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The study also showed a significant influence of frequency of use of e-Journals on
lecturers teaching effectiveness. The reason for this result is that the often journals are used,
the more the lecturers are exposed to new and variety of information that are mostly recent
and authentic. This will enable in-depth explanation of concepts and ideas within the content.
Lecturers are also conversant with information on what is to be taught. This finding is in line
with the submission of Junco (2010) who opined that lecturers spend few time sourcing for
information for their contact periods. The finding of the study is in line with the work of
Kubey (2001) who reported that frequency of use of e-Journals enhances lecturers teaching
efficiency and this may also be impaired if resource materials are not frequently used.
Conclusion
This study concludes that lecturers’ use of e-Journal significantly influences their
teaching effectiveness. The study also concludes that frequency of use of e-Journals
significantly influence lecturers teaching effectiveness.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are advanced to facilitate the use of e-Journals in teaching
1) The University, Faculty and individual lecturers should subscribe to the use of e-
Journals.
2) Lecturers should learn the art of sourcing for information through internet from e-
Journals.
3) e-Journals should be part of resources for lecturers’ content preparation.
4) University academic libraries as repository of information should be stocked with e-
Journals for lecturers to access.
5) Lecturers should be informed of new arrivals of e-Journals by librarians for quick
access to information and utilization.
References
Ani, O. E. (2008).Towards effective development of electronic information resources in
Nigeria University libraries.Library Management 29 (7) 504-514.
Clough, G. (2010). Geo-learners: Location-based Informal Learning with mobile and social
technologies. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 3(1), 33-44.
Harold’s Librarian Glossary and Reference book (10th ed.) 2005
Junco, R. (2010).The relationship between frequency of Facebook Use, Participation in
Facebook activities and student engagement.Computers and Education, 58, 162-171.
Kubey, R. W. (2001). Internet use and Collegiate Academic Performance Decrements: Early
Findings.Journal of Communication. 51, (2) pp. 366-382.
Pask, A. G. (1976a). Conversation theory: applications in education and epistemology. New
York: Elsevier.pp. 310.
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Pask, A. G. (1976b). Styles and Strategies of Learning.British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 46, 128-148.
Sharma, C. (2009). Use and impact of e-resources of Guru Gobind Singh.Indrapratha
University, India
Waliki, L. M &Usman, M. (2009).Achieving the millennium development goals-MDGs by
2015.Through effective teaching of Agricultural science in Nigeria.The voice of
teachers, 1 (1) 32-36.
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Benchmarks in Vocational Education for Sustainable National
Development: The Agricultural Education Programmes Experience
Nsa, S. O. Ph.D, Ikot, A. S. Ph.D,
Udo, M. F. & Anangabor, A. V
Department of Vocational Education
Faculty of Education
University of Uyo,Uyo
E-mail [email protected]/08066801069 &
[email protected]/08023780474
Abstract
This paper focuses on the ways to meet the vocational education benchmark for sustainable
national development through agricultural education programmes and to point out what
hinders vocational education and agricultural education programmes in achieving
sustainable national development in Nigeria. Thus, benchmark in vocational education is
meant to set direction for education and learning, promote quality and inclusive education. It
is based on values, principles and practices necessary to respond effectively to current and
future challenges. Consequently, issues of quality, funding, access/participation, and
relevance are some of the benchmarks in agricultural education needed to achieve
sustainable national development that would bring about skill development. Some of these
benchmarks face the challenges of policy implementation, funding, low literacy rate, poverty
among others. It is hoped that attainment of the agricultural education benchmarks for
sustainable national development will play leading roles in achieving sustainable national
development through agricultural education programmes. It is suggested that government
should seriously monitor and supervise the implementation of the National Policy on
Education regarding Vocational Education and Agricultural Education in particular in
order to achieve sustainable national development to foster economic growth and national
development. It is also suggested that government at all levels should set monitoring team to
supervise how funds released in the name of education is being spent to achieve social
justice, ecological integrity, sustainable livelihoods and strong values towards social
cohesion and collective action.
Keywords: Agricultural Benchmarks, Vocational Education, Sustainable National
Development, Agriculture Education Programmes
Introduction
Agriculture is the major source of income and it contributes to about 30 to 70 % of
the GDP though treated with levity (Ojha and Michael, 2006). This shows the importance
attached to agriculture in the economic development of Nigeria. There is still great hope and
more room for improvement in agriculture to boost the Nigerian economy further. About two
decades ago, the major approaches for improving agricultural productivities were by
improving genetic materials, application of fertilizers, improving irrigation potentials and
pests/diseases control using chemicals, while ignoring the dangers to the environment (Ojha
and Michael, 2006).
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The last three decades in Nigeria has witnessed the introduction of high yielding and
diseases/pests resistant cereal and root/ tuber crops and livestock into the agricultural sector
but these agricultural practices have not facilitated the achievement of sustainable
development in Nigeria which could have been achieved through setting up standards in
measurable terms. Conceptually, benchmark refers to performance measures designed by the
authorities for assessing the performance of educational institutions with a view to ensuring
that the learning outcomes meet the needs of each society (Okon, 2011). .From another view
point, benchmark refers to established procedures, processes and standard systems that
support and ensure effective delivery of educational services (Nwosu, 2015). Besides,
looking at policy level, benchmark represents a reliable tool which enables policy makers to
determine national educational needs, to assess new approaches to resolving issues, and to
evaluate the effectiveness of policies and strategies. Based on the explanation, an effective
benchmark should focus on critical elements such as quality, funding, access/participation
and relevance (King, 2011).
To achieve the sustainable national development through the four elements above can
better be measured through effective monitoring and evaluation of its supply, demand and
financing elements (King, 2011). To avoid measuring vocational education performance
haphazardly by the rule of the thumb, educationists have developed benchmark indicators as
measures which give information and statistics about educational effectiveness, efficiency
and performance in different contexts (Ayodele, 2008). There are several benchmark
indicators, but the common point of convergence among all the benchmark metrics is the
need for objective evaluation and quality improvement. According to UNESCO (2013), the
five key components of benchmark indicators are (a) what learners gain; (b) quality that
support standard and (e) outcomes from the learning environment. Based on these indicators,
it could be summarized that the purpose of benchmark in vocational education is for it
determination of the relevance of the learning experience to the needs of the students, the
community, and the society at large.
Educationists adopt the humanistic theory of Shultz of 1975 as their theoretical
foundation. This theory presumes that education or training has the potential for stimulating
growth, technological progress and productivity because it transfers knowledge, dexterities
and skills for better life time earnings. It becomes important that communities are not only
abreast of these changes but must be prepared to tackle and if necessary act as strong agents
for redress/necessary changes, or taking desirable humanistic positions (Nwosu, 2015). The
theory stresses education based on renewed moral and ethical foundation. Science Education
alone cannot solve all the challenges of development and globalization. Yet, a humanistic
theory approach to Science Education can help in achieving a new development model
whose economic growth must be guided by environmental stewardship and concern for
peace, inclusion and social justice (UNESCO, 2015). The unsustainable patterns of economic
production and consumption that contributes to global warming, environmental degradation
and upsurge of natural disasters, must be checked. Also, the ethical and moral principles of
humanistic approach to development stand against violence, intolerance, and discrimination
which entail exclusion (Nwosu, 2015). This approach calls for a re-contextualization of
education- a shift from the dominant utilitarian, economic tone prevalent in earlier times
(schooling for mainly economic value) to the vision of quality education as public good with
a fundamental role to lay in personal and social development, thus providing a guide to a
holistic education aimed at human and individual recognition and progress as opposed to that
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education aimed at building the human capital. This trend also has implications for an
inclusive education that promotes learning for life. This makes for sustainable positive
changes in communities as well as empowers citizens to continuously participate in activities
that promote changes in their societies.
However, the application of these principles and practices to sustainable
development attracted some positive benefits to the populace. This bring to fore the issue of
sustainable development which is defined as development that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs
(Nwosu, 2016). This implies that humanity’s ability to survive may also require the rational
use of renewable resources by refraining from disrupting the ecosystems, or over exploiting
natural resources and by refraining from activities that destroy cultures, or societies but
instead allow them to reach their potentials. Sustainable development deals with issues of
equity, stability, food security, co-evolutionary growth, participation, and has economic,
human, environmental, technological and institutional dimensions. The experience of
agricultural education benchmarks presupposes that there are standards set for measuring or
assessing the programme. These benchmarks are set to achieve the goals of United Nation
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which are seventeen in number.
The direction of agricultural education targeted the issues of poverty alleviation, hunger, and
food security, health/wellbeing, gender equality education, lifelong learning, sustainable
management of environmental resources such as water, land, biodiversity, energy (reliable,
sustainable, clean, and affordable by all). Tackling of demographic issues such as migration,
aging population; employment and decent work for all; promoting inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and fostering innovation; sustainable urbanization and consumption;
combating climate change; attainment of justice for all; as well as peaceful and inclusive
societies; strengthening the global partnership of sustainable national development. It is
believed that agricultural education programmes based on established benchmarks is capable
of helping to achieve the stated sustainable development goals. These indicators improve
agricultural education programmes, which is one of the instruments for sustainable national
development. Benchmarks in Vocational Education requires framework of properly
articulated educational policies and curriculum in agricultural education to provide the young
and the old, male and female, with the knowledge of these issues as well as the competencies
needed to adopt and solve related problems. The benchmarks and other issues are discussed
below:
Quality Education
Although education is necessary for useful life and, is a social good and key that any
nation can use to open the doors for development, the quality is also crucial and makes the
difference in its outcome, hence the need for quality education. Quality education can then be
summarized as one that satisfies the basic learning needs and enriches the lives of learners
and their overall experience of living. It can also be elusive and meaningless, as it can reflect
different ideological, social and political values or interest of multifaceted cultures (Barret,
Chawla-Duggan, Nikel, and Ukpo, 2006), which can be measured only in line with ascribed
indices, and a guarantee which implies that all necessary precautions and resources have to
be put in place and utilized to provide a certain product of services to meet the needed
expectation and satisfaction of the general public. Quality education is therefore looked at as
a set of standards upon which the value, worth or desired level of skills acquisition of an
individual is measured. Okon (2011) identified some basic quality determinants to includes
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the quality and content of the curriculum, quality of students as inputs; availability and
quality of recommended textbooks; quality and quantity of instructional facilities such as
classrooms, libraries, modern teaching techniques; students-teacher ratio and workload; use
of modern management and administrative techniques; and quality of monitoring,
supervision and evaluation. An educational programme must effectively and positively
impact on the cognitive, affective and psycho-productive domains of the learners. On a wider
scale, quality can be said to have a deeper causal effect and enhanced possibility of bringing
changes in communities. Hence, Nwangwu (2011) noted that quality education has the power
to transform societies in a single generation, provide children with the protection they need
from the hazards of poverty, labour exploitation and disease, and giving them the knowledge,
skills and confidence to reach their full potential.
Quality education is needed now more than ever before to ensure that individuals are
better equipped to be more resilient and able to acquire as well as apply career adaptive skills
and competencies for economic relevance in the society (UNESCO, 2012). These skills
enhance employability which is an aspect of empowerment that leads to sustainable national
development. Straus, (2012) classified some of the skills as follows:
(a) Basic skill: Reading, writing, computational skills, Science process skills. These are
essential as most employees work with information processing.
(b) Technical Skills: Since workers use a growing array of advance information,
telecommunication and manufacturing technologies, there is the need for relevant
skills as baseline requirements for many jobs. Agricultural education programmes is
practical oriented course of study. The students be taught to acquire the cognitive
skills, psycho productive skills and the right type of attitudes to develop interest and
prepare them for any farming occupation. For this to be achieved facilities for
practical teaching/learning must be put in place and the trainers must be well trained,
retrained and well-motivated.
(c) Organizational Skills: In addition to academic and technical skills, a portfolio of skills
is required for new systems of management as well as employee- customer
interactions. These include communication skills, analytical problem-solving skills,
creative thinking skills, interpersonal skills, negotiation skills, and management
(including self-management) skills.
(d) Company-Specific Skills: These are new forms of knowledge and skills relevant to
specific company’s needs, and driven by new technologies, market changes and
competition. The acquisition and application of the above and other skill demands
could to be addressed by quality education.
