All About History Book of History Year By Year

403–381 BCE

Amphipolis THRACE Byzantium The Great AFTER ITS VICTORY IN THE (r.404–358BCE). Cyrus was
422 Sea of Marmara Peloponnesian War PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta defeated and killed at the Battle
Abdera The period of 431 to found itself embroiled in a quarrel of Cunaxa in 401BCE, but in its
Pella Thasos 404 BCE saw the with Persia over whether the aftermath some 10,000 Greek
destruction of the Ionian Greek cities should regain mercenaries were left trapped in
Spartolus Thasos Cyzicus Athenian Empire at the their autonomy. Through the northern Mesopotamia. Under
Acanthus Aegospotami Lampsacus 410 hands of a coalition of 390sBCE, sporadic fighting and Xenophon, the Greeks marched
Methone 429 Sparta and its allies. abortive peace talks diverted to the Black Sea coast and
405 Sparta from a weakening position safety near Trapezus (Trabzon
Potidaea KEY in mainland Greece. The “King’s in modern-day Turkey), a feat
Athenian Empire Peace”, a definitive treaty with their commander immortalized
Lemnos Cynossema PHRYGIA Athenian ally Persia in 386BCE, deprived the in his book Anabasis.
411 Sparta and allied states Ionians of autonomy but allowed
Dodecane neutral territory the Spartans to quash any threats In Italy, the Romans widened
Corcyra EPIRUS THESSALY PERSIAN Athenian victory to its supremacy. In 385BCE, they their territory and annexed the
Spartan victory attacked Mantinea in the central city of Veii in 396BCE, whose
Ambracia Aegean Lesbos EMPIRE Peloponnese and in 382BCE submission represented the end
Sea Mitylene occupied Thebes. Spartan power of any Etruscan threat. However,
Arginusae seemed unassailable. c.390BCE, an army of Celts, who
had been attacking the Etruscan
Leucas 406 In Persia, the death of Darius II city of Clusium, turned south,
(r.423–404BCE) was followed by a defeated a Roman army at the
Cephallenia Delium Chalcis Phocaea brief civil war, when Cyrus the Battle of the Allia, and then took
Zacynthus 424 Eretria Younger tried to overthrow his Rome itself. This disaster haunted
Delphi Chios IONI A older brother Artaxerxes II the Romans for centuries.
Gulf of Corinth Thebes Euboea Ephesus
Notium
ACHAEA 407 CARIA
Corinth
Mantinea Argos Athens Andros

418 Epidaurus Miletus

Peloponnese Cyclades

Sphacteria Pylos Sparta

425 Melos se Cnidus

Cythera Rhodes
Lindus

2,800 Spartans 7,000 18,500 30,000 Spartans

ATHENIANS ATHENIANS BOEOTIANS ATHENIANS
420
3,000

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425 BCE BATTLE OF DELIUM 424 BCE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415 413 BCE

in 416BCE by capturing Melos – the in Athens was briefly overthrown. In Magadha in India the
only main Aegean island not in Democracy was restored the Haryanka dynasty founded by
its possession – but fatally following year, and, though the Bimbisara was replaced c.413BCE
over-reached itself in 415BCE with Athenians won victories at Cyzicus
an expedition to Sicily, ending in in 410BCE and Arginusae in 406BCE, after the death of Ajatashatru
the total destruction of the the total destruction of their (c.459BCE) and a series of
Athenian force by the Syracusans fleet at Aegospotami off Ionia in ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
in 413BCE. The Spartans, 405BCE left Athens defenceless. founded a new dynasty, which
meanwhile, established a fort at The Spartans blockaded the city, was responsible for overseeing
Decelea in Attica, which denied and, despite a determined the final transfer of the Magadha
the Athenians access to the rich resistance, the Athenians were royal capital to Pataliputra.
silver mines. An alliance with forced to surrender. Athens was The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
Persia further strengthened deprived of its fleet and in 404BCE only 500 years.
Sparta’s position in 412BCE, and a a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty
year later the democratic regime was installed to govern it. Etruscan tomb painting
The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
frescoes in their tombs that much has been learnt of their culture.

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53

51

700BCE 599CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

plain boss connected circular plate at base
with sliding catch of buckle tongue
on backplate
animal interlace
picked out in circles

Sutton Hoo buckle

Sutton Hoo buckle bird’s head central interlace animal interlace with
Made of solid gold and decorated with an in profile pattern a biting head and tail
interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon
Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th-
century ship burial in East Anglia, England.

Prehistory Copper ore c.1500–1200 BCE Shang c.900 BCE–100 CE Weapon heads c.100–700
Use of copper ore Refinement of cauldron Anglo-Saxon
In western Iran and Using iron
Anatolia, copper ore is bronze casting Ironworking spreads metalworking
ground or beaten into New techniques are from western Anatolia, The Anglo-Saxons
shape to make small developed for casting reaching Greece around bring a new level
objects such as beads. and adorning bronze 900 BCE and West Africa of sophistication to
vessels, such as about 400 BCE, enabling metalworking, often
decorating them by stronger tools and using animal forms
beating on the inside. weapons to be made. as decoration.

2600–2400 BCE Sumerian copper bull c.1500–30 BCE c.640–500 BCE Greek coin
Use of beaten Purifying gold Metal as money
copper plate The ancient Egyptians learn how Metal coins (made of an
Early copper smelting to separate pure gold from silver alloy of gold and silver)
methods are refined, in around 1500 BCE and begin to are first used in Lydia (in
allowing the beating use it more extensively for present-day Turkey) around
of copper while still decorative purposes. 640 BCE. The ancient Greeks
hot into more adopt the idea and spread it
complex shapes. Funeral mask of around the Mediterranean.
Tutankhamun

54 2168//0055//22001111 1149::3339

52

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53

2167/2/00656//0/22500/121101111142:1:35436:33

380–371 BCE 370–356 BCE

A carving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo I, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods, The ruins of Thebes, Greece’s
dominant city-state in the 360sBCE.
including the crocodile-headed Sobek.
ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS
EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM 150 brokered a general peace in
Persian control after the revolt Greece in 371BCE, the Thebans did
of Amyrtaeus, who founded the not participate. Thebes built up a
28th Dynasty in 404BCE. However, coalition of allies and invaded
Sparta in 370–369BCE. As a result,
the Persians had not given up on COUPLES Messenia was finally detached
Egypt. Nectanebo I established from Spartan control, but further
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in FORMED Theban success was hampered by
380BCE. He was able to repel a the temporary deposition of
Epaminondas, who was tried for
force sent by the Persians and THE ELITE alarmed enough to revive the Temple of Thoth allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
their Greek allies in 373BCE. MILITARY UNIT Theban alliance and try to Situated at Hermopolis in Upper in exchange for a bribe. Once
Persia was diverted from further THE SACRED Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates Epaminondas was back in control,
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by BAND OF from the New Kingdom but was the Thebans won Persian backing
the Great Rebellion of the THEBES renovated in the 4th century BCE. for their anti-Spartan alliance in
Satraps in the 360sBCE. This 367BCE, and a further invasion of
rebellion was partially aggravated Dionysius I (402–367BCE), who the Peloponnese in 366BCE gained
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of fought the third in a series of wars recruits for the Theban coalition.
against the Carthaginians from 383 However, Theban successes relied
Nectanebo I, in Persian-ruled establish a Second Athenian to 375BCE. At first, the war went too narrowly on the personality of
badly for Dionysius, whose fleet one man, and when Epaminondas
Palestine from 361–360BCE. Confederacy in opposition to was wrecked in a storm.
Carthaginian efforts to mount an Ancient theatre
Nectanebo II (r.360–343BCE) into the Nile Delta region in Sparta. In 375BCE the Thebans, expedition to Sicily were hampered The Odeon was a temple built in the
by plague in 379BCE and a revolt by town of Messene, which was founded
succeeded Nectanebo I, and 343BCE, and Egypt was defeated Athenians, and Spartans signed a subject cities in Libya, so that it by Epaminondas of Thebes in 367BCE.
was only in 377BCE that an army
continued to meddle in the Persian within two years. Now under “Common Peace”, but it broke was landed. Dionysius, who had
been campaigning against
civil wars. In an ill-judged Persian rule, Egypt was never down almost immediately. The Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
returned to Sicily and crushed
intervention in 346BCE, he sent again ruled by a native dynasty. Thebans then took the offensive, Mago’s force – 10,000 are said to
have died. Dionysius allowed the
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon In Greece, the Spartan aided by a new elite force of citizen remnants to slip away, and they
regrouped and returned the
(Lebanon). In response, occupation of Thebes, which had soldiers, the Sacred Band, which following year under Mago’s son
Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
Artaxerxes III of Persia marched begun in 382BCE, was short-lived. consisted of 150 male couples. The to the Syracusans. Both sides were
war-weary and in 375BCE made
In 379BCE, the Spartan polemarch Sacred Band supplemented the peace, leaving Dionysius in
possession of most of eastern
(governor) of Thebes was mercenaries who largely fought Sicily and parts of southern Italy.

assassinated, and the Thebans Greek city-states’ wars by this

11,000 drove out the Spartan garrison period. Theban attempts to
with the aid of two Athenian conquer the region of Phocis and

SPARTANS generals who arrived on their own retain dominance in Boeotia
initiative to help. In retaliation, rankled with Sparta, and
9,000 the Spartans mounted an scuppered Athenian attempts to
expedition under King broker a peace in 372BCE. At
THEBANS AND Cleombrotus (r.380–371BCE). This Leuctra in 371BCE, the Theban
ALLIES expedition failed to retake Thebes, army under the general

but it so alarmed the Athenians Epaminondas fought a tactically

Battle of Leuctra that they executed one general and brilliant battle to smash the
At Leuctra in central Greece, the exiled the other, and temporarily Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s
Thebans exploited the tendency of abandoned the alliance with mercy just eight years before,
the Spartans to shift right by Thebes. The Spartans invaded Thebes was now the dominant
concentrating their attack on the left, the region of Boeotia in 378– power in Greece.
enabling them to defeat an enemy 377BCE but made little headway,
with larger numbers than theirs. although the Athenians were In Sicily, Syracuse continued to
flourish under the strong rule of

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371 BmCEaAktehepeneisgahcaetn-,dyeenSadpriancrogtanaflnict
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056-057_380-337BCEV2.indd 56

56

54

,,355–337 BCE

,,AN ARMY OF DEER LED BY A LION

IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER.

