African Journal of Educational Assessors (April/June 2017 – Volume 3, Issue 1)

AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSORS

ISSN p-2536-7501, ISSN e-2536-751x
APRIL/JUNE 2017 VOLUME 3, ISSUE 1,

From Creativity to Development
A Publication of

FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARKERS IN NIGERIA

African Journal of Educational Assessors

ISSN-2536-7501 (print), ISSN-2536-751x (online)

Editor in Chief
Professor Sakyi Baidoo
University of Education, Winneba, Ghana

National Cordinator Executive Director
Dr.Aniedi Daniel Usoro Prof. Godwin A. Akpan
University of Uyo, Nigeria University of Uyo, Nigeria

Managing Editor
Dr. Michael Ogundele

University of Jos

Editorial Advisory Board

Prof.Dr. Sri Milfayett Dr. Bonface Ngari Ireri
State University of Medan North School of Science and Technology
Sumatera Indonesia Kenya Africa Nazarene University, Kenya

Sonny Dan Abia Prof. Ignatius Uduk
Miramar Florida, USA University of Uyo, Nigeria

Josephine Vida Dare Prof. E. B. Usoro
Uiversity of Education, Winneba, Ghana University of Uyo, Nigeria

Prof. A. O. Ekong Dr. T. C. Ogbuanya
University of Uyo, Nigeria University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Prof Ayodeji Badejo
Lagos State University

Guest Editors
Dr. Eno G. Ukpong
Dr. Fehintola Joseph
Dr. (Barr.) Arop Festus
Dr. Abdulmalik Sabitu

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Copyright © 2017 Forum of Educational Benchmarkers

Special Issue
Vol. 3, No. 1 April/June, 2017

©2017 articles in the journal are protected by copyright, which covers the exclusive right to
reproduce and distribute the article as well as all translation right. The views and opinions
expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views
of Association.

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African Journal of Educational Assessors

(AJEA)

(PRINT: 2536-7501, ONLINE: 2536-751x)

About this Journal

African Journal of Educational Assessors (AJEA) is a multidisciplinary international, pear reviewed
journal published three (3) times a year by the Forum of Educational Benchmarkers in Nigeria. This
journal promotes the exchange of ideas by bringing together academics/researchers across the globe.
As research has become increasingly interdisciplinary, the essence of a multidisciplinary journal is to
show the inter-relatedness of academic disciplines through research. AJEA maintains an open access
policy. The decisive criterion for accepting a manuscript for publication is scientific quality.

All manuscripts are submitted electronically. Submit manuscripts to - [email protected]

For further enquiries, please write to
The Managing Editor

African Journal of Educational Assessors
Department of Educational Foundations

Faculty of Education
University of Jos, P.M.B 2084, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

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Guidelines for Paper Submission
1. Manuscript should be original, clearly and precisely presented in English (preferable

double space and saved in Word Documents).
2. Policy on Plagiarism

All papers submitted to the journal are checked for plagiarism (including self-plagiarism).

3. Prepare your paper according to AJEA format.
Articles should be typed in Microsoft word, double line spacing, 12 font size and times
new Romans. Tables should have horizontal and vertical lines, subheadings should be
well discussed and recommendations articulated. All references should be done adhering
strictly to the APA most current referencing style. All submissions must include author(s)
name, institutional address, e-mail and phone numbers.

4. The authors must note that submitting an article to an AJEA journals means that
a. authors confirm that the articles are original;
b. there’s no conflicts of interests or any plagiarism issues;
c. the article is not being considered elsewhere;
d. the authors are willing to transfer the first publishing right to the publisher if the
article is accepted after review.

5. Each submission should not be longer than 7000 words (14 printed pages) in total,
including title, author(s) information, Tables, Figures, and References. Each article
should be accompanied by an abstract of approximately 200 words typed on the
separated sheet.

6. Preparation of Manuscript: AJEA adheres to a rigorous double-blind reviewing policy in
which the identity of both the reviewer and author are always concealed from both
parties. All manuscript are reviewed initially by the editorial board and only those papers
that meet the scientific and editorial standards of the journal and fit the aims and scope of
the journal, will be sent for blind review. Papers are further subjected to plagiarism
detector process. Hence, contribution and consideration for publication is based on the
understanding that the paper is not simultaneously under consideration elsewhere and that
they are the original work of the author(s).

Papers are to be submitted to: [email protected]

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Educational Benchmarks and Sustainable National Development: Theory
and Practice in Nigeria.

Professor Etuk Nssien Etuk

Department of Curriculum Studies,
Educational Management and Planning

Faculty of education
University of Uyo, Uyo

A Lead Paper Delivered at the First Annual Conference Organized by the Forum of
Educational Benchmarkers in Nigeria, in Conjunction with the Department of
Vocational Education, University of Uyo, April 5th – 7th , 2017.

Introduction:
Nations of the world appear to have come to the conclusion that quality education

holds the key to sustainable national development which manifest in healthy families, poverty
reduction, sustainable consumption, resilient cities and peaceful societies. Education is
recognized as an essential condition for human fulfillment, peace, economic growth, decent
work, gender equity, sustainable development and responsible global citizenship.

Nigeria’s philosophy of education is based on the beliefs that education is an
instrument for national development and social change; vital for the promotion of a
progressive and United Nigeria and that education maximizes the creative potentials and
skills of the individual for self – fulfillment and general development of the society. For these
reasons it is believed that education should be compulsory and a right to every Nigerian
irrespective of gender, social status, religion, ethnic background and any peculiar challenges;
and education is to be qualitative, comprehensive, functional and relevant to the needs of the
society (FRN, 2013;NPE). Education is seen as a key instrument for achieving Nigeria’s
national development goals of sustainable and equitable socio – economic development and
eradication of poverty.

Sustainable Development:
Development means change and growth and implies improvement, that is, a

progression form one level or form to a better or more advanced form over a period of time.
As a global or national focus, development is the process of improving the economy by
increasing the amount of business activities which would in turn create wealth for building of
infrastructure, improvement of services and enhancement of the quality of life of the
citizenry.

To be sustainable means to be capable of continuing for a long time at the same level.
It follows that sustainable national development is the development of a country that does not

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use more national resources than can be replaced and so does not harm the environment. It is
therefore apparent that sustainable socio – economic development of a nation is predicated on
human capacity development in terms of knowledge, skills, abilities and positive attitudes.
These attributes are inculcated through quality formal education.

The Type of Education we need

What type of education do Nigerians need for sustainable national development?

The 21st Century challenges in Nigeria are manifold. These include illiteracy,
especially in remote rural areas; extreme poverty, unemployment and under – employment,
insurgency, terrorism, religious intolerance and crisis, malnutrition, deadly diseases, political
violence, tribal and ethnic conflicts, superstition and corruption in public offices and in
private businesses. The type of education Nigeria needs is that kind of education that would
effectively address these national challenges. The education we need for sustainable national
development in Nigeria is such that:-

 Would be all - inclusive where no child would be denied the opportunity of having
basic nine – year education even in the remotest human settlements.

 The products of our school system would acquire sufficient level of literacy and
numeracy to be able to communicate and function effectively in the society.

 Classroom instruction would be handled only by professionally trained and
appropriately qualified teachers at all levels of the education system, both in the
public schools and the private schools; and teachers would be trained and re – trained
to adopt more interactive and learner – centred instructional strategies rather than the
traditional didactic methods.

 Classroom instruction would be given in adequately furnished facilities – classrooms,
laboratories, workshops and studios – and with prescribed manageable teacher – pupil
ratios (PTRs) for effective instructional delivery.

 Teachers and learners would acquire sufficient Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) skills to enable them seek knowledge in and out of school and
effectively make use of such knowledge and so see learning as a life – long process of
development.

 Would ensure regular facilities inspection and instructional supervision as key factors
for continuous quality assurance.

 The products of the school system acquire competitive marketable economic skills
and the spirit of enterprise, creativity and innovativeness to enable individuals earn a

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living, create wealth and so reduce poverty and also contribute to the overall national
economic growth and development.
 The products of our school system would imbibe the core values of unwavering
patriotism, respect for human and people’s rights, respect for constituted authorities,
peaceful co – existence, safety and security consciousness, aversion to corruption,
environmental protection and preservation, probity, empathy and transparency in the
conduct of public affairs.

 Would ensure that graduates from our school system would be better fitted to adapt to
the changing dynamics of the society.

 Would enhance technical and vocational education by increasing the provision;
creating awareness of the importance, making technical provisions really practical and
creating better image in the labour market for technical education graduates.

 The products of our school system develop national and global perspective and would
see themselves as both nationalists and global citizens.

Benchmarks: The educational system which would turn out the kind of products needed and
desired as defined in the earlier paragraphs would need to be anchored on appropriate
benchmarks of educational variables. A benchmark is a standard, an amount or level that one
can use in measuring or judging how good or bad other things are. To benchmark is to
provide a standard that something can be judged.

There are critical components of the educational system that require globally
acceptable benchmarks. These include but are not limited to: curriculum contents,
instructional delivery system, infrastructure and facilities, the teacher factor, medium of
instruction, class size, supervision, free and compulsory basic education, entrepreneurship
and vocational education, early childhood care, development and education and funding.
These components interrelate and exert great influence on one another and so their
benchmarking would necessarily overlap.

In the education sector, just as in other public sectors, Nigeria cannot be said to be
lacking in benchmark policies. The National Policy on Education, NPE, (FRN 2013) first
published in 1977 and revised several times has provided benchmarks for almost all
components and aspects of the education system in Nigeria. The problem has always been
that of implementation. It goes without saying that benchmark policies not put into practice
remain mere theories and practically ineffective.

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Some Challenges to Educational Benchmarks in Nigeria.

Early Childhood Care, Development and Education (ECCDE)

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2013) Sections 14, 15 16, 17, 18 and 20
provide the benchmarks for this level of education. In the NPE this level of education is
situated in daycare or crèches, fully in the hands of the private sector and social development
services. I do not expect that governments alone would be able to establish and run
institutions to provide the ECCDE. In fact, apart from providing benchmark policies,
governments pay very little attention to this level of education. For this reason, individual
proprietors have taken over the provision of facilities for the ECCDE, albeit with the primary
focus on financial profit.

The questions arise – are the ECCDE centres regulated? Who ensures the benchmarks
in these ECCDE centres are complied with? Who looks into the standards in terms of
curricular provisions, classrooms, ground space, facilities and the quality of care – givers? In
my village in a remote part of my state, there are three ECCDE centres, which also pretend to
give primary education. I have no good grounds to believe this does not happen in other
communities.

The quality and perhaps the quantity of ECCDE and the primary education these
centres provide can only be guessed. There is an urgent need for governments to regulate the
establishment of ECCDE centres and even a greater need to supervise them so that they
would not cause great harm to our children’s psyche and growth.

I recall that before and after the Nigerian Independence in 1960 the public primary school
system (structure) had three pre – primary education classes defined as ABC, then Class One
and Class Two; before the primary education sector which had Standard One, Two, Three,
Four, Five and Six. I had the opportunity to go through these pre – primary education classes
between 1956 and 1957 before starting Standard One in 1959. I do not know how many
people today had such opportunity. The position is that the Pre – Primary Education (PPE)
had been a component of the primary school system before it was discontinued about 1964.
My suggestion is that it could be re – introduced in practice even with the change in
nomenclature to Early Childhood, Care, Development and Education (ECCDE).

Curricular Contents:

Sections 20, 23, 37 and 38 of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2013) spell out in
broad terms the curricular contents of the basic and post basic education.

In a recent keynote address by Professor Chris Nnadi of the Department of Education
Foundations, Enugu State University of Technology (ESUT) delivered at the 18th Annual
National Conference organized by the National Association for the Advancement of
Knowledge (NAFAK) at the College of Education, Afaha Nsit, AKS, March 8, 2016, the

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erudite scholar observed that: If it is dangerous not to educate a man, it is rather more
dangerous to educate a man who cannot fit into the world of work.