Funding Benchmarks attainment in Agricultural Education
Funding has been the bane of education in Nigeria. According to Ndinechi (1997),
the education industry in Nigeria has literally been on the floor since the mid-eighties.
The level of decay in the sector is characterized by the shortage of funds and equipment.
Funds are required in every human endeavour to make it succeed. So also, adequate fund
is required in education generally and in Vocational Education in particular to make it
successful. Vocational Education requires funds in order to meet the required standard to
further enhance learning. Funding is required in various areas:
- Purchase of equipment
- Regular maintenance of equipment
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- Training and retraining of workers
- Funding of students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2013) stressed that the objectives of Agricultural
Education must include to:
1. Stimulate and sustain interest in agriculture
2. Enable students acquire useful knowledge and practical skills in agriculture
3. Prepare students for further studies in agriculture and
4. Prepare students for occupations in agriculture. These objectives can only be achieved as
benchmarks through proper funding.
Poor funding has denied many institutions in Nigeria the chance of competing with other
institutions in other parts of the world. Poor funding limits the amount of technical and
industrial exposure that trainees would have acquired on the course of learning. Poor
funding has manifested in a number of labour unions’ industrial actions and ill-equipped
laboratories and so on. Other consequences of inadequate funding of Vocational Education
includes but not limited to the following:
1. Dilapidated infrastructure
2. Inefficiency and incompetence on the part of graduates of Vocational Education
3. Poor attitude
4. Inadequate number of qualified teachers in the schools
5. Brain drain.
6. Inadequate space and sometimes absence of land for Agricultural practices
7. Poor and ill-equipped Agricultural laboratories and workshops.
Some of the reasons for poor funding of vocational education are
1. The sole dependence of Vocational Education Institutions on government for all their
needs.
2. Late release of funds/subvention meant for Vocational Education by government.
3. Corruption/Misappropriation of funds.
However, the objectives have suffered poor implementation due to inadequate governmental
commitment and sincere wish for educational development. This is seen in the unwillingness
to release the allocated funds to the programme and inability to supply equipment and
facilities or to maintain the existing ones. The failure on policy implementation greatly
hindered the opportunities that a large population of students would have used to acquire
useful knowledge and skills for effective living.
Access/Participation in Agricultural Education
The right to education is seen as an enabling right of all for the realization of other
economic, social and cultural rights, as well as for citizens’ empowerment which serve as a
catalyst for positive societal change, social justice and peace. The term access indicates
opportunity to make use of something. Ayodele (2008), perceived access and participation as
opportunity or right to experience something, the something determines the nature of access.
Hence, it is possible to talk about economic access, social access, psychological access and
political access. However, Ayodele defined educational access as the provision of
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opportunities to prospective learners to get entrance into educational institutions of their
choices in order to acquire knowledge, skills and values relevant for their survival in the
society now and in the future. Inherent in the above, is the fact that access provides
opportunity for the Nigerian citizens to be educated to any level of their choice based on their
intellectual capacities. However, educational access in Nigeria seems to be very difficult to
provide and limited in view of gender, socio-economic realities of the citizenry and
geopolitical locations which play significant role in determining who gets what. Nwangwu
(2011) reported that in the Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of girls that drop out of schools
each year had risen from 20 Million in 1990 to 24 Million in 2012. Experience has shown
that the level of access/participation in agricultural education and other allied courses is
dwindling in Nigeria of recent in Akwa Ibom State, Agricultural Science that is a Vocational
subject is made optional at Senior Secondary level while civic education is made compulsory
inspite of the economic recession that calls for diversification to Agriculture. This is not good
for the economic development of Nigeria. Every child in Secondary School should be
exposed to Agricultural practices. From the above expositions, there is no doubt that
educational access is a problem militating against economic development in Nigeria and
needs to be addressed urgently.
Relevance of Agricultural Education Programme to the Needs of the Society
Education is the most powerful instrument for development of the individual and
the society. It is a social process which is expected to bring positive changes in the
knowledge and behaviours of the learner. Education can be defined as an aggregate of
processes through which an individual acquires knowledge, values, attitudes and all other
forms of desirable behaviours that are not only for individual’s successful living but also for
positive value to the society in which he/she belongs. Relevance of educational curriculum
means that the set of courses offered in an educational institution, which constitute areas of
specialization must be designed to enable students to acquire relevant knowledge, skills and
attitudes, so that they can apply them in real world situations to solve the problems they
would be encountering in their life experiences. This is translated into curricular objectives
and practices. The curriculum objectives for the quality educational programmes at all levels
of Schooling in the 21st century should address among others:
1. Sustainable development for communities in the 21st century.
2. Shift from lifelong Education to life learning in communities.
3. Leadership and social justice.
4. Transition from school to work/school/industry link.
5. Skill acquisition for changing communities in the 21st century.
6. Inclusive Education for citizens empowerment and
7. Globalization.
The teaching of agricultural education must provide quality for acquisition of
foundational knowledge skills and competencies (these include the science process skills,
entrepreneurial skills, creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving and collaboration and ICT
skills, as well as inter personal competencies called life and career skills. Nwosu (2015)
observed that quality education offered leaners lifelong learning principles. But Nwogu and
Nwanoruo (2011) stated that in most institutions Agricultural Courses are taught without the
relevant tools, equipment and machinery. This leaves the relevance of the course in doubt.
Considering the global challenges and the role played by humans as well as the need to
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address humanistic and inclusive education, the relevance education for citizenship education
becomes increasingly important and must be addressed.
The Strategic Management and Innovations needed in Agricultural Education
Programme
There is an urgent need to develop optimum agricultural and vocational orientated
students studying Agricultural Education in both Secondary and tertiary institutions of
learning because higher productivity of workers depends on the capacity building standard of
the work force. In the same vein, technological breakthrough and rapid industrialization
depends on the competencies of the work force and could be achieved through the following
measures:
Innovations in School farms Resources Management:
This paper is proposing management innovations aimed at making school farm
projects to deliver multidimensional benefits to both individual resources, experimental and
research sites, income yielding and so on. This may be achieved by developing school-based
and community-based agricultural programmes that are capable of promoting active
participation of all students, staff and interested community members around the schools.
This takes into consideration, the strategic facility planning to open a venture capable of
making the youth and adults in the communities concerned to derive benefits from the school
farm land resources ie learning practically and gaining useful knowledge and skill for their
personal use.
Empowerment of School Farm Managers
Teachers, Institutions, lecturers and managers and supervising staff in charge of school
farms management could be adequately motivated and empowered through well targeted
workshops training that can foster the development of management knowledge and skills
relevant in the implementation of school farms projects and/or community-based farm
projects. These kinds of workshops would make the participants to become:
1. School farms operators who have the requisite technical knowledge and skills to run
the school or community-based farms successfully
2. Better organizers of farm fairs or agricultural shows through result demonstration and
method demonstration within and between the schools and the communities.
3. Able to establish, groom the youth and adult farmers and young farmers club
members and to collaborate with local, state and federal governments in addition to
international and non-governmental organizations to train and empower the youth and
adult farmers for a smooth take-off of their private agricultural ventures.
Establishment of School Agricultural Service Centres:
School Agricultural Service Centres may be targeted to render services such as
facilities hiring services, seed multiplication centres, animal breeding services, incubation
and hatchery services and production and sales of day old chicks, horticultural and
ornamental crop production and sales services, landscaping and soil conservation services
etc. The Schools could be empowered to establish and run agro-services centres capable
of servicing both indoor and outdoor agricultural activities on the farm and at off-farm
levels which may appeal to a good number of service providers and subscribers within
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and outside the schools. These facilities could attract doth staff and students and may be
used as a good source of revenues for the schools instead of depending on government.
Timely Funding of School Farms Projects
Funding of School farms projects is very crucial since the proceeds are consumable in
the sense of “being exhaustible after use” and should be replaced for next season’s use.
Also the tools used may spoil and require replacement. The funding sources may be from
government and private donors. The funding may include cash donations, schools’ funds
allocations, contributions, income from sales, naming rights, lease agreements, building
of structures/facilities giving of tools/equipment and subsidies may be given to schools in
forms of farm inputs like fertilizers and other agro-chemicals at subsidized rate. These
assistance and prompt release of funds can enhance effective management of the school
farm projects for effective teaching and learning process and better performance of the
students. The innovations discussed so far are aimed at meeting the educational
benchmarks targeted at sustainable national development.
Conclusion
Agricultural Education is an investment that yields short and long term benefit to the nations
that take it as important as the Land Grant University in USA has yielded positive dividends
in Agricultural Sectoral Development. The present economic challenges placed Nigeria in a
position where it cannot play with Agricultural education being one of the ways to the
solution of the current economic predicament. All the efforts to meet the conditionalities of
the benchmarks are geared toward transforming knowledge to skills, abilities, competencies
and attitudes needed to facilitate reduction in poverty, creation of jobs and wealth as well as
useful living in the society. Therefore, Agricultural Education programme should be made to
serve as an instrument of sustainable national development and laying to rest the current
economic recession are the sincere desire of Nigeria government.
The paper has pointed out four major challenges or issue that militate against the success
of Agricultural Education programme and that the minimum standards are not met.
Therefore, some management innovations are suggested to stem the tide of the current
imbalance. In recognition of the imbalance between what is expected, what is given and what
is obtained, the paper is of the view that, there should be positive attitude of governments and
administrators of institutions of learning towards Agricultural Education programme. At least
minimum standards with respect to recruitment of staff, training, retraining, supply of
relevant materials, facilities, tools and equipment must be maintained to facilitate effective
implementation of the course objectives. If and only if, the requisite resources are put in
place, could the full benefits of Agricultural Education objectives be harnessed and achieved.
The issue of quality, funding, access/participation and relevance can be achieved with
serious commitment to development of Agricultural Education by government at all levels.
Hence, Agricultural Education is the key for sustainable national development through well
formulated measurable guidelines and monitoring.
Suggestions
From the forgoing, the following suggestions are made:
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1) Government at all levels should be decisive and strategic in supervision and
monitoring of implementation of the provisions of the National Policy on
Education regarding Agricultural Education.
2) Government at all levels should provide adequate fund to education. Thus 26% of
the national budget should be devoted to educational development so that
sufficient infrastructure and teaching facilities can be provided in the Nigerian
institutions of learning.
3) The Ministry of Education at all levels should take effective supervisions of
Schools as a prerogative so that quality education can be achieved
4) Government at the Federal level should set monitoring team to supervise how
funds released in the name of education are being spent.
5) Non-governmental agencies should assist in providing farm and laboratory
facilities to Schools
6) The agencies for encouraging qualitative Education in Nigeria should support the
government in provision of infrastructure to Schools and monitoring
7) There is need for vital support both from the government and other organization
for proper monitoring of educational standard.
References
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Educational, Entrepreneurship and Values: A Panacea f or Self Reliance
Ufot, S. I. & Akpan, O. J
Department of Business Education
Akwa Ibom State College of Education
Afaha Nsit
Abstract
Many factors are responsible for youth unemployment in Nigeria. Major among them is lack
of entrepreneurial skills for needed technological development for the present and future
world of work. Entrepreneurial programmes offer the Students the skills for self reliance. The
mindset of the students towards work, their attitudes and values has to be addressed for
sustainable success. Core values for a successful living should be inculcated in the students.
The paper further stresses that there should be provision of well equipped entrepreneurial
centres in higher institutions of learning for a practical transfer of skills to the student for
self reliance.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Education, Self -Reliance, and Values
Introduction
Education is defined by Udegboka (1987) as a rational sound and systematic
organization of knowledge through recognised agencies and a controlled environment
particularly that of the school in order to achieve societal welfare and maintain personal
adjustment. Usoro (2016) confirms that Education builds the human capital which is a key
component in economic growth, technological capability and social transformation.
Education plays a vital role in the prosperity of individuals and in the economic achievement
of a country. Those countries whose economies are reckoned to be well developed are
actually those that are distinguished by the excellence of the kind of educational system in
operation, especially one which is geared towards educating subjects in such a way as to
develop ambitions and capabilities towards self-reliance. Self-reliance is the ability and
practice of providing one’s personal needs and the needs of the household without outside aid
or resources. It relies on myriad of knowledge and skills, as well as the spirit of independence
and motivation. Attempt of self-reliance is certainly not for everyone but for those who
choose to be passionate about their reasons.