Attributed to Philip II, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

was killed in battle in 362BCE, IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382–336 BCE)
Theban power was rapidly eclipsed. Macedonia died and his successor,
Philip II (r.359–336BCE) began to Philip II reformed the
In India, the Nanda dynasty transform the position of what Macedonian army and forced
began its expansion in the had been regarded by other the Greek states to join a
370sBCE, and continued to expand Greeks as a very minor kingdom. League of Corinth under
In 357BCE, he made his first major Macedonian control. After his
88until it was able to take power from conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace. return to Macedonia, he took a
the Shishunaga in 345BCE. The He became involved in the Third new wife, Cleopatra, but was
Sacred War (356–346BCE), which stabbed to death at his wedding
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma THE AGE OF was fought over perceived feast, possibly on the orders of
Nanda conquered much of north violations by Sparta and Phocis of his son, Alexander the Great,
the sacred oracle at Delphi, using who stood to lose his position
India, building up a huge army. He MAGAPADMA this to cement his position as an if Cleopatra bore another heir.
operated an efficient NANDA AT important player in the power
administrative system with HIS DEATH politics of central Greece and the
centrally appointed tax collectors Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
and undertook irrigation works. strengthened his position in
Thessaly and became involved in
However, the deposition of Dhana petty disputes between the
city-states, as rival factions
Nanda in 321BCE was followed by Wei, followed by another defeat of turned either to him or to Athens
for support. In 340BCE open war
the absorption of the Nanda Wei at the battle of Shimen in broke out between Philip and the
Athenian-Theban alliance. Just
empire into the Mauryan empire. 364BCE led to Chu’s decline and the two years later, at Chaeronea in Athenians and annihilated the advantage of Rome’s exhausted
Boeotia, Philip defeated the Theban Sacred Band (see state to launch an attack. During
The state of Chu was the most shift eastwards of Wei’s royal 380–371BCE). Macedonian power the first year of the war, at a battle
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus in Greece was now unchallenged. near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
southerly of China’s Warring centre to Daliang. A rejuvenated Mausolus was the Persian satrap Decius Mus is said to have
(governor) of a region of south- Rome’s steady expansion in dedicated his body to the gods of
States, centred on the Middle Wei was strong enough to force the western Turkey. After his death in central Italy had caused alarm the underworld and then
353BCE his wife built a tomb for among her neighbours. This led to undertaken a suicidal charge
Yangzi river. Throughout the 5th rulers of four other Warring States him, which became one of a bitter six-year struggle with the against the Latin ranks which
the Seven Wonders of the town of Tibur from 360BCE, among turned the tide of battle in the
century BCE it annexed a number of to attend its court in 356BCE. Wei’s Ancient World. other conflicts. In 340BCE, a Roman’s favour. By 338BCE, the
general war broke out between Romans had defeated the Latin
states, becoming the dominant supremacy was short-lived, and Rome and the Latins, who League. The peace terms were
inhabited the modern region of favourable, with many Latins
power by 380BCE. In 366BCE a defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies being granted Roman citizenship.
Lazio around Rome. The The League was then dissolved,
resounding victory by the state of at Guiling in 353BCE and Maling in Romans had just emerged from and many of the former Latin
a war with the Samnites, a cities were absorbed into the
Qin against the armies of Hann and 341BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal. people who inhabited the Roman state, moving Rome
further towards complete
central Apennines, and dominance of central Italy.
the Latins took
In Peru, the Nazca culture
began around 350BCE. These
people created mysterious
geoglyphs, huge lines in the
desert creating animal and
abstract shapes, which cannot be
made out from the ground.

36S1ptBahCrceEtitaAPineejsorfsoioniraftcnPeE-hgacoyotetpnanttciirackonislal-e3d5b9eMBcCoaEmcPeehdsiolknipiinaIgI of 35A8rABtCarrEtxeaeIhvxnrioesxPlretxwe.serhFssIeoIiIIaalIes,rauifnnacgdmcepeielonydsdmsssibathslesearsicvaratelrdsa,phse’ has 34M8acBocCCenEhdtPraoohlnlciiloiaidpfigtcoahefienpsenins3u4bl6aeMBtwCaEecPeenedaoPncheailnipdoAfthens 34s3uwBrCrhmEeonDeldreiocedenranyssabtirouaiesnTsdiImItooofSleiocinly3, 4p2uiBtnsCdEaePnpeeernnsddieatnnocieEngvaypstioiann33d8isBsCoElRveosmtehedeLfaetaints3L3aeInI8aIdpBgooCufbEiePsyAoeArnrtrsiansixaeges,dr,aixheneisdssoiysforuenpglaecresdon

056-057_383509-3B3CE7IEINBgaeyCspccEtteiaaVnnnd2estb.hitonrhodesndctehatae5nco7refelQflooinrrmoin3fst5t;roh6ohfedBecuCweiEcnneeSctssrrhtaeeawlarinzisnrdgeieageCdsYno-hadgtrrihnoaoniegunnvee,stgsprreioopnnwdegmuneecarenl stcoade P3h5o6tbcoBeisCtthEwbe“eeSsegaaninccAsrreetoohddrveaetWnecrlsmaearacpo”nclfeedDsasenldphi beDcoiom3n4ey6ssBiTuoCysEfrSIaIinctily Ma3ce4d2oBnCiEaPchoinliqpTuohefrrasce34ao1nuBdtCtEbheWetwaLreaetbinrneRLaoekmsageue 338 BdsCetEfaePtaehtsislaicpnodoaflgiMtaiomianncsoeoscdftooGonnfrtierGaoerlkeoefce 5 7anIon3no3iua7nnBcCGeErsPepehlkialincpsitoitefosMliiabnceAerdsaiotaenMitahineor06/05/11 5:05 PM

55

336–330 BCE 329–323 BCE

Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse 30
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to win a stunning victory over King Darius III.
THE AGE OF
AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF Ruins of Persepolis AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, of Macaranda (Samarkand) and ALEXANDER’S
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336BCE The Persian ceremonial capital of Bessus declared himself the new pacify Sogdiana, although the FAVOURITE
(see 355–337BCE), his 20-year-old Persepolis was burnt to the ground king of Persia (as Artaxerxes V), fortress of the “Sogdian Rock” HORSE,
son Alexander (often referred to by Alexander’s troops in 330 BCE. but some of the Persian satraps managed to hold out against the BUCEPHALUS,
as Alexander the Great) became army led by Darius III himself. In submitted to Alexander instead of Macedonian forces until 327BCE. WHEN IT DIED
commander of the major Greek 331BCE, the Macedonians defeated Bessus. During 330–329BCE, Alexander then crossed into the
city states. The next year Alexander Darius III again at Gaugamela (in Alexander pursued Bessus into Kabul Valley and the following advance of the Romans
invaded Thrace, but a rumour that modern Iraq). The next year Darius the easternmost regions of the year, at the river Hydaspes, he into Campania after
he had been killed caused a major was stabbed to death by Bessus, Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu overcame the local ruler Porus. their abolition of the
revolt centred on the Greek city of one of his generals. Alexander Kush and into Bactria. Finally, His plans to push further into Latin League
Thebes, supported by Darius III of now seemed to have acquired the in Sogdiana, north of the River India were stymied by his soldiers in 338BCE
Persia (r.336–330BCE). Alexander whole of the vast Persian Empire. Oxus, the local nobles, led by the who, demoralized and disease- alarmed the
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, ridden, mutinied and demanded Samnites, and
defeated and their city razed to the Aristotle betrayed Bessus and handed him to go home. Part of the army the Roman placing
ground. The other states soon The philosopher Aristotle was over to Alexander. Once Alexander returned home by sea under of a colony in their land in
submitted. In 334BCE, Alexander employed by Philip of Macedonia had continued his march north, Nearchus, but a detachment 328BCE and tensions over the
hurried to Anatolia, where a as Alexander the Great’s tutor. however, Spitamenes revolted. It under Alexander marched control of Neapolis (Naples) led
Macedonian army was already took Alexander a year of bitter through the harsh Gedrosian to the outbreak of war in 326BCE.
established, totalling perhaps campaigning to relieve the siege desert, suffering heavy losses. In 321BCE, the Samnites defeated
43,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. His army reached central Persia a Roman army at the Caudine
Although this figure was dwarfed Alexander the Great’s conquests early in 324BCE, but Alexander, Forks. The Romans were
by the forces of the local Persian Alexander penetrated the farthest still planning new expeditions humiliated by being forced to bow
satraps (governors), Alexander’s corners of the Persian empire. To into Arabia, died of a fever at down and “pass under the yoke”
cavalry smashed the lines of the cement his rule he founded a series Babylon in May 323BCE, aged 33. (an arch made from their captured
satrap Arsites at the River of new cities, almost all named after spears). Four years of peace
Granicus in northwest Turkey. He himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt. In central Italy, the Samnites of followed before the Romans
pushed on towards the heart of the central-southern Apennines, renewed the war and, despite
the Persian Empire. In 333BCE, at CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER who had lost a war against the dogged resistance by the
Issus, northern Syria, he routed an Macedonian Empire 336-323BCE Romans in 342–340BCE, fought Samnites, finally emerged
Route taken by Alexander’s forces them once more in the Second victorious in 304BCE.
Samnite War (326–304BCE). The

SCYTHIA Alexandria Eschate
SOGDIANA
Caspian Sea
CSyMprPeaeeHnrMdSCltEeilaArtaALEeeCLtprHEeArhTTDaASAerHOnolseRReNyuxaAsIaAAnCnEEdSGSGrCeoaTYiyaarJrhPBpddePeBrTyiirubIMuszGlSuHseaamaeIsTesncDzamyrktIalraiAeupeScmmhlCeeisaAMaPESPSYOARPDIABOAORTaPCACbMNAMIeyOAiEIlrnnLAoNaeCinvnIBbHAeAsiIhBaSuPYMnlLEaOERDSISIASuEPscAeabrlseAaixatlaaenAPnnxPPleGadaAearnruxRssidalaeaTfrnpriAHdagorIraleaAiidasidAoalnOeexxuaBmnNAdaCQrAGdiTHuaRw-ReiiAn-atAAIdACAtdlrauleaHaiAxKrcOarhuSSnasoIdhebtAoraBiinaPaunacteaplahala
PALESTINE
NIA
Red Sea