It is on the awareness of this fact that the agencies responsible for the planning of the
school curricula at the different levels of education in Nigeria periodically bring some
innovations into the school curricula at different levels for national and global relevance.
Recent innovations in the curricular contents of basic education, senior secondary school and
tertiary institutions are the introduction of Civic Education and Trade with Entrepreneurial
Studies. Civic Education has been introduced as a core/compulsory subject to inculcate such
values as patriotic consciousness, aversion to corruption, probity, respect for human and
people’s rights; and empathy in the conduct of public affairs.

The Trade Subjects and Entrepreneurial Studies are introduced into the curricula to
cultivate the spirit of enterprise and also give the individuals skills in at least one trade for
economic survival. The ultimate target of this aspect of education is to reduce unemployment
and extreme poverty and also create wealth among the people.

It appears that the provisions of the contents are tailored to provide the functional
education we need for sustainable national development but my worry is about how the
entrepreneurial studies and trade subjects are taught. What are the arrangements in terms of
facilities and skilled personnel to teach the trade subjects in our secondary schools and in the
universities?

I would suggest that in the universities, the entrepreneurial studies with trade subjects
be allocated one full semester in which students would offer no other courses. The students
would then identify trades of interest, get attached to the expert trade masters, learn the trade
on a daily basis and acquire some proficiency in the trade to the extent that they could
practice the trade after graduation. While learning the trades, the students must be supervised
by their university teachers. The entrepreneurial studies could be domiciled in the
Department of Vocational and Technical Education. A situation where undergraduate
students register for entrepreneurial studies under the General Studies (GST) programme,
hang around town and present letters of attestation from phantom trade masters at the end of
the semester, without being at their trade centres even for once and without acquiring any
skill in the trade cannot be expected to produce the desired outcome.

Medium of Instruction (MOI)

Another serious challenge in curriculum implementation in Nigerian public schools is
the Medium of Instruction (MOI) – the teaching and learning of English Language. In the
National Policy on Education NPE, (2013) Sections 16 and 20, the benchmark policies are
that the medium of instruction at the pre – primary education segment would principally be
the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community. The policies provide further
that the medium of instruction in the primary schools shall be the language of the immediate
environment for the first three years and during this period, English shall be taught as a
subject. From the fourth year, English shall progressively be used as the medium of
instruction and the language of the immediate environment and others shall be taught as
subjects.

My experience based on a survey is that the benchmark policy on the language of the
immediate environment as the medium of instruction at the lower level of the basic education
is observed largely in the breach. Parents prefer and teachers adopt English as the Medium of
Instruction from the first day the child arrives in school. In spite of the fact that English
language is on the school timetable on a daily basis from the primary school level to the
senior secondary school, most of our graduates from the public secondary schools hardly

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make correct sentences or write a paragraph of intelligible essay in English. Tenses are
mixed, concord in grammar is not respected and the syntax is completely lacking. This
problem is invariably carried on into the tertiary education level. Very many of our university
students hardly speak or write correct English.

As this appears to be a pervasive problem one cannot but conclude that English
Language is not effectively taught in our schools. Teachers of English language must as a
matter of urgency, review the curricular content of English as a subject and their instructional
methods and strategies. If pupils and students do not master English as the medium of
instruction in the schools, it is unlikely that they would perform well in other subjects taught
in English.

Infrastructure and Facilities
The National Policy on Education spells out the benchmark policies on infrastructure

and class size (Sections 29, 33, 127, 128, 129, 130 and 131 for infrastructure and facilities
and sections 16, 20, 23 and 41 for class sizes). How far have these policies been implemented
over the years? In 2004 I undertook a study which involved teachers and students in all the
public secondary schools in my state of origin. In that year there were 242 public secondary
schools. About 12 years later, in 2016 there were about 232 public secondary schools in spite
of tremendous increase in students’ population. No new schools have been built over the
years and many existing ones are dilapidated. The situation has resulted in over – stretched
facilities, and very large class sizes.
In many secondary schools, especially in the urban centres, the number of students in a class
ranges from 90 – 120. Yet there are benchmark policies that stipulate the number of students
in a class.

In very large classes as cited, one would only imagine what kind of teaching goes on
there and what level of learning the student would acquire. Effective teaching and meaningful
learning can only take place in a conducive environment. A class size of 90 and more cannot,
by any imagination, be seen as conducive. A few years ago, my state government
experimented with the policy of running public secondary schools in shifts – one set of
students for the morning shift and another set of students for the afternoon shift. Parents and
the public rose against this policy and practice and of course the policy was discontinued. The
policy to run secondary schools in shifts was an attempt to reduce class sizes and make
facilities somewhat adequate. The question again arises – Why is the government not
building new schools to accommodate the increasing number of students who still opt for
public school education?

Government should build new schools, rehabilitate and expand the facilities in the
existing ones to make classrooms, laboratories and workshop space adequate to reduce class
sizes for effective management of the instructional process. In this connection let me
commend the private school proprietors for providing educational facilities for our youths
thereby complementing the efforts of governments. However, the private schools would need
to think less and less about the financial profit margins and more and more about education as
a social service provided in the interest of the larger society. If the fees in our private schools
are not regulated many of the private schools would soon price themselves out of the market
– especially with the dwindling economic fortunes.

The Teacher Factor
It is common knowledge that the quality of education hinges on the quality of

teachers. The Global Education Target No.6 enjoins all governments to ensure that all
learners are taught by qualified, professionally – trained, motivated and well – supported
teachers. Sections 94 and 100 of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2013) clearly

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provide the benchmark policy that: All teachers in educational institutions shall be

professionally trained and only professionally qualified and registered teachers shall be

allowed to practice at all levels. And Section 83 states that all teachers in tertiary institutions

shall be required to undergo training in the methods and techniques of teaching. But what is

the situation in our school system?
Recruitment of Teachers – The recruitment of teachers in most states of the federation has

become a source of political patronage. Members of the Legislative Houses; members of the

Executive Councils in the states and at the Federal level, Senior Public Servants and other
political office holders demand and insist upon their “ quota” in employment. For these

reasons all manner of people are recruited into the school system as teachers.

- Many unqualified and untrained persons are recruited to teach in our secondary
schools. Electrical/Electronics Engineers and Architects are recruited to teach physics
and mathematics; graduates of Communication Arts, Sociology and Philosophy are
recruited to teach English and graduates of Geography teach social studies. This
situation is totally unacceptable.

The Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT) must do more than just pressing for Teachers Salary
Scale (TSS) and prompt payment of leave allowances. These are necessary though, but the
NUT must focus more on full professionalization of teaching. The Teachers Registration
Council of Nigeria (TRCN) must insist on and ensure that only professionally trained
teachers are allowed to teach in both public and private schools in Nigeria. At the tertiary
level University lecturers are afraid of and so resist being trained in the methods and
techniques of teaching. It is therefore not difficult to explain why undergraduate students do
not perform well.
Simply stated, in many programmes, contents are not effectively taught because the lecturers
who are presumably versed in their various areas of specialization lack the skills of effective
teaching. University Managements must rise to this challenge and ensure that all University
teachers undergo training in teaching method and strategies.

- Inequitable Deployment of Teachers. Schools in urban areas are saturated with
teachers and those in the rural and remote areas do not have sufficient number of
teachers and have no teachers at all in some subject disciplines.

- Teachers Conditions of Service. These are repulsive and demotivating. Salaries and
other entitlements are not paid as at when due; teachers elevation and appointment
to positions of responsibilities are based on political consideration and not on
performance.

Teachers are not provided with the requisite facilities and tools to work with. Science
teachers make do with make – shift laboratories, materials and standard equipment are
lacking in school laboratories; technical teachers do not have workshops, tools and
equipment and language teachers lack language laboratories and studios. We must
note that in providing quality education there is a limit to what teachers can
improvise.

- Low Level of ICT Skills among Teachers and Learners. Teachers lack the knowledge

and skills in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Computers

are still unknown to a great majority of teachers at the primary school level and to a

very large number of the secondary school teachers especially in the rural areas. Even

xii

at the tertiary level, very many teachers particularly those a bit advanced in age, are
not ICT compliant.

ICT and Curriculum Delivery

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2013), Section 20 provides the benchmark
policy on curriculum delivery that teaching shall be participatory, exploratory, experimental
and learner – centred. Sections 29, 65 (c), 94, 127 of the NPE stress that Government shall
provide adequate infrastructure and develop capacity for effective utilization of Information
Technology to support the educational system. The effects of lack of ICT skills among
teachers and students in the schools are that students and teachers have no access to
information and experience through global networks and pools of knowledge. Students rely
on content taught them by teachers who themselves rely more or less on information recycled
in poorly written textbooks. Teachers do not have access to global data base in their various
areas of specialization since they are not exposed to and cannot make use of the internet.
Nigerian teachers, even in this age of information revolution made possible by ICT, still rely
on and predominantly adopt the orthodox talk and chalk method of instructional delivery.

Learners in Nigerian Schools continue to rely almost entirely on their teachers and
available texts and so instructional strategies continue to be teacher - centred while students
remain passive learners. Opportunities for students and teachers to exchange information
across schools, cities, nations and the continents and so share experiences and accumulate
knowledge remain limited. The curriculum implementation strategies at the present cannot be
said to be leading to capacity building and empowerment to meet the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and the globally endorsed targets of education.

The quality of education needed by Nigerians is that which would adopt ICT through
which individual learners can seek explanations, compare experiences, investigate problems,
reflect, reason and learn many concepts in the school curriculum. In other words, learners
would learn how to learn and think about what they learn and so develop the spirit of self –
reliance and confidence. Learners would also acquire the skills that enable them to seek
knowledge in and out of school and effectively make use of such knowledge.

The implication of this is that Nigeria must re – focus on her education system and
integrate ICT into the curriculum to enhance its contents and pedagogical strategies at all
levels of the school system. There is a further implication for teacher training and re –
training in ICT knowledge and Skills. There must be a comprehensive policy on Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) of teachers. Government at all levels should make
provisions for and encourage teachers to attend seminars, conferences and workshops to
update their instructional knowledge and pedagogical skills.

Funding of Education – The National Policy on Education (NPE) (FRN, 2013) notes in
Section 150 that education is a capital – intensive social service which requires adequate
financial provisions from all tiers of government for successful implementation of
educational programmes. Sections 151 – 154 provide the benchmark policy on how education
in Nigeria would be funded. Given the huge financial demand in the provision of Education
for All, it is an incontrovertible fact that governments alone cannot fund education. And to
my mind the provision of education for the citizens of any nation should not be an exclusive
responsibility of government. The fact that what goes on in the schools and the products of
the school system affect all sectors and segments of the society, the funding of education in
any nation should be a collective responsibility.

xiii

At the present the Education Tax Fund policy in Nigeria targets only the multinationals and
corporate bodies. There should be a policy on the funding of education which involves the
rich in the society, the Non – Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the Community Based
Organizations (CBOs), the Business Men and Women, the Contractors, the Civil Servants
and Public Servants; all men and women in documented employments and the landlords and
property owners. After all the provision of Education for All should be the business of all.
There is a need for a benchmark policy on periodic needs assessment for all the educational
institutions to ensure that the utilization of education tax fund would be equitable – in
accordance with the critical needs of each school, and based on transparency and
accountability.

Policy on Free and Compulsory Education.

The term free and compulsory education has recently become a political mantra
employed for electioneering campaigns and in attempts to endear governments to the people.
One would easily agree that every citizen of a state or nation has a right to education, at least
at the Basic Education level. But the questions arise - Can education be absolutely free or
should it be free at all? Should it be free only to the extent of paying fees? What about the
provision of textbooks and other materials and the school uniforms?

