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Introduction
Over the years, there have been consistent increases in the rate of unemployment in
Nigeria. The National Bureau of Statistics (2015) released the country’s labour statistics
reporting the unemployment rate at 10.4%. However, the rate of unemployment worsened in
2016 and amounted to 12.1% as compared to the 10.4% in 2015. The bureau also added that
between December 2015 and March 2016, the population of unemployed Nigerians increased
by 518,000 to 1.45 million. The economically active and working age population was put at
105.02 million by the fourth quarter of 2015 to 106 million by the end of March, 2016. The
actual population of people willing, able and actively looking for work rose from 16.9 million
to 18.4 million in the first quarter of 2016.
From the fore-going, it can easily be explained that unemployment is the inability of
persons under the age of 16 to 55, actively, willing and able to work, do not have jobs to
complement their knowledge and ability or a situation where a person of working age is not
able to get a job but would like to be in full time employment (Pettinger, 2010). In this
situation, graduates or the entire citizens can no longer wait on the Government at all levels
but rather with the introduction of entrepreneurial education, it will be of immense benefit to
both the graduates and the entire country. It is hopes that entrepreneurial education will aid to
prepare individuals to acquire skills and also will nurture individuals to develop self-abilities
and also to fend for themselves.
Essien (2006) averred that “entrepreneurial education is the proper purposeful
intervention by an adult (teacher) in the life of a learner to impact entrepreneurial qualities and
skills to enable the learner survive in the world of business”. The development of
entrepreneurial education could be compared to career education which entails building up
student’s capability for a wider world and a world without a white collar job. Therefore,
exposing students to this will perhaps help in reducing unemployment as young graduates will
be able to provide for themselves despite the nature of the economy, and perhaps also bring
sustainable National development. the reduction could attest to the fact that entrepreneurial
skill could increase in the graduate the ability to be creative, innovative, risk takers and also
self-confident irrespective of the happenings in the society.
Scarborugh and Wilson and Zimmerer (2009) define innovation as the specific
instrument of entrepreneurs, the means by which they exploit change as an opportunity for a
different business or business services. Nevertheless, Khandwalla and Mehta, (2004) affirms
that for a firm to be innovative, it needs to have a free-wheeling, limitless and brain-storming
culture to engender creative ideas.
Thus, being innovative gives one a better stake in the society to be self-employed and self-
reliant. In this case, young graduates could be innovative in varied ways which could be
through product change, designing, packaging and other creative ways which will offer them
different chances for employment, in addition to a high self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy entails the ability to persist and a person’s ability to succeed with a task.
Self-efficacy may be said to be perseverance, determination, having a positive mind-set
despite changes and challenges. Raunch and Freje (2007) observes that entrepreneurial self-
efficacy beliefs is significant and specifically salient for career choice decision as it concerns
and contributes to formation of entrepreneurial intentions to become self-employed as
entrepreneurs.
Martin and Clore, (2001) further explained that efficacy involves individual’s control
over negative thinking and secures reactivation after failure experiences. The prevention
regulation exerts efficacious control over to positive thinking and keeps individuals in the
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creative processing mode, thus preventing escalation of an over confidence biases. However,
so many entrepreneurs who have experience business failure lack the motivation to start up
again. The one possible reason is that negative thinking arising from the past failures hinders
the future use of knowledge gained from the past experience but mastering self-protective
capacity to control negative thoughts is very crucial in reducing the entrepreneurs sense of
personal vulnerability to control the environment (Shepherd 2013).
Self-efficacy therefore appears to be a requisite to achieving great results and also aid
individuals to be task-oriented in the face of low employment opportunity and still have the
determination to scale through. In other words, an individual with high self-efficacy is
believed to have a higher chance of being successful or rather being a successful entrepreneur,
based on this, self-efficacy may be seen as a a component of entrepreneurship for reducing
unemployment among university graduates.
Entrepreneurial behaviour has often been associated with considerable amount of
risk, tolerance and uncertainty. Moreover, Brunett, (2000) also views an entrepreneur as a risk
taker. The entrepreneur must be aware that the business environment is piled with so many
uncertainties and varied risk and in order to succeed in this aspect, the entrepreneur must be
willing to explore the business environment despite the known or unknown risk to achieve its
desire.
Di-Masi (2010) observes that risk bearing is another important element of
entrepreneurial behaviour, though many entrepreneurs have succeeded by avoiding risk where
possible. The confidence needed in the face of difficulties and discouraging circumstances,
risk-taking, innovative skills, result-oriented and total commitment. Rockstar (2008) also
identifies risk-bearing ability, technical knowledge and the ability to gather financial and
motivational resources as the attributes of any entrepreneur. In the light of this, risk taking
ability cannot be exempted from the characteristics of any entrepreneur. Some entrepreneurs
discover good opportunity but due to fear and uncertainty, they cannot make use of the
opportunities. But entrepreneurs must be willing to try new product, invest more capital, and
try new market structure and even new locations as this will constitute added advantage to the
entrepreneurs. Based on this, any graduate with a reasonable level of risk-taking ability will
be able to step out despite the overwhelming challenges. Such individuals should be involved
in one or two ventures thereby leading to the reduction in unemployment.
This study is therefore anchored on the principle of opportunity based theory by
Ducker 1985. According to this theory, entrepreneurs do not cause change but exploit the
opportunities that change. Hence, they search for business opportunities, respond to it and
explore it as an opportunity. In this regards, young graduates need to search for an
opportunity, and make good use of it. They must consider the risk, the required raw materials
and other conditions and work positively towards a rewarding end. At this point, young
graduates need to consider the various attributes of entrepreneurship, which include
innovation, risk-taking and self-efficacy among others. From the foregoing, it becomes
obvious that entrepreneurial education could reduce unemployment among University
graduates and in turn enhance sustainable National development. It is against this background
that this study sought to examine the extent to which entrepreneurial education can reduce
unemployment tendency among university graduates while also enhancing sustainable
National development.
Several studies have been carried out to establish link between entrepreneurship
education and employment for instance Lee, Chang, and Lim, (2005) made a comparison
between 397 University students in South Korea and the U.S. The students were divided into
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two groups; the experimental and controlled groups. The findings showed that the
experimented group (the group with entrepreneurial exposure) had a higher start up intentions
and more knowledge about business than those in the controlled group (students without
exposure to entrepreneurial activities). Gibeus, De kok, Snijders, Smith, and Vande, (2012)
made use of a sample 2582 students selected from nine (9) higher institutions across the
European countries. The research was to find out the effect of entrepreneurial subjects on the
experimental group in contrast with the controlled group. The findings presented that students
who took entrepreneurial subjects had more positive intentions towards becoming an
entrepreneur unlike those in the control group who did not exhibit such intention.
Athayde (2009) also conducted a research using 109 pupils as the experimental group
and 140 students as the controlled group from 3 secondary schools in the United Kingdom.
The result finalized that the 109 students in the experimental group that participated in the
youth enterprise programme were more likely to aspire future self-employment than pupils
who did not participate in the programme, Sanchaz (2011) also used a large sample of 864
Spanish University students to measure changes in entrepreneurial intentions of student
before and after enrolling in an entrepreneurship programme. The findings concluded that the
experimental group showed increased entrepreneurial intentions whereas students who did
not participate in the programme did not display such increased entrepreneurial intention.
Menzies and Paradi (2003) followed graduate of an engineering degree programme in
a Canadian University. The authors found out that individuals who have participated in an
elective entrepreneurship courses were more likely to be business owners than those who did
not participate in the entrepreneurial courses. Rosendahl, Huber, Sloof, and Van Praag,
(2012) carried out a study using 2413 students to determine the impact of five days
entrepreneurship education programme in the development of entrepreneurial skills of the
students. The result of the study showed that the programme had the intended positive short
term impact on their attitude.
Several of the studies as reviewed and its findings explain the positive impact of
entrepreneurial education. The introduction of entrepreneurial education into our educational
system may therefore enhance a higher chance of building in the students the ability to
generate ideas, search for different opportunities and make adequate use of it.
Statement of the Problem
The rate of unemployment in Nigeria has gone so high that it has become a
worrisome issue to the entire populace of Nigeria. Several graduates apply for jobs daily
with little or no hope of being employed while some end up being underemployed in a
bid to make ends meet. The situation worsens as educational system produces thousands
of graduates yearly with little or no entrepreneurial or career education. The students
while in schools are taught theories with little or no practical to fit in their skills and
without proper career education. Young graduates cannot wait continuously on the
government who at most times are incapable of providing for all. The introduction of
entrepreneurial education into the educational curriculum even right from secondary
school level would perhaps help the students to be well equipped with learning skills,
being self- employed and independent. As could be observed among graduates from the
University, there is more demand for white collar jobs which are not forth coming as
against being self-reliant, self-employed job generators. Hence, this article sought to
determine the extent to which entrepreneurial education can predict reduction of
unemployment tendency among University Graduates.
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Research Questions
1. How does innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of
unemployment tendency among university graduates?
2. How does self-efficacy skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of
unemployment tendency among university graduates?
3. How does risk-taking skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of
unemployment tendency among university graduates?
Null Hypotheses
1. Innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly predict
reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
2. Self-efficacy skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly
predict reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
3. Risk-taking skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly predict
reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
Methodology
This study made use of Expost facto design. The population of the study consisted
of 1421 University of Uyo lectures. The sample size for the study was 142 lecturers.
With 10% of the population using simple random sampling technique by balloting the
sample size was drawn from 5 faculties of the University for the study. Arts 34,
Education 31, Business Administration 30, social Science 31, and Agriculture, 26. The
instruments used for data collection for the study were entitled “Entrepreneurial
Education Indices Questionnaire (EEIQ) and Reducing Unemployment Tendency
among University Graduates Questionnaire” (RUAUGQ). A four point rating scale
which offered the respondent four alternatives to choose from was developed as follows;
Very high extent 4points, High extent 3 points, Low extent 2 points, Very low extent, 1
point. The instruments were face validated by three experts from the Department of
Educational Planning, Measurement and Evaluation Unit. The experts commented on
the wording and suitability of the items, their comments and corrections were in
cooperated into the final copy of the instrument. The instruments were administered on
30 respondents who were not part of the study. The scores obtained were subjected to
Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient and a reliability co-efficient of .74 and. 81 were
obtained signifying that the instruments were reliable enough for use. The
questionnaires were distributed personally to the respondents. The total number
of questionnaires distributed were completed and returned successfully by the
respondents. No questionnaire was voided. Hence a hundred percent (100%) response
rate was attained. Data collected were analyzed using simple linear regression to answer
both research questions and for testing the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance.
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Results
Research Question 1. How does innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education
predict reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates?
Unstandardized Standardized r R2
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 14.830 2.845 .811 .703
Just- in- time .249 .150 .136
Table 1 reported the prediction of innovative skills taught in entrepreneurship education and
reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates. The analysis revealed a
correlation (r) of .811 which indicated that the 81.1% of the variance is accounted for the
model which is high. Also the R2 is .703 which indicated that the independent variable
accounts for 70.3% of the variance in the dependent variable. This implies that innovative
skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of unemployment tendency
among university graduates.
Null Hypothesis 1: Innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not
significantly predict reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
Table 2: Summary of ANOVA table showing innovative skills taught in
entrepreneurship education and reduction of unemployment tendency among
University graduates
Regression Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.=p
Residual Squares 1 7.367 2.74 .024
Total
7.367 141 2.681
391.390 142
398.757
r =.811, R2=.703, significant @ p<0.05
Table 2 shows the regression analysis of the linear regression, F(1,141)=2.74, P=.024. Since
the p-value was less than the significant level of .05, the null hypothesis which stated that
innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly predict reduction
of unemployment tendency among University graduates was rejected. Thus, innovative skill
taught in entrepreneurship education accounted for approximately 70.3% of the explained
variability in reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates. The
regression was 14.830+.249 x(entrepreneurship education). This implies that for every unit
increase in innovative skill taught in entrepreneurship education, reduction of unemployment
tendency among university graduates will increase on the average by .249 times.
Research Question 2: How does self-efficacy skill taught in entrepreneurship education
predict reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates?
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Unstandardized Standardized r R2
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 21.498 1.596 .922 .888
Collaborative .104 .084 .102
teaching
Table 3 reported the prediction of self-efficacy skills taught in entrepreneurship education
and reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates. The analysis revealed
a correlation (r) of .922 which indicated that the 92.2% of the variance is accounted for the
model which is high. Also the R2 is .888 which indicated that the independent variable
accounts for 88.8% of the variance in the dependent variable. This implies that self-efficacy
skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of unemployment tendency
among university graduates
Null Hypothesis 2: Self-efficacy skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not
significantly predict reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
Summary of ANOVA table showing Self-efficacy skills taught in entrepreneurship
education and reduction of unemployment tendency among University
graduates
Sum of Mean F Sig.