33m6buByrCdEhePirshesidlo;ipnhoeAfliesMxsaaucncedc3dee3ofreno5duiBaenCdEdsPhailsocshoopoh3lei3nPr4eAABrrtCshiEiseatAnnolsstelxeaatntdheerRdieveferaGts3r3afno2uioBcnfCuEdpsshZietlhonseooSoptfhoCeicyrpssrciunhs3oA3otahl0rePmBnCeysErspAeilleplaxogalinessder’s 32A9lB–ex3aa2cnt7rdBieaCrEacnodnqSuoegrdsiana 32in7vSBoCaGlEmvreRendoeitmiknecsaaintodysvieosbrfpeNuccotoeenmatwpreooitllhiostfhteh3e2s6edBruCicoErauiAnpslgiletyatxhlwaeonofsdutienherdegeeMdoaflltihpeeopl3e2Q5i(nBkCirtEnaugTkle)eh,rseaotpcfitrlaliaenlilmcoCefhtWooifnabanegthe 32r4eAtBuCloerEnfxfiOaatccnnohtidaeihPseldisesrairwmbpssuhipaenor,nioshcphaeeevresly in

5 8PcoeD3mra3sre6iaisuBnCtsoEtIhItIrhoene333 BAClExeDBabaanertditaueltesrenoIaIfItbItyshseus 332cBoCnE qAuleexrasdnEedgfeeyraptBt3ead3t1btlByeCAEolfPeGxeaarsnuidgaeanrmsaaet3slr3asea0bseBslCiEsnaDattareardipubsByeIItsIhseus 32C8leBjioCtCEiunosMtmotcuhofpremdAaenlBmeriloxaaoancnfnkCdd,eaervra’slry 32c6raBonCsHdEsyeAwadslideantvxshswaapenBnehcIdaserneeet,ndtvrbilushoeuslihtstoahaftlrittsoeTodapxsila 32L6ycBuACrEtghDtuehesnea,itagohnrneoeoafrotaeftsotrs Alerxeatnrdeteahd3rtee2s’ss5GteahBerrCrdtmoEPrtuoeoygsrwhsiaaernpdoslis M3a2c4meBadaCroErrnraAiynaltenghxeooeMasffndfiePfdoadceerueerrrgsa9sihn0attnneoorasbnidlity

56

322–301 BCE ,,TO THE STRONGEST!

,,Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a
question about who would succeed him

ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not 80,000 outlying regions of the Nanda Confucian tradition. His surviving
provided for an orderly succession Empire, pushing his control as work, the Shi Ji, is written in the
after his death in 323BCE, and his ANTIGONUS far as Gujarat and the Punjab. form of dialogues with several
most experienced generals were In 305BCE, he began a campaign contemporary kings. Meng Zi
also dead – except for Antipater 75,000 against one of Alexander’s stresses the value of de (virtue)
who had been left as regent in successors, Seleucus, which for a king and, more practically,
Macedonia. Alexander’s wife LYSIMACHUS ended in a treaty in 303BCE, by recommends lower taxes, less
which the Greeks ceded control harsh punishments, and ensuring
Roxane was pregnant, and he Battle of Ipsus of eastern Afghanistan and the people have enough to eat.
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus, Although slightly outnumbered, Baluchistan to Chandragupta. He believed that if a king acted
who was, unfortunately, Lysimachus deployed his archers Having established the Mauryan benevolently, everyone would
mentally unstable. A clique of against his enemy’s flank, causing Empire in 307BCE, Chandragupta want to be ruled by him, and he
generals who were present at Antigonus’s infantry to flee in panic. decided to abdicate in favour of would have no need of conquest.
Alexander’s deathbed – his son Bindusara (r.297–272BCE). Meng Zi’s benevolent view of
Ptolemy, Cassander, against the four remaining He then retired to become a Jain human nature had a widespread
Seleucus, and Lysimachus principal players: Cassander in monk, ultimately starving himself appeal, and politically his views
– engineered a solution by which Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt, to death. were most influential in the
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander Lysimachus in Thrace, and time of the Song dynasty
IV (323–310BCE) notionally shared Seleucus in Babylon. War between In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius) (960–1279 CE).
power with Arrhidaeus, who the parties raged inconclusively (c.372–289BCE) arrived at the Wei
became Philip III. In reality, this until 311BCE. But when it was court around 320BCE and rapidly
military clique carved up the renewed again in 308BCE, it earned himself a reputation as
empire between themselves and looked as if Antigonus might the “second sage” of the
four other generals. Perdiccas overcome all the others. Then, in
Samnite-style helmet emerged as the main power in 301BCE, Lysimachus crushed the ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356–323 BCE)
The Romans admired the Samnites Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
as fighters. This gladiator helmet is the centre; Antipater and annexed most of Antigonus’s Aged 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
based on the Samnite style of armour. Craterus took former territories, so cementing a his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
Europe; tripartite division of Alexander’s area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
Antigonos empire between himself, Ptolemy, was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
Monopthalmos and Seleucus. His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.
(“the one-eyed”) was given In India, in around 320BCE,
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt; Chandragupta Maurya (r.c.320–
and Seleucus and Cassander 297BCE) overthrew the last of the
were promoted to senior Nandas (see 370–356BCE) to
military commands. become ruler of Magadha and the
These generals, who became Ganges plain. An energetic ruler,
known as the Diadochoi he then gradually absorbed the
(“successors”), then fought a long
series of wars for dominance in
Alexander’s former empire, at
first pitting the others against
Perdiccas, who was assassinated
in 320 BCE. Antipater rose to
power next, but he died of natural
causes in 318 BCE, leaving
Antigonos to make a bid for power

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03/05/11 3:16 PM

59

57

300–281 BCE 280–266 BCE 265–241 BCE

,, ,,ANOTHER SUCH

VICTORY AND WE
ARE UNDONE.

Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy II in around At the Battle of Mylae, in 260BCE,
280BCE. It guided ships into Alexandria harbour at night. Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy.

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337– IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys 500 20 IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
out between the Romans and 283 BCE), the son of Antigonus from the southern Italian city of (c.294–232BCE) to the throne in
Samnites in 298BCE, apparently (see 322–301BCE), was now Tarentum for protection against 3,000 2,000 268BCE had marked a watershed
provoked by Samnite harassment rebuilding his strength from bases the Romans provided Pyrrhus, for the Mauryan Empire. On his
of their neighbours, the Lucanians. in the Aegean islands and in the king of the Greek state of 20,000 father Bindusara’s death (see
Despite two Roman victories in Cyprus. He was able to exploit the Epirus, with a perfect excuse 322–301BCE), Ashoka had to fight
297BCE, the Samnites, this time need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for for fulfilling his ambitions and KEY Slingers a four-year civil war with his
allied with the Gauls, could still allies against the now over-mighty intervening there. He arrived with Infantry War elephants brothers before he was enthroned.
field a huge army against the Lysimachus. In 294BCE, Demetrius an army more than 25,000 strong, Cavalry Around eight years later, he
Romans at Sentinum in 295BCE. invaded Macedon, whose ruler including war elephants. He beat Archers launched a campaign against
Cassander had died three years the Romans at the River Siris in Kalinga (modern Orissa), which
275 before, leaving his two young 280BCE, but the Roman senate Pyrrhus's army was so bloody that around 100,000
sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus The army that Pyrrhus took over to people are said to have died. So
THE NUMBER war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army Italy included a small number of war struck with remorse was Ashoka
OF YEARS Lysimachus’s Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his elephants whose presence caused at this slaughter, that he ever after
THE but in 292BCE he was brought losses were so severe that it the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. rejected war and promoted the
PTOLEMAIC back to Greece by a revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After Buddhist concept of dharma,
DYNASTY Aetolia. By 289BCE, Demetrius invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated against Seleucus, and the latter’s meaning mercy or piety. He set up
RULED EGYPT had suppressed the revolt, but he back to Epirus in 275BCE, nursing assassination, soon led to a series of edicts carved in rock
had lost most of his island bases huge losses in troops and having instability on the frontier between throughout the empire – many of
The equally vast Roman army – at to Ptolemy’s Egyptian fleet. He made no territorial gains. the Seleucid Empire (now ruled them on pillars topped with a lion
45,000, the largest they had ever retreated to Asia, and died in by his son Antiochus I) and the – promoting his adherence to
fielded – was threatened with 283BCE, a captive of Seleucus. The defeat and death of Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II dharma. Under his patronage the
defeat until the Roman consul Lysimachus in 281BCE in battle Philadelphos. Finally, in 274BCE Third Buddhist Council met at
Publius Decius Mus (d.295BCE) Of Alexander’s successors, the First Syrian War broke out Pataliputra around 250BCE, and
dedicated himself and the enemy Ptolemy inherited the weakest Pyrrhus of Epirus between them. The Egyptians Ashoka sought to export his ideas
army as sacrificial victims to the position. A naval defeat in 306BCE Despite his many campaigns, when emerged victorious, annexing abroad, exchanging diplomatic
gods of the underworld and led a by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined Pyrrhus died he ruled little more parts of the Syrian coast and missions with foreign rulers, such
suicidal charge that shattered the his ambitions temporarily to Egypt. than the kingdom he had inherited. southern Anatolia. This position as Antiochus II of Syria and
Samnite line. A string of Roman Yet here he shrewdly chose to was in part reversed by Egyptian Ptolemy II of Egypt. At his death
successes followed in 293 and exploit the existing mechanisms losses in the Second Syrian War in 232BCE, the Mauryan empire
292BCE, and two years later the of power, establishing himself as (260–253BCE) and then renewed had reached its greatest extent
Samnites finally surrendered and a pharaoh in the old style and in the Third Syrian War (246–241 and seemed securely established.
their lands were annexed. Roman setting up an administration that BCE), which was fought between
territory now stretched across the melded the best of Greek and the Seleucid Antiochus II and In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea. Egyptian traditions. By 295BCE, Ptolemy III. These three his father to the throne of Qin in
Ptolemy’s naval forces had debilitating wars left the Seleucids 246BCE. From 228BCE, ably advised
recovered and conquered much of particularly vulnerable to the now by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy’s growing power of Parthia. unleashed a final war of conquest
position was sufficiently secure against the remaining Warring
that, at his death in 283BCE, aged States (see 370–356BCE). Zhao
84, he passed the kingdom on to and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
his son Ptolemy II Philadelphos Qin armies captured Wei and, in
(r.283–245BCE), the second king 223BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would still held out but, in 221BCE, Zhao
rule Egypt until 30BCE. Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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2b6e8giBnCsE 13/05/11 5:46 PM
60