Further questions arise - Can Basic Education be made compulsory? Do we have the
statistics of children born each month and yearly? How do governments plan for free and
compulsory education when the number of children for the different levels of education
cannot be closely approximated due to lack of statistics on births and deaths?
How do we account for the multitude of out of school children (OOSC) many years after the
introduction of free and compulsory education in many states of the federation?

According to the recent UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) estimation, for 2010,
Nigeria has the highest number of out- of – school primary age children in the world; at
around 8.7 million – making up over 15% of the global total.
The 2010 Nigeria Education Data Survey (NEDS) estimated that 11.8 million children aged 5
– 16 in Nigeria had never attended school. (Education Data, Research and Evaluation
Nigeria, EDOREN (2015).

Nigeria needs well- articulated benchmark policies on the registration of births and
deaths; on the extent to which education could be free; on means of ensuring that all children
of school age are in schools.

Policy on Supervision

Sections 145 – 149 of the NPE (2013) outlines the policy benchmarks for quality
assurance at all levels of education below the tertiary level, through supervision and
inspection. For the tertiary level of education there are specified agencies to carry out these
functions through accreditation and visitation exercises. The idea of supervision is to have a
comprehensive view of the activities, equipment, facilities and problems of the institutions
and to assess the extent the institutions are fulfilling their basic obligations. The ultimate aim
is to improve the overall efficiency and raise the academic standards of the institutions
through the promotion or development of favourable settings for teaching and learning.
School supervision is a quality assurance mechanism. The purpose of school supervision is to
ensure that established goals are realized and to help identify genuine difficulties of the
teacher in teaching and organizing various activities and suggesting means and ways of
overcoming them among others. How often are our public schools visited and supervised by
the Inspectorate Division of the Ministries of Education?

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Studies show that parents and guardians perceive private schools to offer better
quality education than the public schools; and so prefer to send their children and wards to
the private schools, the exorbitant fees notwithstanding. Some of the factors that draw parents
and guardians to the private schools include: teachers’ perceived dedication to work, high
level of discipline among teachers and pupils/students, good physical facilities, generally
lower Pupils – Teacher Ratio (PTRs) and greater teacher accountability to parents. These
conditions are created and sustained in the private schools through regular internal
supervision which appears completely absent in the public schools. There is therefore the
need for Ministries of Education to ensure that each and every school is inspected and
supervised at least twice in a school session to identify the critical challenges of the
institutions with a view to addressing them.

Conclusion
In this paper, the expectations of the Nigerian nation regarding what quality education

should do and achieve for the country have been highlighted. The concepts of sustainable
national development, benchmarks and the type of education desired have been explained.
Also the quality of the products of the education system that can ensure sustainable national
development have been examined. Some challenges to educational benchmark policies as
enunciated in the National Policy on Education have been analyzed. The analysis is not
exhaustive as me may still need some benchmark policies on the component of guidance and
counseling in schools. After these analyses, I have come to the conclusion that Nigeria is not
lacking in the benchmark policies for quality education but what is most needed is a robust
commitment, on the part of governments, to the implementation of benchmark policies for
sustainable national development.

References
1. Education Data, Research and Evaluation, Nigeria EDOREN (2015). Issues of educational

access, quality, equity and impact in Nigeria: The EDOREN review of the
literature on basic education. Abuja: Evans Publishers Ltd.

2. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2013). National Policy on Education. Abuja:
Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council NERDC.

3. Etuk, E. N. (2016) Education in Nigeria in 2016 and beyond: Emerging trend,
challenges and sustainable development. A paper presented at the Education
Affairs Policy Dialogue, held at Onyema Ugochukwu Hall, University of Uyo,
Uyo, March 17, 2016.

xv

African Journal of Educational Assessors

(AJEA)

(PRINT: 2536-7501, ONLINE: 2536-751x)

Contents

01-08 Agricultural Education and Vocational Snail Production: Towards Meeting Protein
Consumption Benchmark in Nigeria- Anthony A. Offiong Ph.D & Fidela E. Udoh Ph.D

9-17 Relevance of Educational Administration as Benchmark for Sustainable National
Development- Dr. Celestina Osuji , Dr. Gidado Lawal Likko & Victor O. Evanero

18-28 Benchmarking Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) for Sustainable
29-34 National Development- Otu, Ebeten Bassey and Dr. A. D. Usoro,

Business Education: A Panacea for Sustainable National Development in Nigeria-
Sani Ibrahim, Ph. D

35-42 Adopting Concept Maps for Facilitating Analytical Reasoning and Retention amongst
42-51 Electrical Installation Students in Technical Colleges -Caleb Emmanuel Ezekiel &
Aniefiok Edet Udofia Ph.D

Guidance and Counselling Services on Secondary Students Choice of Business Subjects
as Career and Sustainable National Development-Umar, Rahmat Talatu PhD

52-59 Classroom Management Strategies and Students’ Interest in Business Subjects in
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Uyo Local Government Area.
Usen, S. M. Ph.D, Ekanem, A. P., & Foster, D. L.

60-79 Self-Development Strategies and Public Sponsorship as Determinant of Stability of
Educational Resource Centres in South-South Zone of Nigeria
Okworo, Gibson S. (Ph.D), Gabriel, Chibuzor Job (Ph.D) & Udo, Agnes Lambert

80-85 Use of e-Journals and Teaching Effectiveness of Faculty Lecturers in the University of
Uyo-Nigeria-Etim, P. J. and Ema, I. B.

86-95 Benchmarks in Vocational Education for Sustainable National Development: The
Agricultural Education Programmes Experience-Nsa, S. O (Ph.D), Ikot, A. S. (Ph.D),
Udo, M. F & Anangabor, A. V

96-100 Educational, Entrepreneurship and Values: A Panacea f or Self Reliance-Dr. Ufot, S. I. &
Akpan, O. J

101-118 Mathematical Puzzles and Students’ Academic Achievement in Plane Geometry in
Secondary Schools in Uyo, Nigeria- Essien, Gideon Gabriel & Ado, Isaac Bennet

109-117 Strategies for Revitalizing Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) for
Sustainable Development in Nigeria-Mfon Asuquo Offiong & Dr. Emmanuel Essien

118-124 Benchmark as a Quality indicator Tool for Educational administrators in Quality
Management and Improvement of Higher Education in Nigeria- Dr. Nkoyo Thomas & Dr.
Cecilia Ereh

xvi

125-132 Influence of Community Resources on the Implementation of English Language Curriculum
in Secondary Schools in Kaduna State: Implication for Sustainable National Development-
Dr. (Mrs.) Hanna Onyi YUSUF

133-143 Reducing Unemployment Tendency among University Graduates through
Entrepreneurial Education: A Panacea for Sustainable National Development-Dr.
(Mrs) Christiana Isaac Emediongokon &Dr. (Mrs) Victoria Okon Bassey

144-151 Curriculum Implementation Benchmark for Teaching Fish Farming in Private Senior
Secondary Schools in Uyo-Nigeria Dr. Uduakobong Aniebiat Okon , Janet Effiong Sam
& Favour Umoyo

152-161 Instructional Supervision and Sustainable Development of Secondary Schools in Abia
State, Nigeria-Dr. Onwuchekwa Grace Uzaru & Ihekoronye Joy

162-170 Factors Critical to Benchmark Vocational Education for National Development
(Holistic Perspective) -Etokeren, Marcus S.

171-180 Science Education Benchmarks for Sustainable National Development- Dr. Sabbath Etim
Udofia & Asanga Godwin Christopher

181-193 Validity of Standard-Setting Methods: Public Examinations for Sustainable National
Development-Abdul-Wahab IBRAHIM (Ph.D)

xvii

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Agricultural Education and Vocational Snail Production: Towards
Meeting Protein Consumption Benchmark in Nigeria

Anthony A. Offiong Ph.D & Fidela E. Udoh Ph.D

Department of Vocational Education
University of Uyo

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper focused on how to meet the protein consumption benchmark in Nigeria through
instructional deliveries on snail production. The situation of protein consumption in Nigeria
presently falls far below the Food and Agricultural Organization benchmark of 65-
70g/adult/day with 35g coming from animal sources. This is because 10g/adult/day is
presently consumed with less than 5% coming from animal sources. This drastic shortfall
could be arrested through consumption of snails. Snails are invertebrates with soft bodies
that are inside a hard calcareous shell. Training on production skills in snail’s culture
through agricultural education should include: site and specie selection, housing,
stocking/stocking density and feed/feeding. This would enhance massive production to meet
the protein consumption benchmark in Nigeria among in-school, out-of-school youths and
adult farmers. Recommendations were made including the inclusion of heliculture in the
curriculum of secondary schools and tertiary institutions.

Keywords: Agricultural Education, Snail, Production, Protein, Consumption
Introduction

The nutrients needed for life, growth and repair of body tissues are carbohydrates,
protein, fats, minerals, water and vitamins. The nutrient known to be usually in short supply
is protein. Protein is of two origins: those from plants and those from animals. . In support of
this, Akinnusi, Oso, Afolabi, Sogunle and Bamgbose (2007) stated that animal proteins are
known to be preferable and better when compared with plant proteins based on their balanced
amino acid profile. A rich source of animal protein that has been untapped for years in
Nigeria yet is highly prolific is snail. Although man has eaten snail across the globe since

Prehistoric times when people gathered them from the wild for food, the act of
domesticating snail in Nigeria is still a new venture. Snails are invertebrates with soft bodies
that are in hard calcerous shells. Chinwuke (2007) observed that snails are not only
considered as a delicacy but also a medicinal and dietary therapy for hypertension,
conjunctivitis, diabetes and iron-deficiency anaemia. Okafor (2009) also reported that
Orthocalcium phosphate extract from snail could cure kidney diseases, tuberculosis, asthma,
anaemia, diabetes and certain circulatory disorders. Developing the snail industry/farm is the
latest means of bridging the protein deficiency gap presently prevailing in many countries
because snail is highly prolific and very nutritive. In order to make snail supply sufficient, its

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rearing is very vital to supplement the conventional method of picking snails from the wild.
Snail farming known as heliculture is a veritable means of increasing animal protein intake
deficiency in the diet of average Nigerians because the demand exceeds supply. Heliculture
could be practiced using various species of snails like, Helix aspersa, Limicolaria Spp, Helix
aperta and African land giant snails like Achatina achatina, Archachatina marginata,
Achatina fulica amongst others. Giant African land snails (Archachatina marginata) are
mostly preferred because they are highly economical and have high demand due to their big
size. At maturity, they are 11-19cm long and weigh 150-800gm (Cobbinah, Vink and
Onwuka, 2008).

The giant African land snails have the advantages of high adaptability and
survivability. They are flesher, highly prolific in addition to their being abundant in Nigeria,
Ghana and along the African continent. There is need to extend the supply of snail meat to all
seasons of the year. This is because the seasonality of its supply limits largely its use as a
regular meat. In order to make snail meat available all year round, there is need to initiate
some organized form of domestication/rearing of snails. This entails keeping the snails in an
enclosure that is conducive as well as supplying them with acceptable feeds. For continuous
production of snail, concise knowledge and management skills of cultural practices in
nutrition, housing, breed, etc are very important. Snail generally are scavengers on plant and
animal detritus like leaves, fruits, tubers, compounded feed and kitchen wastes like peels etc
to grow and lay 20-130 eggs depending on breed, hatch in 28-30 days, and grow and mature
in 3-4 months under optimum management.

Issues on Protein Consumption Benchmark in Nigeria

According to Nweze (2007) Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) recommends

65-70g of protein per day per adult, out of which 35g must be of animal origin. The animal

protein intake of many people is generally low leading to acute malnutrition especially in

developing countries. Amusan (2002) stated that the essential amino acids in animal protein

are more balanced and readily available to meet human dietary requirements than those of

plant origin.