Squares df Square
Regression 4.145 1 4.145 1.525 .021
Residual 396.687 141 2.717
Total 400.831 142
r=.922, R2=.888, significant @ p<0.05
Table 4 shows the regression analysis of the linear regression, F(1,141)=1.525, P=.021.
Since the p-value was less than the significant level of .05, the null hypothesis which stated
that self-efficacy skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly predict
reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates was rejected. Thus, self-
efficacy skills taught in entrepreneurship education accounted for approximately 88.8% of
the explained variability in reduction of unemployment tendency among university
graduates. The regression was 21.498+.104 x(entrepreneurship education) This implies that
for every unit increase in Self-efficacy skills taught in entrepreneurship education, reduction
of unemployment tendency among University graduates will increase on the average by .104
times.
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Research Question 3: How does risk-taking skill taught in entrepreneurship education
predict reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates?
Model Unstandardized Standardized r R2
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 19.533 1.839 .673 701
Time-based 2.3185 .097 .000
Table 5 reported the prediction of risk-taking skill taught in entrepreneurship education and
reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates. The analysis revealed a
correlation (r) of .673 which indicated that the 67.3% of the variance is accounted for the
model which is high. Also the R2 is .710 which indicated that the independent variable
accounts for 70.1% of the variance in the dependent variable. This implies that risk-taking
skill taught in entrepreneurship education predict reduction of unemployment tendency
among university graduates
Null Hypothesis 3: Risk-taking skill taught in entrepreneurship education does not
significantly predict reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
Summary of ANOVA table showing Risk-taking skills taught in entrepreneurship
education and reduction of unemployment tendency among University
graduates
Model Sum of Mean F Sig.
Squares df Square
1 Regression .000 1 131.273 456.755 .033
141 .287
Residual 400.831
Total 400.831 142
.r =.673, R2=.701, significant @ p<0.05
Table 6 shows the regression analysis of the linear regression, F(1,141)=456.755, P=.033.
Since the p-value was less than the significant level of .05, the null hypothesis that stated that
risk- taking skills taught in entrepreneurship education does not significantly predict
reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates was rejected. Thus, risk-
staking kill taught in entrepreneurship education is accounted for approximately 70.1% of the
explained variability in reduction of unemployment tendency among University graduates.
The regression was 19.533+2.318 x (entrepreneurship education) This implies that for every
unit increase in risk- taking skills taught in entrepreneurship education, reduction of
unemployment tendency among University graduates will increase on the average by
2.32times.
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Discussion of Findings
The result of the data analysis regarding research question 1 and null hypothesis 1
indicated that innovative skills taught in entrepreneurship education significantly predict
reduction of unemployment tendency among university graduates.
This explains that innovative skill is inevitable in all entrepreneurial activities and as such,
innovation should be imbibed as a major component of entrepreneurial activities. This
finding goes along with the findings of Lee, et’al (2005) who made a comparison between
397 University students in South Korea and U.S. The findings showed that the experimented
group (students with exposure to entrepreneurial activities) had a higher start up intentions
and more knowledge about business than those in the controlled group (students without
exposure to entrepreneurial activities). Innovation influences a person’s ability to stay
relevant in the labour market or being sought after by others. Students should innovative
which could be through in varied skills and should be able to utilize every seen opportunity
to their advantage.
The result of the data analysis on research question 2 and null hypothesis 2 also
concluded that self-efficiency to a high extent predicts reduction of unemployment among
university graduates. In this case, believing in one’s ability to succeed or being positive can
aid individual in the outside world to succeed. This finding relates with the works of Gibeus,
et’al (2012). Who noted the effect of entrepreneurial subjects on the experimental group in
contrast with the controlled group. The findings concluded that students who took
entrepreneurial subjects had more positive intentions towards becoming an entrepreneur
unlike those in the control group who did not exhibit such intention. Thus, developing self-
ability, perseverance, persistence in the face of low employment opportunity would measure
an outstanding factor in fetching individuals the opportunity to try out certain ideas and
believing in their self-irrespective of the outcome.
The result of the findings on research question 3 and null hypothesis 3 also showed
that risk-taking ability predicts means of reducing unemployment among university
graduates. This finding is in congruence with the findings of Matley (2008) who measured
the long term impact of entrepreneurial education on the self-employment status of 64
graduates from 8 higher education institution in the United Kingdom. The result concluded
that 10 years after graduation, being a business owner was the most common outcome of the
students as none were employed by the government or other organization. Being confident
enough to take risk is really efficient as it will help our graduates to explore the outside world
with boldness and accept the result irrespective of the outcome which may or may not really
be favorable.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that innovation, self-efficiency, and risk-
taking ability to a very high extent predict reduction of unemployment among University
graduates. In this case, being innovative will give an individual a major advantage over
others and it must be noted that self-generated ideas are inevitable here in order to achieve a
better outcome. The ability to take risk will aid young graduates to discover available
opportunities, invest in it and irrespective of the outcome either positive or negative; they
will be able to make further decisions until much is achieved. Individuals with low self-
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esteem and low confidence would easily be defeated by threats and as such they will always
have doubt over little happenings.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that:
1. The lecturers should imbibe in students innovative skills so as to stand out in the
midst of competitors/others and to also be able to satisfy individual varieties.
2. Individual graduate should develop and maintain high self-efficiency, have positive
mindset and persevere despite the challenges as this will also bring a positive result.
3. Graduates must be willing to take risk in order to succeed in the labour market after
training from the higher institution.
References
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Fagerberg, J., Mowery, D. C. & Nelson, R. R. (2005). The Oxford Handbook of
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Lee, S. M., Chang, D. & Lim, S. B. (2005). Impact of Entrepreneurship education: A
Comparative Study of the U.S and Korea. Journal of International
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Martin, L. L. & Clore, G. L. (2001). Theories of Mood & Cognition; A User’s
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Matley, H. (2008). The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Entrepreneurial
Outcomes. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development. 15 (2), 382-396.
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Menzies, T, V. & Paradi, J. C. (2003). Entrepreneurial Education and Engineering
Students- Career Path & Business Performance, The International Journal of
Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 4(2), 121-132
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Curriculum Implementation Benchmark for Teaching Fish Farming in
Private Senior Secondary Schools in Uyo
Dr. Uduakobong A. Okon, Janet Effiong Sam &
Favour Umoyo
Department of Vocational Education
Faculty of Education
University of Uyo, Uyo
Abstract
The study investigated the extents of compliance in curriculum implementation benchmark
for teaching fish farming in private senior secondary schools in Uyo. Specifically, the
benchmark issues under consideration are: performance objectives, curriculum coverage,
teachers and students activities, and availability of learning and teaching materials as well
as mode of evaluation. Three (3) research questions were answered. Population of the study
consisted of teachers in Private secondary schools and fifty (50) subjects were drawn using
stratified random sampling technique. Validated and reliable research instrument
(questionnaire) was used for data collection. Mean was used to analyse research questions
and the result expressed in bar charts. The result of the findings revealed the compliance
rates in senior secondary classes with the highest mean score of 65.9% in SS1, 70.8% in
SS11 and 85.3 for SS3 classes. It is recommended that, school authorities should execute
appropriate supervision of agricultural teachers to ensure curriculum implementation
benchmark compliance in private senior secondary schools in Uyo.
Key words: Benchmarks, Curriculum, Fish Farming, Private Secondary School
Introduction
Curriculum play a central roles in teaching and learning situation. According to
Shehu, (2007) curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in school or in a
specific course or program. It also contain the knowledge and skills which the students are
expected to learn and the learning standards or objectives they are expected to meet.
Onyisi, (2004) added that, curriculum are the different units and lessons that teachers
are expected to teach, the assignments and project given to students, materials used in the
course and the assessment methods used to evaluate students level of learning outcomes.
Therefore, an individual learning curriculum, for example would contain a specific learning
standard, lessons, assignment and materials organized and package for delivery of a
particular subject. Since curriculum is one of the foundational elements for effective teaching
and learning, it is often the object of reforms, most of which are broadly intended to either
mandated or encourage greater curriculum standardization, consistency and full
implementation of its contents in all schools for sustainable development Oluremi, (2014).
After curriculum benchmark of fish farming has been set, the major issue is the
implementation which is the focus of this paper. The term implementation in this context
means the act of working out the plans and suggestions that have been made by curriculum
specialists and subject experts in a classroom or school setting to ensure that every parts of
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the curriculum are effectively utilized according to its speculations in line with the stated
objectives. Onyisi (2004) supported that, teachers are the main curriculum implementers,
while on the other hand, students, parents, school administrators are directly or indirectly
involve in the implementation process for sustainable national development. The successful
implementation of curriculum benchmark of fish farming involves a thoughtful planning and
hard work in many levels of operations both in classroom and in the field. Fish farming
curriculum implementation framework has its conventional delivery modes. Adewumi,
(2011) added that, teaching of fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the
population dynamics of fishery with practical strategies such as good management skills.
Fish farming is currently playing, and will continue to play an essential part in
boosting global demand of fishery products for human nutrition and poverty alleviation in
Nigeria. According to FAO, 2004, fish farming in schools and other food production
practices are faced with different challenges. Most fisheries teachers and other fish producers
are continuously pursuing ways and means of improving their production practices, to make
them more efficient while students of fisheries will gain adequate skills and knowledge for
self employment.
The promotion of sustainable fish farming development in schools requires enabling
environments such as adequate space for construction of ponds, improved variety of species
of fingerlings and expert skills in managing these fishery facilities with the aim of ensuring
continuing human resource development and capacity building Amechi (2016). The FAO
(2007), the code of conduct for fish farming contains principles and provisions in support of
sustainable aquaculture especially in the areas of financial and technical assistance,
technology transfer, training and scientific cooperation as well as full implementation of
fishery curriculum in schools. The adoption of curriculum implementation benchmark of fish
farming in schools will offer the students the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills and
competencies, to demonstrate farm principles and practice as well as carrying out field
experiment in fish production. This will also play complementary role in agricultural delivery
making it possible for learning-by-doing in fish farming as a trade. Amechi (2016). Fish
farmers are expected to have adequate equipment/tools, farm structure and regular provision
of inputs in addition to farm space to accommodate construction of fish ponds which could
be managed by students under the supervision of their teachers. (Nwokoho,2010). These are
fundamentals for operating fish farms in schools, as students will transfer classroom
instruction to practical in the field. It is unfortunate that, some schools in Uyo are lacking the
needed fish farm resources (inputs) and are not properly equipped to prepare students for
vocational occupation ahead of them while some teachers failed completely to adhere to
curriculum standards.
Fish farming is one of the subjects covered in the curriculum of agriculture in
secondary schools but offered under trade and entrepreneurship subjects. Swift in Amechi
(2016) defined fish farming as the rearing of fish in manmade pond. Many benefits are
derived from fish to justify its improvement in production and usage. These benefits
includes; increased job opportunities, food security and poverty alleviation, reduction in
rural-urban drift, better use of Nigeria’s water, land and other natural resources. When
processed, fish can provide by-products such as fish meal, fish oil, manure etc. It provides a
means of recycling wastes when animal dung from farms, factory wastes and sewage are
used in feeding fish, increased availability of fish especially in those areas not having ready
access to current supplies.
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In the same vain Adewumi and Olaleye (2011) found out that poor management
skills, inadequate supply of good quality seeds, lack of capital, faculty data collection, lack of
environmental impact consideration, marketing of products and water related problems are
some of the problems facing fish production among fish producer and fisheries teachers in
Nigeria. In addition, Olaitan and Omomia (2006) explained that adequate fishery
management in schools farm requires fish pond fertilization, proper feeding and control of
water quality. The authors also explained that adequate stocking and proper harvesting is
important in fish production. This can also be done in public schools.
Secondary school according to Nwokike (2011) is the school children attend after
primary school before tertiary education stage. Children between the ages of 12 – 18 usually
attend secondary schools. One of the objectives of secondary education in the National
Policy on Education (2013) is to equip students in secondary schools with necessary skills
that will make them employable after their study. This led to introduction of trade subject in
which animal husbandry is one which consists of pig production, poultry production and
fishery among others as contained in the school curriculum. In schools, inadequate space and
non-compliance to curriculum implementation benchmark for fish farming are additional
problems. Therefore, this study seek to find out the extent of compliance to curriculum
implementation benchmark for teaching of fish farming in private secondary schools in Uyo.