58

23YEARS
THE LENGTH OF

THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

ROMAN RELIGION little headway. However, after they ,,Aegades Islands. This defeat
had built their first ever fleet, the caused Hamilcar Barca, the
Early Roman religion combined Romans’ fortunes changed. In Carthaginian general, to sue for
the worship of the great gods, 260BCE, they won an important peace. The peace terms involved
such as Neptune (shown here), victory over the Carthaginians at the Carthaginians leaving Sicily.
with that of more local deities. Mylae. A Roman invasion of North The two sides’ spheres of
There were several different Africa in 256BCE failed to capture influence remained uncomfortably
types of priest: haruspices Carthage only through the overlapping, creating the seeds
made predictions from the ineptitude of the consul, Regulus. of two future conflicts.
entrails of sacrificed animals; On land, the Romans took the
augures determined the divine Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily ,,IF THEY WILL
will from signs, such as the one by one until, by 249BCE, only
flight of birds; and pontifices Drepana, in western Sicily, held NOT EAT, LET
controlled the complex out against them. A massive THEM DRINK!
calendar of religious festivals. Carthaginian naval victory there
In their homes, Romans had set back the Roman cause, but Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
shrines to household gods and in 241BCE, a new Roman fleet consul and general, ordering the
the spirits of their ancestors. appeared off Drepana, took it, drowning of the sacred chickens
and the next year smashed when they refused to eat grain
a Carthaginian fleet at the before the Battle of Drepana, 249 BCE

him the master of all China. The expelled the nomads, but wars the nomadic Parni, led by E U R O P E Alps
same year he proclaimed himself with Egypt (280–272BCE and Arsaces, entered Parthia in the
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi 260–253BCE) overstretched the mid-240s BCE. P y r Tolosa Placentia
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the kingdom’s resources. On the eNe asrbo
new Qin dynasty. death of Antiochus II (r.261–246 Rivalry over Sicily, where the Numantia e n Massalia
BCE), civil war broke out between Carthaginians had possessed Iberian
In Persia, the Greek Seleucid the king’s widow Berenice and his colonies since the 8th century BCE, Emporiae Rhodae Pisae Ariminum
dynasty, which had inherited the former wife Laodice. This led to was at the root of the First Punic
region after Alexander the Great’s the breakaway of Bactria under War (264–241BCE), a conflict Peninsula Tarraco Corsica Aleria PerusiaA d r ia t i
death in 323BCE, faced a series of between Rome and the North Dertosa Baleares to Rome 238 Ostia Rome
nomad incursions Diodotus and Parthia African power of Carthage. In 264 editer c
after 280BCE. under Andragoras. BCE, the Romans sent an army to Saguntum Iol Olbia
Antiochus I (reign Taking advantage help the Mamertines – a group Sardinia
c.292–261 BCE) of this instability, of south-Italian mercenaries Gades Capua Sea
occupying the Sicilian city of Tingis
Messana – in their conflict with Malaca M rSaaldnaHeteaodaRrConumamrUeteth2Sit3acu8aegmeCa aAra2gl4rei12gsB5eC6nEBtCuEmPanE2oc6rnm0SMoBiSmucCyiysEllRuyaraeshceTughsiCTuuearrmoriietonntum
the city of Syracuse, which was
in turn aided by Carthage. The Rusaddir Cartenna
Carthaginian’s resistance was so
stubborn that the Romans made to Rome 241

Great Stupa at Sanchi AFRICA
This Buddhist stupa in central India
was begun by the Mauryan ruler Leptis Magna
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
Charax

KEY The First Punic War
Carthaginian Empire in 264 BCE The two decades of fighting was
Roman gains by 264 BCE concentrated around Sicily, but
Roman gains by 238 BCE also saw Roman invasions of
Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.

26c1avBpeCttsEuhsrReeeioldrmaoCsawanmrnstohfludaesegeelitntoiabnu2i6lcd0aBpCtuE rReoCmoarnssica 25e7sbBtaCasEbsuliSincstcah(ieteneedmdoienfodAdRbueeyrdLnNaRVcaiimveetrnV2ai5emn6ta)CiB;vnCaa2Erl0tRvh7iocaBmtgCoEiarnyniasonvwseironff Eco2n5oo5mfNBCuCoaEsrrtRthhoaAmgfairninciaainnevtnaedsrisroiitnnordyce.if2nsei5aes0tgtriBenoCntESogRichCoiolamylrdtahonafsgLliainlyyiabnaeu2m4d9eBBfeCaEatttClReaorotmfhDaagnreisnpiaaatnnnsaava2l4L6aBnCkEaKicnognvTeisrstsa toofcBS.2Aur4irds5dahBcCiisEdmA(orrsaPcaersthfioaunn2)d4dbs6yrPneBaaCtoEskltsTeymhoiurietdsbSeaytnrwdiaeSneenWleaurcids 24w1iaBngCAnEaeaiRngvosaamtldCveaiasncrstItsohlraaygnedsat

n2a6vCa0alBrvCtiEhcRtaogorimyniaoanvnMesryaltae 260 BSCyErSSiateanlreWtuPocatfiordSlbseeemc(ttoowiene2sde5an4nBdCE) Luoy2a5Zn6hgBoaCuEredQayinninatasCkthyeinsean;ds Se2loe5vu4ecrBidCpEsoWsasnaedrmscbPsoaeitrnootrncwlileaeuogmefdenSeieadyslrlbiiaaynace c.S2h5i0HBruCuaElneZgrhdoeifn)Qgbie(nlcaodtmoemresain 247 BCbEeHgianomsffiCelcanarsrtihvBeaagirnincSaiaicnily c.k2i4ni5gnBddCoeSEmpeBelaenbcudetcecrionidamtnefermosmpire Pelopondfrnoo2mem4si3enMiBloiaCbnEceebTrdyhaooteAenfrdiSaaitncuyson 24S1nPioBcuwCilEnyciRcaoonnWmdtraeoFrlisresntds

61

59

240–220 BCE 219–211 BCE

36 THE NUMBER OF
COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR QIN
SHI HUANGDI

This rendition of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist
Jacopo Ripanda. Amazingly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage.

IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the In the aftermath of the First Second Punic War ATLANTIC EUROPE
first emperor of China, divided his Punic War (see 264–241BCE), with There were three principal theatres OCEAN
empire into 36 commanderies on Sicily and Sardinia lost, Carthage of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
the advice of his minister Li Ssu. turned its attention to Spain. In Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians
The dispossessed aristocrats and 238BCE, Hamilcar was sent there, were confined to Africa. ALPS
nobles of Qin’s former enemies and he soon conquered almost the THE SECOND PUNIC WAR TPay rrreanceoeN2s1Ta8orbloEosmaRphoordiaaeeMaTsCsroearbls2iiia1aca0218
were moved to the capital Xianyang whole of southern Spain. He died Numantia Placentia
to keep them under close control. in battle against the Oretani, a I b e r i a n 208
To further encourage a sense of Celtic tribe, in 229BCE, but by then Peninsula 207
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a he had won both a new empire Pisae Ariminum
single script and a standardized for Carthage and a strong power
system of weights and measures base for his family, the Barcids. River Metaurus 207
for China. Further conquests were Perusia Lake
made to the north and south in Despite their victory in the First TSrAaedarsiiamticene 217
219 and 214BCE, and thousands of Punic War, the Romans’ position Rome
colonists were sent to the new 2in2n5oBrC2TtEh1H,e8Etr–hnS2eE0IC2CtaOeBllNyCtiEDwcPaInUssNsuItCibllrWweAseRaakn.dIn Baecula 208 Saguntum Dertosa Aleria Ostia
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt Boii tribeCsarttrhiaegdintioandErmivpeirtehe28m1BoCuE t. Ilipa 206 209
firmly with opposition. In 213BCE, At the BaCttalrethoafgTineialanmterornit,otrhye20C0eBCltEs Olbia
he ordered the “burning of the were trapRpoemdanbetetrwrietoerny 2tw18oBCREoman Gades Baleares Sardinia Capua Cannae 216
books”, by which the writings of armies anRodmraonugteadin.sAblyth20o0uBgChE the
philosophers opposed to the Qin Boii accepMtaesdsadlieafnetaetrirnito2r2y42B18CBECEand 218–202 BCE Tingis Malaca Carthago Me d i terr Carales Tarentum
state were burnt, and in 212BCE the Insubres sued for peace two Carthaginian Empire 281BCE Iol Saldae
he had many intellectuals who years later, the Romans rebuffed Carthaginian territory 200BCE Nova a nean Thurii
opposed him brutally killed. them and pushed on for total Roman territory 218BCE CarthaginiaRnusvaicddtoirry Cartenna
victory. The king of the Boii was Roman gains by 200BCE Motya MessinaCroton
Suppressing opposition killed in single combat against a Roman victory 204 Utica Mylae Rhegium
This watercolour-on-silk painting Roman consul, and their capital
shows Shi Huangdi, China’s first Mediolanum (Milan) captured. Hannibal (219–202) Sicily Agrigentum
emperor, overseeing the burning of The Romans established colonies
books and the execution of scholars. in the Celtic territories in 218BCE, Zama 202 Carthage Syracuse
including at Piacenza.
Hasdrubal (208–207 Hadrumetum 203 Melita
A revolt led by Arsaces (see
265–241BCE) in Parthava – a Massalian territory 218BCE Scipio Africanus (210–206 Sea
former satrapy in the northeast of
the Seleucid Empire – could not Carthaginian victory and 204–202) AFRICA
be quelled by Seleucus II (r.246–
225 BCE), and a separate Parthian Roman victory
kingdom emerged in the region
of modern Iran. The Parthians Hannibal (219–202) Leptis Magna
gradually annexed more territory
to the west, especially under Hasdrubal (208–207 Charax
Mithridates I (r.171–138 BCE). By
the early 1st century BCE, only a Scipio Africanus (210–206
small area of Syria was under and 204–202)
Seleucid control.
ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN marched with 50,000 infantry, the consuls. Faced with manyFORCES IN THOUSANDS
EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants defections among the allied
the Romans sent an embassy to into northern Spain, across the cities, the Romans turned to
Hasdrubal – son of Hamilcar and Pyrenees, through southern delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
the new Barcid commander there Gaul and – to the Romans’ at bay. But this was a temporary
– and secured an agreement that astonishment – crossed the measure, and the Romans
the Carthaginians would not move Alps. Although he now had only suffered one of their worst ever
north of the Ebro River. In return, around half the force he had defeats at Cannae in 216BCE, when
the Romans pledged not to move started with, his presence Hannibal’s army massacred up to
south – although they did forge encouraged the north Italian
alliances with cities in the south, Celts to revolt and, at Trebia in 100
such as Saguntum. In 221 BCE, late 218 BCE, he routed a Roman 50,000 casualties
Hasdrubal was assassinated; army. The following year he
two years later, Hannibal, his smashed another large Roman 80
brother and successor, attacked force at Lake Trasimene, killing 6,000
Saguntum, rapidly leading to the 15,000 Romans – including one of
Second Punic War (219–201 BCE). 60 casualties
Battle of Canae
With the prospect of the Some 35,000 Romans survived the 40
Romans sending one army to battle of Cannae, but half of those
Spain and another via Sicily to were captured by the Carthaginians, 20
invade North Africa, Hannibal and many were sold into slavery.
decided to strike first. He 0
Roman Carthaginian
TROOPS

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03/05/11 3:16 PM
062_063_178147_240_201BCE.indd 62

62

60

210–201 BCE

After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 2m (6ft 6in) tall, was placed.