Needs for Self Reliance:
According to Bruno and Mitchell (2009) who note that the common reasons why a
person(s) may choose to be self reliance.
1. Preparedness: This is generally the main reason for self reliance. A person feels the
desire to be prepared for potential catastrophes, unemployment, economic recession,
inflation or political threats. Learning how to become self reliant offers peace of mind
and security in the event of disaster.
2. Political: All levels of government has failed in the provision of infrastructure good
roads and other basic societal needs. The political tussle, sycophancy, lobbying,
nepotism, insecurities has led to distrust of government by many in the private sector.
Therefore, many choose to be independent of assistance or provisions from shaky
government agencies.
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3. Social: A self reliant person may see the flaws with the current social structure.
Learning how to become self reliant gives them a way to feel connected within a
disconnected society.
4. Personal: The simplest explanation for self reliance is the personal satisfaction one
gets from the lifestyle. For them, its about applying their skills in living a satisfying
life, working hard, providing for their families and society and going to bed tired and
fulfilled.
5. Environmental: A growing trend is the mitigation of environmental degradation
through living a self reliant lifestyle. With the obvious changes in the environment,
one should be prepared for environmental emergencies, changing political landscape
and a breakdown in infrastructure with the coming climate changes. And one can take
personal steps in ones positive effects while also inspiring those around him.
Education for self reliance therefore calls for the inculcation of entrepreneurial skills
in the students inorder to empower them for self reliance in life. Usoro (2016) defines
entrepreneurial skills as abilities for adaptive and positive behaviours that enable one to deal
effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Today’s increasingly
competitive business environment, global competition and advancement in technologies have
created the need for the students to acquire targeted and marketable skills for sustenance and
self reliance. Such entrepreneurial skills include among others:
Marketing skills
Agricultural skills
Technical skills
Self motivational skills
Financial resources skill
Time management skills
Practical skills
Innovative skills
Administrative skills
Creative skills
Professional skills
Nevertheless, the above skills can only be acquired through entrepreneurial
competencies.
Concept of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship refers to conceiving an opportunity to offer new or improved goods
or services, showing the initiative to pursue that opportunity, making plans and mobilising
the resources necessary to convert the opportunity into reality (Dyik and Wenbert, 2009).
Entrepreneurial opportunities may emerge from unmet needs or from changes in the task,
macro or international environments. Entrepreneurs are people who conceive opportunities to
offer new and improved goods and services (or even new markets or ways of doing things),
exhibit initiative to pursue those opportunities and make plans and mobilise the resources
necessary to convert their concepts into realities.
Entrepreneurs may look at the world differently from the rest of the people and more
likely to have orientation that looks at possibilities of how something can be done, rather
than think of reasons why it cannot be done. Mainstream entrepreneurs are constantly
looking for better and more financially rewardingly ways to meet needs. Because of their
capacity to see opportunities where others see problems, entrepreneurs make very important
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contributions to society. Most notably, entrepreneurs play an important role in keeping the
economy going in areas such as job creation and innovation.
The quality of jobs being created by entrepreneurs are particularly satisfying because
it offers the employees opportunities for on-the-job training and development. The
employees use a wider variety of skills and observe clearly how their work relates to the
organizations mission and outcomes. However, entrepreneurship education with its lofty
objectives was introduce into the education system to inculcate these skills at an early age to
students.
The Major Objectives of Entrepreneurship Education
The key objectives of entrepreneurial education as outlined by Oborah (2006)
includes;
1. Providing meaningful education for the youths, which could make them self reliant
and subsequently encourage them to derive profit and be self dependence.
2. To provide small and medium scale industries with the opportunities to receive
qualified graduates who will receive training and tutoring in the skills relevant to the
management of the small business centres.
3. To provide graduates with training in skills that will make them meet the manpower
needs of the society.
4. To provide graduates with the training and support necessary to help them establish a
career in small and medium size businesses.
5. To provide graduates with enough training in risk management to reduce negative
effect of uncertainty and easy to manage.
6. To provide graduates with enough training that will make them creative and
innovative in identifying new business opportunities.
7. To stimulate industrial and economic growth of rural and less developed areas.
Furthermore, one of the strategic objectives of entrepreneurship education is to
produce graduates of international standard with appropriate knowledge and skills in their
field of study who will be highly employable and able to employ themselves.
Benefits of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship has been identified across the globe as a tool forgenerating a
sustainable economy. Supporting this claim, Owenybiugie & Iyamu (2011), Isike &
Ovekaemo (2008) Citing Gibo (1993) maintains that no country can move forward
technologically, industrially and economically without developing private and creative
wealth, poverty reduction and employment generation skills for self reliance.
Owenybiugie (2011) while citing Agonmo (2005) maintains that successful
entrepreneurs successfully posses the following characteristic. They are trail blazers,
creative, starving to save, investment conscious, turning problems into solutions, patient and
persevering, enterprising, propelled by will and positive thinking, dynamic, determined and
resolute to set task objective rewarding due to the independence associated with it. This is
why Isike et al (2008) states that the rewards of entrepreneurship include the following:
It brings self reliance and fulfilment
It helps in resources utilisation
It maintains the economy of a country
Reduces rural to urban migration through employment in the rural environments
It generates economic power
It eradicates or alleviates poverty
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It gives opportunities to utilize one’s potential
It ensures rapid growth of development
It generates foreign exchange through export.
Building values
However, achieving self reliance requires more than the basic education and
entrepreneurial skills, values play a vital role in the life of humans. Values are things that you
believe are important in the way you live and work (Bukola, 2000). Values determine your
priorities, principles, standards of behaviour and one’s judgement of what is important in life.
Values are usually fairly stable, yet they don‘t have strict limits or boundaries. Also, as one
moves through life, values changes for example when one starts a career, success is measured
by money and status, as one’s definition of success changes, so does his personal values .
This is why keeping in touch with one’s values is a lifelong exercise. To inculcate positive
values for self reliance, one must consider the following questions:
1. What values and attitudes are needed for self reliance?
2. How can new values and attitudes be inculcated in the minds of the students?
3. What attitudinal and value shifts are necessary for development?
In an average subsistence economy, the attitude of the people towards work is to put
in an objective and the rest. This is very different from a commercial work environment. The
rhythm of life and work is dramatically changed in an entrepreneurial society. Work is not
intermittent but a burden that must be borne day after day week after week. The new values
and work ethics places great emphasis on savings, personal savings for a future investment in
a new industry whereas the more traditional attitude is to spend it as you get it. In an
entrepreneurial society, workers are expected to be punctual in showing up for work which
they perform on a methodical clock oriented schedule. This is against the earlier work ethics
where work schedule was much more easy going and people could relax as they needed.
However, strong motivation is needed to get people to make such profound changes in their
way of life.
Conclusion
Involvement of undergraduate students in entrepreneurial education for skills
acquisition for self employment is the way forward for a better economy and self reliance.
Unemployment and lack of entrepreneurial capacities brings out retardation in an economy.
The increasing rate of employment in Nigeria demands that undergraduates be equipped with
entrepreneurial skills and values for self reliance. The right attitude, values and ethics should
be inculcated in the students to enhance entrepreneurial capacities and capabilities.
Recommendations
The student should be retained on:
1. The introduction of entrepreneurial studies in all tertiary institutions by government is a
good gesture but it is not enough and for skill acquisition. The entrepreneurial centres should
be properly equipped with facilities for effective training.
2. Micro credit schemes should be made available to the skilled graduates for a start up
capital. The investment should be properly supervised and directed for success.
3. The core values for self reliance which include self awareness, self esteem and self
discipline should be inculcated in the minds of the students.
4. The students should be trained on the need to develop empathy towards others, a
considerate and caring attitude.
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5. They must be open – minded, trustworthy, truthful, tolerant, self possessed and
reconciliatory.
6. They must develop inquisitive and creative minds.
7. The student should be tutored on the need for motivation, a change in attitude and a new
approach to work.
References
Agonmuo, E. E. (2005). Entrepreneurship development in Nigeria. Unpublished
undergraduate note, Department of Business Education, Ebonyi State University,
Abakaliki.
Bruno D. and Mitchell, J. Wenbert, Principles of Management, South-Western Cengage
Learning, 2009. Australia, New Zealand.
Bukola Saraki (2009). Vision 2020 and the Challenge of Rebranding Nigeria”. Paper
delivered at the National institute for policy and strategic studies, Kuru, Plateau State
on Tuesday 30th June.
Gibb, A. A. (1995). The enterprise culture and education. Understanding Enterprise
education and its links with small business entrepreneurship and wider goals.
International Small Business Management Journal 11(3).
Isike, O. R. & Ovekaeino, E. C. (2008). Entrepreneurship Education: Strategy for National
Development. Delta Business Education Journal, 1, 3, 113 – 118.
Owenvbiugie, R. O. (2009). Entrepreneurship: A panacea in industrial and technological
development. Delta business Education Journal, 1, 12.
Udegboka, K. O. (1987). A Key to success in principles, theories and practice of education
for teachers. Onitsha: Etukokwu Publishers, Nigeria.
Usoro, E. B. (2016). Business Education: Skill Acquisition and Development for Prosperity.
University of Uyo, 49th Inaugural Lecturer June 30.
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Mathematical Puzzles and Students’ Academic Achievement in
Plane Geometry in Secondary Schools in Uyo, Nigeria.
Essien, Gideon Gabriel & Ado, Isaac Bennet
Science Education Department
Faculty of Education, University of Uyo, Uyo
[email protected] [email protected]
Abstract
This study adopted the two group posttest only control group experimental research design.
The sample size was one hundred and nine (109) students from two intact classes. The
instrument used for data collection was Mathematics Achievement Test in Plane Geometry
with reliability coefficient of 0.87. Data obtained was analyzed using mean, standard
deviation and t–test statistics. Results showed that there was significant difference in the
mean achievement scores of students who were taught plane geometry using puzzles, as
compared to those who were taught without puzzles. There was no significant difference
between the mean achievement scores of male and female students who were taught plane
geometry using puzzles. It was concluded that puzzles should be used when teaching plane
geometry.
Key words: Mathematical Puzzles, Academic Achievement, Plane Geometry.
Introduction
One of the objectives of teaching mathematics in all strata of education, from the
primary school upwards is the attainment of the understanding of the nature of the subject
within the umbrella of science and non science areas in relation to everyday activities of
one’s life (Adenegan, 2003 in Adenegan, 2011). Amidst the aims and objectives of
mathematics teaching as highlighted by Wilson (2004) is that mathematics is a powerful tool
for scientific and technological development, as well as inculcating the appreciation of
relationships between the world around us and mathematics.
The mathematics curriculum has witnessed significant development to meet the growing
needs of Nigeria as a developing nation; evolving from just ordinary arithmetic which was of
no better use than providing us with literacy in the subject just enough for being of service to
the colonial masters in the colonial era, to what is obtainable today. The mathematics
curriculum as it is today puts mathematics in the place of the most basic discipline for any
person who would be truly educated in science and in many other endeavors (Ukeje, 1986 in
Adenegan, 2011).
A directly observable change in the mathematics curriculum as it has continued to
metamorphose is the introduction of contents like calculus and statistics from the Further
Mathematics curriculum (FGN, 2007), with the aim of exposing a great number of students
to these vital contents in the mathematics education programme who would otherwise have
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missed out on the experience. According to CEMASTEA (2016), the foundation laid by
mathematics teaching at secondary level include:- building in the students a foundation for
industrial and technological development, developing in the students the ability to think and
reason precisely, logically and critically in any situation, and prepare the students for a higher
level of mathematics education.