Purpose of the Study
The main objective of this study was to assess the extent of compliance to curriculum
implementation Benchmark for teaching of fish farming in private senior secondary schools
in Uyo. Specifically, the study sought to:
1. investigate the extents of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in
Senior Secondary 1 in private schools in Uyo. .
2. investigate the extents of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in
Senior Secondary 11 in private schools in Uyo.
3. investigate the extents of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in Senior
Secondary III in private schools in Uyo.
Research Questions
1. What is the extent of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in Senior
Secondary 1 in private schools in Uyo. .
2. What is the extent of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in Senior
Secondary 11 in private schools in Uyo.
3. What is the extent of curriculum benchmark compliance in fish farming in Senior
Secondary III in private schools in Uyo.
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The study was carried out in private
secondary schools in Uyo clan. The population of the study was agricultural science teachers
and fifty (50) subjects were drawn using stratified random sampling technique based o the
clans in Uyo including, Oku, Offord, Etoi and Ikono Uyo. Researcher-structured and
validated questionnaire was designed and administered to the respondents. The instrument
was structured to obtain responses on the respondents’ compliance to curriculum benchmark
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variables considered in the study. The compliance rates were determined and scores
accorded were expressed in mean percentage. A test retest method of reliability measure of
thh instrument was employed and coefficient correlation score (R) of 0.80 was obtained
using Pearson Product Moment Correlation, proving the reliability of the instrument was
high. The data were analysed using mean percentage and the results expressed in bar charts.
Data Presentation and Results
Results were presented in the following bar charts. The results reflect mean percentage
scores in the curriculum issues for each class by gender of respondents.
80
70
60
50
40
30
Male Teachers
20
Females Teachers
10
0
Fig 2. Curriculum Implementation Benchmark Compliance for Fish Farming in SS1 in
Private Secondary Schools in Uyo LGA
Key. 1-49 = Low Compliance Rates
50-69 = Average Compliance Rates
69- 70 = High Compliance Rates
In Fig 2, curriculum implementation benchmark compliance rates in teaching and students
activities, learning and teaching material and students evaluation for SS1 were above average
scores The highest score of 75% was obtained in curriculum content coverage female
respondents..
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75 Currculum teachers & Learning Male Reacher
74 Content Students Materials Femal eachers
73 Coverage Activities76
72 Currculum
71 Evaluation
70
69
68
67
66
Performance
objective
Fig1. Curriculum Implementation Benchmark Compliance for Fish Farming in SS1I in
Private Secondary Schools in Uyo LGA
Key. 1-49 = Low Compliance Rates
50-69 = Average Compliance Rates
69- 70 = High Compliance Rates
In Fig 1. Curriculum implantation benchmark compliance rates indicated the highest score
in Achievement of Performance objectives with the 74%, followed by 73% in
Curriculum Evaluation in SSI1. The male SS2 teachers outperformed their female
counterparts in Stipulation of performance objectives, Curriculum coverage and in
teachers and students’ activities.
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92 Male Teacher
Female
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
Performace Curriculum Teach. & Learning & Evaluation
Objective coverage stu.Activities teaching
Materials
Fig.2 . Curriculum Implementation Benchmark Compliance for Fish Farming in
SS111 in Private Secondary Schools in Uyo LGA
Key. 1-49 = Low Compliance Rates
50-69 = Average Compliance Rates
69- 70 = High Compliance Rates
In Fig 3, curriculum compliance rates in SS 3 was observed to be scores above average.
Compliance scores in SS3 ranged between 80% to 90% with the highest in availability of
learning and teaching materials. .
Discussion of findings
The result of the study revealed that compliance rates to curriculum implementation
benchmark for fish farming, in private secondary schools in Uyo is appreciable. The findings
of the study is in consonance with the discoveries of Oleremi,(2014), and Obiyi and Ekubo,
(2011) which indicated that educational effectiveness is achieved through proper
implementation of the curriculum. This outstanding performances of private secondary
schools in Uyo in curriculum implementation is probably the case, because private secondary
schools provide learning and teaching materials for skills acquisition, more than the public
school Nigeria.. In SS3 being an examination class, scores were observed to be higher
reflecting private school’s preparation of SS3 students for terminal examinations. It is
impressive that private secondary schools attempt to cover the provided curriculum content,
stipulate and achieve lesson unit performance objectives and comply to provided evaluation
benchmark in curriculum implementation.
Lower curriculum compliance rates in teaching and students activities, learning and teaching
material were obtained for SS2. This lower scores may have been caused by the facts that
teachers are not adequately taught the operation of fish farming in line with the stated
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performance objectives stated on the curriculum in fish farming. Most of this teaches were
trained in general agriculture and are employed to teach specialty areas such as fish farming.
According to Shehu (2007), implementation is the act of working out the plans and
suggestions that have been made by curriculum specialist and subject experts in a classroom
or school setting to ensure that every parts of the curriculum are effectively utilize according
to speculation in line with the stated objectives. Some teachers and students failed to adhere
to the stipulated learning and teaching activities in the curriculum as some teachers shows
negligence while students show truancy. LankShear (2011) explain that, the promotion of
sustainable fish farming development in schools require enabling environment and adequate
fisheries facilities. Some private schools in Uyo are lacking the necessary teaching and
learning materials in fish farming while few ones are in trying to meet up with the curriculum
benchmark. Oluremi (2014) noted that teachers are the main curriculum implementers, the
mode of evaluation or assessment by teachers in the teaching of fish farming are more or
very relevant to the learning process.
Conclusion
From the study, it is concluded that private secondary schools in Uyo comply to the
curriculum benchmark in fish farming. They may be need to retrain secondary teachers in
specific areas of agriculture to enhance curriculum compliance in agricultural trades and
entrepreneurship subject including fish farming in particular. The curriculum contents of fish
farming must be effectively taught and implemented accordingly. Also fish farming can be
improved in private secondary schools by adequate provision of fishery facilities.
Recommendations
The following recommendation were made base on the findings of the study;
1. Principals and schools administrator should execute appropriate supervision of
agriculture or fishery teachers to ensure curriculum implementation benchmark
compliance in private schools in Uyo.
2. Workshops should be organized for teachers of agricultural science in private
secondary schools to update their knowledge in fishery.
3. Schools should be provided with necessary facilities for teaching of fisheries and
4. Teachers should be ready at all times to equip students with necessary skills in
fisheries in line with curriculum standard.
References
Adewumi, A. A. (2011) Catfish culture in Nigeria: Progress, prospects and problems. African
Journal of Agricultural Research 4(5) 28-36. 6.
Amechi, N. F. (2016) Entrepreneurial Skills Required for the Training of Youth in Fish
Breeding Enterprise for self Employment in Anambra State, International Journal of
Educational Benchmark, 2 (2) 20-25).
Bone, Q. and Moore, R. H. (2008) Biology of fishes. Nethetlands. Taylor and Francis series
.
F.A.O (2007) Fisheries Statistics http/www.fao.org Techniques in Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Retrieved 2nd January 2017.
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F.A.O (2004) Fisheries Statistics http/www.fao.org Techniques in Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Retrieved 5th March 2016.
Lankshear, C. (2011). New Literacies: Everyday Practices and Classroom Learning and
Curriculum Development. 3rd ed. London: Open University Press.
Nwokike, O. F. (2011) Skills Possessed by Fishery Teachers for Fish Farming Development
in Senior Secondary School in Enugu Education Zone. Enugu IAS publishers.
Nwokoho, J. O. (2010). Training Skills Relevant for Employment in Fish Farming. The Way
forward and Sustainable Development. Onitsha. Doran Publishers
Obiyi, K. K. & Ekubo, N. A. (2011). Development of Entrepreneurship Skills Training
Modules s on Fish Breeding and Hatching Occupation Benchmark. Asian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences 18(10) 56-60.
Olaitan, S. O. & Omomia, O. A. (2006). Round-up Agricultural Science for Senior
Secondary School Certificate. University Matriculation and PCE Examinations. Ikeja
Longman. Nig. PLC.
Oluremi, H. O. (2014). Enhancing Educational Effectiveness through Curriculum
Implementation and Teacher’s Professional Development: Journal of Education 2 (4)
31-35
Onyisi, O. E. (2004). Curriculum Planning, Implementation and Evaluation; Challenges of
Sustainable Education in Australia. Australia CPI group;
Shehu, C. K. (2007). Educational Administration, Organization and Supervision. Ahmed
Plc. Zaria.
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Instructional Supervision and Sustainable Development of Secondary
Schools in Abia State, Nigeria.
Dr. Onwuchekwa Grace Uzaru & Ihekoronye Joy
Department of Educational Management.
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike.
[email protected]
[email protected]
07066821114/ 08062351520
Abstract
This paper investigated instructional supervision and sustainable development of secondary
schools in Abia State, Nigeria. Two research questions and one hypothesis guided the study.
The study employed descriptive survey design. The population consisted of all the 258
principals and 3,819 teachers from all the public secondary schools in Abia State. A sample
of 26 principals and 96 teachers representing 10%each were randomly selected for the
study. An instrument titled Instructional Supervision and Sustainable Development
Questionnaire (ISSDQ) was developed by the researcher. The instrument was validated by 3
experts in the College of Education, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike.
Two experts from the Department of Educational Administration and the other expert from
the Department of Measurement and Evaluation. Cronbach Alpha procedures were used to
test the reliability which yielded 0.76. Mean and standard deviation was used to answer the
research questions while t-test was used to test the hypothesis. The findings of the study
reveal that principals perform their instructional roles to a very low extent. The study further
indicated that lack of skills, lack of time, negative attitude or outright resistant to
instructional supervision among others militate against effective instructional supervision.
Based on the results, it was recommended among others that principals should set out time
for instructional supervision, organize seminars and workshop for teachers regularly, and
develop their skills through staff development programmes.
Keywords: Instructional Supervision, Sustainable Development, Principals, Secondary
Schools.
Introduction
Education is one of the largest sectors in most countries, as it occupies a vital
position in a country’s economic, social, religious, political and economic development.
Yoloye as cited in Fadipe and Oyedele (2000) opines that quality in education system
includes quality of its inputs, quality of teachers, instructions and evaluation procedures
among others and must be properly supervised for sustenance. That is the reason the Federal
Government continues to ensure that funds are made available for the education sector to
ensure that quality education is provided and made accessible to its citizenry.
In recent times, there has been a public outcry about the product of our secondary
schools. In spite of the Federal Government’s effort, secondary education system in Nigeria
has continued to witness poor performance of students in external examinations like WAEC,
NECO, JAMB and NABTEB. According to Ugochi (2011), the performance of students in
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the SSCE administered by WAEC and NECO in the recent time has indicated that a massive
failure rate of 72, 74, 74 and 75 percent in 2008,2009,2010,2011 respectively. The continued
decline in the number of credit passes especially in core subjects like English and
Mathematics portray the issue of the education received. Buregeya (2011) observes that there
is an ongoing decline of principals’ instructional supervision of schools throughout the globe.
Principals are faced with many administrative duties but must always put instructional
supervision at the centre of their work for better results.
Instructional supervision centres on the principals and it is meant for the improvement
of instructions. According to Beach and Reinhardt (2000), instructional supervision is a
process in education, the primary purpose of which is to support and sustain all teachers in
their goal of career-long growth and development, which ultimately results in quality
instruction. Instructional supervision is an internal mechanism adopted by principals for
school self-evaluation, geared towards helping teachers and students to improve on their
teaching and learning activities for the purpose of achieving educational objectives. The
school principals have the overall responsibility of influencing, redesigning the activities of
the school towards goal setting and achievement through proper supervision of the learning
activities. Mutua (2011) opines that principals in their instructional supervision are expected
in the course of their duties to initiate several activities that will lead to successful merging of
roles in order of achieve harmony and satisfactory.
A lot of professional skills are requirement in order to ensure effective instructional
supervision practices in schools. Ayako (2009) observes that effective school principals
establish clearly define goals for academic achievements by concentrating their available
resources and their operation on attaining them. They provide adequate time table for
teaching, routine check of lesson notes and subject diaries, observation of classroom
instruction and continuously monitor students’ programme to determine whether their
instructed goals are being met. They provide feedback on students’ performance and
maintain an appropriate usage of physical facilities, reinforcement of discipline to ensure
peaceful atmosphere, capacity building of teachers for effective service delivery and
provision of instructional facilities and materials to enhance quality teaching and learning
processes. This will result into improved performance in academics and co-curricular
activities. In the same vein, Charles (2011) states that the head teachers (principals) has to
play the role of supervisors from time to time by checking the teachers’ class work and assess
their overall performance based upon achievements. He has to provide the right motivation
and stimulation for staff and students to enhance staff performance and students’
achievement. The principal should ensure effective supervision by interacting academically
and socially at a regular basis with teachers and students within and outside the classrooms.