HANNIBAL (247–182 BCE) WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR position there. The Roman senate at Utica in North Africa, the fleet was reduced to a mere 10
DIED IN 210 BCE, resentment sent the young general Publius Carthaginians recalled Hannibal ships; they were not allowed to
A brilliant tactician, Hannibal’s against his autocratic rule erupted Cornelius Scipio (c.236–183BCE) to head off a threat to Carthage make war outside Africa at all,
string of victories against the in a series of peasant revolts. A to Spain, where he captured the itself. The Romans offered and inside it they needed Roman
Romans from 218BCE was number of new kingdoms broke Carthaginian capital of Carthage relatively lenient peace terms, but permission to do so. An annual
not matched by the strategic away from the centre, while the Nova. In 206BCE, he crushed a the Carthaginians rejected them, tribute of 10,000 talents payable
judgement to convert them anti-Qin forces found a talented large Carthaginian force at Illipa. and Scipio captured their towns to the Romans completed the
into final victory. Following military leader in Xiang Yu. In one by one. Aided by the Numidian humiliation of what had once
the surrender of Carthage in 208BCE, Li Ssu was executed and In 207BCE, Hannibal’s brother prince, Massinissa, Scipio been Rome’s greatest enemy.
201BCE, Hannibal served a new army, led by Liu Bang, a Hasdrubal was defeated and defeated Hannibal’s last army at
as the city’s suffete (chief man of peasant origins, emerged killed at the River Metaurus in Zama in 202BCE. The peace terms The Continence of Scipio
magistrate) until the Romans to challenge the Qin. By 206BCE, northern Italy, denying Hannibal the Carthaginians now had to Scipio was noted for his mercy. In
had him exiled in 195BCE. He the Qin Empire was fragmented crucial reinforcements. By 204BCE, accept were much harsher. All of this 19th-century painting, he is
then offered his service to a and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at many of Hannibal’s south-Italian their territory was forfeit save a seen handing back a captured
succession of Rome’s war with one another. In 202BCE, allies had deserted him, and when band around Carthage itself; their Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.
enemies before poisoning Xiang Yu committed suicide after Scipio landed with a Roman army
himself in Bithynia. being defeated at Gaixia. With no
one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
50,000 of them. But Hannibal had himself declared emperor as
did not march immediately on Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
Rome, and his campaign lost dynasty (see 200–171BCE).
momentum. Although Hannibal
captured much of southern Italy, With Hannibal making little
including the key city of Capua in headway in southern Italy, the
211BCE, by 212BCE the Romans Romans embarked on a policy of
had raised 25 fresh legions and picking off the allies of Carthage.
stood ready to carry the war back Their first target was Philip V of
to the Carthaginians. Macedonia, whose attacks on
Illyria in 215BCE had provoked the
First Macedonian War (215–205
BCE) with Rome. In 211BCE, the
Romans allied with the Aetolians,
who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
naval attacks. Philip’s invasion
of Aetolia in 207BCE forced the
Aetolians to sue for peace the next
year, and though the Romans sent
fresh forces in 205BCE, the war
ended with a recognition of the
status quo between the two sides.

In Spain, the Romans had
retaken Saguntum in 212BCE, but
a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman

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062_063_178147_24m201a_1r2cBc0hCae1EpsBtHSduaocaCenrninfidpEennRiagS.oiitobynCsAmardaaHlferpdcai,uucsasadi6ennr;3uuSbspaalin
20aH7tatBenhCmneERipHbiostamatdlsoaeidnnrfreesuItaibanataletfyoldM’rsfacbaeeiyntlasdtu;hkreuilsled 20d6ypBnrCaoEescmEtlyandp;idymeLnroisouafrshQBtoiyimafn,ntashgenelefHwan 205 BPMChEoaAectenstdihchoeean,IriTlRaelrydoearmagpitarreyeowoeatiefnltlchdtbaoetraate 2rt0eoc3daBleClfeEedHnfadrnoCanmagibraItaithnalRaslyotgmtehaens 202pBeCLrECiiouAhcdBifantapaeetinrstLgaeaulseboaemryttiaesCpnfheugrap,onhrgi’san 6 3surerCne2and0rdi1tnehBgraCtgEthoiTnePRhiaSeuonemnscicoe0n,W3d/a0r5/11 3:17 PM

61

700 BCE 599 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

owl, the sacred
bird of Athena

crescent symbol in
post-490 BCE coins

Athenian coin
The Athenian
silver tetradrachm
has an image of an
owl on one side and
a helmeted head on
the other. It was also
stamped with the Greek
letters for “ATHE” to identify
the city of its origin.

1200 BCE Cowrie shells 465–454 BCE
Shells as money Greek coins
Beginning from the Almost every Greek city-state
Maldives, the use issues its own coinage, often with
of cowrie shells the name of the state inscribed on
as money spreads it. Silver replaces electrum as the
throughout the Pacific, main metal used.
and, by the 19th century,
into Africa.

Prehistory 1000–500 BCE c.640–630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE–14 CE
Cattle as capital Tool money
Prehistoric people In China, common First true coins Augustan aureus
use cattle as money, tools are cast in
with animals such as metal, punched The state of Lydia Emperor Augustus
sheep or chickens with holes (for
sometimes acting stringing several produces the first true reforms the Roman
as small change. together), and
used as money. coins, made of electrum coinage system and

(an alloy of gold and issues a new version of

Cattle silver) and stamped with the standard gold coin,

Knife an image of a lion or stag. Gold the aureus, worth
money
aureus 25 silver denarii.

64 2169//0055//22001111 1149::3136

62

006644--006655__SSttoorryy__ooff__MMoonneeyy..iinndddd 6644

THE STORY OF MONEY

THE STORY OF

MONEY

THE ADOPTION OF MONEY ENABLED EARLY SOCIETIES TO FLOURISH AND GROW INTO COMPLEX CIVILIZATIONS

As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of
exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfil this role, and it evolved
from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and notes. Today, money
is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers.

PERCENTAGE OF SILVERThe earliest forms of money – used in ritual code mentions loans paid in silver. In 640 BCE, TRADE AND PAPER MONEY
exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the
fines – included physical items such as cattle. development of money went a stage further with The growth in paper money in Europe after
In the 4th millennium BCE, the growth of trade in the invention of coinage, which later spread to the Middle Ages was fuelled by the needs of
Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic merchants. Traders would deposit funds in a
portable forms of money. For thousands of years, system had been adopted, with coins of gold, bank in one city and receive a promissory note,
precious metals were used, often in the forms of silver, and bronze (of least value) circulating across which allowed them to withdraw the amount
bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi’s law the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped in any other city where the bank had a branch.
on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use. Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici,
100 were rich enough to fund the military campaigns
90 EXCHANGE NOTES of European kings through their loans.
80 In 1189, paper money came into use in China during
70 Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations
60 and, therefore, were more convenient than coins.
50 Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue
40 notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an
30 equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as
20 the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis
10 following World War I forced countries to abandon
0 the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on
YEAR a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for
goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took
The debasement of Roman coins this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on
Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control nothing save the promise of payment at a later date.
of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from
around 90 per cent silver under Marcus Aurelius
(r.161–180) to 4 per cent during Gallienus’s rule (r.260–268).

806–821 Song 1519 Joachimsthal 1694 1949 Credit cards
Paper money dynasty Thalers thaler First bank note Credit and debit cards
In China, Emperor note Coin minted from The Bank of England
Xianzong issues the silver found in the is founded to fund The first credit cards
earliest bank notes during Joachimsthal mine, England’s growing appear in the US in
a period of copper Bohemia, becomes national debt. It issues 1949. By the 1980s,
shortage. The Jin dynasty standard in the its first bank notes, debit cards, which
issues the first true bank Spanish and Austrian backed by the bank’s
notes around 1189. Habsburg empires. own gold reserves. operate as electronic
cash (without deferred

payment) appear.