The components of the mathematics education programme as contained in the school
curriculum include arithmetic, algebra and geometry. Geometry is that branch of
mathematics that studies and interprets the properties of shapes (Anonymous, 2016). One
branch of geometry is plane geometry, which focuses its study on the properties of 2-
dimensional and 3-dimensional shapes. Geometry is equally the most applied area of
mathematics, as it is always all around us – from the dimension of our doorpost, the floor of
the rooms in which we live, etc (Anonymous, 2016). The objectives of teaching plane
geometry are numerous. However, Larson, Boswell and Stiff (2006) has organized these
objectives into eleven (11) broad goals as relate to:-
compass and straight line/edge construction
the use of formal logic in geometric and algebraic proofs
the meaning of points, lines and planes
the concepts of congruence and congruent triangles
the properties of special segments in triangles
the classification and measure of polygons and quadrilaterals
the concept of transformations
the concepts of similarity and similar triangles
right triangle relationships
circle relationships
the calculation of areas and perimeters of polygons.
The crux of the process of education is in the classroom where the teacher brings the
learners in contact with the planned learning experiences as contained in the curriculum.
Afangideh in Umoren and Ogbodo (2001) asserted that no matter how beautifully set a given
set of educational aims and objectives are, no educational system can rise above the level of
its teachers’ competences. It is observed that despite the relevance of plane geometry,
students still perform poorly on it. WAEC Chief Examiners Report (2010) published that
students consistently exhibited lack of skills in responding to test items in mathematics. This
problem could be adjudged to one of the facts as highlighted by Sedig (2008); that learning
mathematics presents various challenges for many children as they often associate it as a
difficult and tedious subject to learn. Therefore, for students to develop interest and do well
in mathematics, care must be taken in teaching what is to be taught (Obioma, 2005),
appropriate teaching methods, strategies and materials should be used (Pinkney, 2010).
Puzzles can be used in teaching mathematics (Thiyagu, 2012). They are very
beneficial and can improve children’s mental state in many ways than we can expect
(Zablocki, 2013). Mathematical Puzzles make up an integral part of recreational mathematics
(Anonymous, 2016). They do not usually involve competition between players; instead, the
solver must find a solution that satisfies the given conditions in order to solve the puzzle.
Puzzles provide the opportunity for learners to learn and enjoy at the same time. They make
learning fun (Education World, 2016). Zablocki (2013) reasons that exposing children to
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puzzles is highly beneficial for a good number of reasons such as:- introducing them to
intellectual humour, improves their comprehension and creativity, expands their vocabulary,
it gives them the opportunity to teach themselves, as well as helps them to create and
strengthen bonds within peers.
Introducing puzzles in teaching sharpens students’ critical thinking and problem
solving skills (Bragdon and Gamon, 2002). Puzzles as a resource creates the opportunity for
the teacher to capture and hold the interest of the learners in the classroom. Thorndike’s Law
of Readiness in Enang (2009) states that an organism gets ready to perform a particular
activity only when such an activity is satisfying and rewarding – in other words, when such
an activity interests them. This forms the basis of using puzzles in mathematics teaching;
puzzles get students interested in learning mathematics. The activities so presented by the
manipulation of puzzles are enjoyed across gender, and may well improve the performance
of both male and female students in plane geometry if effectively used to teach the concept.
Adedoja, Abidoye and Afolabi (2013), investigated the Effects of Two Puzzle-based
Instructional Strategies on Primary School Pupils’ Learning Outcomes in Social Studies in
Ondo State, Nigeria. The study revealed that pupils who were exposed to puzzle-based
instructional strategies exhibited greater academic performance than their counterparts who
were not exposed to it. Ghavami (2016) in his Comparison of the Effects of IT and Puzzle-
Based Teaching Methods with Respect to the Lecturing Method also revealed that students
who were exposed to puzzle-based teaching performed better than those who were not. He
also discovered that gender was no significant factor in the performance of male and female
students who were exposed to puzzle-based teaching.
Problem of the Study
The poor performance of students in answering examination questions on plane
geometry is worrisome to mathematics teachers. Hence, there is a felt need of looking into
this area in the quest to end this problem. It is observed that students fail at mathematics
because they lack the skills to respond to test items (WAEC, 2010). These skills can only be
imparted through effective teaching. Teaching cannot be effective if the students are not
interested.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of using puzzles on students’
achievement in plane geometry in senior secondary schools in Uyo, Nigeria. The study
sought to achieve the following specific objectives.
1. Determine the difference between the mean scores of students taught plane geometry
using puzzles and those taught without using puzzles.
2. Examine the difference that exists between the mean achievement scores of male and
female students taught plane geometry using puzzles.
Research Questions
1. What is the difference between the achievement scores of students taught plane
geometry using puzzles and those taught without using puzzles?
2. What is the difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female
students taught plane geometry using puzzles?
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Null Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between the achievement scores of students taught
plane geometry using puzzles and those taught without using puzzles.
2. There is no significant difference between the achievement scores of male and female
students taught plane geometry using puzzles.
Methodology
The two group pretest-posttest control group design was used for this study. All the
thirteen co-educational public secondary schools in Uyo Local Government Area formed the
population of the study. The population was 4,793 senior secondary school one (SS1)
students. Two intact classes were randomly selected from two schools which were also
drawn randomly from the thirteen public secondary schools in Uyo local government area in
the 2015/2016 academic session. The intact classes were randomly assigned into
experimental group (puzzles approach) and control group. The total sample of the study was
one hundred and nine (109) students in the control and experimental groups. The instrument
used for data collection was Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT). The instrument
consisted of two sections; Section A contained demographic information while Section B
contained forty (40) multiple choice test items on the concept of plane geometry, with each
question having four options each with only one correct option.
The instrument was face and content validated by two secondary school mathematics
teachers, a lecturer from the Department of Science Education and an expert of Tests,
Measurement and Evaluation. Their criticisms, comments and corrections made the final
instrument. The instrument was trial-tested on 30 students in a school from the population
that did not form part of the sample. This was done to establish the reliability. The test-retest
reliability method was used. The instrument was administered twice to the same population
giving a period of two weeks within the first and second administration. Data obtained were
analyzed using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). A reliability of 0.87 was
obtained. The instrument was thus considered reliable for the study.
The regular Mathematics teachers from the two schools were used as research
assistants. The pretest was administered to the students by their teachers before treatment
commenced. The data collected from pretest were analyzed using t-test. A non-significant
difference was found among the two groups which indicated that the two groups were
comparable. Students in the experimental group were taught plane geometry using puzzles
while those in the control group were taught plane geometry without puzzles. The teaching
lasted for two weeks for both groups. After teaching, the Mathematics Achievement Test
(MAT) was administered in both groups. The scripts were collected, marked and recorded.
The result obtained was analyzed using mean, standard deviation and the t-test statistic, at
0.05 alpha level of significance.
Results
Mean and standard deviation were used in answering research questions while the
independent t – test was used to test the hypotheses.
Research Question 1: What is the difference between the achievement scores of students
taught plane geometry using puzzles and those taught without using puzzles?
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Table 1:Mean and Standard Deviation of Students Taught Using Puzzle and Those Taught
Without Puzzle
Group N ̅
Experimental 63 26.83 4.86
Control 46 22.80 5.36
As shown in Table 1, the mean score of students taught using puzzles (experimental group) is
26.83 with a standard deviation of 4.86, while the mean score of those taught without using
puzzles (control group) is 22.80 with a standard deviation of 5.36. It can be inferred from the
result in the table that students taught using puzzle performed better than those taught
without puzzle.
Research Question 2: What difference exists between the mean achievement scores of male
and female students taught plane geometry using puzzles?
Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Male and Female Students Taught Using Puzzle
Group N ̅
Male 28 27.00 4.83
Female 35 26.60 5.31
As presented in Table 2, mean score of male students taught using puzzles is 27.00 with a
standard deviation of 4.83, while the mean score of their female counterparts taught with
puzzles is 26.60 with a standard deviation of 5.31.It can be inferred from the result in the
table that male students taught using puzzles performed better than their female counterparts.
Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the achievement scores of
students taught plane geometry using puzzles and those taught without using puzzles.
Table 3: t – test analysis of mean score of students taught using puzzle and those taught
without, puzzle.
Group ̅ N d.f. Decision
Experimental 26.83 4.86 63
Control 22.80 5.36 46 107 4.08 1.66 Reject
As shown in table 3, the calculated t – value of 4.08 was greater than the critical t – value of
1.66 at 0.05 significance level with 107 degree of freedom (d.f.). Consequently, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there exists significant difference between the mean
achievement score of students taught the concept of plane geometry using puzzles as an
instructional material and those taught without using puzzles.
Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the achievement scores of
male and female students taught plane geometry using puzzle.
Table 4: t – test analysis of mean score of students taught using puzzles based on gender.
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Group ̅ N d.f. Decision
Male 27 4.83 28 61 0.33 1.67 Accept
Female 26.6 5.31 35
As presented in table 4, the calculated t – value of 0.33 is less than the critical t –
value of 1.67 at 0.05 significance level, with 61 degree of freedom (d.f.), implying that the
null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Thus, there is no significant difference between the mean
achievement scores of male and female students taught the concept of plane geometry using
puzzles at 0.05 alpha level of significance.
Discussion of Findings
Findings from the results indicated that there was significant difference between the
academic achievement scores of mathematics students taught the concept of plane geometry
using puzzles as instructional material and those taught without using puzzles. This may have
resulted from the interest developed in playing the puzzle thereby enhancing active
participation of students in classroom which enables them achieve better in their lesson. The
puzzle may have encouraged students to harness their intellectual abilities, and further
develop same, during the teaching and learning process. This is why Zablocki (2013) opined
that the use of puzzles as instructional materials encourages the development of the mental
capability of the students, and is best suited where mastery is required of subjects that
students perceive as difficult, abstract and/or uninteresting. This finding corroborates
previous findings like that of Ghavami (2016), whose study compared the effects of IT-based
and puzzle-based teaching methods.
The study also found that there is no significant difference between male and female
students taught the concept of plane geometry using puzzles approach, in terms of academic
achievement. The findings of this study is in line with that of Goni, Yagana, Kaltum and
Bulafara (2015) which highlighted that no significant difference exists in the achievement of
male and female students taught with puzzles.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that the use of puzzles in
teaching plane geometry improved academic achievement of the students. It can also be
concluded that the use of puzzles enhances performance of both male and female students in
plane geometry.
Recommendations
1. Teachers should introduce puzzles that best fit the concepts when teaching plane
geometry.
2. School Managements should organize training for mathematics teachers on the use of
puzzles in the teaching and learning of mathematical concepts.
3. Effort should be made by Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) and
National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja at improving the effectiveness of
mathematics instruction by organizing seminars for mathematics teachers, to teach
them of the effect on puzzles and how they can be used to get more out of classroom
instruction; as regards realization of lesson objectives.
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4. Curriculum planners should include puzzles as materials of instruction in the
curriculum.
5. Allowances that cater for unplanned expenses in preparing improvised materials for
certain difficult subject areas should be included in teachers’ salary structure.
References
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63.
Adenegan, K. E. & Osho, F. T. (2011). Comparison of the academic performance of students
admitted through University Matriculation Examination and Direct Entry modes: A
case study of the Department of Mathematics, Adeyemi College of Education Ondo,
Nigeria. Journal of Science and Science Education, Vol. 3(1), 67 – 77.
Anonymous. (2016). Geometry. Retrieved from http://www.wikipedia.net.
Anonymous. (2016). Application of Geometry. Retrieved from http://www.wikipedia.net.
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Bragdon, D. A. & Gamon, D. (2002). Use it or loose it: How to keep the brain fit for ages.
India: Allen D. Bragdon Publishers Inc.
CEMASTEA. (2016). Aims and Objectives of Mathematics Education, at the Secondary
Level of Education. Retrieved from http://www.cemastea.ac.ke/
EducationWorld. (2016). Recreational Mathematics. Retrieved from
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Enang, P. I. (2009). Educational Psychology: Learning to Learn and Educational
Implication. Uyo: Great World Media Communication.
Ghavami, E. (2016). Comparison of the Effects of IT and Puzzle-Based Teaching Methods
with Respect to the Lecturing Method in the Educational Progress of the Computer
Science Basics Course f High Schools 3rd Grade of Math-Physics Students of Urmia
1st District. International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies. ISSN 2356-
5926, Pgs: 2330-2341.
Goni, U; Yagana, S. B; Ali, H. K and Bularafa, M. W. (2015). Gender Difference in
Students’ Academic Performance in Colleges of Education in Borno State, Nigeria:
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Larson, R; Boswell, L & Stiff, L. (2006). Geometry: Students Edition. Maryland: McDougal
Litell.
Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Education. (2007). Senior Secondary School Mathematics
Curriculum. Lagos: NERDC.
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Obioma, G. O. (2005). Emerging issues in mathematics education in Nigeria with emphasis
on strategies for effective teaching and learning of word problems and algebraic
expressions. Journal of Issues on Mathematics, 8(1), 1 – 8.
Pinkney, A. D. (2010). Sit-in: How four friends stood up by sitting down. New York: Little,
Brown and Company.
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Science Teaching, 27(1), 65 – 101.
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from http://academia.edu/
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Guidepost Publishers.
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West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) Conducted in
Nigeria. Abuja: WAEC.
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Strategies for Revitalizing Technical Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) for Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Mfon Asuquo Offiong & Dr. Emmanuel Essien
Department of Vocational Education
Faculty of Education
University of Uyo
e-mail: [email protected]
080830995790/08063652523
Abstract
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) had a very erroneous beginning in
Nigeria. The colonial masters did not give it a pride of place in the education policy and
programmes. The impression this situation created has lasted for many years even after
independent. It is in realization of the role of TVET in National development that government
began to evolve policies that would favour TVET in Nigeria. Despite these efforts TVET is
still challenged with multifaceted factors including poor social perception, poor/low
enrolment, inadequate funding among others. With these challenges and many others, TVET
could not lead the nation to the much desired sustainable development, hence, there is a felt
need for revitalizing TVET for national development. The strategies for this include a review
of TVET curricular to include skills requires in the contemporary global labour market in
line with emerging technologies vis-à-vis the knowledge-based economy, development of a
functional link between the formal and informal TVET and sensitization or value-orientation
of the public on the relevance of TVET to socio-economic growth of individuals and the
society.
Key words: Revitalization, Technical Vocational Education and Training, Sustainable
Development.
Introduction
The challenge of the global market economy is predicated on the utilization of
technology as a tool for the production of goods and services for local and international
markets. Production of tangible goods depends on the acquisition of skills and the transfer of
such skills to develop market economy. This process would be beneficial for internal growth
through provision of employment to youths for external use through foreign exchange and
reduced dependence on foreign nations. The question then is, how is Nigeria preparing to
deal with TVET challenges? Is it possible that Nigeria would be part of international project
to meet the new demand of the new world order? At present, Nigeria is on a fast lane for
development, but for now the nation is saddle with youth restiveness, insecurity challenges –
terrorism, kidnapping, militancy. This is so because Nigerian youths are unemployed and
unproductive owing to lack of technical and vocational skills. Acquisition of technical
vocational and training skills involves the possession of requisite abilities needed for the
survival of individuals in these capitalist societies. Development of technical vocational and
training skills in youths has been the nucleus and focus of Technical Vocational Education
and Training (TVET).
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The new market economy expects everyone and nations to be involved. The nation
produces goods through the aid of individuals who acquire the needed skills for the
production of such goods. In order words, employment of individuals are necessary for the
economy to achieve maximum utilization of the profits.
The basic problem is that Nigeria had a false start in the preparation of vocational and
technical manpower need of the country. According to Bamidele (2007), Nigeria’s vocational
and technical manpower was poorly rooted. The colonial masters who ushered in western
education did not do much to encourage technical and vocational education, rather they
interested in education that would assist them to run the affairs of the colonial empire – the
type popularly referred to as the euro-centric education.
The Concept of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2013) defined Technical vocational
Education and Training (TVET) as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the
educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and
related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and
knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. According
to UNESCO (2012), Technical vocational education and Training (TVET) include learning
aimed at developing skills in the practice of certain trades, as well as learning aimed at
preparing individuals for entry into the labour market in general. UNESCO maintained that
in both cases, learning may be geared towards direct access to the labour market or lay the
foundation for access to higher education and training with specific trades in view. The
source added that TVET encompasses programmes that provide participants with skills,
knowledge and aptitudes that enable them to engage in productive work, adapt to rapidly
changing labour market and economies and participate as responsible citizens in their
respective societies. Aliyu (2011) sees TVET as a means of generating employment
opportunities. For a country to advance socially, economically and technologically, its
citizens must be creative and productive with majority becoming job creators than seekers.
The authors emphasize that optimum attention and recognition is to be given to the
promotion of TVET in Nigeria if the nation must attain great achievement or productivity
and sustainable economic environment and national development. Vocational trainees’
productivity, according to Okafor (2011) will contribute to domestic economic activities.
Manufacturing of traditional artifacts and craft using local resources will contribute to
sustainable economic development. This will help to ensure that students are enrolled in
appropriate courses for effective performance and sustainability of the skills learnt.
Concept of Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is a development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the gains of future generation (Salami, 2013). Sustainable
development has two sub-concepts – the concept of needs and the idea of limitation.
The concept of needs relates to the useful needs of the world’s door, to which
overriding priority should be given.
The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organisation in
that the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
The definition entails that the world is a system, that connects space and time. Akpomi
(2008) opined that sustainable development is a pattern of economic growth in which
resources used aims at meeting human needs while preserving the environment so that these
needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come. The author further
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added that sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generation to meet their own needs. In summary, it is referred to the
ability to meet the needs of the present while contributing to the future generation needs.
United Nations (2012) used the term sustainable development as to meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs, social
development, environmental protection and cultural development. Akorade and Onuka
(2008) see sustainable development as a way by which the society is managed in an effective
and efficient manner such that it benefits all and sundry, with enough resources still available
for the continuation of the human race. This is achievable through the judicious and careful
use of global resources. The sustainable development seeks for prosperity (economic
objective) through growth, equity and efficiency in all sectors of development. It seeks to
support people (social objectives) through empowerment participation of all stakeholders,
social mobility, actual identity and various institutional development. Obike (2013) opined
that sustainable skill leads to self-employment and poverty deductions. Finally, in the tripod,
it seeks to maintain the planet (ecological objectives) through improving the state of the
ecosystem, biodiversity conservation, ensuring adequate carrying capacity and responding in
sustainable manners to other global issues.
Strategies for Revitalizing TVET for Sustainable Development
The need to revitalize TVET as the best alternative for producing the needed skilled
manpower for Nigerian industries cannot be compromised. Also the need to improve the
socioeconomic and quality of life of the people through TVET was evident. Federal
Government in 2000, through the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) signed a cost sharing
project with the United Nations Educational, Scientifics and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) to revise the curricula for secondary technical colleges and post-secondary
polytechnics and also to establish a new system of continued technical staff development of
government with UNESCO was a good step in the right direction.
However, some key strategic issues in TVET still need to be effectively addressed, so
that complete revitalization of TVET could take place for the purpose of developing the
needed industrial manpower and also producing skilled individuals who will be self-reliant
enough to tackle the socio-economic problems of this nation such as poverty, unemployment,
etc. these strategies issues include:
1. Sensitization or value re-orientation: The public and indeed relevant government
agencies should be sensitized on the relevance of TVET to socio-economic growth of
individuals and the nation. Till date the government is still paying lip service to
TVET. It is treated like appendix in the entire education system. The public in itself is
yet to realize its relevance to the socio-economic growth of the society. To this end,
parent do not encourage their wards to study any of the TVET programmes rather
they give preference to courses like engineering, law, medicine, mass communication
and other courses with artificial image connotations. Hence, the TVET institutions
should carryout value-reorientation campaign to sensitize the relevant stake holders in
education enterprise on the relevance of TVET and the need to revitalize TVET for
sustainable development.
2. Gender liberalization: One of the challenges facing TVET in Africa as a whole is
low enrolment and more problematic is female enrolment. Authorities of TVET
institutions should review admission requirement to favour female candidates and
other interested members of the public.
3. Retraining of instructors/technicians: With the emerging technologies, it is
expected that innovations in curriculum contents and instructional approaching
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should also emerge. Therefore, instructors and technicians in all the trade areas
should be trained and retrained in line with emerging technologies to acquire relevant
skills and knowledge. By the time these knowledge and skills are transferred to the
students, the TVET graduates will meet the demands of the global workforce.
4. Review of TVET curricular: The purpose of TVET can be summarized as preparing
individuals for work, either for earned employment or to be self employed. Hence,
TVET curricular need to be reviewed as work structure and workforce demands
changes in the contemporary knowledge-based economy, the curricular of all the
academic disciplines in TVET should be reviewed to meet the demands the labour
market vis-à-vis the knowledge based economy.
5. Development of functional link between the formal and informal TVET: The
TVET institutions should establish synergy between the formal and informal TVET.
This will provide opportunities for dropout of the school system to learn a trade to
acquire and upgrade skills in the informal TVET to the extent of being re-admitted
into the formal TVET system for further studies either on full-time or part-time basis.
By this approach TVET would be revitalized for sustainable manpower development.
Challenges on the Implementation of Technical Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) in Nigeria
Federal Government of Nigeria has good intentions for Technical Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) programme, but TVET generally is problems including:
1. administrators misconception of the nature of TVET;
2. inadequate political will by the government;
3. deficient educational monitoring and evaluation procedure;
4. poor funding;
5. poor incentives for teachers;
6. problems of curriculum implementation of TVET; and
7. poor technological environment (Sofoluwa, 2013)
Poor Social Perception: In the past, Nigerian society looked down on TVET
unprofitably. There is still a strong tendering towards white-colar job as a result of
low statue associated with most kind of TVET.
Funding problem: A lot of capital expenditure is required for the procurement of
equipment. There is underestimation or over estimation of money allocated to TVET
in Nigeria.
Inadequate physical material resource: TVET programme building well-equipped
workshop and laboratories are not adequately provided.
Maladministration: Poor planning and administration. Obayan (2002) noted that
technical managers in developing countries are essentially manager who have grown
without any technical background or training.
Insufficient and poorly qualified technical staff healthy skilled teachers are migrated
to a very lucrative venture, which pay good salaries. This makes for most schools
employing mediocre, artisans and technicians to man most sensitive subjects.
Gross neglect of TVET: there is negative perception from the society that TVET is
for “drop out”, “drop in” in schools. There is general attitude, found “quick wealth or
the get-rich quick syndrome.
Low enrolment index: It is generally observed that Nigerian youth do not have
interest in studying TVET. Hence, they refuse to apply for admission in TVET
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programmes, they rather go for programmes like, law, Medicine, mass
communication and other programmes.
Bamidele (2007) further identified the challenges militating against the development
of technical and vocational education as:
1. A neglect of technical and vocational education in the budgetary allocation.
2. Poor public attitude towards technical and vocational education.
3. Lack of technical experts to manage the technical and vocational programmes.
4. Lack of qualitative and quantitative technical and vocational teachers to teach in the
few available technical institutions.
5. Technical and vocational education curriculum are not industry oriented.
6. Over concentration of limited technical and vocational education institutions in urban
centres.
7. High cost of importing machinery and equipment.
8. Unpredictable nature of government policy on industrialization
9. Declining students’ attitudes in technical and vocational education programmes.
10. The poor state of infrastructural facilities in the institutions that offer technical and
vocational education programmes.
11. Dearth of qualified technical and vocational education teachers.
Recent Efforts by Government at Encouraging Technical Vocational Education and
Training
(a) Vocational Enterprise Institution (VEI): The establishment of VEIs is for the
education of students to think creatively and transform knowledge through
technological processes into wealth and a broader economic base. VEIs cover all
vocational craftsmanship areas such as adire, and other indigenous fabric making,
artisans, apprenticeship, etc. the policy also contains provisions made for NVQF
(Federal Ministry of Education, 2010).
(b) National Board for Technical Education (NBTE): The National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE), is charged with the purpose of handling all aspect of
technical and vocational education falling outside of university education. It gives
recognition to three broad classifications of technical institutions and their different
missions in meeting the needs of their society. The three groups of institutions are
vocational schools, technical colleges and polytechnics/colleges of technology/
colleges of education (technical). Its vision is to be a world class body for the
promotion of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria
and its mission is to promote the production of skilled technical and professional
manpower for the development and sustenance of the national economy (NBTE,
2011). “In addition to providing standardized minimum guide curricula for technical
and vocational education and training (TVET), the Board supervises and regulates,
through an accreditation process, the programmes offered by technical institutions at
secondary and post-secondary levels. It is also involved with the funding of
Polytechnics owned by the Government of the Federation of Nigeria” (NBTE, 2011).
c) National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF): The National Steering
Committee on National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF) was set up by
the former Executive Secretary of the National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE), Dr. Musa’udu A. Kazaure’mni and was inaugurated by the former Hon.