Furthermore, Goldhammeras cited in Makokha (2015) opines that
instructional supervision includes all activities by which principals express leadership in the
improvement of learning and teaching. Some of these activities include observation of
classroom instruction, conducting of teachers groups and individual conference, conducting
and coordinating staff in-service, advising and assisting teachers involved in instructional
programs and receiving community feedback about school programs. The aims of these
instructional activities are to motivate and stimulate the teachers and assist them improve
their classroom instruction. When teachers are assisted in these ways, the students’ academic
achievement is improved. The principals’ instructional activities enable teachers to identify
teaching and learning problems and seek for solutions to the problems.
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The principals face a lot of challenges in the performance of instructional supervision
in their schools. According to Catherine (2014), the challenges range from the material
resources, professionalism, management of staff and interrelationships. Lack of required
skills by the principals for carrying out supervision process contributes to the challenges.
Some principals face challenges of uncommitted teachers and unethical and unprofessional
practices by some of them. Indeed, Nyandiko (2008) found out that veteran teachers resist
because they consider themselves as experts as a result of experience.
Supporting the above assertion, Nyandiko (2008) states that the major challenges
facing principals include lack of time for instructional supervision as a result of overload of
work caused by many other responsibilities. They have so many responsibilities that they
sometimes fail to supervise instructional activities in their schools. This affects effectiveness
of teachers’ class instruction which is a means to students’ academic achievement. Similarly,
Wenzare (2010) observes that principals are not always available for teachers when they
wish to consult.
Another critical factor that has impacted on effective principals’ instructional
supervision is the school principals' administrative experience. A study done by Kimosop as
cited by Makokha (2015) reveals that most school administrators have little or no
background skills or expertise to prepare them as instructional supervisors.
Oral interview revealed that schools are not regularly and properly inspected. Quality
instructions have declined as shown by the poor performance of students in public
examinations. The principals have failed to give adequate instructional supervision resulting
to teachers behaving anyhow in the schools. Sustainable development of teaching and
learning can only be assured through instructional supervision.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It requires balancing
environmental, societal and economic considerations in the pursuit of development and
improved quality of life. Sustainability includes intergenerational equity, gender equity, just
and peaceful societies, social tolerance, environmental preservation and restoration, poverty
alleviation and natural resource conservation. According to Arogundele (2011), the major
essential tool for achieving sustainable development includes the following areas:
1. Improve the quality of basic education;
2. Reorient existing education programme to address sustainable development;
3. Develop public awareness and understanding; and
4. Provide training for all sectors of private and civil society.
Some studies have been carried out in relation to instructional activities of the principals.
Gaziel (2007) conducted a research in secondary schools in Israel on re-examining the
relationship between principal’s instructional/educational leadership and student achievement
in secondary schools. The study wanted to find out how frequently the principals invest their
time in different instructional activities and whether they influence students’ achievement.
Gaziel employed quantitative approach where teachers who formed the sample were
randomly selected. The data was collected from self-report questionnaire that was developed
by Hallinger in 1983. The study found out that secondary school principals invest some of
their energy and time in their instructional roles.
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In Nigeria Ondo State, Sabaitu and Ayandoja (2012) sought to find out the impact of
instructional supervisory activities on students’ academic performance in English Language
in Senior Secondary schools The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship
Specifically the study aimed at establishing the relationship between checking of students’
notes, class visitations by principals, checking of teachers’ punctuality and attendances,
moderation of examination questions and marking schemes on students’ academic
performance in English Language. The study adopted a descriptive survey method and
sampled sixty English Language teachers in sixty public senior secondary schools and their
students in Ondo State, Nigeria as at 2007/2008 academic session. The study showed that
there was significant impact of instructional supervision of teachers on academic
performance of students’ English language. The activities that were supervised were
checking of students’ notes, checking teachers’ punctuality, attendance and moderation of
examination questions and class visitation.
In school set up teachers are accountable to the students they are teaching and to the
entire community between instructional supervision and students’ academic performance in
senior secondary schools. Specifically the study aimed at establishing the relationship
between checking of students’ notes, class visitations by principals, checking of teachers’
punctuality and attendances, moderation of examination questions and marking schemes on
students’ academic performance in English Language. The study adopted a descriptive
survey method and sampled sixty English Language teachers in sixty public senior secondary
schools and their students in Ondo State, Nigeria as at 2007/2008 academic session. The
study showed that there was significant impact of instructional supervision of teachers on
academic performance of students’ English language. The activities that were supervised
were checking of students’ notes, checking teachers’ punctuality, attendance and moderation
of examination questions and class visitation.
Without effective instructional supervision, there will be no meaningful sustainable
development in Nigeria in general and Abia State in particular. Other researches on this field
has been done on the following areas; role of principals in instructional supervision in public
secondary schools by Muoka (2007); supervision of instruction in public primary schools by
Baffour-Awuah (2011); the impact of instructional supervision on Academic Performance of
Secondary School Students in Nasarawa State (Dangara, 2015).No one has done a research
on instructional supervision and sustainable development of secondary schools in Abia State.
The yearnings of parents, policy makers and stakeholders on the poor performance of
students in public examinations necessitated the investigation on instructional supervision
and sustainable development of secondary schools in Abia State.
Statement of Problem
Education is the main engine for sustainable development as well as the fulcrum
around which every activity revolves. Investment in education is expected to equip students
with skills that will enable them be useful in their society and be able to gain admission into
the University. The continuous poor performance of students in the SSCE administered by
WAEC and NECO and students getting involved in examination malpractices raises issues of
concern. In 2014, a total of 529,425 candidates, representing 31.28%, obtained credits in five
(5) subjects and above, including English Language and Mathematics.” when compared to
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the 2012 and 2013 May/June WASSCE, there was marginal decline in the performance of
candidates as 38: 81 per cent was recorded in 2012 and 36.57 per cent in 2013 (Ameh,
August 11,2014).In 2016 NECO examinations , 43,905 cases of malpractice was recorded,
and the number of schools involved in mass cheating was 194, adding that the results of
candidates involved have been cancelled. Education stakeholders have expressed their
concern over the poor performance of students in the SSCE. Some blamed the school
administrators (principals) and the teachers while some blamed the students themselves and
the parents. Whoever to be blamed, the question is, to what extent do principals perform
instructional supervisory roles in secondary schools for sustainable development in Abia
State? What are the factors militating against effective instructional supervision and
sustainable development of secondary schools in Abia State? These are the onus of this
study.
Research Questions
1. To what extent do principals perform instructional supervisory roles in secondary
schools for sustainable development in Abia State, Nigeria?
2. What are the factors militating against instructional supervision and sustainable
development of secondary schools in Abia State?
Null Hypothesis
There is no significant difference between the responses of principals and teachers on the
extent principals perform instructional supervisory roles in secondary schools in Abia State,
Nigeria.
Methodology
The study employed descriptive survey design. Two research questions and one
hypothesis guided the study. The population of the study consisted of all the 258 principals
and 3819 teachers in public secondary schools in Abia State. A sample of 26 principals and
96 teachers representing 10% each were randomly selected for the study. An instrument
titled Instructional Supervision and Sustainable Development Questionnaire (ISSDQ) was
developed by the researcher. The research instrument was validated by two lecturers –one
from Educational Management and the other from Measurement and Evaluation. To
determine the reliability of the instrument, copies of the questionnaire were pilot tested on 20
principals and teachers who were not part of the study. The Cronbach Alpha procedures were
used in determining the internal consistency of the instrument which yielded 0.76 indicating
that the instrument was reliable for the study.
The instrument has two sections. Section A contains demographic information while
section B contains fifteen (15) items. Four point likert scale was used with response
categories scored as to a very great extent (4) to a great extent (3), to a very low extent (2), to
a low extent (1) and strongly agree (4), agree(3), strongly disagree (2 ) and disagree (1)
respectively. The benchmark for acceptance of mean score was 2.50.This implies that any
item with a mean value of 2.50 and above was regarded as accepted value while any item
with the mean value below 2.50 was considered not accepted value. Any item with a standard
deviation between 0.00 and 1.97 indicated that the respondents were not far from the mean
and the opinion of one another, in which case, the item was adjudged valid. A total of 122
copies of questionnaire were administered by the researchers with the help of one assistant
from each zone. After two (2) weeks, all the 122 copies were correctly and completely filled
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and returned which were used for the analysis. Data collected were analysed using mean and
standard deviation. The hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results and Findings
The results of this study was obtained from the answered research questions and
hypothesis, and presented I the tables below.
Research Question 1: To what extent do principals perform instructional supervisory roles
in secondary schools for sustainable development in Abia State?
Table 1: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the responses of principals and teachers on
principals’ instructional supervisory roles in secondary schools for sustainable development
in Abia State.
Principals Teachers
S/N Item ̅ SD Total Rem ̅ SD Total Remark
1 Provide adequate time ark
table for teaching
2.8 1.6 26 Agre 3.3 1.8 96 Agreed
ed
2 Observation of classroom 2.3 1.5 26 Disagr 2.1 1.4 96 Disagreed
instructions of teachers eed
3 Provision of school based 2.3 1.5 26 Disagr 2.2 1.6 96 Disagreed
in-service course. eed
4 Monitoring teacher’s class 2.2 1.4 26 Disagr 2.1 1.4 96 Disagreed
attendance. eed
5 Ensuring timely
preparation scheme of
work 2.9 1.7 26 Agre 2.6 1.8 96 Agreed
ed
6 Checking student’s 2.2 1.4 26 Disagr 2.2 1.4 96 Disagreed
homework and eed
assignment
7 Monitoring students’ 2.6 1.6 26 Agre 2.5 1.5 96 Agreed
academic performance ed
8 Provision of instructional 2.1 1.5 26 Disagr 2.3 1.5 96 Disagreed
materials eed
Grand mean 21.6 12.2 19.3 12.4
= 2.7 =1.5 2.4 =1.6
The data in Table 2 shows that the principals and teachers agreed that principals
provide adequate time table for teaching (2.8 and 3.3), ensure timely preparation of schemes
of work (2.9 and 2.6) and monitoring of students’ performance (2.6 and 2.5). They also
disagreed that the principals observe classroom instructions of teachers (2.3 and 2.2),
provision of school based in-service courses (2.3 and 2.2), monitoring teachers’ class
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attendance (2.2 and 2.1), checking of students’ homework and assignment (2.2 and 2.2) and
provision of instructional materials (2.1 and 2.3 ) respectively. This implies that both the
principals and teachers agreed that the principals to a very low extent perform their
instructional supervisory roles.
Research Question 2: What are the factors that are hindering instructional supervision in
secondary schools in Abia State?
Table 2: Mean ratings of responses of principals on factors militating against instructional
supervision in secondary schools in Abia State, Nigeria.
Principals Teachers
S/N Item ̅ SD Remark ̅ SD Remark
9 Lack of required skills for 3.1 1.7 Agreed 2.8 1.6 Disagreed
instructional supervision by the
principal
10 Lack of time caused by overload of 3.1 1.7 Agreed 3.1 1.7 Agreed
responsibilities on the principals
11 Negative attitude and outright resistant 2.9 1.7 Agreed 2.7 1.6 Agreed
to instructional supervision by veteran
teachers
12 Poor relationship between the 2.8 1.6 Agreed 2.9 1.7 Agreed
principals and the teachers
13 Financial constraints limit the 3.2 1.7 Agreed 3.3 1.8 Agreed
provision of teaching and learning 2.8 1.6 Agreed 2.7 1.6 Disagreed
materials 2.9 1.7 Agreed 2.7 1.6 Agreed
14 Delay in the disbursement of the 19.9= 13.2=1.9 20.2= 11.6=1.7
agreed funds hinder the provision of 2.8 2.9
the required facilities
15 Uncommitted teachers and unethical
and unpleasant practices by the
teachers
Grand mean
Data presented in Table 2 revealed that the eight (8) items in the two groups had their
mean(x) ranged between 2.7 and 3.2 and were all above the cut-off point of 2.5 therefore,
they are interpreted as agreed. This implied that all the respondents agreed that the 8 item
statements were the problems militating against effective instructional supervision in
secondary schools. The standard deviation ranged from 13.2 and 11.5 which indicated that
the respondents were not far from one another in their responses.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the responses of principals and
teachers on the extent principals perform instructional supervisory roles in secondary schools
in Abia State, Nigeria.
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Table3: t-test on mean responses of teachers of principals on instructional supervision in
secondary schools.