1158 17th century 1862
Making change Modern cheque First dollar bill
Henry II of England By the 17th century, the use The US Treasury
creates high-quality of cheques, often backed issues the first
coinage, based on a by goldsmiths, becomes dollar bills for
silver penny, with widespread in national circulation.
a cross design that Europe. These are known
will last over the next as “greenbacks”
100 years. Henricus penny British cheque for their vivid green colour. First one dollar bill
from 1659

064-0066544_--00S66to55r__ySS_ttooofrr_yyM__oooffn__eMMyoo.inneedyyd..iinn6dd5dd 6655 65

63

19/0521/692//0001551//2200111911:161149::31

200–171 BCE 170–147 BCE

The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han, depicted in the mountains of China. This wall painting shows Judah
Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF the beginnings of political Mauryan general, assassinated including the Satavahanas, the THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 195BCE, consolidation in central Japan, the last Mauryan ruler (see Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek ended In 168BCE, when Paullus
when his successor, Hui Ti, was especially around the lower Nara 265BCE). He is said to have kingdoms of Bactria. defeated Perseus at the Battle of
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway basin (near Osaka). persecuted Buddhists, marking Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
of his mother, the empress Lu, the beginning of the religion’s Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) elements swept through the
who took power for herself on his In India, the Sunga dynasty decline in its Indian homeland. He had broken away from Seleucid Greek cities, and Macedonia was
premature death in 188BCE. took power in Magadha in 185BCE, also fought a long series of wars control around 275 BCE, but a broken up into four republics to
Under her rule China was when its founder Pusyamitra with Magadha’s neighbours, series of Greek kings continued prevent it recovering its strength.
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from Sunga (r.185–151BCE), a former to rule there, starting with
the north and the kingdom of Diodotus around 250 BCE. Another In 150BCE, Spartan attempts
Nan-yueh to the south, and it geometrical Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in to get the Romans to intervene
patterns India, and became powerful in a quarrel with the Achaean
13was only under Gaozu’s grandson under Menander I (c.165– League (a group of Greek
THE NUMBER and shapes 130 BCE), an important patron of city-states) coincided with an
OF REGIONS Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
THAT MADE UP kings, a new school of art By 148BCE, the Macedonians had
HAN CHINA emerged around Gandhara, which been defeated and the Romans
fused Buddhist iconography and turned their attention to the
Wen Ti (r.180–157BCE) that Greek naturalism. Gradually, Achaeans. The Roman consul
stability was restored. these easternmost Greeks came L. Mummius quickly routed the
By 143BCE, the number of under pressure from Scythian Archaeans and took Corinth,
commanderies (regions) and Yuezhi nomads and in 125 BCE which he razed to the ground. The
under central Han control had Bactria collapsed. The last various leagues of Greek cities
risen from 13 to a total of 40. Indo-Greek kingdom of the were dissolved and Greece lost
Punjab survived until 10 CE. its independence, becoming the
In Japan, the Middle Yayoi Roman province of Achaea.
period (c.200–100BCE) saw an The Roman victory against
increase in population – possibly Philip V of Macedon (see NUMBER OF SOLIDERS IN 1000S 50 Total
to as high as 600,000 people – and 210 BCE) in the Second 40 Total Captured
Macedonian War (200–197 BCE) 30
Yayoi vase
The Yayoi period in Japanese history did not lead to permanent 20
(c.300 BCE to 250 CE) is named for the acquisitions in Greece,
site near Tokyo where its pottery and the Romans withdrew Killed
was first found. their army in 194 BCE. 10
After the death of Philip V
in 179 BCE, his son Perseus Killed
presided over worsening
relations with Rome, and 0
in 171 BCE a Third Macedonian Romans Macedonians
War broke out. Initial Roman COMBATANTS
campaigning achieved little
except the alienation of their Battle of Pydna
Greek allies, but a more The Macedonian army led by
disciplined approach under Perseus was destroyed at the Battle
the consul Aemilius Paullus of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
(see 170 BCE) yielded better Macedonians and captured 11,000.
results.

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066-067_200-13M1eBcvx.aCic2clo0loEem0’ys.iBmnmTCdeuEeodnSrltimgatihierea6gustl6eaolircnfaosntramtes f1r9e6edBoCEmIRsootfhmtmheeudsGeocr1reflea9eCvr3koeosBrslCtianEattTghhaeinAsteaRtloloylmiwaanitnhLreAuanlgetiuoaecnhd1u9s1 BlaCEwTshaeremaobsotlrisighoerdouinsacCQ.n1hidn8in1satBaCrEt Eonf dSinuonnfogMratahdueyr1rnyn7aa7nsIntBiydnCEitaoAHdveannacneroefgHiosniuonf gn1-on7ru5thBoneCrorEdnmGeArCraneidhnetisigkoncapchuigulstsuitIrnoVeJbiimenewpJsiuaoscdshreaTisefieacm,edp1l7e1 BCEbeMcioPthmerreisdsiaaktLiensegaIogfue 161kMBilCalEecdcJauibndeabehaitstle of Per1bg6eaKc0moiBnmuCgmEeETs,cuhruameulrtlceeueindnrtyaeoblswy1cIne2I,en/d0tr5e/11 1:59 PM

66

64

146–131 BCE

The ruins of Carthage, which was burnt and ritually cursed after its capture in
146BCE. A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48BCE.

After the end of the Second Punic,, the Elder, who made a series of I SHUDDER TO THINK
War, in 202BCE, the Romans had speeches to the Senate calling for
allowed their ally King Massinissa,, the destruction of Carthage. ,,THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
of Numidia to encroach on The first two years of the Third
Carthaginian territory. The peace Punic war saw ineffective Roman MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
conditions that ended the war attacks on towns around Carthage. FOR ROME.
forbade the Carthaginians to wage In 147BCE, a new commander was
appointed, Scipio Aemilianus, Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
CARTHAGE who transformed Rome’s fortunes to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apophthegmata
MUST BE in the war within a year.
Carthaginean tophet IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC capital, under which a Jewish
,,DESTROYED. A memorial stone from the tophet In 167BCE, the Seleucid ruler HSIUNG NU TRIBES from 177BCE dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
(cemetery) at Carthage, showing Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish gravely threatened the Han captured by the Romans in 63BCE.
Cato the Elder, Roman statesman Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. religious practices in Judaea, dynasty’s northern borders. In
leading to the revolt of Judah 139BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang In the Iberian Peninsula, the
war without Roman approval. made to pay an annual fine Maccabee and his brothers in Qian, set out to Central Asia to Romans had conquered most of
Unable to act, the Carthaginians of 500 talents. In 151BCE, the 164BCE. Judah Maccabee entered seek out possible allies against southern Spain and parts of
were reduced to sending Carthaginian government sent a Jerusalem, reconsecrated the the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey Portugal (where the Lusitanians
embassies to Rome to protest at military force to relieve a town that temple, and re-established helped scout the way for Chinese vigorously resisted them) by
Massinissa’s behaviour. However, had been besieged by Massinissa, Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom expansion as far as Dunhuang, and 174BCE. A revolt by the Lusitanian
Rome sided with its ally, and one and the Romans reacted by then continued to decline (see the foundation of a number of new leader Viriathus from 147BCE was
Carthaginian embassy in 162BCE declaring war. This was the Third also 280BCE), with the overthrow Central Asian commanderies by joined by several Celtiberian
even resulted in Carthage being Punic War (149–146BCE). Rome’s of its ruler Demetrius I in 150BCE 104BCE. Zhang Qian was held tribes in 144BCE. This rebellion
war was encouraged by the by Alexander Balas rapidly leading captive by the Hsiung-nu for some petered out after Viriathus was
anti-Carthaginian senator Cato to the loss of the key satrapies years during his journey before he murdered in 140BCE. In 133BCE,
(provinces) of Media and Susiana. was able to make an escape. Numantia, the main centre of the
Under emperor Wu (141–87BCE) revolt, finally fell to the Romans
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC the Chinese launched several after a bitter siege. Its population
offensives against the Hsiung-nu, was sold into slavery and Rome
After the overthrow of the last king in 507BCE, orders. Later elections for the consulate became particularly in 121BCE and 119BCE, was left in control of all of Iberia,
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually bitterly contested as the office provided great after which the frontier was quiet except the far north of Spain.
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came potential for enrichment and personal and family for almost 20 years.
to be supported by other magistrates (praetors glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27BCE The Third Punic War came to
and quaestors), and tribunes of the plebs who had the office of consul lost any real power, being In the Near East, the shrunken an end when Scipio Aemilianus
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. and near-helpless Seleucid blocked Carthage’s harbour then
realm (see 170BCE) was riven by launched a successful attack on
civil wars and prey to interference the city itself in spring 146 BCE.
from the Parthians, the The last Carthaginian defenders
Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, died in an inferno in the city’s
the Romans. In 142BCE, the main temple. The defeat of
Maccabees succeeded in wresting Carthage brought its 118-year
Jerusalem from Seleucid control struggle against Rome to an end.
and established a Hasmonaean The Romans burnt the whole city
kingdom, with Jerusalem as its and deported its population to
prevent any Carthaginian revival.

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050-051_500-451BCE.indd 51
65

130–111 BCE 110–91 BCE

,,
,,
HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY
TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO

,,MEET THE SAME DEATH AS I DID.

Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his
brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

This 17th-century silk painting from a history of Chinese emperors
shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

SAKA SCYTHIAN TRIBESMEN In southern and central India, IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN In North Africa, the Romans YOU DO
the Satavahanas began their KINGDOM (see 146–131BCE) had faced a serious challenge when WELL TO
invaded Punjab, northern India, rise to power after the breakup of continued its expansion until the Micipsa, the son of their former CONSIDER
in about 125BCE. They gradually the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid ally Massinissa of Numidia (see THE OFFICE
occupied more territory, ending century BCE (see 200–171BCE). Antiochus VII in 131BCE. However, 170–147BCE), died in 118BCE. The
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity From his capital in the Deccan, the during the reign of John Hyrcanus Romans ordered the kingdom be ,,YOUR OWN,
(see 200–171BCE) under the reign third Satavahana king, Satakarni, (r.134–104 BCE) it recovered much divided between Micipsa’s nephew
of Antialcidas around 110BCE. Led extended his sway considerably of the ground that had been lost. Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha FOR YOU
by King Maues, the Sakas took around 50BCE, although he and Alexander Jannaeus (r.103–76 rejected this, killing one cousin BOUGHT IT.
the kingdom of Gandhara and its later Satavahana rulers struggled BCE) enlarged the kingdom until it and attacking the other, Adherbal,
capital Taxila in about 80BCE. to contain the Saka and Kushan occupied most of modern Israel who fled to Rome. After a brief Julius Caesar’s father chastising
After Maues died (c.60BCE), the threats from the northwest. and the West Bank. After defeats division of Numidia between the future dictator Sulla for having
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it by the Nabataean king Aretas III in Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha corruptly bought office in 94 BCE;
was revived under his son Azes I In Rome, social turmoil had 84BCE and internal strife following renewed his attack on his cousin from Lives by Plutarch
(r.58–c.30BCE), who conquered erupted over the distribution of Alexander’s death, the and the Romans became involved.
much of northwest India. The public land held by the Senate. Hasmoneans were Following several disastrous
Sakas held this region until the Tiberius Gracchus, who was increasingly vulnerable years of campaigning from
rise of the Kushan Empire during tribune of the plebs in 133BCE, to Roman interference. 111BCE, the Romans sent Quintus
the 1st century CE. sought to ensure that plots of this Caecilius Metellus, who captured
land would be handed over to Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
poorer families. When the Senate ROMAN MILITARY REFORMS one. In 108BCE, Gaius Marius
obstructed his plans, he tried to replaced Metellus. Finally,
extend his tribunate so that he By the late 2nd century BCE, the Roman army was experiencing trapped in the far west of his
could pursue his aim. A mob difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius territory, Jugurtha was handed to
organized by senators opposed Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below the Romans by his father-in-law
to the plans beat him to death in the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal Bocchus of Mauretania.
the Forum. Tiberius’s brother legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves
Gaius became tribune in 123BCE were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
and tried to carry on his brother’s Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary” the Cimbri and Teutones, had
work. He also reduced the units, which were recruited from non-citizens. been defeating the Romans since
Senate’s role in dispensing justice, 107BCE, notably at Arausio in
and pushed through a law to allow 105BCE, where Roman losses
the sale of subsidized grain to the reached 80,000. Marius took
poor. In 122BCE, the Senate command of the defence against
declared Gaius an enemy of the the Germans on his return from
state, due to his plans to extend North Africa, and in 102BCE
Roman citizenship more widely in vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
Italy. He killed himself, and Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed
thousands of his political the Cimbri at the Battle of
supporters were executed. Vercellae in 101BCE. He was
rewarded with an unprecedented
Amravati relief carving sixth consulship in 100BCE.
This carving depicts the life of the
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in In China, Emperor Wudi
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one (r.141–87BCE) strengthened the
of the capitals of the Satavahanas. Han Empire’s administrative

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052-053_450-381BCE.indd 52

68

66

90–71 BCE

Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after
it was begun around 600BCE, reaching its final form about 500 years later.