However the state of nutrition in Nigeria is still characterized by inadequate protein

intake especially from animal sources. The mean protein intake according to Offiong (2001)

is as low as 10g/adult/day with less than 5% coming from animal sources. Dried snails apart

from having 20% protein complete with essential and amino acids are reputed to contain 45-

50mg of Fe/kg which facilitate haemoglobinogenesis, have very low levels of cholesterol

(0.05-0.8%), being white meat, and has a consumer friendly characteristic of leaness (Awah,

1997). Data on nutritional composition of fresh snail meat and comparative nutritive value of

fresh snail meat and other food animals are presented on Tables 1 and 2 below respectively.

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Table 1: Proximate Composition of Fresh Snail Meat

Nutrient Value
Crude protein 18.20%
Carbohydrate 2.88%
Ether extract 1.36%
Fat 1.01%
Crude fibre 0.07%
Ash 1.37%
Nitrogen free extract 4.95%
Iron 12.2mg/100g
Water 74.06%
Other mineral constituent 60.5m/100g

Source: Wosu (2003).

Table 2: Nutritional Values of Fresh Snail Meat Compared with Other Food

Animals

Food Item Carbohydrate Protein Fat Ash Water

Snail meat 2.93 20.70 1.21 1.49 73.67
(a) Beef
(b) Pork – 17.5 22.0 0.9 60.0
(c) Lamb
– 11.9 45.0 0.6 42.0

– 15.7 27.7 0.8 56.0

Poultry – 20.2 12.6 1.0 81.8
(a) Chicken
(b) Duck – 16.2 30.0 1.0 68.6
(c) Turkey
Dried fish – 20.1 20.0 1.0 79.3

– 60.0 21.0 15.0 4.0

Milk

(a) Cow 5.0 3.5 3.8 0.7 87.3

(b) Goat 4.5 3.8 4.8 0.8 86.4

(Whole milk)

Egg

(a) White of egg 10.5 33.5 1.0 88.0

(b) Yolk of egg 15.5 1.0 49.5

Note: Ash contain the mineral salts. Source: Wosu (2003).

The acute shortage of animal protein in the diets of many people demands that efforts
should be directed to the rearing of animals that are highly prolific and highly desirable.

Agricultural Education

Agricultural education is a process of teaching, training and learning especially in

schools or colleges to improve knowledge and develop skills in Agricultural trades. Young

people in secondary schools are taught various subjects including agricultural science to

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enable them acquire the competencies required for diverse roles in society. Competency
developments in various trade areas of agriculture such as snail production are accomplished
through agricultural education.

Agricultural education therefore is a process of imparting knowledge, skills and
attitudes in agriculture to the learner at any level. Osinem (2008) stated that agricultural
education provide learners with sound academic knowledge and skills as well as ample
opportunity to apply the knowledge through classroom activities, laboratory experiments,
project participation and supervised agricultural experiences. In schools, agricultural
education is provided to the learner by the teachers of agriculture. Teachers of agriculture are
agricultural experts, well trained and experienced in imparting agricultural knowledge and
skills to the students even though a careful analysis of the curriculum of Agriculture for
junior and secondary schools show that snail farming has not enjoyed adequate provision.
Individual farmers who did not have the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills in
agriculture at school could also receive agricultural education through the agricultural
extension agents. Agricultural extension agents are trained and experienced in animal and
crop production. These skills can be provided through agricultural training. The National
Policy on Education, according to FRN (2013) places much emphasis on vocational and
technical skills (Agriculture inclusive) at the secondary and tertiary institutions (Awotunde,
2014). Effective utilization of vocational technical education and implementation of the
programmes would inculcate the necessary skills and competences that would help the
youths to be enterprising and functional. Agricultural Education therefore equip the learners
with entrepreneurial and life-coping skills to make them gainfully self employed.

Snail Farming in Nigeria

Mini livestock by rural household is becoming popular due to the fact that households
have realized the need to diversify their source of income thereby reducing the risk involved
in depending on crop production as the main source of income (Uwalaka & Achotu, 2013).
Snail is one of the mini livestock that has attracted attention among Nigerian farmers due to
its ability to step up protein intake among households. This is because the conventional and
regular sources of animal protein supply in the country like; beef, pork, chevon, mutton and
chicken are getting out of reach of the common populace due to the economic down-turn and
their high cholesterol content, being red meat. There is therefore the need to look inward and
integrate heliculture into our farming system through Agricultural education.

Management Practices in Snail Farming
Site Selection

In selecting site for snail farming, areas protected from wind should be considered to

protect the snails against dehydration of soil moisture and snail body fluid. Also areas of
relative humidity of 80-95% and ambient temperature of 27-28oC should be considered. This

is because at higher temperatures and lower humidity, the snails tend to aestivate. To check

against this, snaileries should be sited under trees with heavy canopy such as alleys of

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plantain or multipurpose trees. Very sandy and acidic soils, low in water holding capacity
should be avoided as snails need moist environments. Similarly, clayey soils with a tendency
to be water logged should be avoided to check drowning of snails. Accordingly, loose loamy
soil, high in organic matter content should be preferred while termite endemic areas should
be avoided.

Specie Selection

Species of economic interest should be selected based on parameters like body size,
prolificacy, life span, hatchability percentage of eggs and adaptability to the ecosystem. They
include:

 Giant African Land Snail (Achachatina maginata): This is a jumbo sized, oval
shaped, fast growing specie with yellowish background with stripes having short life
span though it lay fewer eggs and prefer cooler areas.

 Achatina achatina: This specie is conical in shape with dark brown background and
stripes. It averagely lay more eggs of up to 100 per season and prefer warmer
conditions (up to 30oC) and can tolerate slightly lower relative humidity conditions of
70-80%. It is adaptable to all ecosystems thus considered the easiest to culture. They
have long life expectancy of 5-6 years due to their smaller body size. Their eggs
which have a high hatchability percentage of 90-100% hatch in 2-3 weeks.

 Achatina fulica: This has narrow conical reddish brown shell with faint yellow
markings. Egg laying frequency depends on climate particularly during the wet
season. It can lay up to 300-1000 eggs per year.
It should be noted that the smaller the size of snail the more the eggs laid and the
longer its life span.

Housing

Snails are wanderers and do not keep within bounds especially where the environment is
friendly. Snail housing must therefore be escape proof. Additionally, they must be spacious
in line with the growing stage of the snails eg. Hatchlings, juveniles or snailets, breeders or
growers that are fattened for consumption.

Common housing types include:

 Stacking old car tyres on a good garden soil and covering the top with chicken wire
guage or mosquito net.

 Use of perforated clean oil drums filled with good garden soil to a depth of 7-10cm
and covered with wire guage or mosquito net.

 Perforated clay pot with open bottom could be placed in the soil and filled with good
garden soil of up to 20-25cm with a lid to cover the top.
Standard housing types include:

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 Rectangular single or multi-chambered wooden hutch boxes of 0.6m by 0.6m
dimension and depth of 0.3m with mosquito netted lid and wooded stilts of
comfortable working height, the legs of which should be placed in water containing
plastic cans to check ants and vermins. This box which should be filled good garden
soil up to 10-15cm in depth should be fitted with padlock to check against poaching.

 Rectangular single or multi-chambered convex sandcrete pens of 0.6m by 0.6m
dimension and depth of 0.3m constructed from sandcrete blocks could be constructed
with at least one course of block below ground level. Mosquito netted lids should be
constructed and hinged to the sandcrete pen. Water trench should be constructed
around the pen to keep away ants.

 When sancrete pens are concave or inverted in nature, they are called trench pens.
 Mini padlock pens are small square or rectangular wire netted pens with bamboo or

timber frames. These frames which are extended inwards at the top are covered with
nylon mesh. Suitable leafy vegetables and crops could be planted inside to serve as
shelter and feed for the snails.
Stocking/Stocking Density:

Snails often suffer from overcrowding which tend to impede their development and
increase the risk of diseases. Suitable stocking densities should be 17-20 snails/m2 for
breeders. This notwithstanding, the stocking density per square meter should increase as the
snail size decreases. At stocking, the snails should be of about the same age and specie, the
shell should be wholesome while the flesh should be full, moist and not discoloured.

Feeds/Feeding

Feed is anything consumed to provide energy and nutrition for metabolic processes in
the body which results in growth and development. Snail feed should therefore contain all
classes of food namely: carbohydrate, protein, vitamin, fat/oil, mineral salts and water. While
snailets should be fed mostly with succulent leaves and flowers older ones should be fed with
a combination of feeds like leaves, roots, tubers, flowers and fruits. Such feeds should be
aromatic, sugary and wet. Feeds that contain certain chemicals harmful to snails such as
cashew, black pepper (odusa), chilli pepper and citrus lime should be avoided. Also, mouldy
feeds and processed feeds that contain pepper and salt should be avoided while palm fruits
should be used with caution since they attract ants. At all stages, calcium carbonate (CaCo3),
shells of periwinkle, oyster, snail or poultry egg should be ground and mixed in the soil or
sprinkled on feed for them while water in flat containers or cotton wool should be available
for ad.libitum consumption by them.

Conclusion

Snail farming is lucrative business. When information and skills on adequate feeding,
selection of correct site and specie of snails, housing as well as stocking and stocking
densities are imparted to students, and adult farmers for optimum production through the

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vehicle of agricultural education, the protein consumption benchmark in Nigeria which until
now seemed evasive will be achieved.

Recommendations

This paper recommends that:

1. To properly educate students who are trained to be self reliant through involvement in
the different trade areas in agriculture, the Federal Government through Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) should include heliculture
in the animal husbandry curriculum of secondary schools.

2. Tertiary institutions offering agricultural education programmes should include
heliculture as one of the courses to be taught.

3. Institutions of learning at all level teaching heliculture should have snail farms for
skill acquisition by learners.

4. Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs) through their extension agents should
undertake massive farmer education on snail farming and nutritional value of snails.

References
Akinusi, O; Oso, M. J; Afolabi, M. O; Sogunle, M. P. and Bamgbose, L. G. (2007).

Comparative Effect of Different Animal Protein Concentrates of Carcass Quality of
Rabbits. Paper Presented at Annual Conference of the Nigeria Society for Animal
Production held at University of Calabar.

Amusan, O. M. (2002). The Techniques of Snail Farming as a Viable and Profitable
Ventures. Lagos. Oak Ventures Publishers.

Awah, A. A. (1997). Introduction to minilivestock development as sustainable agricultural
business. Being a paper presented at the Technology Review Meeting of Akwa Ibom
Agricultural Development Programme held at skill development centre, Use Offot on
July 3.

Awotunde, P. O. (2014). Technical Education in Nigeria Past, Present and Future in P. O.
Awotunde (ed). The Dynamics of Locations Education in a Democratic Nigeria. Ota.
SWTE Patinia Ala Educational Services.

Chinwuke, B. A. (2007). Tropical approach to snail farming on land. Awka: Joanee
educational publishers Ltd.

Cobbinah, J. R, Vink, A. and Onwuka, B. (2008). Snail farming: production, processing and
marketing. Wageningen, The Netherlands. Agromisa/CTA.

FRN (2013). National policy on education. Abuja. NERDC

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Nweze, B. C. (2007). Snailery: A means of Family Poverty Reduction. Department of
Animal Science, University of Nsukka, Journal of Home Economics Research
(JHER), 8: 190-195.

Offiong, A. A. (2001). Site/specie selection, stocking and record keeping in snail production.
Being a paper presented at a seminar organized by Snail Farmers Association of
Nigeria, Akwa Ibom State Chapter in collaboration with Akwa Ibom Agricultural
Development Programme held at Akwa Ibom State Library on May 31.

Okafor, F. U. (2009). Edible land snails: A manual of biological management and farming of
snails. Lagos: Splendid publishers.

Osinem, E. C. (2008). Managing Agricultural education and training. Enugu. Belony
Books.

Uwalaka, R. E. and Achotu, E. O. (2013). Poverty Reduction through Snail Farming in
Nigeria. Inter J Vet Sci, 2: 81-84.

Wosu, L. O. (2003). Commercial Snail Farming in West Africa: A Guide. Nsukka, Nigeria:
Ap Express Publishers.