Minister of Education, Prof. Ruqayyatu Ahmed Rufa’i on 16th December, 2010. The
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members of the committee came from various ministries, Departments and Industry
Organisations. The purpose of the Committee is to come up with a draft National
Vocational Qualification framework for Nigeria containing levels of attainment,
quality assurance mechanisms of qualifications, registration of training centres, and
required legal framework and involvement of the industry (UNESCO-UNEVOC,
2012). The report comprises 6 qualification levels:
Level 1: Entry level or unskilled employees
Level 2: Foundation or basic skilled employees
Level 3: Operators or semiskilled employees
Level 4: Technicians, craft, skilled and supervisory employees
Level 5: Technical and junior management positions
Level 6: Professional engineers and senior management positions.
The NVQF is a system for the development, classification and recognition of
skills, knowledge and competencies acquired by individuals, irrespective of where
and how the training or skilled was acquired (FRN, 2013). The framework’s main
objective is to provide standards in order to enhance quality, accountability, access,
progression, transparency and comparability of qualifications in relations to the
labour market. In order to achieve the purpose for NVQF, the NBTE and the
government shall establish a National Vocational Qualification Authority (NVQA)
charged with the responsibility of superintending the implementation of the NVQF,
develop the National Occupation Standard (NOS) in six priority areas, sign MoU with
relevant industries and organisations and approve, accredit and regulate all VEIs and
IEIs. So far, the NBTE has not created enough awareness of NVQF as there are many
unskilled people who are yet to know of a programme of this nature. At least, every
adult in the country should be encouraged to attain the 4th level.
d) Industrial Training Fund (ITF): The industrial training Fund (ITF) has been
assisting in the training of Nigerian youths to acquaint vocational skills for self
development. For instance in 2012 it has trained over 140,000 Nigerians in various
technical skills. The fund is also planning to set up industrial training centres in the
36 states and the Federal capital Territory to train Nigerians in various fields of
technical manpower (Olatunji, 2012).
e) Skill Acquisition Centres: The establishment of skill acquisition centres by MDGs,
NGOs and private individuals are in the right direction. Millennium Development
Goals in conjunction with state and local governments are assisting school leavers to
acquire skills and be self-employed.
3. National Directorate for employment: The Directorate recruits school leavers and
lather hands them either to private individuals depending on the nature of trade an
individual wishes or wants to specialize on. For instance, if the candidate wishes to
specialize in plumbing, he will be sent to an expert in the profession to learn. This is
so and functional because the NDE do not have a workshop of its own.
4. The national examination board (NABTEB) was inaugurated to cater for the needs of
candidates from technical colleges and trade centres.
Trends in the Growth of TVET in Nigeria
FGN (2004) has good intentions for TVET programme as earlier stated, but is still
fraught with problems. The problems include administrators’ misconception of the nature of
TVET, inadequate political will by government, deficit educational monitoring and
evaluation procedures, poor funding, poor incentives for teachers and problems of curriculum
implementation nature of programmes being terminal rather than development. In realization
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of these problems, the FGN (1997) set up National Board for Technical Education through
Decree No. 9. The board is empowered to coordinate technical education by setting standard
for schools in terms of facilities, teaching manpower and accreditation of courses.
Consequently, there has been a phenomenal expansion in technical education. From
one technical college in 1948, the country has 71 polytechnics with various programmes for
pre-national diploma, national diploma and higher national diploma.
Furthermore, available related literature reviewed that:
1. Between the year 2010 and 2015, 9 polytechnics were established bringing the total
number of polytechnic to 71.
2. The number of monotechnics increased from 30 in year 2010 to 39 in the year 2014.
3. Total students’ enrolment in monotechncis increases from 11227 in 2010 to 20853 in
2014.
4. In monotechnics in 2010, the number of students that enrolled into pre-national
diploma programme stood at 2,691 (12.9%). Similarly 13425 (64.38%) enrolled into
national diploma while the remaining 4,737 (22.73%) enrolled into higher national
Diploma.
5. In polytechnics, total students enrolment rose form 118,216 in 2010 to 311,581 in
2014.
6. In polytechnic, students’ turnout in polytechnics rose from 51,372 in 2010 to 74,570
in 2014.
7. In Technical college, the number of technical schools increased from 159 in 2012 to
162 in 2014.
Conclusion
The central theme of this paper was the revitalizing technical vocational education
and training (TVET) for sustainable development in Nigeria. The nation has come up with
plans for technical vocational and training (TVET) which if implemented will transform the
great nation to economically viable nation. Revitalizing of TVET entails balanced curriculum
development, NGOs community participation, improved funding, recruitment of qualified
and skilled personnel, TVET schools management Board, provision of adequate facilities and
instructional materials and effective industrial training. The recommendations made can
move the nation to a level of adequate manpower discipline, citizenry, national integration
and modern development nation.
Recommendations
Having identified some of the problems affecting the success of the technical
vocational system of education in Nigeria, this writer is of the opinion that if the following
recommendations are implemented, this system of education will be properly revitalized:
1. Experts in TVET enterprise should sensitize the public and the government on the
relevance of TVET in sustainable development. And should stress on the need to give
TVET priority attention in the national development programmes.
2. Authorities of TVET institutions should liberalized then admission policy to favour
female applicants and other willing members of the public.
3. Employers of technical instructors/technicians should retrain their staff in accordance
with emerging technologies and new technologies for technical teachers training.
4. Curricular of TVET should be reviewed to includes the skills required in the
contemporary knowledge based economy.
5. The formal and the informal TVET system establish a link of co-operation for
practical skill training and up-skilling for continuing and career education.
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Benchmark as a Quality Indicator Tool for Educational Administrators in
Quality Management and Improvement of Higher Education in Nigeria
Dr. Nkoyo Thomas
Faculty of Education
Akwa Ibom State University
Ikot Akpaden, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Cecilia Ereh
Faculty of Education
Department of Curriculum Studies
Educational Management
& Planning
University of Uyo
Akwa Ibom State
Nigeria
Abstract
Quality has become a matter of great importance for higher education in Nigeria. The issue
of measuring improving and assessing quality has been of great concern to educational
administrators. As institutions of higher education in Nigeria try to improve and modernize
their services, tools should also be developed by educational administrators to measure or
benchmark the progress and success of these effort. The tools strategies and techniques
should include Total Quality Management (TQM) Continuous quality improvement (CQI)
and Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) these benchmarking strategies emerge as a
useful, easily understood and effective tool for staying competitive. This study therefore
explores the concepts of benchmarking as an effective tool in quality indicator. The study
also outlines the steps involved in higher education benchmarking. The study concludes that
the essence of benchmarking as an evaluation tool is for improvement through considering
the role of world class performers and adopting their best practices and standards. It was
recommended that Nigerian Institutions of higher education should explore the
benchmarking tool for international comparison with world universities. Beyond the
accreditation exercises carried out by NUC, the NUC as a matter of policy should encourage
Nigerian Universities to seek other Universities outside the country as role models and model
their institutions after them.
Key words: Benchmarking, Quality Assurance, Quality Improvement, Higher Education,
and Educational Administration
Introduction
The three most common terms in educational literature with respect to quality in
higher education are benchmarking, quality assurance and quality improvement. These terms
refers to distinct yet closely related functions. Judgments about quality are comparative and
what distinguishes among these three functions is the type of comparisons that are made.
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Quality Assurance is a process oriented to guaranteeing that the quality of a product or a
service meets some predetermined standard. Quality assurance makes no assumption about
the quality of competing products or services. In practice, however, quality assurance
standards would be expected to reflect norms for the relevant industry. The process of quality
assurance therefore compares the quality of product or service with a minimum standard set
either by the producer or provider or by some external government or industry standards
authority. By rights, this standard should bear some relationship to best practice, but this is
not a necessary condition. The aim in quality assurance is to ensure that a product or service
is fit for the market (McKinnon Walker, & Davis, 2000).
Quality Improvement is concerned with raising the quality of a product or service.
The type of comparison that is made when engaged in quality improvement is between the
current standard of a product or service and the standard being aimed for. Quality
improvement is concerned with comparing the quality of what is about to be produced with
the quality of what has been produced in the past. Quality improvement is therefore primarily
concerned with self rather than with others. Processes focused on quality improvement are
also focused more on specific aspects of an organizational unit’s performance than on overall
performance. It is usually the case that constraints dictate the efforts at improvement need to
be targeted at areas of greatest need (Alistair 2015).
Over the years, quality phenomenon called benchmarking has expanded very rapidly.
Benchmarking is the systematic study and comparison of an organization’s key performance
indicators with those of competitors and others considered best-in-class in a specific
function. (Dervisiotis, 2000). More concisely, benchmarking is an ongoing, systematic
process for measuring and comparing the work processes of one organization to those of
another, by bringing an external focus to internal activities, functions, or operations
(Kempner 1993). Operationally, Benchmarking (Kempner 1993) is the process of identifying
alternative practice in order to better understand and evaluate ones performance as a means
of implementing change to improve performance. It is therefore a form of objective self-
assessment, focused on delivering results. Benchmarking involves looking both inward and
outward to examine how others achieve their performance levels and to understand the
processes they used. Benchmarking helps explain the processes behind excellent
performance. When the lessons learnt from a benchmarking exercise are applied
approximately, they can facilitate improved performance in critical functions within an
institution. This paper explores the use of benchmarking as an evaluative tool by educational
administrators in Nigeria.
Benchmarking as a Tool in Higher Education (Quality Improvement)
Due to its reliance on hard data and research methodology, benchmarking is
especially suited for institutions of higher education in which these types of studies are very
familiar to lecturers, researchers and administrators. Practitioners at Colleges and
Universities have found that benchmarking helps overcome resistance to change, provides a
structure for external evaluation, and create new networks of communication between school
where valuable information and experiences can be shared (Alstete, 2013). Benchmarking is
a positive process, and provides objective measurements for base lining (setting the initial
values), goal-setting and improvement tracking, which can lead to dramatic innovations
(Shafer & Coate 1992). In addition, quality strategies and reengineering efforts are both
enhanced by benchmarking because it can identify areas that could benefit most from Total
Quality Management (TQM) and make it possible to improve operations with often dramatic
innovations in quality improvements.
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Quality has become a matter of great importance for higher education institutions
generally. The issue of quality education impinges on the work of universities in a number of
ways. For example, in order to protect their critical market, Universities in Nigeria are
striving to ensure that the standard of the educational products that they have been offering
matches the standard of what are offering onshore. Universities are also keen to establish
how they compare with one and other, or at least with other similar universities, even if they
are not always keen to make such comparisons public. The growing concern with quality in
higher education had led institutions to look for ways of managing quality processes. In
recent times, the focus of attention has turned to benchmarking as an assessment tool for
higher education.
In many ways, the process and outcomes of benchmarking represent an important
exercise in learning, understanding and appreciating the many factors that contribute to the
environment in which an organization operates. Benchmarking also allows interested parties
that are external to the organization itself to derive a level of confidence that the organization
is efficient or is in a position to embrace opportunities for continuous improvement. Apart
from providing the comparative information to understand past and current performance
levels by a comparison with peer organizations, an appropriate benchmarking exercise will
also provide:
i. Identification of potential opportunities for improvement in the future
ii. The prospective value, in terms of both cost and service levels, to be gained from
the potential improvement opportunities
iii. Identification of any underlying factors that could impede potential improvement
iv. Opportunities or the realization of the full value of making the improvements
v. Prioritization of potential improvement opportunities
vi. Realistic timeline and costs involved in achieving any potential improvement.
(Phipps and Merisotis, 2009).