Captured in stone AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, Senate had voted to put Marius in
The Danzante carvings at Monte (see 110–91BCE) Marius became charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Alban, Mexico, were once thought Rome’s dominant politician, but Sulla entered Rome with his troops
to be of dancers, but they are now the brutal behaviour of his ally and siezed power. He moved
believed to represent the mutilated Saturninus, tribune of the plebs, against Mithridates in 89BCE, and
bodies of enemies captured in war. provoked the Senate. Political had driven him out of Greece by
violence flared, and in 100BCE 84BCE. Sulla returned to Rome,
system by beginning civil service Marius had to march an army into defeated his remaining opponents
examinations. Official positions Rome. Saturninus was killed in the (including the aged Marius), and
for academics had been ensuing riot. As Marius’s power was appointed dictator in 82BCE.
established in 136BCE, waned, discontent rose among
consolidating the ruling house’s Italians without Roman citizenship. Sulla took savage revenge on the
stranglehold on the intellectual In 91BCE, this erupted into the Marians, packed the Senate with
life of China. In 106BCE, Wudi Social War. A protégé of Marius, his supporters, and curtailed the
appointed 13 regional Lucius Sulla (c.138–78BCE), took a powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
inspectors to monitor the key role in suppressing the revolt, forces regrouped around Quintus
behaviour of government officials, which was largely over by 88BCE, Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
raised taxes, and forbade private albeit with some concessions After Sulla died in 78BCE, the
coin-minting. His armies pushed offered by Rome to the rebels. Senate sent Pompey to deal with
deep into Central Asia. By 108BCE, Sertorius. His military efforts were
the Han Empire had reached its Sulla was elected consul in 88 ineffective; only the assassination
largest extent. BCE. That same year, while waiting of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
to sail with his army to Greece to return victorious to Italy in 71BCE.
In Mexico, the population of counter the threat posed by the
Monte Albán had reached about king of Pontus, Mithridates VI In 73BCE, a slave revolt led by
17,000 by around 100BCE. Monte (134–63BCE), Sulla heard that the the gladiator Spartacus, broke
Albán’s control began to reach out near Naples and grew into the
beyond the immediate vicinity of 70,000 most serious revolt Rome had ever
the Valley of Oaxaca, and many faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
large stone platforms and public SPARTACAN were trapped in southern Italy and
monuments were built in the city. REBELS defeated by the Roman General
Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71BCE.
6,000
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
spartican rebels peoples of southern Britain had
crucified started to expand their existing
hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
The rebellion by Spartacus that were defended by extensive
Crassus crucified slaves along the fortifications. The greatest oppida
Appian Way, which led to Rome, as were formidable obstacles to
a warning to any others who might attackers and some were royal
plan a similar insurrection. capitals, complete with palaces.

Sacred offering
This 1st-century BCE British Celtic
shield was discovered in the River
Thames, where it had probably been
thrown as an offering to a river god.

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84MBiCtEhrRidoamteasn 82nBeCwE

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068-069_130_71BCE.indd 69 12/05/11
2:00 PM
69

67

70–61 BCE 60–51 BCE

Mound City, Ohio, USA, contains a cluster of more than A reconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.
20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds.
GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME
AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TO ITALY 3 CONSUL OF ROME for the first time area of southern Gaul. He took
(see 90–71BCE), he was elected in 59BCE. Having served a term as advantage of the migration of the
consul for the year, despite still governor of Spain, he was popular Germanic Helvetii across Gaul
being below the legal minimum among the equestrians (wealthy towards Italy to cross over the
non-senators), but resistance to Alps and defeat Ariovistus, the
age. When war broke out with him from the Senate (and the Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
obstructiveness of his co-consul Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,
THE NUMBERMithridates of Pontus again, the Bibulus) led him to join with stayed in Gaul and the following
OF MILITARY Pompey and Crassus, year he pressed on to conquer the
Romans, under general Lucullus, TRIUMPHS and the three Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By
forced Mithridates to retreat to dominated Rome 55BCE, Caesar had subdued most
Armenia, which was ruled by his until 53BCE of Gaul and had acquired a vast
as the “First new province for Rome, without
son-in-law Tigranes. However, AWARDED Triumvirate”. ever receiving any approval
Lucullus’s troops mutinied in TO POMPEY from the Senate.
68BCE, and Pompey was sent to In 58BCE,
replace him. Tigranes surrendered Caesar was In 56BCE, an anti-Roman revolt
appointed broke out among the Veneti of
and Mithridates retired north of the governor of northern Gaul, apparently
Narbonensis, supported by the Celtic tribes of
Black Sea. Having achieved his in Central Asia were replaced by the Roman- Britain. Caesar responded by
occupied crossing over to Britain in 55BCE
aim, Pompey entered Syria, where the establishment of small, with two legions. A storm

he deposed the last Seleucid king, permanent colonies. Caesar at
the Louvre
and then captured Jerusalem. In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in Wearing the laurel
wreath of a victorious
In China, the Han Dynasty the south of the Valley of Mexico general, this statue is
part of Caesar’s cult of
retreated from modernizing was destroyed by a volcano some personality.

policies under Zhaodi (r.87–74BCE) time in the 1st century BCE. Its

and Xuandi (r.74–49BCE). The Huo disappearance opened the way for

family, which had dominated the Teotihuacán, to assert its control

government for decades was over the whole valley and become

removed from power, and its Mexico’s dominant power for

leading members executed. more than 500 years.

Government expenditure was By the end of the 1st century

cut, and aggressive expeditions BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,

in eastern North America, were

Hopewell bird beginning to develop into the
Clay pipes, often in Hopewell culture. These people
the shape of birds, lived by hunting and gathering,
are one of the most
characteristic products but they also built large,
of the Hopewell culture. elaborate burial mounds
for their chieftains.

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068-069_130_71BCE.indd 68

70

68

,,50–44 BCE

,, ,,…[CAESAR] DREAMT THAT HE WAS FLYING

ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER.

Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar’s dream the night before his
murder in the Senate House in 44 BCE; from Lives of the Caesars

prevented the arrival of Gallia EUROPE KEY just before a session of the
reinforcements, causing him to Transalpina Caesar’s movements Senate. If they had hoped to seize
retreat, but he returned the next Gallia Siege power, the conspirators were
year with five legions (around Cisalpina Caesar’s victories disappointed: Mark Antony, one
30,000 men). The Britons did not of Caesar’s leading supporters,
resist at first, but later, led by Massilia 47BCEBlack Sea Roman Civil Wars came to the fore in Rome, while
Cassivelaunus, chief of the 48BCE Caesar won Italy easily, but he had Caesar’s great-nephew and
Catuvellauni, they vigorously Hisp4a5nBiaCE Tarraco Rome 47BCE to fight hard to overcome Pompey adoptive son Octavian received
opposed the Romans all the Gades 49BCE Zela in his Greek stronghold, and then widespread support in a bid to
way to the River Thames. When Carthago 47BCE PARTHIAN Pompey’s sons and remaining take up the mantle of his father.
Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at Antioch EMPIRE supporters in Africa and Spain.
Wheathampstead fell, he sued for Nova 45BCE 46BCE Brundisium Pharsalus Cyprus In India, Kalinga (modern
peace, and Caesar returned to Ephesus Syria March 45 BCE he defeated Gnaeus Orissa), which had been a client
Rome with hostages and the Munda Pompey at Munda, effectively kingdom of the Mauryas (see
promise of tribute. 48BCE ending the civil war. 200–171 BCE , rose to prominence
Sicily Athenae under Kharavela in the mid-1st
At the end of 54BCE, shortly after Carthage M Caesar was now all-powerful. century BCE. Kharavela expanded
Caesar’s second expedition to MAURETANIA e d i He was made dictator in 48BCE, Kalinga far to the north and east,
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this Thapsus t e r r a and in 44 BCE he was given the conquering the Sunga capital of
time led by the Senones, wiped out 46BCE n e a n Sea office for life. Concerns over Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong
much of the Roman force there. Caesar’s power – in particular, patron of the Indian religion of
After putting down the revolt, Cyrene Hierosolyma fears that he planned to make Jainism, Kharavela established
Caesar’s attentions were diverted himself king – led a group of about trading contacts as far afield
to Rome, where political violence AFRICA Cyrenaica Alexandria 60 conspirators to form around as southeast Asia.
had resulted in the murder of his PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM senators Cassius and Marcus
former ally Clodius, and where Brutus. They murdered Caesar Murder of Caesar
Pompey had been elected sole OF EGYPT on the Ides of March (15 March) Conspirators struck Caesar down
consul in 52BCE, rupturing the with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
Triumvirate. Emboldened by the CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT 49 BCE, he forced the Pompeians Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,
turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes by the end of 51 BCE, but by this there to surrender. In December, and cried out “you too, child?”.
revolted in Gaul. They were point the Triumvirate had ended: Caesar set off for Greece in
joined by the Averni, led by Pompey’s supporters had turned pursuit of Pompey. A military
Vercingetorix, who won several against Caesar, and Crassus had engagement at Dyrrachium in
skirmishes against Labienus. been killed in battle in 53 BCE. The July went against Caesar, but he
Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar Senate ordered Caesar to disband fought back before Pompey’s
himself at Gergovia, but was then his army or be declared an enemy support could grow, and won a
trapped at Alesia in September of the state. Instead, he crossed resounding victory at Pharsalus.
52BCE. The Romans constructed the Rubicon River into Italy with Pompey took refuge in Egypt,
an encircling rampart around the his troops in 49BCE. This was where he was murdered on the
Gauls’ position and managed to illegal, constituting a declaration orders of Ptolemy XIII, who
beat off a Gaulish relief force. With of war against the Senate. hoped (in vain) to ingratiate
no hope left, Vercingetorix himself with Caesar.
surrendered and was taken back As Caesar marched towards
to Rome, where he was strangled Rome, town after town submitted After a short time in Egypt,
in 46BCE after appearing in to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey Caesar returned to Rome,
Caesar’s triumphal parade. left Rome and fled to Greece. where he raised money by
Caesar turned first to Spain, confiscating property from the
where seven legions had supporters of Pompey. In late
declared for Pompey. In August 47 BCE, Caesar set sail for Africa,
where he defeated a new
,,THE DIE Pompeian army at Thapsus
(in modern Tunisia). Pompey’s
IS CAST. sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
to Spain to continue the
Julius Caesar to his troops on resistance from there, and
crossing the Rubicon in 49 BCE; Caesar annexed the kingdom of
from Plutarch’s Parallel Lives King Juba of Mauretania, who
had supported them. Caesar then
proceeded to Spain, where in