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Relevance of Educational Administration as Benchmark for Sustainable
National Development

Dr. Celestina Osuji 1, Dr. Gidado Lawal Likko2 & Victor O. Evanero3

Department of Educational Foundations
Faculty of Humanities and Education
Federal University Gusau
P.M.B. 1001 Gusau, Zamfara State

[email protected], 08034952526
[email protected]/[email protected], 08065364905

[email protected]; 08069796438

Abstract
Educational administration is concerned with the efficient and effective management of
educational organizations. Efficiency has to do with the use of scarce resources while
effectiveness relates to the realization of the goals and objectives that the organization has
set out to achieve. Administration is generally accepted as the art of reorganizing and
managing human and material resources to attain the goals of education for a sustainable
national development. Therefore, this paper discusses the importance of educational
administration as a benchmark for sustainable national development. It recognizes the
relevance of administration as coordinating efforts of members in an organization such as
school towards goal achievement for sustainable national development. This paper argues
that efficient and effective coordination of both human and material resource would increase
national development. Educational administration was found to be important for sustainable
national development. One of the major recommendations was the need to involve
educational administrators in the implementation of educational policy and plan to enable
them to utilize the available human and material resources for sustainable national
development.

Keywords: Educational Administration, Sustainable National Development

Introduction

Over the years, demand for education by Nigeria and the world generally has become
progressive and more complex. The type of education provided has influenced the society in
many ways, in efforts to meet sustainable national development in a competitive world. Due
to demand the provision and administration of education in Nigeria has continue to change
hands from colonial administrators, to missionaries, government and individuals. Between
the year 1954 and 1906, the government and voluntary agencies provided education,
organized and administered education. The aims of education in Nigeria were not clear or it
was viewed as just providing clerical workers for the government and religious teachers for
the mission. Then education benchmarks were main to train clerical workers and religious
teachers. At the end of Biafra war in 1970, the east central state took the lead in taking over

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the ownership, control, provision and administration of education at all levels in order to
meet the demand of the global world for a sustainable national development. These changes
brought about a new era in administration of education and the need to state the objectives
for growth and development in a competitive environment. Therefore, it become necessary to
train men and women who are knowledgeable in educational administration and who would
translate educational objectives and resources into concrete behavioural activities which are
vital for the achievement of sustainable national development.

Furthermore, education is viewed as very important for the world of tomorrow, and
because of the above statement, there has been increase in educational institutions world-
wide in recent times. Education is important for promoting sustainable development and
improving the capacity of the people to address environment and development issues,
essential for evolutionary progress in technology, industrization, civic and cultural
advancement. Both formal and non-formal educations are indispensable to changing people’s
attitudes so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development
concerns. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and
attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective
public participation in decision making.

Education has been described as an indispensable tool for socio-economic
development, transformation, political, technological and scientific advancement. Nigeria has
recognised education as an agent for both private and international development, and has put
education as “instrument per excellence for effecting national development” (F.G.N., 2004),
which means that development of education is in the spirit of the Nigeria government.
However, development should be in all ramifications with a great concern towards
transforming individual, society, community, family, private and government owned
institutions through educational administration, who will ensure that both available human
and material resources are properly managed to achieve sustainable development in a
competitive environment. (Mgbdile, 2004). Education for all has always been an integral part
of the sustainable development agenda. The World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) in 2002 adopted the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) which in its
Section X, reaffirmed both the Millennium Development Goals in achieving universal
primary education by 2015 and the goal of the Dakar Framework for Action on Education for
All to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and at all
levels of education by 2015. The JPOI addressed the need to integrate sustainable
development into formal education at all levels, as well as through informal and non-formal
education opportunities.

The importance of promoting education for sustainable development and integrating
sustainable development actively into education was also emphasized in paragraph 233 of
the Future We Want, the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development. In 2005, UNESCO launched the United Nations Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development which reaffirmed the key role of education in shaping values that
are supportive of sustainable development, and in consolidating sustainable societies. The
final report of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, Shaping the Future
We Want, was launched at the UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable
Development, held in November 2014, Nagoyan. Japan Nwagwu, (1976) in Ogbonnaya
(2006). The researcher defines education as the state of the mind to solve immediate

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problems of the environment and self. The federal republic of Nigeria in her national policy
on education (2004, revised) acknowledges education as an instrument per excellence for
effecting national development. In other words, the government recognises the fact that
education is an indispensable instrument or tool for solving the social, economic, political
and technological problem of the nation.

Educational administration is a discipline within the study of education that examines
the administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and
educators in particular. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and
management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational philosophy.
However, Educational administration, according to Peretermode (2009), is the procedures of
executing plans, programs and activities for the day- to-day running of educational
institutions. It is the activities of educational organization geared towards the attainment of
goals of teaching on the part of the teacher and learning on the part of students. It is both a
field of practice and a field of study.

The activities of education institutions include the following:

 Describing activities to be performed to achieve certain objectives
 Assigning tasks to carefully select and train personnel to achieve objectives
 Making personnel perform efficiently by using administrative tools and raw materials

available
 Co-ordinating formal structures, which allows a hierarchical allocation of

responsibilities through communication flow

Therefore, the researcher defines educational administration as a process of planning, co-
ordinating, directing, simulating, organising and controlling of both human and material
resources to achieve efficiency in institutions of learning. Furthermore, the benchmark, of
educational administration towards sustainable national development is to co-ordinate men
and women who would manage the available resources to achieve the scope of educational
administration. However, the scope of educational administration according to
Ezeocha,(1990) and Mgbdile (1997), refers to the specific areas or functional operations and
concerns of educational administration which includes:

 School-community relationship
 Curriculum and instructions
 Pupil personnel
 Staff personnel
 Physical facilities and equipment
 Finance and business management

Activities that are not in the curriculum that can promote sustainable development. The
above mentioned scope are the roles which educational administrator can handle with his
knowledge and skills of managing human and material resources to achieve sustainable
development in the world.

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Sustainable National Development:

Sustainability Education (SE), Education for Sustainability (EFS), and Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) are interchangeable terms describing the practice of
teaching for sustainability. ESD is the term most used internationally and by the United
Nations. Agenda 21 was the first international document that identified education as an
essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for
education to unite us together to make a positive change for both people and planet.
“Supporting the 2030 Agenda is a top priority for UNDP”. The SDGs provide us with a
common plan and agenda to tackle some of the pressing challenges facing from the above,
the three concept work together to achieve the same target, but sustainable national
development, that is education for sustainable development was endorsed in the Earth
summit of 1992 Agenda 21 blueprint which remind the world to revisit their education
programme to include environment and development issues (United Nation, 2002). The
SDGs work in the spirit of partnership and pragmatism to make the right choices to improve
life of people in the present and for future generation in a sustainable way. They provide
clear guidelines and targets for all countries to adopt in accordance with their own scale of
preference and the environmental challenges of the world at large. The SDGs are an inclusive
agenda. They tackle the root causes of poverty and our world such as poverty, climate change
and conflict. UNDP has the experience and expertise to drive progress and help support
countries on the path to sustainable development.

Sustainable development means that man has the skills, attitude and knowledge to
meet his immediate and future needs, and ensures that his environment is highly protected
and free from danger to meet the demands of the future generation without stress. In
situations like this, it is the work of educational administrator to co-ordinate the activities of
men to achieve the target goals which would lead to sustainable national development.
Sustainable national development places men at the centre of development. However, this
research work needs to equipped and empower men through educational administration. This
is so, because educational administration in the field of learning is comprehensive enough to
prepare men with skills, values, norms and knowledge that would enable him to fit into the
society to use available resources to attain a sustainable national development. This research
work discusses the relevance of educational administration as a benchmark for sustainable
national development, the goals and challenges of sustainable development, the goals of
educational administration in achieving the sustainable national development and the way
forward for achieving sustainable national development.

Sustainable national development came to being as a point of global needs to meet the
world environmental needs to sustain human desire. Human desires are numerous and the
resources are just few to satisfy it, therefore, to achieve these numerous want, an educational
administrator is in a position to plan and co-ordinate all resources into actions. Sustainable
development was first organized during the Stockholm conference of 1972 and this led to the
establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World
Commission on Environment Development and (WCED, 1987). Based on the report,
‘sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED, 1987,
World Bank, 2003). However, based on the research, sustainable national development as a

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benchmark for educational administration means using men and material resource available
to gets efficiency and effectiveness for sustainable development.

Sustainable development is about a global responsibility and solidarity between
generations, between women and men and between different cultures and countries. It is
about safeguarding and efficient use of existing nature resources. Investment in management
of human, social and physiological resources is also crucial parts of sustainable development.
Democratic values permeate the society and the citizens feel that they can influence the
development, and that they have the will of taking that responsibility for doing so.

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The principles
underlying sustainable can be separated into a social, economic, and ecological dimension.
The economic growth is used to be seen as a requirement for development. No country can
achieve a sustainable economic growth if the environment is worsened, if the prosperity is
not fairly distributed and if growth of the human resources has not taken place. Therefore, the
economical dimension means that economical growth shall carry on with: first, respect taken
to the environment, second, growth of the people’s health and education and third, a fair
distribution of prosperity. The social dimension points out the importance resources, power
and influence are fairly distributed and that people can feel secured and can participate. The
social dimension is therefore a requirement for economic growth. The environment
dimension means that considerations are taken for the social and economical development.
These three dimensions are integrated with each other as they are interdependent and
mutually reinforcing.

UNESCO is the United Nations’ Lead Agency for the UN Decade on Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD, 2005–2014). The vision guiding this international
mobilization effort strives for ‘a world in which the values inherent in sustainable
development are integrated into all aspects of learning in order to encourage changes in
behaviour that allow for a more sustainable, economically viable and just society for all, a
world where everyone has the opportunity to benefit from education and learn the values,
behaviour and lifestyles required for a sustainable future and for positive societal
transformation’.

Sustainable National Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a
universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy
peace and prosperity in their environment. The successes of the Millennium Development
Goals, while including new areas such as climate change, economic inequality, innovation,
sustainable consumption, critical thinking, peace and justice, among other priorities. The
goals are interconnected to lead to the success of others. The goal of sustainable development
according to United Nations includes:

 Poverty reduction: This implies that sustainable national development would reduce
poverty in people by the year 2005. The question the research asked in the above, if it
is possible to achieve with the rate of economic recession?

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 Sustainable national development is Universal primary education. It aims to achieve
Universal primary education for all by the 2030.

 Gender equality: This goals aims to achieve equality and empower women by
reducing gender disparity in both primary and secondary education 2011.Yes, it has
yield explosion in both level.

 Reduction of morality rate: This implies reducing infant mortality rate by two-thirds
and maternity rates by three quarters by 2015.

 Health sector: This is to provide access to health services to all individuals of age by
2015.

Challenges of Sustainable National Development Goals:

Although, sustainable development improves the quality of human life at present and its
future generation to come, and its blueprint is on land. However, there is serious thrust that is
affecting the goals of sustainable development. The agenda is calling countries to create
awareness, reorient their education programmes to consider community education,
environmental awareness and development issue (United Nation, 2002). The researcher also,
observed hiding issues that are not in the wider curriculum, cultural education, shyness in
part of students in some part of the country. Thus, some of the challenges of sustainable
national development goals include:

 Over population
 Negative believe and attitude
 Lack of public understanding/awareness
 Lack of Community Education
 Environmental Pollution

Educational Administration as Benchmarks for Sustainable Development:

The above mentioned problems show the relevant of education and importance of
educational administration in particular, its roles in realization of the goals of sustainable
development. In the same view, Schrader, (2002) augured that education is the “greatest
resources for achieving a just and democratic society”. The researcher went further to
identify goals of education as promoting education. Also, education enables people, to
acquire the skills, knowledge, values, norms, attitudes for sustainable living. The importance
of educational administration to achieve Sustainable National Development (SND), is base
on the administrative process that educational administrators posses, because administration
is seen as a collection of processes dealing with various ways in which human and material
resources are been used to achieve a goal. These processes include such element as planning,
decision-making, organizing, coordinating, motivating, directing, evaluating, staffing, and
budgeting etc. this mean that these elements are the tools of educational to mobilize man and
material resource to achieve SD through teaching and learning. Another, relevance of
educational administration to SND is in the area of principles of educational administration
which administrators use with his knowledge of administrative principle to adapt, modify and
fulfil his social role which includes; conflict resolution between and among staff, students in
school setting. These, would strengthen his ability to take right decisions and adopts the
leadership style that would stimulate and encourage cooperation, team spirit, hard work,

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commitment to duties and generally enhanced work productivity to achieve sustainable
education system and community at large.