Benchmarking as an Improvement Tool for Higher Education in Nigeria
The ultimate purpose of educational indicators is providing the basis for evaluating
the quality of education. In undertaking a benchmarking exercise, the following key
questions should be asked: How well are we performing? Are we performing better year on
year? How does our performance compare with other organizations? Can we learn from other
high performer? The simplest form of benchmarking is to undertake a simple comparative
performance analysis using available information. Improvement planning involves setting
explicit targets; identifying strategies to achieve those targets; and allocating resources to
implement the improvement strategies. Benchmarking is a process designed to help school
leaders complete these tasks.
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Set targets
Monitor Benchmark
best-in-class
implement Identify
best practices
prioritize
best practices
Figure 1: Benchmarking in the Planning process by Sean Brady 2012
Applying Benchmarking Tool in Setting Targets
Setting higher educational improvement targets in Nigeria is always a challenge,
especially because multiple stakeholders are usually at the target-setting table. Some want
targets to be aggressive and inspirational; others, achievable and incremental. School-to
school comparisons create the opportunity to set achievable, realistic targets based on
demonstrated best-in-class performance. The process according to Sean (2012) is simply
identifying a few compelling benchmark Colleges/Universities with both similar
demographic and significantly higher performance. Then examine the gap between their
performance and the other school. In light of their higher performance, agree to targets with
explicit time-scales. Consider the following examples: By 2020, improve graduation rate
from 66% to 80%; by 2020, increase the volume of research by 50%.
Applying Benchmarking Tool in Identifying Best Practices
Another key element of benchmarking higher education is that it should not just be
focusing on quantitative data, but also qualitative data which is often more difficult to
measure or benchmark. It must however be noted that there are other factors on the value
continuum, efficiency and more so effectiveness, which are harder to benchmark but can be
considered more relevant to value judgments about what other higher institutions do and how
they do it.
The full value of benchmarking is realized in detailed, school-to-school discussions.
Benchmarking identifies both the discussion partners and the agenda. What might the
benchmarked schools do being differently to achieve much better results? What can be learnt
from them about:
a) Curriculum alignment
b) Local assessment of student performance
c) Instructional practices
d) Student engagement
e) Resource allocation
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f) Organizing and scheduling for learning
g) Professional development
h) Parent involvement
i) Use of data to inform instructional decisions
j) Academic intervention service design
Answers to these questions may be gotten through site visits, an instrument designed more
like an improvement needs index can be given to key personnel of the Bench marked School.
The educational administrator should endeavour to include contact information in order to
facilitate dialogue between the visitors and the benchmarks. Some guidelines are
i. Schedule a visit to the benchmarked school
ii. Before contacting a benchmarked school, determine a set of key questions. What
will you like to know about their programmes, practices and strategies? What
questions will you ask them regarding how they align curriculum, deliver
instruction, design local assessments, organize for the school day, perform academic
intervention services, build school climate, involve parents, address discipline,
develop leadership, use data to inform instruction, reward and recognize students,
research and development, provide professional development, etc.
iii. Using these questions, complete a self-assessment instrument. Thoroughly answer
each selected question. To understand what the benchmark school is doing, the
researcher must first profoundly understand what you are doing (Sean, 2012).
There are different types of benchmarking activity and all should be considered relevant to
higher education:
a) Strategic Benchmarking – Improvements to overall performance by examining the
long-term strategies and general approaches that have enabled high-performers to
succeed.
b) Performance or Competitive Benchmarking – Consideration of one’s own position in
relation to performance characteristics of organizations from the same sector, in this
case, another higher educational institution.
c) Functional Benchmarking – Comparison to organizations from different sectors or
areas of activity to find ways of improving generic functions or work processes.
d) Internal Benchmarking – Involves benchmarking activities from one area of the
higher education institution to another.
e) External Benchmarking – Involves analysing outside organizations that are known as
best in class, providing suitable learning opportunities.
Planning, Implementation and Monitoring Using Benchmarking
This involves synthesizing all the information and data obtained from the benchmark
institution. This is closely followed by evaluating and prioritizing their strategies and
modifying the strategies as necessary to recognize the uniqueness of one’s own context,
culture and community. This is necessary because benchmarking is not copying.
The next step is to implement the selected strategies into one’s own academic improvement
planning process. The final academic improvement plan should include targets, strategies,
and implementation deliverables and timeliness. The following steps could serve as a guide.
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1. Develop an action plan. Identify individuals who will be accountable for the
implementation of the strategies. Include key deliverables, projected completion
dates, and accountability.
2. Allocate budget and resources
3. Communicate the academic improvement plan broadly to all stakeholders
4. Implement the improvement plan
5. Monitor and adjust. An improvement team monitors the effectiveness of
implementation throughout the planning period. Monitor performance against targets
and against proposed completion dates. Modify the implementation strategies as
necessary (Sean, 2012).
Conclusion
Benchmarking has been used as a valuable tool, and will continue to be so, in order
to improve and modernize higher educational institutions globally. It offers higher
educational institutions access on how to measure, improve and assess quality in their
academic performance. Benchmarking is closely linked to globalization, in the sense that,
what is done in one part of the world can be replicated elsewhere. It emphasizes the need for
more comparison, transparency and visibility of quality in higher education. Benchmarking
does not, however, only relate to the international educational context, it serves as a response
to the growing competition among educational institutions and their search for best practices
and superior performance. The essence of benchmarking as an evaluation tool is for
improvement through considering the role of world class performers and adopting their best
practices and standards.
Recommendations
Based on the literature reviewed, the following recommendations are made
1. Educational administrators and planners in Nigeria can adopt the benchmarking
procedure outlined in this paper.
2. Educational benchmarking and comparative education should be made a
compulsory course or at least be included in the National University Commission
(NUC) minimum academic benchmark for postgraduate studies in Nigeria,
particularly for educational administration, planning and management.
3. Nigerian Universities should explore the benchmarking tool for international
comparison with world class Universities.
4. Beyond the accreditation exercise carried out by the NUC, the NUC as a matter of
policy should encourage Nigerian Universities to study other Universities outside
the country as role models and model their institutions after them.
References
Alistair, I. (2015). Quality Improvement, Quality Assurance, and Benchmarking: Comparing
two frameworks for managing quality processes in open and distance learning.
Centre for Staff Learning and Educational Development, Victoria University
Melbourne, Australia.
Alstete, Jeffrey (2013). Benchmarking in Higher Education: Adapting Best Practices To
Improve Quality. ERIC Digest. Available at www.ericdigests.org, retrieved on 12th
March, 2017.
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Dervitsiotis, K. N. (2000). Benchmarking and Business Paradigm Shifts. Total Quality
Management. 11: 641-646.
Kempner, D. E. (1993). The Pilot Years: The Growth of the NACUBO Benchmarking
Project. NACUBO Business Officer, 27(6), 21-31.
McKinnon, K. R., Walker, S. H., & Davis, D. (2000). Benchmarking: A manual for
Australian universities. Canberra, ACT: Higher Education Division, Department of
Employment, Education, and Youth Affairs.
Phipps, R., and Merisotis, J. (2000). Quality on the Line: Benchmarks for success in Internet-
based distance education. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy.
Retrieved October 24, 2004 from:
http://www.eguana.net/organizations.php3?action=printContentItem&orgid=104&t
ypeID=906&itemID=9239&templateID=1422.
Sean Brady (2012). Benchmarking as an improvement tool. Available at
http://www.prismdecision.com/benchmarking-as-an-improvement-tool/.Retrieved
on 12th January, 2017.
Shafer, B. S., & Coate, L. E. (1992). Benchmarking in Higher Education: A Tool for
Improving Quality and Reducing Cost. Business Officer, 26(5), 28-35.
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Influence of Community Resources on the Implementation of English
Language Curriculum in Secondary Schools in Kaduna State: Implication
for Sustainable National Development
Dr. (Mrs.) Hanna Onyi YUSUF
Department of Educational Foundations and Curriculum
Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected] Tel : 08033207255
Abstract
The study assessed the influence of community resources on the implementation of English
Language curriculum in secondary schools in Kaduna State: Implication for Sustainable
National Development. The study was carried out with the objectives to: determine the
influence of community resources in teaching English Language in secondary schools in
Kaduna State; and find out the influence of the use of community resource persons in
teaching English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State. Two research questions
and two null hypotheses were formulated in line with the objectives. The study was conducted
using descriptive research design of survey type. The target population included all the 2229
teachers and 33,273 students from public senior secondary schools in Kaduna state. A
sample size of 136 teachers and 210 students were used in the study. This sample was
selected using stratified random sampling technique. A structured questionnaire was used for
data collection. The questionnaire was validated by three experts from Faculty of Education,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To establish the reliability of the instrument, a pilot study
was conducted and a reliability coefficient of 0.76 was obtained. Data collected were
analysed using frequency counts, mean and standard deviation, while Chi-square was used
to test the formulated null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Findings showed that the
use of community-based resources and resource persons have influence on the teaching
English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State. The study recommended among
others, that teachers of English should emphasize the use of community resources in teaching
English language in secondary schools. This will facilitate learning, make lessons more
meaningful and interesting. It will also help to improve students’knowledge in retention.
Keywords: Community Resources, Resource Persons, English Language Curriculum,
Sustainable National Development
Introduction
Community resources are those resources in communities that can be used to enhance
learning and academic success by providing activities and programmes for students such as
inviting resource persons from the community to share their skills and knowledge.
Community resources, according to Ajelabi (2000) are human and non-human resources
outside the classrooms for the purpose of making relevant observations and obtaining some
specific information. Educationist and curriculum planners have all, come to realize that the
immediate community is a wonderful curriculum laboratory which can provide extremely
dynamic, interesting and real life opportunities for learning. Every community has in its
historical records the stories of people and resources woven into the pattern of our national
development (Kochhar, 2012). These materials can ensure maximum effectiveness and
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efficiency in teaching and learning process. Efficiency entails how judicious the instructional
materials are utilized to obtain optimum achievement of instructional goals and objectives. In
every community, there are many resources available to enrich education classes. The use of
community resources can take two forms: resource persons can be brought into the classroom
or the class can take a field trip into the community. Field experiences and the use of
community resource persons can provide students with a diversity of information, materials,
and experience not available in any textbook.
Community resources are people, places or objects located off the primary site that
may be used to achieve educational objectives. According to Abolade (2004), community-
based resources are both human and non-human materials that are within the geographical
milieu of teachers and the learners. Examples of community-based resources are Religious
institutions such as Churches, Mosques, also shrines, commercial banks, historical places (for
instance; Museum, Zoo), industrial sites and so on. These are places that students can visit
and see for themselves those things they have learned in textbooks. Human community
resources include teachers, learners, curriculum developers, parents and relevant others in the
society. Non-human resources include instructional materials (audio, visual and audio-visual)
equipment and facilities.
In the implementation of English Language curriculum, teachers have been faced
with the challenges of non-availability of facilities for teaching, lack of classrooms,
textbooks, journals and overpopulation of students. Also, inadequate number of English
Language teachers in secondary schools in Kaduna State is another factor that hampers the
proper implementation of English Language curriculum in Kaduna State, because this subject
is being taught by unqualified teachers which compromise quality and equity in terms of
educational standards. Only competent English Language teachers can competently deliver
the content of the English Language curriculum effectively (Yusuf, 2010 & 2013). It is
perceived that poor provision of learning resources may impede the performance of students
because once educators begin to use a variety of community resources, it may be the best to
begin an inventory of those resources. An inventory can take the form of a notebook, a box
of index cards or a computer database (Emily, Jolin, Karen & Dan, 1998; Kumpulainen &
Wray, 2002). Each entry may have the name of the resource, the appropriate subject areas,
what the resource can be used for, contact name, address, and a list of restrictions or
limitations pertaining to the resource.
This catalogue of community-based resources allows several educators to share their
ideas and experiences with others in their school. Although the use of community resources
can enhance teaching and learning of English Language in the classroom, the realisation of
their full potential to motivate and engage students may be limited in that some English
Language teachers may under-utilise them. The researcher is of the opinion that if the
community resources are properly harnessed and integrated in English Language teaching
and learning, this may reduce the problem of instructional material provision in schools. In
view of this background, it is important to determine the influence of community resources
on the implementation of English Language curriculum in secondary schools in Kaduna State
and explore its implication for a Sustainable National Development.