Variables Mean Standard N df standard t-cal t-tab or Decision
deviation error critical
Principals 2.4 12.4 26 0.12 1.98 NS
12.2 120 1.30
Teachers 2.7
. 96
Where df = degree of freedom, t-cal = t- calculated, t-tab = t-table, NS = not significant
The data above showed that the t-calculated value is 0.12 and the table value is 1.98 at 120
degree of freedom. The calculated value is less than the table value, therefore the non-
hypothesis was upheld since the table is greater than the calculated value. This implies that
there is no significant difference in the teachers and principals extent of instructional
supervision.
Discussion of Findings
The findings in Table 1 revealed that both the principals and teachers agreed that the
principals to a very low extent perform their instructional supervisory roles. The finding of
the study is in agreement with the observation of Buregeya (2011) that there is an ongoing
decline of principals’ instructional supervision of schools throughout the globe. Little wonder
Nyandiko (2008) states that the major challenges facing principals include lack of time for
instructional supervision as a result of overload of work caused by many other
responsibilities. Furthermore, the findings concur with Ogunu (2001) and Ifedili and Marchie
(2011) in their studies discovered that the rate at which inspectors visit schools was below
average.
The findings from Table 2 indicated that all the eight (8) statements are the factors
that militate against instructional supervision. These findings agree with Charles (2011) who
identified the following problems: untrained personnel, under staffing, lack of commitment
and positive approach and irregular inspections and inadequate follow-ups of inspectoral visit
and services as challenges to instructional supervision. In addition, Nyandiko (2008) found
out that veteran teachers resist because they consider themselves as experts as a result of
experience. The implication is that without instructional supervision, there will not be
improvement in teaching and learning for sustainable development in the country.
Conclusion
Instructional supervision will help to improve teaching and learning which will lead
to improvement in the academic performance of students. The principals to a very low
perform instructional supervision of their schools. A lot of challenges militate against
instructional supervision. Principals should devote more time for instructional supervision so
that there will be improvement in the academic performance of students for sustainable
development.
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Recommendations
1. Principals should set out time for instructional supervision of teachers to improve
teaching and learning for sustainable development.
2. Principals should improve on their skills for supervision through staff development
programmes.
3. Principals should organize seminars and workshops to reinforce their visits to
classroom for improved teaching and learning for sustainable development.
4. Principals should observe teachers and provide feedback to them for improved
instruction for sustainable development.
5. Principals should emphasize in-service training of teachers regularly for teacher
development which will increase students’ performance for sustainable development.
References
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results.dailypost.ng/2014/08/11/students-performance-drops-waec-releases-2014-
results
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development in Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and
Policy Studies (JETERAPS), 2(1), 26-29.
Ayako, A. O, (2009), Training needs of secondary school teachers for effective contractors
implementation in Kenya; A case of Bouta Municipality Unpublished M.Ed Thesis.
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Baffour-Awuah, P. (2011). Supervision of instruction in public primary schools in Ghana:
Teachers’ and head teachers’ perspectives. Unpublished Phd thesis, Murdoch
University, Ghana.
Beach, D. B & Reinhartz J. (2000). Supervisory leadership: Focus on instruction. Toronto:
Allyn and Bacon.
Buregeya, N. (2011). Influence of head teachers' general and instructional supervisory
practices on teachers work performance in secondary schools in Entebbe Municipality.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Bugema University, Kampala.
Catherine, J. S. (2014). Instructional supervisory role of principals and its influence on
students’ academic achievement in public secondary schools in Nairobi District. Nandi
County Kenya (Unpublished thesis).
Charles. K. J. (2011). Obstacles to effective instructional supervision in public primary
school in Mboni Division, Mboni West District Kenya. (Unpublished Master’s
project) Kenyatta University.
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of secondary school students in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. In Journal of Education and
Practice 6(10) 160-167.
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administrative and quality in education (NIEPA).
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educational leadership and student achievement. Journal of Social. Sciences,15(1), 17-
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Makokha, N. V. (2015).factors influencing principals’ instructional supervision practices in
public secondary schools in Makadara Sub- County, Nairobi County, Kenya.
Muoka, M. V. (2007). The role head teachers in instructional supervision in public secondary
schools. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Mutua, S. M, (2011).Head teachers’ professional roles and educational attainment in
Machakos District. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis Maseno University,
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schools. Unpublished master’s thesis, Kenyatta University, Kenya.
Sabaitu1, A. O. & Ayandoja, A. C.(2012). Impact of selected modes of instructional
supervision activities on students’ academic performance in senior secondary schools
in Ondo state, Nigeria. Educational Research Journal, 2 (1), 1- 6.
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(31) retrieved from http:www.theeconomyng.com/news on 10 October, 2013.
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educational management, administration & leadership (2012), 40(2), 188-216.
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Factors Critical to Benchmark Vocational Education for National
Development: Holistic Perspective
Etokeren, Marcus S.
Department of Business Education
College of Education
Afaha–Nsit Akwa Ibom State
[email protected].
08093816299
Abstract
Vocational Education is non-ego involving occupation which the society depends for its
continued sustainability and development. To benchmark vocational education is to entrench
and sustain total quality culture that will kindle innate desire in people to use their ingenuity
and initiative to create and improve value chain activities of the society. Instruments critical
to benchmark vocational educations include articulated and consistent policies, ethical use
of motivational instruments, ethical recruitment processes and procedures, worthwhile
curriculum and realistic funding of education. The many challenges that decimate the intent
of benchmarking vocational education for sustainability of national development are
reciprocal of instruments that benchmarks vocational education. To mitigate these
challenges require definite and determined political will by government, rejuvenation of core
values of the society and tackling corruption head-on. Benchmarking Vocational education is
indeed critical to the sustainability of national development.
Keywords: Sustainability, Total Quality Culture, Consistent Policies and Motivational
Instruments
Introduction
The topic “Benchmarks in Vocational Education for Sustainable National
Development” is quite apt viewed from the perspective of the current economic recession
and the change mantra of government which inheres in self re-appraisal, self consciousness
to evaluate the citizens thoughts, conduct, attitude and behaviour so as to align with global
best practices. Benchmarking is a technique to search out, study, implement and improve on
best practices. The Word “benchmark” is synonymous with “Total Quality Management
(TQM)”. Total quality management albeit benchmarking entails creating a total quality
culture bent on continuously improving the performance of every task and value chain
activity (Thompson and Stockland 2001).
Thus the word “Benchmarks” and “Total Quality Management” in this context will be
used interchangeably. Thompson and Stockland (2001) went further to assert that TQM is a
race without a finish whose objective is to kindle an innate, burning desire in people to use
their ingenuity and initiative to progressively improve on how tasks and value chain activities
are performed. It aims at instilling enthusiasm and commitment to doing things right from
top to bottom of the organization albeit institutions.
Within this construct TQM in Vocational Education for National Development can be
appreciated within the framework of (i) motivation for increased output (ii) leveraging
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product of vocational education in value chain activities in the labour market and the world
of business. In this light, therefore, this paper is oriented thus:
(i) Synopsis of historical perspective of education/vocational education.
(ii) Elements critical to benchmark vocational education for sustainable national
development
(iii) Challenges of vocational education in the sustainability of national development.
(iv) The way forward and conclusion
It is very much hoped that the paper would at the end impact critical hallmarks in knowledge
catalogue.
Synopsis of Historical Perspective of Education System (Policies)/Vocational Education
The crux intent of education is to transmit knowledge from one generation to another;
thus it is a continuous process inextricably linked with sustainability of the society norms,
values and culture. Usoro (2016) terms it social production and social reproduction. Nigeria
educational system is dynamic and changes from time to time to reflect the society’s needs
and to replicate in the citizenry, to a large extent, the philosophy of the government in power.
This implies that our education curricula are constantly tinkered to reflect the heart beat of
the society orchestrated by government policies and intent. For instance in the 60s our
primary education system witnessed a 2 year pre-primary education code named “ABC
infant”. As a pupil then, we were to complete and pass these classes before we were allowed
to enroll for a 6 year duration programme for the First School Leaving Certificate thus
making a study duration of 8 years for the First School Leaving Certificate. In about 1964
there was a policy somersault that abrogated the 2 years pre-primary programme thus giving
way to a 6 year duration for First School Leaving Certificate; this was followed by a change
in nomenclature from “Standard” to “Elementary” As a pupil then, all our textbooks, class
structure and naming were changed to elementary instead of standard with which our class
was previously named.
Then, teaching of craft and other skill sustaining subjects were emphasized and
sustained and there were craft masters and mistresses in the primary schools. Similar policy
somersault had it turn in our secondary schools structure in which the 5 year programme of
the 60s to early 70s for a West African School Certificate was truncated/abrogated to a 4 year
programme effective June 1973 and code named 6:4:4 policy for a West African School
Certificate. As a student then, we were made to move from class 4 to class 5 and in June
1974 we wrote the West African School Certificate Examination (WASCE). When we
enquired, we were told it was a new education policy code named 6-4-4 policy. Within the
period came a policy and administrative directive requiring that our primary school pupils be
padded and promoted (mass promotion) from one class to another without recourse to their
cognitive development (Performance). Further policy somersault featured in 1976 or
thereabout in which we had the 6-3-3-4 system of education introduced into Nigeria
educational structure (Udosen, Etuk & Edem, 2004).
Today early childhood education is re-introduced and a child has to complete it
before being allowed to enroll in the primary section albeit in the 6-3-3-4 system; a tacit
reflection and round tripping of the 1960s policy on education (Rufai 2013).
The padding and mass promotion policy seems to have scuttled teachers incentives,
motivation for productivity, competitive and enterprising spirit. Pupils were suspected to
have been influenced as such by the policy. Commentators noted that these crop of
pupils/students that got into tertiary institutions found it most difficult to cope with academic
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demands in the institutions. They felt intellectually alienated with wounded self-esteem.
These induced and precipitated in students a resort to negative tendencies such as
examination malpractices, cultism, outright rascality, drug abuse et el. Aside these, they
present themselves ready pawns for use in satisfying the whims of unscrupulous politicians.
These unsavory tendencies distorted incentives for hard-work to create wealth, caused youths
to acquiesced criminality and treat the good virtues inherent in education with levity.
In summary, frequent policy somersault and inconsistency constitute serious
aberration to effective benchmarking of our education system, smack mistrust and loss of
confidence in the system as well as withered productivity among teachers. Vocational
education is education that combines intrinsic knowledge and instrumental knowledge for a
worth-while living. Usoro (2016) referring to business education which is integral to
vocational education asserts that vocational education programme were society specific to
bring out the acquisition of skills and attitude considered valuable to the society. She went
further to add that though most aspects of the indigenous education were informal, it met the
need of the society.
Vocational education in Okoli’s (2011) view, was geared towards functionality which
gave no room for laziness and indolence. All of these imply that vocational education has
gone beyond the primordial concept ascribed to it as training merely for knacks/artisans
meant for menial jobs, scorn and to mean the lack in social mobility and for partial demented
fellows who failed to gain entry into what was considered “liberal education”. This position
was tacitly corroborated by FGN (2005) when it notes that the system (education system)
emphasizes theoretical knowledge at the expenses of technical, vocational and
entrepreneurial education. Rufai (2013) in the National Policy on Education corroborates this
fact too.
However, contemporary views hold that vocational education induces in students not
only cognitive perspectives but also psychomotor and affective perspectives. This is
evidenced by the structure and depth of vocational education curriculum which is practice
oriented inorder to create minds capable of forming correct conclusions, of formulating the
truth for themselves rather than to give the conclusion already elaborated. For instance the
study of computer word processing/application and key boarding are practice oriented
wherein (in which) students make mistakes, acknowledge their errors and make conscious
efforts to correct themselves. This indeed makes students to have confidence in themselves.
Aristotle notes in Harris (1982) that “intellect is perfected not by knowledge but by activity”.
Application of these developed domains in the world of works and in the world of
business make graduates of vocational education to acquire acceptable socio-economic
status. This implies upward movement from the disdained social class to a prestigious class;
here lies the social mobility concept. As Plato notes in Scholfiled (1978) that vocational
education being a non-ego involving occupation is society-sustaining occupation which
comprises the many routine jobs on which society depends for its continued existence. Usoro
(2016) subscribes to this as she notes that education albeit vocational education engages in
social reproduction. According to her, social reproduction is the process of ensuring from
one generation to the next, that the fundamentals of the society are passed on. All of these
underscore the importance of vocational education in a recessed economy like in Nigeria.
In summary, Vocational education has gone beyond the primordial concept that
ascribed to it’s training for knacks/artisans consigned to doing menial jobs or its graduates
thought of as those who failed to acquire liberal education. It is today viewed as the kind of
education that induces and maximally develops the cognitive, psycho-motor and affective
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perspectives of its graduates for self reliance, social reproduction that guarantees existence
and sustainability for our society-economically, socially and culturally.