Furthermore, the role of education for SD cannot be overemphasized because
educational administration enables people to acquire the skills, tools, knowledge, values and
attitudes require training people for SND. Hence united nations approve decade for education
for SD recognised lifelong learning and education as tools for SD.(UNESCO,2005). All
things being equal, the issue of SD should entails re-thinking of attitude towards
development strategies in a way that people’s attitude and believe should change in a positive
direction for the present and future generation to come. This implies that re-thinking and
reorientation can be achieve through the administrative principles already embedded in
educational administration, such as leadership style, community education, team work etc.

Educational administration also plays vital role in energizing the environs to
understand the new approach of development for SD. Educational administration encourage
people to manage available resources to improve the quality of life at present and be able to
sustain the environment for future generation to survive. Sustainable national development
encourages people to actively participate in protecting the environment. This participation
can only be achieved through the help of educational administration, because educational
administrators impart skills and knowledge that would encourage them to protect and
preserve the environment worthy for living. Educational administration is a tool for
economic change and recovering. Since, it organizes men and material resource towards
effective utilization of resource to achieve efficiency and effectiveness for SD, the build
people with capacity to manage their resource and reduce waste of resource for SD.

Furthermore, Akinboye (2003) argued that sustainable development is the
development that meet the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future
generation to meet their needs, then, educational administration is a tool for SD. SD
according to the above implies equipping the learners with skills, knowledge, norms, moral
and attitude that will make them employable in the society, meaning they are empowered to
be good abiding citizens that are useful to themselves and community at large. Therefore,
the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004)takes note of the fact when it states that education
shall continue to be rated high in the national development plan because of it important for
change in all aspects of life, meaning education is the key to SD. To summarize the above,
SD cannot be achieve without proper funding and management of available resource on the
ground, therefore, an administrator is the only tool to coordinate people toward achieving
these goals for sustainable national development.

Conclusion

This paper has demonstrated that educational administration is expected to train men with
scales, values, norms, men of indigent, knowledge and skills for SD. However, educational
planners should put SD into the curriculum at all levels of education to train learner with
skills and knowledge for SD. This implies that educational system needs to check the system
and over hall the system through reorientation and input the learners with critical thinking for
sustainable development. Educational administrators deal with teaching and non-teaching
staff, pupil and members of the public through training and retraining of staff for sustainable
development. They are leaders with ethical consideration moving to achieve sustainable

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development. Therefore, educational administration cannot be separated from educational
aims which are drive towards sustainable development.

There is growing awareness that educational administrators play in tacking the
challenging of the 21 century, since, educational approaches to issues such as climate change,
unsustainable living and growing inequality in access to natural resources are what the
educational administrator can handle through proper planning, co-ordinating, directing etc of
human and material resources to get efficiency. Education for sustainable development
encourages different disciplines to enter into dialogue, make connections, share knowledge,
and work together on emergent areas. It aims to develop students' ability to understand and
evaluate connections between big countries.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made towards relevance of educational administration as
benchmarks for SDG programme:

 Government and educational planners should equip educational administrators with
the necessary tools to empower learners with skills, attitude, norms, values and
knowledge, which will enable the citizens to be employable to help themselves,
community, state and the world at large.

 Government, stakeholders and educational agencies should implement policies that
would encourage social-reconstruction, mobilization and rehabilitation of individual,
since education is the bedrock, powerhouse and the only tool with proper blueprint to
national development.

 The population should be educated to re-think and reorient their skills in order to
meet the challenges of the global world.

 Community education should be encouraged to enlighten the citizen and empower
them to help themselves and their immediate environment and the world for positive
change.

 School programme and public education should be used to discuss the economic,
social and environmental issues for sustainable national development.

 Training/workshop: all sectors should embark on training/workshop to create
awareness of sustainable development. Both levels of government should to
reenergize their workforce to embrace sustainable development. The workshop to
reinforce the labour market with skills, knowledge, values, respect for labour and all
necessary ingredients that would make them to put in their best for sustainable
development.

References
Akinboye, J.O. (2003). Creativity and Knowledge: Innovation in education for sustainable

development. In Ayodele-Bamisaiye, O, Nwazuoke, I.A.Okediran, A.(Eds).
Education this millennium-innovation in theory and practice, Ibadan: Macmillan Nig.
Pp.633-666.

Babalola, I. B. (2009).Overview of Educational Management. In J. Babalola, A,Ayeni,
S.Adedeji, A, Suleiman and M.Arikewuyo (Eds) in, Educational Management.
Thought and Practice. (pp1-16). Ibadan: codat publications

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Environmental Policy Research Centre (2004). Analysis of National Strategies for
Sustainable Development, URL: http://www.fu-berlin.de/ffu. "Education for
Sustainability". London South Bank University

Ezaocha, P.A. (1990). Educational Administration and Planning. Nsukka: Optimal
Computers Solutions.

Federal Republic of Nigeria.(2004). National Policy on Education. 4th edition
(Revised).Lagos: Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council.
http://www.ceeindia.org/

Mgbdile, T.O. (2004). Fundamentals in Educational Administration and Planning. Enugu:
Magnet Business Enterprises.

Nwankwo, J.I. (1982). Educational Administration. Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing house.

Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE). 2004. See Change: Learning and
Education for Sustainability. Wellington: PCE.

Peretermode, A.(2009). Introduction to Educational Administration in Nigeria.
Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Schreuder, R. (2002). Responding to the Global Challenge. International Union for
Conservation of Nature and National Resources Gland P.187.

Soubbotina, T.P. (2008). Beyond Economic Growth: An Introduction to Sustainable
Development. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005 – 2014". UNESCO.
Retrieved July 7, 2010 "UNESCO Office in Bangkok: International Implementation
Scheme". http://www.unesco.org/education/desd.

UNESCO. (2005). Education for sustainable development. Bulletin vol. 1(1) Retrieve on
http://www.homeorganic.ie/contact.ph.p16/6/2011.

UNESCO: Education for sustainable development information brief,
www.unesco.org/education/desd.

United Nation Education Development, (2002). UNED Forum’s work on Multi-stakeholder
Processes, link and Resources, available at http://www.earth,summit.2002.org/msp.

Wikipedia (2003). Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July25, 2008. Available at
http://www.wikipedia.org/.

World Bank (2007). World Development Report 2007. Development and the Next
Generation.Washington, D.C, International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development/ the World Bank.

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future, Oxford:
Oxford University Press, P.37.

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Benchmarking Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) for
Sustainable National Development.

Ebeten Bassey Otu & Dr. A. D. Usoro

Faculty of Education
Department of Vocational Education

University of Uyo, Uyo
email: [email protected]

Abstract
This paper focuses on Benchmarking Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
for Sustainable National Development. This paper highlighted the concepts and relevance of
TVET education. It discusses parameters to ensure TVET education is position for
sustainable national development. Aims and objective, workshop facilities trade training for
employable skills in TVET education were also discussed. Way forward to minimize human-
made-problems and challenges in TVET were also enumerated. Conclusion was drawn and
recommendations were made among others to include that the federal and state government
should provide adequate funds, equipment and training materials as emphasis on practical
aspect of TVET education would guarantee self-employ among her graduates and reduction
over dependence on government for white collar jobs.

Keywords: Vocational/Technical Education, Sustainability, National Development

Introduction

Unemployment, insecurity militancy and political instability is currently a national
concern. The high rate of insecurity as exemplified in kidnapping, prostitution, arm robbery
has relationship with unemployment and poverty (Amedu, 2013). Every year, graduates
from the various higher institutions in Nigeria and youths are seeking for job employment.
As a result, lack of employment opportunity increases daily. Vocational education and
training have been recognised the world over as tools for empowering people, especially
youth for sustainable livelihood and social economic development (Soyemi, 2012).
Vocational and technical training plays a major role in promoting community and national
development (Oguntuyi, 2013).

It is educational training which has been designed technically and systematically to
accommodate both the trainer and the trainee in order to enable most importantly the trainee
acquire the basic knowledge, skills ability, understanding and attitudes needed for once
efficient performance in his/her chosen occupational career for self-reliance and national
development. (Nwogu, & Nwanoruo, 2011). It is education which leads to acquisition of
skills. It is a planned programme of course and learning experiences that begin with the
exploration of career options, supports basic academic and life skill, and enables the

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achievement of high academic standards leadership, preparation for industry and continuing
education. Vocational education is a form of education perceived to be the greatest weapon
that can be used to bring or achieve a quick desirable changes or development in the
country’s economic, political, sociological and human resources (Lawal, 2013). It is
education which would train and improve individual in relation to the present and future
occupation. The training according to Oguejiofor and Ezeabasili (2014) will lead to self-
reliance and sustainable development. Technical/vocational education if it is well applied, it
can become a dominant factor in determining the wealth of a nation.

Unfortunately, Nigeria does not seem to give vocational and technical education the
attention it deserves (Amedu, 2013). According to Habibi (2007), the technology applied in
Nigeria today has been imported which impact negative to the development of our
indigenous. No nation can be self-reliant without developing and utilizing an indigenous
talents and technologies (Lawal, 2013). This appears to be one of the reasons for rising rate
of unemployment and poverty in the society (Amedu, 2013). He further opined that the
growing problem of unemployment in the country has contributed largely to the worsening
problem of poverty among the populace. Especially as most graduates from the country
tertiary institutions lack the necessary occupational skills to exploit the abundance resources
in Nigeria. Unemployment leads to frustration and disillusionment which may result in crime
or drug abuse in a futile attempt to escape from and forget the pains and humiliation
associated with poverty and lack (Olaitan, 1996).

It is believed that the promotion of technical and vocational education would enable
an individual to be better, more useful and productive citizen of the society for a sustainable
development in Nigeria (Lawal, 2013). It is for this reason that this paper is addressing in
vocational/technical education for sustainable national development.

Concept of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

Education is the only way in which an individual and the society can become better.
According to Ukoha and Usoro (2014) education is a very lucrative venture economically
and socially to the individual in particular and the society in general. It is a common property
of everyone, the prime creator and conveyor of knowledge and in a facet, the most complex
human endeavour (Ammani and Ogunginka, 2011 and Galadima, 2003). Meanwhile, Usoro,
Ogbuanya and Udo (2012) asserted that vocational education as any form of education
designed to prepare persons for employment in recognised occupations to provide skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary for effective employment in specific occupations. It is
education that is workshop based, which equipped individual with the psychomotor skills
necessary for effective living. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013) defined technical
vocational education as a comprehensive term referring to those aspect of the educational
process involving in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related
science and acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to

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occupation in various sectors of economic and social life. The policy further stated that
vocational education as:

1. An integral part of general education.
2. A means of preparing for occupational fields and effective participation in the world

of work.
3. An aspect of lifelong learning and preparation for responsible citizen.
4. A method of facilitating poverty alleviation

Osula (2004) perceived vocational education as a systematic learning experience
which are designed to fit individual for gainful employment in recognised occupations as
semi-skilled workers or technicians and sub professionals. It is education which make an
individual productive and contributing to the economic development of her nation.

Aims and objectives of vocational education and technical education

The aims and objective of vocational and technical education as contained in the National
Policy of Education 2013 include:

 To provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and business
particularly at craft, advanced craft and technical levels.

