L, slxn] / sxfF x'G5 < lrq;lxt j0f{g ug{'xf;] \ .
-h_ eI" fo / lgIfk] 0f Ps;uF+ } csf]{ :jefljs ¿kn] xg' ] kl| jm| ofx¿ xg' \ . o;
egfOnfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt :ki6 kfgx'{ f;] \ .
-em_ xfdLn] vfg] ljleGg vfB kbfy{x¿ / df6fl] arsf] ;DaGw pbfx/0f;lxt k:| 6
kfg{'xf];\ .
-`_ df6f] kb| "if0f lgoGq0f s;/L ug{ ;lsG5 <
-6_ a]nfan] fdf kf]lnlyg emfn] fsf] ko| fu] df /f]s nufpgk' g]{ dfu p7g\ ] u5{ . df6fsf]
k|bi" f0f / ;/+ If0f;u+F o;sf] s] ;DaGw 5 < JofVof ug{'xf;] \ .
-7_ ;f}o{ d08nsf ljleGg ;b:ox¿sf] af/d] f 5f6] s/Ldf kl/ro lbg'xf];\ .

zAbfy{
cIf M k[YjLsf] sG] b| eO{ pQ/L / blIf0fL w'j| nfO{ hf]8g\ ] sfNklgs /]vf
sIf M k[YjLn] ;o" {nfO{ kl/j|mdf ug{] af6f]

sIff ^ lj1fg tyf kl| jlw

228