Elements Critical to Benchmark Vocational Education for National Development
The many elements critical to benchmarking Vocational Education includes among
others:
(i) Articulated and Consistent Policy: There are litany of definitions of policy but this
paper considers a few of them as its working definition. Eminue (2005) defines policy
as webs of decisions or course of action or inaction which gives direction, coherence
and continuity. It is a guide to action for achievement of defined goals. Easton as
cited in Eminue (2005) avers that it involves allocation of values. Jekins (1978) notes
that policy is interrelated decision taken by an actor or group of actors and the policy
idea predicated on the belief that some individuals and institutions be allowed
considerable responsibility and authority for controlling significant parts of other
people’s lives. This in effect convey on such individual the omnipotent posture. This
omnipotency cause them to lack rationality as they make decisions based on certain
beliefs, values and assumptions which are always limited and tangent to the demands
and interest of the masses.
Within the context of Nigeria education system it is government policy(ies) that
benchmark the extent to which vocational education can go in prosecuting national
development. The policy tagged “National Policy on Education” sets out onbehalf
of the government the philosophy of education, objectives and tools or strategies on
how to achieve these aims and objectives within a time structure. It is worth
remarking that government policy(ies) are often premised on political expediencies
and are sometimes elitist in nature. Implicit in this assertion is the fact that the policy
being orchestrated by elites in government tend to alienate the demands, actions and
values of the masses. Put it differently, the policy is crafted by bureaucrats and
through bureaucratic processes, hence, the propensity of the policy to skew towards
the values, thoughts and the perceptions of the crafters about the society dominate
and are often parallel to realities on ground. Be it as it may, it sets direction for action
that promotes national development. Policy structures nature of values (cultural,
utilitarian and disciplinary) needed to be replicated in the citizenry. As averred by
Cunnigham (1962), the function of education is not merely to preserve and transmit
the best of the past, it must demonstrate its function in the present as well as
possibilities in the future; all of these depends on the nature and structure of the
educational philosophy and policy of a given society (nation). This therefore
underscores the importance of policy in achieving the aims and objectives of a given
institution.
(ii) Motivation: Motivation is a psychological phenomenon. It is a process of arousing
and sustaining goal directed behavior. This fact is corroborated by Chandler (2005)
when he notes that motivation always comes from within the employee and not from
the manager. There are many of the theories that attempt to explain what arouses an
individual or group to work or shape their attitudes and behaviours at work. Theories
such as that propounded by Smith, Fredrick Taylor, Abraham Maslow, Fredrik
Herzberz, Mc-Gregor are typical scientific search for what can really motivate
individuals to work for increased productivity. It is a settled fact that some
motivational factors are endogenous and some exogenous (Nelson and Quick 1997).
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In education system, as this paper aligns, motivational factors and instruments include
benefits, salaries, promotion, congenial working environment, career prospects,
instructional materials, government policies, attitude of students toward learning and
political scenario. Most critical among them are benefits, salaries, promotions and
career prospects as these strike on individual’s economic self-interest. Gomez-Mejia,
Balken and Cardy (2003) note and refer to them as “golden handcuffs”. They aver
that benefits help management retain employees and when designed to increase in
values over time, encourage employees to remain with their employers for increased
productivity, thus, contribute to the achievement of corporate aims and objectives.
In apparent acknowledgement of these facts, Nigerian government had set up salary
and wages commission to handle and embark upon indepth research and analysis on
how equitable salaries, benefits etc can best be distributed to scuttle brain-drain.
(iii) Recruitment: The intend of education is to transmit and sustain social and cultural
values for the sustainability of the society. Usoro (2016) terms it social production
and social reproduction. To effectuate this rest squarely on the caliber and quality of
those transmitting these values. This underscores the importance of recruitment.
Recruitment is part of the process concerned with finding the applicants that fit set
criteria laid out by management or organization for a given position. Gomez-Mejia et
el note that measures used in hiring decision focus on ability rather than motivation.
Both ability and motivation are no doubt, inextricably related. They complement each
other for increased productivity. Choosing the right person for a job, impact
positively the aims and objectives of an institution. Weihrich, Cannice and Koontz
(2008) assert that managers (albeit government agencies) need technical, human,
conceptual, design and analytical skills to be able to fill positions in the organization
structure. Recruitment in the perspective of the paper concerns admission of students
and employment of teachers by concerned authorities and if not ethically and
professionally handled jeopardizes chances of picking the best brains or people with
passion and positive attitude for the job vis-à-vis productivity.
(iv) Curriculum
Curriculum is a concept closely connected with knowledge and values and
their transmission. It implies the general fundamental principles which underly all the
specific curricula and help to determine their contents and each specific curriculum
can be said to have its own philosophy (Schofield 1978). Schofield (1978) went
further to note that curriculum implies content, aims, method, training, worthwhile
and culture. Vocational education curriculum has specific content and specific body
of knowledge. This then restricts this paper to discussing curriculum as it affects
vocational education.
Education is notably concerned with values which are independent of time or
particular environment though realizable under changing form in both. The depth of
vocational education curriculum is measured within the construct of information
which is essential to the business of living, the valuable skills imparted and the
spiritual development of the individual. Spiritual in this context according to
Scholfield (1978) means the satisfaction of the highest intellectual, moral and
aesthetic capacity. This implies arousing the cognitive, psycho-motor and affective
perspectives of the individual (students). Crafting curriculum is the responsibility of
government and it agencies. Thus the depth of any curriculum is predicated upon the
education philosophy, aims and objectives of the national policy on education, the
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political philosophy of the government and the socio-cultural and economic
perspectives of the society. This is evident by the fact that curriculum goes through
bureaucratic process and is handled by bureaucrats. Curriculum therefore benchmarks
vocational education and it act not only as a precursor to passion, discipline relative
to our value system, social reproduction and sustainability of the society but also as a
precursor for growth and development of the society.
(v) Budget
Education is a social responsibility of government as entrenched in the constitution
(FGN 1999). Thus it is not meant for financial benefit but to add social and economic
values to the citizenry which in effect will tacitly uplift the value chain of the society
for development and sustainability. To achieve this feat requires planning, effective
and realistic budgeting. Budget is a veritable tool used to increase the value chain of
an organization (Horngren, Foster and Datar 1997). This fact is corroborated by
Pandy (2003) as he notes that a budget is a means of expressing goals to be achieved
in short-run in formal term. He went further to assert that one systematic approach for
attaining effective management performance is through financial planning and
budgeting.
From the perspective of budget, education is merely a cost centre as its intent is to
effectuate the social responsibility of the government. Cost centre according to Pandy
(2003) is a responsibility centre where the manager (Minister of Education) is
responsible only for cost and cost is the primary planning tool and controlling data.
This fact corroborate Ibitoye (1985) who notes that the principal purpose of designing
budget centre is to assign responsibility. Alluding from these, ministry of education
foisted with the responsibility of executing the social responsibility of government in
respect of educating the citizenry is a cost centre. Thus the nature of budget expected
of her is activity based budget. Horngren et el (1997) note that activity based budget
focuses on the cost of activities necessary to produce the required or anticipated
product or services using cause-to-effect criterion to identify the cost drivers. This
implies that the value chain that will be generated by ministry of education in the
actualization of the National Policy on education depends largely on how articulate,
effective and focused her activity based budget is crafted, implemented and her
ability to identify more accurately the cost drivers.
In the context of this paper, budget is a critical tool that benchmarks Vocational
education for sustainable national development. It controls the extent to which policy,
aims and objectives can go no mater the loftiness of the policies and the zeal of the
staff. The activities of the ministry of education is onerous and require mastery and
understanding the nitty gritty concept, principles of budgeting, implementation and
control to effectuate the intent/philosophy of vocational education which is skills
development for sustainability and development of the society.
Challenges of vocational Education in the Sustainability of national Development
Challenges of vocational education in the sustainability of national development are
paraphrased thus:
(i) Ambitious and inconsistent educational policies with successive administration
jettisoning or selfishly amending existing policies no matter the loftiness of the
policies ostensibly for ego reason or orchestrated by political expediencies.
(ii) Erratic (unfriendly) learning environment orchestrated by political expediencies, poor
infrastructures, learning materials, inadequate teachers to meet international best
practices relative to teacher students ratio.
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(iii) Unethical recruitment processes and procedures in which politics, god fatherism, high
tech corruption and weak or mortified values are suspects. The resultant effect being
recruiting incompetent teachers that lack the required aptitude, passion and the
required skills for the job. Admission of students suffers similar maladies to the
extent that students at the end feel academically alienated with no passion to learn
and some acquiesced criminality instead-eg cultism, rape, examination malpractices.
(iv) Poor financing of education occasioned by government’s decimated budgetary
allocation which falls far below global best practices (ie. UNESCO standard). As a
consequence most of the policies, aims and objectives as laid out in the National
Policy on Education are frustrated or jettisoned.
(v) Poor motivation of teachers relative to salaries, benefits, timely payment of retirement
benefits, absence of health scheme, housing scheme to mention but a few. The
resultant effect of all these are low productivity, lack of commitment to duty, lack of
creativity and betrayal of the value system.
The Way Forward
In the light of the afore-stated challenges, the following are proffered to mitigate the
situation:
(i) Nigeria educational policy need to be realistic, precise with a gestation period long
enough for the realization of its aims and objectives. It needs to be organic enough to
carry along the interest of the masses instead of being elitist in nature. Besides, it
should not be subjected to political manipulations.
(ii) Nigeria government should make adequate budgetary provision for education relative
to international best practices. Staff need to be trained on basic facets of budgeting
and data for the budget generated from bottom-up with managers of various cost
centres adequately involved in the exercise.
(iii) Rejuvenation of our core values and that of the society to elicit patriotism, self
consciousness, self esteem and self efficacy as a means to abhor corruption and other
negative tendencies.
(iv) Our primary school system and the teachers should receive priority attention, un-
reservedly cared for and the curriculum organic enough to elicit core values of the
society.
(v) Enhanced supervision and evaluation of the school activities passionately pursued to
check vices inimical to the well being of the education system.
Conclusion
Vocational education is a non-ego involving occupation which the society depends
for its continued sustainability and development. To benchmark it (Vocational education) is
to entrench and sustain total quality culture that will kindle innate desire in people to use
their ingenuity and initiative to create and improve value chain activities critical for the
sustainability and development of the society (nation).
The many challenges that decimate the intent of benchmarking vocational education for
sustainability of national development include among others ambitious and inconsistent
national policy on education, erratic learning environment, unethical recruitment processes
and procedures, poor funding of education, poor/hiccupped motivation of teachers. To
mitigate these challenges require definite and determined political will by government,
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rejuvenation of core values of the society and tackling corruption head-on. Benchmarking
vocational education is critical to the sustainability of national developments.
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Science Education Benchmarks for Sustainable National Development
Dr. Sabbath Etim Udofia &
Asanga Godwin Christopher
Department of Science Education
Akwa Ibom State University
[email protected]/
[email protected]
07011757249 /08169085589
Abstract
For real change to take place the problem has to be identified, a solution that has worked
elsewhere also has to be administered. This birthed benchmarking as it is a wonderful
instrument to show us our stand in relation to the standard. This paper investigated science
education benchmarks for sustainable national development. It aimed to determine the
problems of science education in Nigeria and the areas to be benchmarked to achieve
sustainable national development. The respondents were students, of the 200 sampled, 50
responded. The instrument used was a questionnaire. The Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyse the data. It was found that the major reason for
benchmarking is for development, and one of the areas to be benchmarked for sustainable
national development is the quality of staff. It was recommended that the curriculum ought to
be personalized rather than standardized, also to learn from the leading countries in terms of
science education on how we can better our system.
Key words: Benchmarking, Science Education, Standard, Sustainable Development.
Introduction
Benchmarking has been used as tool, a methodology and a technique for continuous
improvements in sectorial operations to gain and maintain competitive advantage.
Participating in benchmarking has promoted a culture of thinking about quality, assessing
one’s own performance and taking responsibility for it. Depending on how excellent, good,
bad or indifferent an organization’s operations are, it determines the direction, urgency and
priorities for a sound base of appetite for change and for continuous drive to enhance quality
(Magutu P. O, Mbeche I. M, Nyamwange S. O and Nyaoga R. B, 2011). At its simplest
competitive performance standard, it would consist of merely judging whether the achieved
performance of an operation is better than, the same or worse than that of its competitors
(Norman, 2001).