 To provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
commercial and economic development.

 To give training and impart the necessary skills to individual who shall be self-reliant
economically,

 To form a practical segment of education concern or targeted at skill acquisition.

Concept of sustainable national development

Sustainable development is as a kind of development that can be initiated and
managed properly in such away as to give attention to continuity and preservation as people
explore an explicit available resources for the enlargement of their existence (Adebola,
2007). It has to do with physical development to mental development which include social
and economically well-being of an individual as well as that of a nation and the world at
large (Lawal, 2013). Technical and vocational development is important for economic
development. Technical/vocation skills are need for enterprise productivity and profitability
as well as for national productivity and wealth creation (Yusuff and Soyemi, 2012). They
further admitted that development of technical and vocational skills is of vital importance
because it is essential for individual prosperity. Usoro, Ogbuanya and Udo (2012) viewed
development as reduction in the levels of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment and income
inequality. Sustainable development is a construct, which envision development as meeting
the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generation
(Kundan in Ugoh, 2008). National development encompasses social and political
development as well as economic development defined as the attainment of number of ideas

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of modernization such as a rise in productivity, social and economic equity, improved
institutions and values. Arogundade (2011) perceived that the major essential tool for
achieving sustainable development includes:

1. Improving the quality of basic education
2. Reorienting existing education programme to address sustainable development.
3. Developing public awareness and understanding.
4. Providing training for all sectors of private and civil society.

Workshop Facilities in Vocational Technical Education in Nigeria

The quality of manpower can determine the economy of a nation and the extent the
economy can grow for sustainable national development. Technical vocational education is
concern with training and empowering individual with appropriate skills and competences in
order to be self-reliant and contribute to the development of the nation. The training equip
students with employable skills for both private and public sector. According to Ndomi
(2005), both sectors require the services of well-trained and competent personnel who can
operate and maintain the available technical equipment and machines. These well-trained
graduates or individuals are viewed by Audu, must-amal, Kamin and Saud (2013), who can
perform competently in their chosen vocation without a need for pre-employment training.

These conditions are possible with curriculum that is comprehensive and relevant,
with well equipped worships with modern machines, tools, equipment and other learning
faculties. Which must be a replica of what is obtainable in industries. This is because
availability of well-equipped workshops are very important for the success of
technical/vocational education. NBTE (2014) stated that, in principle there should be
adequate number of workshops suitably equipped to teach all the modules of the programme
in each term. If further stated that, there should be available to each programme a number of
general and specialized workshops, furnished and equipped as such. Which further pointed
that a workshop should meet the following specification and general standard:

a) Well lit and ventilated, where necessary, with ceiling fans/or air conditioners as
appropriate;

b) Exhibits good house-keeping;
c) Clean floor free from oil, dirt and non-slippery;
d) Well laid out to facilitate its maximum use for productions work, where necessary;
e) Have in addition to adequate working space, with the following:
- A tool store, fitted with racks and storage cabinets
- Storage space for training material, etc
- Project storage and display room.
f) Quite safe. Safety posters should be displayed to encourage correct safety habits;
g) Have office space for instructors teaching the various skill courses;

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h) Adequate and regular power supply to facilitate continuous use of the various
equipment/machines;

i) Regular water supply and where necessary gas supply;
j) Adequate equipped workshop for the specific modules to be taught in it.
k) At least, one classroom attached to it for teaching trade theory;
l) Have toilet facilities.

Furthermore, the NBTE requested for training studios to include studio:

a) Audio visual studios
b) Computer studios,
c) Typing studio,
d) Drawing studios etc.

Which must be permanently furnished to sit a class team. A functional productive industry in
the vicinity of the institution to provide the industrial training. A reliable and legally binding
memorandum of understanding must exist between the institution and training industries to
guarantee the trainee unhindered access to agreed facilities of the industry. Laboratories shall
be available in a technical college such as:

1. Physic
2. Chemistry
3. Biology (for catering and agricultural programmes)
4. Engineering science laboratory
5. Building science laboratory for advanced craft courses only
6. Electoral engineering science.

Adequate number of class rooms/lecture halls/theatres should be available for the
programme. The class room’s size of workshops, laboratories and studios depends on the
number of students that may be taught in it at the same time. All these tools, instruments,
workshops, equipment and laboratories for the programmes should be provided, installed and
commissioned before the approval inspection takes place before the first set of students are
admitted.

The NBTE curriculum has stated trade employable skills, from various trade which
students must possess before graduation. For students in technical education: Building/Wood
Technology should posses the following skills, brick and concrete work, carpentry and
joinery, plumbing and pipe fitting, painting and decoration, furniture making and upholstery
(Tawo, 1994). Other skills are, block laying, bricklaying, concreting, floor finishing,
fundamentals of machine wood working, permanent carpentry, joinery, gas and steam work,
sanitation and drainage, hot and cold water services, heating and ventilation, decorative
painting, screen printing, line and sign writing, spray painting, general wood working,
fundamentals of woods making, furniture design construction, metal – wood construction,

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furniture finishing, design and construction of modern and period upholstery, design
construction and maintenance among others (Towe, 1994).

For Auto and Metal Technology students who have offered motor vehicle mechanics
work, vehicle body building/ body repair, foundry, refrigeration and air-conditioning work,
the skill student should posses includes: fore court services, suspension of steering and
braking systems, transmission reconditioning, engine maintenance, engine reconditioning,
vehicle body building (wood), vehicle body building (metal), trimming, body repair work,
vehicle painting, vehicle body design and production, industrial air conditioning,
compressors motors and generators, cold store installation maintenance, ice plant, pattern
making, mould and core making, melting processes, finishing and quality control, core
making, melting molten metal and handling etc (Towe, 1994).

Well-equipped school workshops and well trained personnel should offer students the
opportunities of acquiring these skills listed in the curriculum and more, for employment and
national development. Students practical skills according to Bybee and Loucks-Horsely
(2000), Penmey and Fox in Audu, Musta amal, Kamin and Saud (2013), are an important
part of the curriculum in vocational technical education, but a supportive school environment
is a fundamental requirement for the successful implementation of the curriculum. Good and
well-equipped workshops offers students the opportunity to participate in practical which
help them to acquire skills. As student acquire these skills, the curriculum is set to be relevant
and implemented. With these workshops, qualified teachers and continuous practice,
graduate should perform competently as technologies and technicians in their field of
specialization immediately on completion their programmes with their peers all over the
world.

However, a study by UNESCO (1994) showed NBTE accreditation/advisory visit to
ninety (90) technical colleges in Nigeria. The findings of the team showed eight out of ninety
technical colleges visited had well-equipped workshops to teach trade courses. The laudable
objectives of TVE can only be achieved through a curriculum that is relevant and
comprehensive and a well equipped workshop with relevant tools and equipment and other
training facilities, Audu, Musta amal, Kamin and Saud (2013). Umunadi (2011), pointed that
one of the issues of great controversy among technical and vocational education educators
today is the issue of the poor state of workshop tools and equipment in TVE institutions in
Nigeria. The National policy on education (2004) stated that the government is aware that
only limited equipment and facilities exist for teacher at different levels. According to Oranu
(1990), lack of physical facilities is the major problem of TVE in Nigeria. Most of the TVE
institutions in Nigeria have been forced to perform below standard due to purported non-
availability, poor management or utter neglect of the required facilities in the workshops for
effective skills acquisition (Umar & Ma’aji (2010). Puyate in Umar and Ma’aji indicated that
the state of facilities in TVE institutions is very poor, there is no planned measures of
maintenance of the already broken down equipment or means of acquiring new ones, there is

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hardly or no concern on the part of government, teachers and students for the development of
the present state of the facilities.

Furthermore, insufficient facilities, lack of equipment, broken down machines, lack of
maintenance hindered practical demonstrations which are what students needed in order to
acquire skills for economy growth and sustainable national development. Uzoagulu in Audu,
Musta amal, Kamin and Saud (2013), confirmed that poor student performance in TVE in
Nigeria is as a result of inadequate and non-functional training facilities. They further
reiterated that, where equipment and tools are not functional or adequately provided,
technical training programmes will suffer and will lead to the production of highly unskilled
personnel who are unemployable and unproductive. Students quality depends on the number
of effective employable skills acquire which is based on functional facilities available as well
as adequately qualified instructors. According to Afeti (2007), the quality of training in TVE
institutions in Nigeria is low with undue emphasis on theory and certification rather than on
skills acquisition and proficiency testing. Audu Musta amal, Kamin and Saud (2013), noted
that without functional workshop tools and equipment, the technical teacher is handicapped
and can not go far in the use of demonstration method in his teaching, TVE has theory limit,
if the teaching and learning exceed that limit, acquisition of skill is hampered and TVE will
become ‘‘theoretical education’’.

It is important to note that most of the workshop machines tools and equipment are
electrically operated. The workshop needs constant electricity for smooth operation and
production. Considering the nature of electricity supply in Nigeria as asserted by Okala
(2005), as epileptic in nature and therefore recommended alternative sources of supply in the
workshop. Alternative source of supply in this case is generator set, which may be very
expensive for the institution.

Challenges of Vocational/Technical Education in Achieving Sustainable Development

There are a number challenges facing vocational/technical education which can hinder
national development. According to Oguejiofor and Ezeabasili (2014) these challenges are:

 Lack of adequate training facilities and equipment: Most vocational education
departments in Nigeria universities do not have laboratory or workshop space let
alone usable facilities and where they exist, they are grossly inadequate. Oduma,
(2007) posited that what is seen and referred to as vocational education laboratories in
various institutions today is an eye-sore.

 Acute shortage of vocational technical teachers: Acquisition of skills requires that
strict attention and supervision must be given to every student. With the
overwhelming population of students in Nigeria schools, individualized instruction
becomes very difficult especially during practicals due to shortage of vocational
education teachers. So many studies have revealed shortage of vocational technical
teachers in our schools.

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 Poor funding of vocational education: Universities in Nigeria are owned and funded
by the Federal Government, state government and private individual. In Nigeria, the
allocation to education as a share of the GDP is quite minimal. Okeke and Eze
(2010), reported that sufficient fund has not been channelled to vocational education
which is a major problem plaguing the system. Similarly, Ugiagbe in Okeke (2010)
observed that poor funding cause’s acute shortage of the necessary facilities needed
for effective implementation of the programme.

 Poor remuneration of vocational/technical teachers: Many universities across the
country are inadequately staffed because of poor remuneration of vocational teachers.
Uwaifo, (2005) opined that academics is not as attractive and commensurate to the
effort, commitment and finances put in to acquire it, whereas a first “degree graduate”
can function well in the industry and politics etc and earn good money.

 Poor public impression and apathy to vocational education: Vocational education in
Nigeria has suffered a serious “lookdown” and obscurity in the past. Olufunke, (2003)
observed that parents prefer their children to study courses like pharmacy, medicine,
law, accounting etc. because they regard vocational education as a course for “Never-
do-wells” who could not secure admission into other disciplines.

 Poor emphasis on the practical aspect of vocational/technical education: Most tertiary
institutions charged with the responsibility to teach vocational/technical education
subjects in Nigeria today are poorly equipped with machines and relevant
tools/equipment. Isyaku (2003) noted that vocational education in Nigeria has been
bedevilled by inadequate supply of facilities and equipment necessary for acquiring
skills and competencies for self-employment.

Conclusion

Vocational/technical education is systematic learning experiences which is designed
to fit individual for gainful employment, by using tools, equipments, machines and other
materials to translate theories into practice and skills. These skills can only be acquired in a
well-equipped workshop with modern and functional facilities, with qualified teachers for
successful implementation of the curriculum. As proper adoption of VTE is capable of
moving forward the nation technologically, economically, industrially, generating
employment, eradicating poverty and creating wealth for our teeming youths. It is therefore
not to be toil with if Nigeria must cope with present and future challenges.