Objectives of the Study
The study was carried out with the objectives to:
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1. determine the influence of community resources on the teaching English Language in
secondary schools in Kaduna State; and
2. find out the influence of the use of community resource persons on the teaching
English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
Research Questions
This research was guided by the following research questions:
1. What influence does the use of community resources have on the teaching of English
Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State?
2. What influence does the use of community resource persons have on the teaching of
English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State?
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
1. The use of community resources have no significant influence on the teaching of
English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
2. The use of community resource persons have no significant influence on the teaching
of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
Methodology
The study was conducted using descriptive research design of survey type. The target
population in the study comprised two thousand two hundred and twenty nine (2229)
teachers and thirty three thousand two hundred and seventy three (33,273) students from
public senior secondary schools in Kaduna state. A sample size of one hundred and thirty six
(136) teachers and two hundred and ten (210) students, totalling three hundred and forty six
(346) respondents were used in the study. This sample size was arrived at using stratified
random sampling technique. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The
instrument was a 4-point rating scale with the rating of 4-Strongly Agreed (SA), 3-Agreed
(A), 2-Disagreed (D) and 1-Strongly Disagreed (SD). The questionaire was validated by
three experts from Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. To establish the
reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted and a reliability coefficient of 0.76
was obtained. Data collected was analysed using frequency counts, mean and standard
deviation, while Chi-square was used to test the formulated null hypotheses at 0.05 level of
significance.
Data Analysis and Results
The descriptive statistics of frequencies, mean and standard deviation were used to
analyse the research questions raised in the study. The analyses are presented as follows:
Research Question 1: What influence does the use of community resources have on the
teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State?
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Table 1: Influence of community resources on the teaching of English Language in
secondary schools in Kaduna State
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD x SD
1. Teaching English Language using community 110 108 72 56 2.75 1.31
resources provide students with active learning
experiences.
2. The use of community resources enables student 168 44 92 42 2.83 1.28
to see a connection between the curriculum and
the real world.
3. Accessing resources within the community can 105 96 86 59 2.52 1.35
make learning more relevant to students.
4. Using community as a classroom can improve 187 88 49 22 3.40 1.02
knowledge retention.
5. Community resources can be used to enhance 85 161 45 55 3.02 1.12
learning and academic success.
6. The use of resources within a community can 142 91 90 23 3.06 1.01
greatly enhance and expand the school curriculum.
7. Community resources can help teachers teach 155 68 71 52 2.98 1.16
more effectively by providing motivation to
students.
8. Community resources use in the teaching of 192 86 47 21 3.39 .987
English Language influence students higher levels
of engagement.
9. The use of community resources explicitly 184 63 55 44 3.13 1.09
advocate for students’ civic and political
engagement.
10. Community resources are the expertise needed to 93 35 97 121 2.30 1.21
effectively implement the English Language
curriculum.
Average mean 2.9
Table 1 presented the descriptive analysis carried out on the influence of community
resources on the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State. The
table showed the average response mean of 2.9 which is greater than the decision mean of
2.5. This implies that, when community resources are effectively used, they can influence the
teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State. Item 4 and 8 recorded
the highest response mean from all the respondents. This shows that the use of community
resources in English language classroom can improve knowledge retention and also influence
students higher levels of engagement.
Research Question 2: What influence does the use of community resource persons have on
the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State?
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Table 2: Influence of the use of community resource persons in teaching English
Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD Mean SD
1. English Language can be well taught with the help 118 55 79 97 2.66 1.21
of festivals celebrated in the community.
2. The use of trained guidance counsellor from the 137 33 77 99 2.27 1.25
community exposes the young people to a broad
array of career opportunities.
3. Inviting teachers from the community can afford 146 85 45 70 2.89 1.17
students opportunity to have substantive exposure
to careers.
4. The use of bankers from the community inspires 155 63 51 77 2.89 1.24
students to learn.
5. Classroom visits by informed business 134 86 74 52 2.91 1.13
professionals from the community is a valuable
teaching tool.
6. Students gain important academic and 86 102 96 62 2.66 1.12
employability skills as a result of the use of
entrepreneur from the community.
7. Classroom visits by informed political analyst from 107 80 81 78 2.63 1.15
the community provide additional content support
to the classroom materials.
8. Inviting lawyer from the community to teach an 150 72 70 53 1.98 1.12
aspect of English Language makes learning more
immediate and more relevant.
9. Students can tap cultural experiences by inviting 155 77 65 48 2.98 1.09
culturist from the community on a price giving day.
10. Classroom visits by informed medical experts serve 110 166 32 38 2.93 1.27
as role models to the student.
Average mean 2.6
Table 2 presented the descriptive analysis carried out on the influence of the use of
community resource persons in teaching English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna
State. The table showed the average response mean of 2.6 which is greater than the decision
mean of 2.5. This implies that, the respondents have varied opinions concerning the influence
of the use of community resource persons in teaching English Language in secondary schools
in Kaduna State.
Null Hypothesis 1: The use of community resources have no significant influence on the
teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
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Table 3: Summary of Chi-square (2) statistics on the influence of community
N
resources in teaching English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State
2 cal. 2 crit. df Sig. Decision
346 180.09 66.60 27 0.05 .000 Rejected
As indicated in Table 3, the calculated p-value of 0.000 was less than 0.05 alpha level
of significance, while the 2calculated value of 180.09 was found to be higher than the 2
critical value of 66.60. Consequently, the hypothesis which states that the use of community
resources have no significant influence on the teaching of English Language in secondary
schools in Kaduna State was rejected. The result implies that, effective use of community
resources influence the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
Null Hypothesis 2: The use of community resource persons have no significant influence on
the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State.
Table 4: Summary of Chi-square (2) statistics on the influence of the use of
N
community resource persons in the teaching of English Language in secondary
schools in Kaduna State
2 cal. 2 crit. df Sig. Decision
346 206.44 139.00 27 0.05 .004 Rejected
As indicated in Table 4, the calculated p-value of 0.004 was less than 0.05 alpha level
of significance, while the 2calculated value of 206.44 was found to be higher than the 2
critical value of 139.00. Consequently, the hypothesis which states that the use of community
resource persons have no significant influence on the teaching of English Language in
secondary schools in Kaduna State was rejected. The result implies that, the use of
community resource persons have influence in the teaching of English Language in
secondary schools in Kaduna State.
Discussion of Findings
The test conducted on hypothesis one showed that, effective use of community
resources influence the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State
As a result, the hypothesis which states that the use of community resources have no
significant influence on the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna
State was rejected. Finding established that using community as a classroom can improve
knowledge retention and that community resources used in teaching English Language
influence students higher levels of engagement. Findings from the current study correspond
with that of the research conducted by Emily, Jolin, Karen and Dan (1998), which showed
that the use of community resources have a significant influence on students’ performance.
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The test conducted on hypothesis two showed that the use of community resource
persons have influence in the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna
State. As a result, the hypothesis which states that the use of community resource persons
have no influence in the teaching of English Language in secondary schools in Kaduna State
was rejected. This result is in line with the finding of Dada (2013) that community and the
school cannot be divorced. Also related to this, Chew (2008), in her study on the
development of localised instructional materials in Hong Kong, came to the conclusion that
teaching and learning in civic education could be enhanced to a great extent by using
instructional resources based on local content, because such resources would be more
authentic and more relevant to students’ needs.
Conclusion
The use of relevant instructional materials in the classroom is invaluable since it
engages students, aids their retention of knowledge, motivates interest in the subject matter
and helps to illustrate the relevance of many concepts taught. Therefore, conclusion was
made that every community, no matter how small or isolated, has within it, the score of
people of rich and varied background who can “open doors” to vivid learning experiences.
The teacher, the banker, the doctor, the engineer, the editor and many more are community’s
human resources which can be utilized by the enterprising teacher to enrich and vitalize
school programmes. Conclusion was also reached that community resources, people and
objects are a rich reservoir of instructional materials for English Language teachers because
such materials can be sourced from the local community with minimum expenditure of time,
energy and money.
Recommendations
In view of the findings from this study, the following recommendations were made
that:
1. Teachers of English should emphasize the use of community resources in teaching
English language in secondary schools. This will facilitate learning and improve
knowledge retention among students.
2. Teachers of English should be trained through seminar, workshop and conference on
the use of community resources especially, resource persons. This will bring about
the right kind of values in the effective teaching of English Language.
References
Abolade, A. O. (2004). Basic Criteria for Selecting and using learning and instructional
materials in Principles and Practice of instruction. Department of Curriculum Studies
and Educational Technology, University of Ilorin, Kwara State.
Ajelabi, A. (2000). Essentials of Educational Technology. Lagos: Raytel Communications.
Chew, K. S. (2008). The Development of Authentic and Localised Instructional Materials for
the Teaching of Business English to Year I BBA (Honours) Students at Hong Kong
Baptist University. In: Studies on Teaching and Learning. Hong Kong Baptist
University, Hong Kong, pp. 29-35.
Dada, S. O. (2013). Utilization of Community Resources for Effective Sustainability of
Social Studies Education. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India
Online, Volume 2 Issue 6.
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Emily, C., Jolin, M., Karen, T. & Dan, S. (1998). Using Community Resources in
Environmental Education: Advancing Education & Environmental Literacy. EETAP
Resource Library, Number 34.
Kochhar, S.K. (2012). The teaching of social studies. Sterling publishers. Nilcho Delli, 2012.
Kumpulainen, K., & Wray, D. (2002). Classroom Interaction and Social Learning: From
Theory to Practice. New York, NY: Routledge Falmer.
Yusuf, H.O. (2010). Teaching Reading Comprehension in primary schools: A comparative
study of language Development and Vocabulary Methods VDM. Germany: Verlag Dr.
Muller Publishers.
Yusuf, H.O. (2013). Assessment of the availability of human and material resources for the
implementation of the new basic curriculum in English language in Kaduna State.
UMYU Journal of Educational Research, Faculty of Education, Umaru Musa Yar’adua
University, Katsina, 4(1), 143-156.
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Reducing Unemployment Tendency among University Graduates
through Entrepreneurial Education: A Panacea for Sustainable
National Development
Dr. (Mrs) Christiana Isaac Emediongokon
Dr. (Mrs) Victoria Okon Bassey
Department of Curriculum Studies,
Educational Management and Planning
Faculty of Education
University of Uyo.
[email protected]
vickyokonbassey@gm
ail.com
Abstract
The study sought to find out the influence of Entrepreneurial Education on University
Graduates reduction of unemployment. The study made use of three research objectives and
three null hypotheses which included innovation, self-efficacy, and risk taking ability as a
means of reducing unemployment among university graduates. The design of the study was
Expost facto design. The population of the study consisted of 1421 University of Uyo
lectures. The sample size for the study was 142 lecturers. Using simple random sampling
technique by balloting the sample size was drawn from 5 faculties of the University. The
instruments used for data collection for the study were entitled “Entrepreneurial Education
Indices Questionnaire (EEIQ) and Reducing Unemployment Tendency among University
Graduates Questionnaire” (RUAUGQ). A four point rating scale which offered the
respondent four alternatives to choose from. The instruments were face validated by three
experts from the Department of Educational Planning, Measurement and Evaluation Unit.
The instruments were administered on 30 respondents who were not part of the study. The
scores obtained were subjected to Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient and a reliability co-
efficient of .74 and. 81 were obtained signifying that the instruments were reliable enough
for use. Data collected were analyzed using simple linear regression to answer both
research questions and for testing the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. The result
showed that innovative skill, self-efficacy skill and the ability to take risk are required by the
university graduates in order to reduce unemployment. It was recommended among others
that lecturers should imbibe in students innovative skill so as to stand out in the midst of
competitors/others and to also be able to satisfy individual varieties.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial Education, Reducing Unemployment, Sustainable National
Development
Vol. 3(1) 2017 www.benchmarkjournals.com Page 133
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African Journal of Educational Assessors (AJEA) is a multidisciplinary international, pear reviewed journal published three (3) times a year by the Forum of Educational Benchmarkers in Nigeria. This journal promotes the exchange of ideas by bringing together academics/researchers across the globe. As research has become increasingly interdisciplinary, the essence of a multidisciplinary journal is to show the inter-relatedness of academic disciplines through research. AJEA maintains an open access policy. The decisive criterion for accepting a manuscript for publication is scientific quality.
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