The success of benchmarking, however, is largely due to more than its ability to set
performance standards and enable organizations to copy one another. It is essentially about
emulating, creativity and innovation (Cartin, 2000). The essence of benchmarking is learning
from others understanding of whom and the benchmarking partners performance level both
for comparison and for registering improvements, comparison of performance levels, levels
of processes and practices to meet the obligation of making improvements on continual basis
and improving efficiency with respect to best practices (Dewhurst, 1999).
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The Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) provides
information about effective educational practice in community colleges and assists
institutions in using that information to promote improvements in student learning and
persistence. Established in 2001 as part of the Community College Leadership Program at the
University of Texas at Austin, US CCSSE’s goal is to provide member colleges with results
that can be used to inform decision-making and target institutional improvement. In 2003,
CCSSE introduced a set of five benchmarks of effective educational practice. These are
active and collaborative learning, student effort, academic challenge, student-faculty
interaction and support for learners. In the Nigerian system of learning, a small measure of
these “effective educational practice” is actually seen. There is little room for collaborative
learning except when students actually study in groups to prepare for an examination. It is
not used as a full-fleshed teaching strategy by teachers in science education, except in the
laboratories during titration experiments.
Support for learners is also lacking in our nations educational systems, government
schools which have a greater population of students have a large student to teacher ratio as
compared to private schools, yet these government schools do not have guidance and
counselling services for students. Student-faculty interactions is improving as students can
interact with their faculty and this has shown significant benefits to both students and their
respective faculties. The academic challenge on the other hand seems to go on the opposite
direction as the courses and curriculum become wider and students work keep increasing as
their performance rate decreases. Different teaching methods have been birthed and existing
strategies improved and enhanced in the effort to reduce the academic challenge and make
learning more interesting than challenging, yet significant results are not yet in. Student
effort has continued to fluctuate over the years, the circumstances surrounding the present
state of the system has influenced the effort of students in education, thus the continual
decline in performance.
Benchmarking performance against a national average, or against the average for
groups of similar institutions, is a useful starting point. Nevertheless, it does not push schools
to reach for excellence – this is to look past average scores when it comes to promoting
students learning and persistence. Unfortunately, many national averages – whether for
student faculty interaction or for graduation rates – are generally not at the level where they
need to be (McClenney, 2004). Thus, Community College educators must continually ask a
series of courageous questions. Is our current performance good enough? Is the national
average good enough? How good for that matter is good enough? We should make the most
important comparison of all: How are we performing now compared to how we want to be?
By benchmarking against our own baseline performance, we can pursue a commitment to
continuous improvements over time (Community College Survey of Student Engagement
(CCSSE), 2003).
Statement of the Problem
Business Post (2017) states that Nigeria is the number one country of origin for
international students from Africa: it sends the most students overseas of any country on the
African continent, and outbound mobility numbers are growing at a rapid pace. According to
data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS), the number of Nigerian students abroad
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increased by 164percent in the decade between 2005 and 2015 alone – from 26,997 to
71,351. Due to colonial ties and a shared language, the United Kingdom has long been the
preferred destination for Nigerian students overseas with numbers booming in recent years.
Some 17,973 Nigerian students studied in the UK in 2015. In line with a general shift
towards regionalization in African student mobility, Nigerian students in recent years have
been increasingly studying in countries on the African continent itself. Ghana has recently
overtaken the U.S as the second-most popular destination country, attracting 13,919 Nigerian
students in 2015, according to the data provided by the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS)
(Business Post, 2017, para. 5). Nigerian students are currently the 14th largest group among
foreign students in the United States, and contributed an estimated USD $324 million to the
U.S economy in 2015/16. Engineering, business, physical sciences, and health related fields
continually rank as the most popular fields of study among Nigerian students enrolled at U.S
universities.
Most of the students that leave the country to other nations to study go to study
science. Science education in other countries seems to be growing more rapidly than ours.
This begs the question: what are they doing that we are not? Nigerians spent a cumulative of
about USD $324 million on the U.S economy according to UIS this is very close to the
budget allocation of Nigeria on education in 2015. This goes without saying; Nigerians need
to invest in Nigeria. For sustainable national development to be acquired a bulk load is on the
education of its citizens, in the most educated countries , education is given much attention
and even taken as priority, they continue to prosper and make giant strides towards prosperity
and of course national development. These countries have minimum standards and they
continue to improve and increase their minimum standards as a result of benchmarking and
this causes them to improve and grow at a consistent rate upwards. The questions to be asked
are what are they benchmarking? What processes do they take to perform this benchmarking
activity? How often do they carry out this activity? Who or what body is responsible for
carrying out these activities. In addition, what do they do with the findings?
Most Nigerian schools and institutions do not benchmark education, thus, cannot
grow. The few that do, fail to implement the recommendations from the findings. This puts
many speed bumps in the road to sustainable national development, which slows down and
can even cause a potential breakdown or stagnation, which seems to be the case in the
country right now. For the nation to grow, some measures have to be taken now to increase
the chances of empowering the growing population. The United Nations anticipates that
Nigeria will be the third largest nation in the world in 2050 with about 399million people
(World Population Prospects, 2015). This means more responsibility, thus, if we do not solve
the problem now it would become cumbersome and almost unsolvable in the years to come.
Thus, this research was carried out in line with fulfilling the expectations of Nigerians to be
better and even compete with the best in a few years to come.
Purpose of the Study
The specific purpose of the study was to:
1. Determine the problems of science education in Nigeria and the areas to be
benchmarked to achieve sustainable national development.
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2. Determine benchmarking processes, practices and tools used by the developed
countries to predict the future higher education situation based on continuous
improvement, quality and competitiveness.
Research Questions
1. What are the problems of science education in Nigeria and the areas to be
benchmarked to achieve sustainable national development?
2. What are the benchmarking processes, practices and tools used by the developed
countries to predict the future higher education situation based on continuous
improvement, quality and competitiveness?
Methodology
This study was limited to the tertiary institutions. The case study research design was
chosen because the purpose of the study required an in-depth understanding and information
about the subject matter. The study constituted some of the tertiary institutions in Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria. The population of the study was 25,000 students, and sample was made up of
200 students from three institutions. The questionnaire was developed and distributed; the
items were in both closed and open-ended type. The close-ended questionnaire aimed at
obtaining responses while the open-ended bit gave flexibility for the respondents to answer
(Magutu et al, 2011), due to the nature of the questionnaire the respondents were given two
days so that they supply accurate and true information to the questions. About 50 students
responded to the questionnaire, Rosco (1975) proposes a rule of the thumb for determining a
sample size and says that a size of 30 to 500 is appropriate for most researches. The items in
the instrument were adapted from the literature review mainly from the study conducted by
Magutu et al (2011) to assist in the collection of primary data. Some lecturers in the Faculty
of Education, Akwa Ibom State University, validated the instrument. The reliability was
found to be 0.88.
The data in the closed end question type was analysed using the statistical package for
social sciences (SPSS). The responses from the open-ended questions were checked
thoroughly so to obtain trends and patterns.
Results and discussion of findings
How are benchmarking practices carried out in your department?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid YES 29 54.7 58.0 58.0
NO 21 39.6 42.0 100.0
Missing Total 50 94.3 100.0
Total System
3 5.7
53 100.0
58% of respondents indicated that benchmarking processes are carried out in their
department, while 42% disagreed. For growth to be observed and development seen, there
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has to be a constant supply of supplements and conditions to support growth and
development has to be improved continually. Just a little above average indicated that these
practices are carried out in their institutions, thus a lot can be done to improve science
education in the country.
Major reason of benchmarking in your department
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
12.0
Good grades 6 11.3 12.0 16.0
44.0
Improvement of school ranking 2 3.8 4.0
100.0
Valid Accreditation 14 26.4 28.0
Development 28 52.8 56.0
Total 50 94.3 100.0
Missing System 3 5.7
Total 53 100.0
From this we can see that in our institution the major reason for carrying out
benchmarking practices is for development (56%), but the question is how much of that
development have we seen over the years? So, are the results of benchmarking practices
implemented, or are they just dumped and not used? Clearly, this has not helped us grow or
develop and thus we have to work on our ability to implement the results and findings of
these activities. Who is in-charge of implementing the results of these practices? And who
checkmates the body that is in charge of implementing these practices? For effective and
sustainable growth and development we have to create checks and balance system.
Areas to benchmarked to achieve world class status
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
28.0
Quality of Staff 14 26.4 28.0 54.0
78.0
Method of learning 13 24.5 26.0
100.0
Valid Facilities 12 22.6 24.0
Curriculum 11 20.8 22.0
Total 50 94.3 100.0
Missing System 3 5.7
Total 53 100.0
The responses from this question showed a particular kind of relationship that proves
the inter-relatedness of each criteria. 28% indicated quality of staff, 26% method of learning,
24% facilities and 22% curriculum. Clearly more effort has to be put into the quality of staff
across all institutions. The World Economic Forum (2016) rates Finland the country with the
best education system in the world. One of the outstanding characteristics of their system is
that all teachers in primary school have a master’s degree in education with specialization in
research and classroom practice. This quality rises up their ranks to the college and university
levels. This kind of policies can shape the quality of staff and other areas.
The most common learning experience
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100% of the respondents’ ranked school based learning as the most common learning
experience against distance learning and online learning. Other nations of the world have
improved the learning experience in their schools, not just to foster a better relationship
between the students and the teacher but also to increase research and development as well as
lower the finances involved in education like travel and other associated expenses. Learning
has become online based as students can receive lectures and be assessed online in the portals
of the institutions.
Enrolment of foreign students
98% of the respondents indicated that there are no foreign students in their
institutions. This goes without saying that the standard, system and means of learning of
science is very poor in Nigeria. This is the reason for the continual decline in the nation’s
ability to attract foreign students.
Teaching and learning media used most by the university
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
marker/chalk and board 30 56.6 60.0 60.0
Valid overhead projectors 10 18.9 20.0 80.0
computers 10 18.9 20.0 100.0
Total 50 94.3 100.0
Missing System 3 5.7
Total 53 100.0
60% indicated marker/chalk and board method, this method is first limited and also
traditional and cannot fulfil the objectives of science education as specified in the National
Policy on Education (NPE, 2004). 20% of respondents indicated the use of overhead
projector while another 20% indicated the use of computers. The National Policy on
Education (NPE, 2004) emphasizes the need for teaching and learning of science processes
and principles. The policy recommends practical, exploratory and experimental methods of
teaching. In this guard, Okebukola (2004) stated that the basic tools that science uses in the
learning of science processes are the instructional materials. This suggests that to learn
science, the teaching and learning media used is very significant. According to section 12
(105) of the National Policy on Education (2004), “in order that these functions (planning,
administration and supervision) may be discharged efficiently, a cadre of qualified staff is
required in adequate numbers and quality at the different operational levels by the local, state
and federal levels.” Institutions of higher learning need to adapt to international and of course
national standards of learning in order to achieve leading results, this include using state of
the art facilities and learning media and tools.
How university academic programmes compare to others globally
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Excellent 2 3.8 4.0 4.0
Good 24 45.3 48.0 52.0
Valid Fair 20 37.7 40.0 92.0
Bad 4 7.5 8.0 100.0
Total 50 94.3 100.0
Missing System 3 5.7
Total 53 100.0
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From the above results, it shows that the academic programmes available in the
nation’s system do not compare favourably well with others globally. Only 4% of
respondents indicated excellent, majority indicated 48% good and 40% fair. Academic
programmes are the instruments where learning comes and thus is very important in a
functional academic environment, the design of academic programmes affect the creative,
innovative and manipulative abilities in students.
The external and internal drivers of change in the university
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
students performance 32 60.4 64.0 64.0
Valid monitoring systems 4 7.5 8.0 72.0
Lecturers 14 26.4 28.0 100.0
Total 50 94.3 100.0
Missing System 3 5.7
Total 53 100.0
The responses showed that 64% indicated student’s performance, 28% lecturers, and 4%
indicated monitoring systems as the internal driver of change in the school.
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
40
Government 10 75.5 80.0 80.0
Community 50
Valid Total 3 18.9 20.0 100.0
System 53
Missing 94.3 100.0
Total
5.7
100.0
80% of respondents indicated the government is the external driver of change in the
university and 20% opposed indicating the community. Threats to any organization come
from outside and may influence greatly the scope and course of action. There is a need,
therefore, to scan the external environment and establish what exactly dictates change
(Jackson, 2000).
Possible benchmark to improve the teaching and learning of science education
The respondents were asked to suggest possible solutions to Nigeria’s science
education problems. Some of the suggestions include; improved e-learning facilities, more
excursions, small classroom size and more teachers, peer tutoring and group learning, more
facilities, online learning, students centred methods of teaching, increased salaries of
lecturers at least to the rate their fellows receive in companies and industries. All lecturers
should be computer learned; improvement of curriculum, workshops should be made so that
even at leisure times students can go and work in the workshops and thus making learning a
habit, verbal learning should be matched with practical to enhance learning. From the above
it is quite clear the areas that we are lacking and what should be done.