Recommendations

1. Government at all levels must ensure adequate provision of funds for acquisition of
modern machines, facilities, equipment and other facilities, needed to acquire skills
in vocational/technical education.

2. Training and retraining of vocational educators should be organised regularly in
order to keep them abreast of the current development in vocational/technical
education for sustainable national development.

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3. To ensure sustainable development, there must be regular sensitisation of the public
in order to combat poor perception about vocational education.

4. Government should involve private sectors and industries to donate equipment,
modern machines and facilities to vocational/technical education and what is donated
should be a replica of what is obtainable in the industries.

5. More emphasis should be placed on practical aspect of vocational /technical
education so that graduates can be self-employ and thereby reducing over
dependence on government for white collar jobs.

References
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Building and Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable
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Adenle, S. O. & Olukayole, S. I. (2007). Technical and Vocational Education for
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National Conference of National Association of Teachers of Technology (NATY),
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Arogundade, B. B. (2011). Entrepreneurship education: An imperative for sustainable
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Amedu, O. S. (2013). Vocational Technical Education: A tool for sustainable development in
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Audu, R., Musta’amal, A. B.; Kamin Y. B.& Saud, M. S. B. (2013), Provision of workshop
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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERC.

Towe, P. E. O. (1994).Technical Education in Nigeria. In Federal Ministry of Education and
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Habibu, R. G. (2007). Technology Education as a tool for Productivity and Sustainable.
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5th -7th November. Online retrievedd March, 2017.

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Immaculate, E. E. (2005). The funding needs of Vocational and Technological Education
Programmes in Nigeria School System. JONATT 5(1)18-21.

Isyaku, S. (2003). Business Education for self-reliance: Issues and relevance. ABEN Book of
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Lawal, A. W. (2013). Technical and vocational education, a tool for National Development
in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Science 4(8). Online retrieved February,
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Development, Problems and Prospect. A paper presented at the 1st National
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Okeke, B. C. & Eze, C. P. (2010). Repositioning vocational and technical education for the
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Ugoh, S. C. (2008). Oil Polities and Crisis of Development on the Niger Delta. Orient
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Technology. International Journal of Educational Research. (IJER), 11 (1),204-208

Uwaifo, V. O. (2005). Vocational and general Education, conflict or convergence. Nigerian
Journal of Educational Research 4(1) institute of Education, Ambrose Ali University,
Ekpoma.

Umunadi, E. K. (2011). Provision of equipment and facilities in vocational and technical
education for improving carrying capacity of Nigeria tertiary institution. In the
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Business Education: A Panacea for Sustainable National Development in
Nigeria

Sani Ibrahim, Ph. D

Department of Vocational and Technical Education
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
e-mail:[email protected]
+2348033026077, +2348088699349

Abstract
This paper discussed business education as a panacea for sustainable national development
in Nigeria. The paper argued that business education can impact on the development of
Nigeria’s economy. The paper discussed concept of sustainability, concept of national
development and reasons why business education could be positioned to be a panacea for
national development in Nigeria. The paper concluded that Nigeria cannot overlook the
importance of business education in its sustainable national development drive. One of the
goals of business education is to produce graduates who can be self-reliant, and the strength
of any economy depends on the strength of its workforce. It is the workforce that determines
the amount of goods and services produced by a nation and its GDP. Four recommendations
were made, among which is that an enabling environment should be created by the Nigerian
government and the private sector for creation and growth of small and medium scale
enterprises in the country. Another recommendation made is that the Nigerian government
and the private sector should introduce economic empowerment schemes for graduates who
are innovative, especially business educators.

Key words: Panacea, Business Education, Sustainable National Development

Introduction

Development is a process of economic and social transformation of a nation that is
based on complex cultural and environmental factors and their interactions. On the other
hand, sustainable national development is the capability of a nation to achieve
comprehensive improvements economically, politically, culturally. This means the ability of
a nation to plan and achieve improvements in its socio-economic, political, cultural and
environmental lives both now and in the future.

Many developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, have been importers of finished goods
from developed economies for many decades. This has made them economically dependent,
even though they gained political independence many decades ago. To be truly independent,
developing countries need to have reliant and resilient economies that are capable of
generating self-sustaining growth. Nigeria is blessed with abundant mineral, agricultural and

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human resources, but most of these resources are yet to be tapped. This paper argued that
business education is the panacea for sustainable national development in Nigeria.

The amount of goods and services a nation produces, the rate of unemployment and
the rate of inflation give an indication of the growth of its economy. Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) is the real measuring tool of the performance of an economy. GDP has many
components including consumer spending, private investment, government spending, net
exports (exports minus imports). Ibrahim (2011) explained that all these components are
dependent on the amount of goods and services produced in a nation. On the other hand, the
amount of goods and services produced in a nation is dependent on the percentage of a
nation’s workforce that is employed. China is the second biggest economy in the world due
to the tremendous increase in the amount of goods and services she produces. This is where
business education comes in, as its products are equipped with skills that make them to be
self-employed and even be employers of labour.

An economic system is the method used by society to produce and distribute goods
and services. McConnell and Bruce (2008) stated that the economic system is composed of
people and institutions, including their relationships to productive resources. In their
contributions, Ju (2008) and Marcus (2009) stated that an economic system is the means by
which problems of economics are addressed, such as the economic problem of scarcity,
through allocation of limited productive resources. Examples of contemporary economic
systems are the capitalist system, the socialist system, and mixed economies.

Concept of Sustainability

Sustainability is the ability to use resources to meet present needs of the society
without endangering the well-being of future generations. In business circle, sustainability
has to do with long-term practices that do more to respect the environment, the well-being of
employees and the prospects of future generations. Onyenemezu and Okanezi (2013)
explained the literary meaning of sustainability as the ability to continue with something for a
long time; maintaining it at a set level. The main problem with the activities of man is their
wasteful nature – the future is not taken into consideration. In other words, there is no
sustainability.

Concept of National Development

Development is a process of economic and social transformation of a nation that is
based on complex cultural and environmental factors and how these factors interact. Ibrahim
(2011) explained development as the ability of a nation to plan and achieve improvements in
its socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental lives both now and in the future. On
the other hand, national development is the capability of a nation to achieve comprehensive
improvements economically, politically, culturally. Many developing countries, Nigeria
inclusive, have been importers of finished goods from developed economies for many
decades. This has made them economically dependent, even though they gained political

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independence many decades ago. To be truly independent, developing countries need to have
reliant and resilient economies that are capable of generating self-sustaining growth. Nigeria
is blessed with abundant mineral, agricultural and human resources, but most of these
resources are yet to be tapped.

Sustainable national development requires the citizenry to be enterprising and to think
clearly, to be proactive, and to be willing to take risks. In short, the nation needs its citizens
to be entrepreneurs who will create new businesses, thus growing the economy. A key
element of capitalism is the undertaking of business activities in expectation that they will
yield returns in the future. The assumption of risk is an important feature of the entrepreneur.
Sustainable national development requires a willingness and ability to seek out investment
opportunities and organise the necessary factors of production to exploit the identified
investment opportunities. Sustainable national development encompasses several activities
that have to do with the establishment of business enterprises. These activities include
identification of investment opportunities, decision-making, establishment and promotion of
business enterprises in expectation that they will yield gain in the future. (Ibrahim, 2010).

Business Education as Panacea for Sustainable National Development

Business education is the panacea for Nigeria’s national development because of
three reasons; the characteristics of the business educator, the qualities of the business
educator, the roles of the business educator in national development.

Characteristics of the Business Educator

Ibrahim (2014) stated the following as the characteristics of the business educator:

1. Identifying Opportunities: The business educator can identify opportunities for
investment, understands the needs of potential consumers and those that are underserved in
the market.

2. Decision-Making: The business educator may identify more than one investment
opportunity to exploit, and decides which of the opportunities to invest in. To facilitate
proper decision-making, the business educator may use a number of criteria to evaluate
alternative projects, which include the viability of the project, the interest and desire of the
entrepreneur, the availability of resources, infrastructural facilities for future growth, and the
state of the economy.

3. Innovation: The business educator is creative, and responds to opportunities available to
succeed. The business educator develops new products and services, or modifies existing
ones, to serve the needs of consumers more effectively. The business educator adopts an
existing technology to meet customers’ needs, or introduces an existing product to a new
market segment, or uses new raw materials to satisfy the market.

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4. Factor Combination: The business educator effectively combines the factors of
production (land, labour and capital) to produce tangible products or provide services.

5. Establishing the Enterprise: After analyzing the business opportunities and risks
involved and taking decisions on which opportunities to exploit and implement, the business
educator establishes and manages an enterprise.

Qualities of the Business Educator

Umar (2010) outlined the following as the qualities of the business educator:

1. Originality: The business educator is creative, flexible, resourceful, versatile and
knowledgeable in entrepreneurship.

2. Self-confidence: The business educator believes in himself. Before he embarks on any
venture, he sets goals, and he is not afraid to take decisions. Once decisions are taken, he
abides by them. The business educator has confidence in himself, and always thinks
positively in his actions and activities.

3. Risk-taking: The business educator is a calculative risk taker. He enjoys the excitement of
a challenge, but doesn’t gamble. The business educator likes achievable challenges and has
risk-taking abilities that enable him to implement ideas and carry them to successful

conclusion.

4. Future-oriented: The business educator has foresight. The business educator plans for the
future and provides for unforeseen circumstances, drawing inspiration from past experiences,
which helps him to better understand his present situation.

5. Prudence: The business educator is knowledgeable about the way resources are managed.
6. Empathy: The business educator understands other people’s feelings.

Roles of the Business Educator in Sustainable National Development

Sani (2017) stated the following as the roles the business educator plays in
sustainable national development:

1. Raising Standard of Living of People: This is made possible through the goods and
services the business educator produces, and the employment opportunities he creates
through the establishment of small and medium-scale enterprises.

2. Economic Development: The activities of business educators as entrepreneurs result in
the development of economies of nations. This is because they ensure that a nation’s

resources are effectively and efficiently utilized. Business educators, as entrepreneurs,

identify business opportunities and invest in them. For example in Nigeria produce, such as

cashew nuts, oranges, mangoes, tomatoes, onions, that waste away are now being harnessed

and utilized by smart entrepreneurs.

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3. Promotion of Innovative Technologies, Products and Services: As entrepreneurs,
business educators promote innovative technologies, products and services

4. Increasing Product Varieties: Business educators, as entrepreneurs, help to increase
product varieties in an economy.

Conclusion

The business educator is an important factor in the sustainable national development
initiative of Nigeria. A key element in sustainable national development is the undertaking of
business activities in expectation that they will yield gain in the future. Business educators
face odds in any business venture, still they make things happen by being enterprising.
Accordingly, Nigeria cannot overlook the importance of business educators if it to make
headway in its sustainable national development drive.

Recommendations

Base on the discussions in this paper, the following recommendations are made:

1. An enabling environment should be created by the Nigerian government and the
private sector for creation and growth of small and medium scale enterprises in the
country.

2. The Nigerian government and the private sector should provide economic
empowerment schemes for people who are innovative, especially business educators.

3. Urgent steps should be taken by the Nigerian government to ensure that
infrastructures, such as supply of electricity and good roads, are put right in the
country

4. The security situation in Nigeria should be improved upon, as no meaningful
sustainable national development can take place in an insecure environment.

References

Ibrahim, S. (2010). The Relevance of Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria’s
Secondary School Business Curriculum. Journal of Business Educational
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Ibrahim, S. (2011). Global Capitalism, Economic Crises and their Impact on Nigeria’s
Educational Sector. Sokoto. Educational Review, 12, 234 – 244.

Ibrahim, S. (2014). Business Education as the Antidote to Poverty and Civil Unrest
in Nigeria. Paper presented at a National Conference organised by the Faculty of
Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, from 13th to15th August.

Ju, Y. (2008). The Asymmetry in Economic News Coverage and its Impact on

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