Changes that can bring about national development
The respondents in summary stated that the method of employing teachers should be
toughened to allow only qualified teachers, test and exams should be reduced to the barest
minimum, and the number of years spent in the university should be reduced. One of the
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areas that received particular attention was the issue of funding. The United Nations states
that for a nation to grow and register significant development, it has to spread at least 26% of
their national budget on education. The table below shows the percentage of Nigeria’s budget
allocation to education since independence:
Nigeria’s Budget Allocation from 1960-2017
YEAR ALLOCATION AS % OF YEAR ALLOCATION AS % OF
NATIONAL BUDGET NATIONAL BUDGET
1960 6.02 1989 3.55
1961 6.15 1990 2.83
1962 5.19 1991 1.09
1963 3,45 1992 3.86
1964 3.65 1993 5.62
1965 3.57 1994 7.13
1966 4.23 1995 7.20
1967 4.88 1996 12.23
1968 2.84 1997 17.59
1969 2.20 1998 10.27
1970 0.69 1999 11.12
1971 0.53 2000 8.36
1972 0.62 2001 7.00
1973 0.88 2002 5.90
1974 2.96 2003 1.83
1975 4.57 2004 10.5
1976 8.71 2005 9.30
1977 3.12 2006 11.00
1978 11.44 2007 8.09
1979 3.70 2008 13.00
1980 4.95 2009 6.54
1981 6.45 2010 6.40
1982 8.09 2011 1.69
1983 4.04 2012 10.00
1984 4.49 2013 8.70
1985 3.79 2014 10.60
1986 2.69 2015 9.50
1987 1.93 2016 6.09
1988 2.40 2017 6.14
Source: Central Bank of Nigeria (2015) statistical bulletin and information from
www.nigeria.gov.com
This shows a clear negligence from the federal government on education. The 2017
federal government budget is about N7.441trillion, a total of about N485B has been allocated
to education. Out of this, only N50B will be spent on capital projects such as facilities and
other very important projects that can bring about development of education, and the rest on
recurrent expenditures. In the 2017 national budget, approximately 0.182% of the GDP was
allocated to education, compared to Norway and Ireland who according to the United Nations
Human Development Report in Education Index spent 6.6% and 6.2% of their GDP on
education respectively. Thus, how can a country that spends bulk of its money on paying
salaries rather than improving standards grow?
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What is your idea of an effective classroom experience and is this similar to your
current classroom experience?
The responses from the respondents can be summarized as; an effective classroom
experience is when the teacher is able to manage the classroom with ethics, using necessary
instructional materials like videos to help improve retention rates. Others said a round class
discussion would enhance learning and confidence in students, others suggested the use of
mnemonics to enhance learning experience. Ninety-eight percent of the respondents
indicated that their idea of an effective classroom is not their current classroom experience.
What is Nigeria missing in the attempt to make science education more
intriguing?
Ninety percent of the respondents indicated that Nigeria should incorporate
technology in their lessons and learning processes. Thus, teachers should be trained to use
technologies in their lessons. Utmost priority should be given Training and maintenance of
staff.
The respondents were asked to perform a rank of the most respected profession in
Nigeria. The listed professions were Teacher, Lawyer, Medical Doctor, Pilot and Engineer,
on average the Medical Doctor was ranked 1st, the Engineer 2nd, the Lawyer 3rd, the Pilot 4th
and the Teacher was unsurprisingly ranked 5th. This by far shows that the teaching profession
is not of high reputation in the country. The respondents were also asked to rank their
university, 80% of the rankings received turned out to be lower than the actual rankings of
these various institutions.
Conclusion
In summary, the areas to be benchmarked are funding, quality of teachers, method of
learning, facilities, the curriculum, e-learning facilities to mention a few. Sustainable national
development therefore clings on these.
Recommendations
The focus of this research turned to countries that are handling some of these areas
effectively, we can learn from these nations. The following were recommended:
1. Research facilities should be built in the universities across the country to encourage
the spirit of research and innovation that will by no little means affect the general
growth of science education in the country.
2. The focus on education should be more personalised than it is standardized. The
personal needs of the students should be considered and they should be taught based
on their interest as such the curriculum should be flexible to adjust to students need
and not standardized (making students adjust to it).
3. The federal government should contribute their bit in funding and ensure to meet the
UN’s benchmark for education expenditure of at least 25% of the national budget.
4. Teacher training institutes should incorporate ICT facilities to make our teachers
more alive to the changes in the world. Workshops and training programs should be
held every quarter by the state ministries of education to raise teacher competency.
5. Private corporations should collaborate more with institutions to yield better
partnerships and birth innovations and better student’s industrial experience that will
be valuable to their future as professionals.
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Validity of Standard-Setting Methods: Public Examinations for
Sustainable National Development
Abdul-Wahab IBRAHIM (PhD)
Department of Education, Faculty of Education
Sule Lamido University, Kafin-Hausa
Jigawa State, Nigeria
[email protected]
Tel: +2348033438023
Abstract
Public examinations are usually national or regional examinations, and are taken at the
end of a specific course or educational level, and are external by design. By their nature,
they tend to regulate educational opportunity and vocational choice. This study
examined the validity of standard-setting pattern of fixing grade awarded in public
examinations. These were with a view to benchmarking stable procedure in public
examinations. Thus, the study clarified some concepts and made brief description of
existing standards and guidelines against which quality is judged using grades awarded
framework. The study revealed that marks fixed for grades showed deviations from
subject to subject and from year to year. Also, it was reported that the same cut-off marks
for candidates seeking admission to different higher institutions are wrong when the
duration and contents of their courses are different. It was concluded that pattern of
standard fixing and grade awards is adequate for the purpose of identifying candidates
and level of their attainment in Senior Secondary Certificate Examination subjects.
However, the current policy of adopting 180 as the uniform cut-off point for admission
into higher institutions lacked fairness and equity in testing.
Keywords: Validity, cut-off marks, standard fixing, grade awarded, fairness and equity
Introduction
Formal examinations involving written answers to a series of prepared questions date
back to the 2nd Century B.C. when the Chinese used them to select recruits to their civil
service. Today, formal examinations have become regular in universities, schools, and
other educational institutions. Irrespective of the form they take, i.e., whether written,
oral or practical, or a combination of two or three forms, one very important purpose of
examinations is for certification. They provide evidence that a person has achieved a
specified standard of attainment. Thus, public examinations provide a systematic process
of determining the effectiveness of educational endeavours and the degree of
achievement of a student in his course of study. They provide the awareness as to what
extent the educational objectives are actually being realised by the programme
curriculum and instruction. They enable educators to find out how far learning
experiences, as developed and organised, have actually produced the desired results in the
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students, with a view to noting in what respect the curriculum is effective and in what
respect it needs improvement.
In the Nigerian context, evaluation agencies, which also act as examining bodies, are
tasked with maintaining a common standard in the development and administration of
public examinations. According to Faleye and Afolabi (2005), evaluation agencies were
set up to promote education, to co-ordinate educational programmes, and to control and
monitor the quality of education in educational institutions, the essence of which is the
organization of public examinations so as to provide uniform standards to all test takers,
irrespective of the type or method of instruction they have received. Some of these
examination bodies in Nigeria include the West African Examinations Council (WAEC),
the National Examinations Council (NECO), the Joint Admission and Matriculation
Board (JAMB), and the National Business and Technical Examinations Board
(NABTEB). A closer look at the operations of these boards reveals that some of them
perform similar functions. WAEC, NECO and NABTEB, for instance, all conduct
secondary school graduate certification, although in the case of NABTEB, the
examination is intended for graduates of Nigerian Technical and Vocational Colleges.
The assemblage of subject examinations conducted by these examining bodies is known
as the Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations (SSCE) and serves as an end-
of-course evaluation for all secondary school graduates. The purpose of this examination
is to ascertain to what degree students in a particular course have achieved the course or
educational objectives (Zubayr & Ibrahim, 2016).
According to Ibrahim (2015), in view of the economic and social importance attached
to senior secondary school certificates, and the opportunities for higher education for
those who possess such certificates, the awarding of this certificate is one of the most
important events in the Nigerian academic calendar. Thus, much is expected from
certificate examining and awarding bodies in terms of ensuring that the spirit and focus of
the examinations is not misplaced. Despite its significance in testing and the educational
system, the procedure of standard setting is often seen as arbitrary because little
consensus is often reached on the best choice of procedures, and the results of standard
setting cannot be easily validated by post hoc test. In addition to producing defensible
and valid performance standards by selecting an appropriate method and following the
rigorous procedural guidelines, some scholars (Soriyan, 2002; Kalgo, 2005; Ukwuegbu,
2007) suggested that the results of the standard setting should be evaluated in a validity
framework. Also, these scholars suggested that performance standards be set in line with
the design model of the assessment so that the tests could be developed on the targeted
constructs and created to fit the standard.
On standard fixing at SSCE by West African Examination Council (WAEC), the first
consideration is to note that subjects for the SSCE have different features, each having its
own realm of meaning and forms of knowledge distinct from others. The SSCE is a
public examination and from every indication a norm-referenced test (Ibrahim, 2015).
Similarly, Berk (2006) claimed that most public examinations (including SSCE) are
norm-referenced tests and that the raw scores from such examinations are almost
meaningless. Usually, raw scores need further treatment before they are ready for
consumption. This treatment is usually referred to as standardization. Furthermore, the 9
numerical scales (A1 to F9) which are used to report performance in the SSCE have been
in use for a very long time and were used for reporting the school certificate and GCE
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“O” Level examinations prior 1988. The use of this scale for SSCE seems adequate more
so in terms of value as there is not much difference between the GCE Ordinary Level and
SSCE except for the beefing up of the contents of the syllabus. The SSCE performs the
same function as GCE “O” Level; for example, preparation for world of work and tertiary
education (Berk, 2006).
Most importantly, Adeyegbe and Daramola (2004) observed that determination of
subject grades was highly subjective and unstatistical because most of the required
statistics of performance were hardly produced for award meetings. It could be argued
that grades awarded in a manner reported upon above could lead to wrong placement of
students and create in their minds a wrong impression of their results and ability in the
subjects. When such students are placed in a course which demands high intellectual
abilities, they may not be able to cope. The public then starts to point accusing fingers,
while in reality; the examinations wrongly graded or measured their abilities.
The simplest conclusion to a lay man is that there is a fall in standard of education.
Educators and members of the general public are concerned that the educational system
should provide students with best possible education. Generally, the public remains
unconcerned with how this is accomplished as long as it is accomplished. Educators,
however, must deal continually with the means by which schools attempt to provide the
best possible education. The increased government expenditure on education within the
last decade justifies this expectation from the public. It should be noted nonetheless that
the essence of WAEC‟s activity as an examining body is to ascertain whether curriculum
objectives derivable from the syllabus are being or have been achieved after the students
have gone through it. Of the many uses of examinations identified by Ahmann and Glook
(2014), three are relevant to this paper. Examinations are used to: (i) Appraise the
academic achievement of individual students; (ii) Appraise the educational effectiveness
of a curriculum, instructional materials and procedures, and organizational arrangement;
and (iii) assess the educational progress of large populations so as to help understand
educational problems and develop sound public policy in education.
From the foregoing, it is pertinent that our searchlight should go beyond public
examinations and focus on virtually all the inputs that go into education. This means that
a whole myriad of factors – educational objectives, curricula, instructional materials,
facilities, staffing, teaching methods, and a host of others, have to be x-rayed so that we
can find a solution to this national malaise. Against this backdrop, it is hoped this study
might contribute to the present debate on the maintenance of standards and would also
provide the subject award Committees of all public examinations bodies in the country
with additional evidence to be taken into account when standards are being fixed at both
the ordinary and at Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examinations (UTME) levels.
Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the validity of standard-setting pattern of
fixing grade awards in public examinations. These were with a view to benchmarking
stable procedure in public examinations. Thus, the study clarified some concepts and
made brief description of existing standards and guidelines against which quality is
judged using grade awards framework.
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African Journal of Educational Assessors (AJEA) is a multidisciplinary international, pear reviewed journal published three (3) times a year by the Forum of Educational Benchmarkers in Nigeria. This journal promotes the exchange of ideas by bringing together academics/researchers across the globe. As research has become increasingly interdisciplinary, the essence of a multidisciplinary journal is to show the inter-relatedness of academic disciplines through research. AJEA maintains an open access policy. The decisive criterion for accepting a manuscript for publication is scientific quality.
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