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068-069_130_71BCE.inCdrda5isn3sisdB6uCiw9ssEaitEposextPepdrae,oridanutihsttMiioahaentisesConoaafdprrsmorthayameia 50 BCEoCfoannsterwucifntoiorRunomme 4R9uBbcCicrEooCsnasieensstaotrhItealy bGeac4loi8lmeBeCe,EsepHrnoHuedwalrieseonrmrdgoootffhnteehaens 4o6frBCeCmaE rRoatfoihnmPaingoagemnsfpcoueoupylnopaddnoteeryTftdehe;aratspesdus 46 BoCfE“tYhJeeualcriaaonlfernChedoafansorfr4u;m4tsh5ioedna”ys 45 BCEPCoameBspaaetrtyl’deseosffeoaMntsusantda 44 BbCEecColemoepsaortfruEalgeyrpt
12/05/11 2:00 PM

71

69

43–28 BCE 27–20 BCE

This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
with an imposing new temple to Mars.
in 31BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian’s side as a result.
agreed, with Mark Antony ruling NUMBER OF WARSHIPS500 HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,
IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE the east and Octavian governing Octavian did not take on the title
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar the west; Lepidus had to make do 400 of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.
with Africa. The Triumvirate was He instead ruled informally as the
10saw rising tensions between Mark 350 princeps – the first man of the
renewed in 38BCE for a further state. Having acquired control of
Antony and Octavian, whom many five years, but it was clear that 200 Antony’s legions, he now had an
viewed as Caesar’s rightful heir. THE NUMBER army of about 500,000 men. He
The two almost came to blows 100 disbanded more than half of these,
retaining 28 legions (about 150,000
early in 43BCE, when Octavian OF YEARS conflict between Octavian and 0 soldiers), settling the remainder
marched to raise the siege of THE SECOND Mark Antony could not long Octavian Anthony and in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark be postponed. Cleopatra 27BCE, Octavian gave up all his
powers, ostensibly restoring the
Antony was besieging Decimus TRIUMVIRATE However, Mark Antony was Battle of Actium Republic. The Senate responded
Brutus, one of Caesar’s assassins. RULED ROME occupied with a war against Octavian’s fleet outnumbered that of by granting him personal control
Mark Antony was forced to retreat the Parthians, who allied with Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
to Gaul. When the Senate voted remnants of Cassius’s army and smaller more manoeuvrable ships, and Syria. He was also given the
and fresher, better trained crews. title “Augustus” and, cementing
to transfer Octavian’s legions to attacked Syria in 39BCE. In his position further, he was consul
sufficient resources to besiege it. each year from 27 to 23BCE. Over
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized them at Philippi, in northern 36BCE, Mark Antony invaded In 33BCE, the Triumvirate time, the Senate voted Augustus
further powers, including that of
he was being sidelined and formed Greece, after which Cassius Parthia itself – ostensibly to expired and Octavian had the imperium maius in 23BCE, which
Senate declare Mark Antony a gave him supreme authority in the
a three-way alliance with Mark committed suicide. Three weeks recover the legionary eagles public enemy. The latter had lost provinces he had not previously
popularity through his relationship governed, and the permanent
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the later, they destroyed the remnants captured by the Parthians at the with Cleopatra, the Egyptian powers of a tribune of the plebs
queen, and Octavian quickly in 23BCE. Although the Senate was,
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark Battle of Carrhae (see 53BCE) rallied public opinion to himself. in theory, the supreme authority
A fleet was rapidly assembled, in Rome, in practice no-one could
became the Second Triumvirate. Antony stayed in the east until – and advanced to the capital and this destroyed Mark Antony’s match Augustus’s power, and he is
naval force at Actium, off western seen as the first Roman emperor.
The Triumvirate conducted a war 40BCE, when he returned to Italy to Phraata, but he did not have Greece, in September 31BCE.
Mark Antony’s land army then North Africa had been a centre
against Cassius and Marcus try to undermine the defected to Octavian, and Antony of strong resistance to both Julius
and Cleopatra fled to Greece, Caesar and Augustus, who settled
Brutus, two more of Caesar’s growing power of Suicide of Cleopatra where Octavian caught up with many army veterans there. In
assassins, who had seized much Octavian. Their two This 19th-century painting depicts them in the summer of 30BCE. 25BCE, Augustus gave Mauretania
armies refused to fight, the death of Cleopatra, who killed The Roman warlord and the (western North Africa) to Juba II
of the territory in the east. and a de facto division herself to avoid being captured by Egyptian queen both committed of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
In 42BCE, Mark Antony of the Roman world was Octavian and taken to Rome. suicide, and Egypt was annexed to was the daughter of Mark Antony
and Octavian defeated the Roman empire. Octavian was and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
now the unchallenged master of Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
the whole Roman world. legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

43SBeMCcEoaOnrkcdtAaTvnriitauonmnyfvoairrnmadtseLwepitih4du2dsBeBCfEercauRottemeupdsmuaabitntlPidschuaCiinclaiispfdosperiiuc;ses 40cBaCpEtuPraertJheiarunstarol3eo9mPpBsaCrEthAinatnosniyndCei3flei7cPaBitaaaCsrEntdhRioraemnssatonorsuetdHoriefvrJeoedrutosat3hle6rbmoBynrCteEehtAerenPataotsrntythoiiasAndrsemafeenandtiead 36foBroCcEueTOtsrociuLftamevpviiaidrnautse 32CBhHCeEanInngdeCmihbipenecaro,omr esc.3k0inaBgrCtedrEoiobImnveedssromro-uGfenBnrebaoeycfkttSrhicaeytShaiaka 27thBbCeEetficOitrolcsemttaAiRvnuiogagmnuinastanteukfefesem,sctptehreor 26C–an1n9ortraBetCbRvhErooeilmartnnaasSgnoaprfiaunilsnet

be4c0oBmCeEsHteoerftorGadarIcl4idhl0eivBeiCdEeRdobmetawneteenrarOintcdotraAievnisatonny39beBtCwEeTaernnedaAtSnyetooxfntuMyss,oiOsPnecootnmafuvPpmiaeonimu,sp,ey mar3r7ieqBsCuECeleAennotopofanEtyrgay,pt 36 BCaEgCaainmsptPaSoiemgxnptsuesius Ar3m4eBnCEiaAanrntuodlnecyra,ipAntrvutaradevesassitdses d3e1fBeBaCaEttstOleAcntoatfvoAinacyntiautm 30CsBuleCicEoipdAaeRnt;otroEmangcayyonpamtnpmmrdoaivtdinece Agr2iRp7opoBfmaCnEcaoMonrmtachrpoecnlrueqnstueSsepsatinGall2uA5sr–afb2aii4alsBFCteoElAicxoe(nlYfioqeurumseReronm) e

72

70

20–10 BCE 9–1 BCE

,, ,,THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER

,, I DROVE INTO EXILE… AND…
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE.

Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

La Maison Carré, in Nîmes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving
Roman temples. It was built around 16BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

In western Asia, the ruler of HE COULD JUSTLY BY 9 BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED
Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
retain his position by Octavian, ,,BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND had reached the River Elbe. After
even though he had supported his death, Augustus appointed
Mark Antony. He was even given IT BUILT OF BRICK AND Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
extra territories, including parts LEFT IT IN MARBLE. won a series of victories in 8BCE,
of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been but then mysteriously resigned
appointed by Mark Antony in 42BCE,
and by 37BCE he had conquered his offices and went into exile in
the remains of the Hasmonean
kingdom (see 146–131BCE). Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius
Herod remained a reliable ally city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars Caesar (both underage) as heirs
of Rome until his death in 4BCE.
apparent to the Roman Empire.
Emperor Augustus
Augustus, seen here dressed as a In China, the reign of Yuandi
priest, acquired the title of pontifex
maximus (chief priest) on the death AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND when he died. Around this time, (49–33BCE) saw the economic
of Lepidus in 12 BCE.
POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied the Romans annexed the provinces retrenchment begun under Xuandi

largely on the abilities of Marcus of Raetia (in modern Switzerland) (see 70–61BCE) continue. Some

Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from and Noricum (between the Alps semi-independent kingdoms that

a minor family to become consul in and the Danube), moving the the early Han had suppressed

37, 28, and 27BCE. After Agrippa empire’s frontiers almost to a line began to reappear. Yuandi and his Khazneh at Petra
The Khazneh is one of Petra’s finest
had married Augustus’s daughter along the Rhine and the Danube. successors Chengdi (r.33–7BCE) monuments. Carved out of a sheer
cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb
Julia, he received numerous Supporters of Tiberius, now the and Aidi (r.7–1BCE) also created – perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9BCE–40CE).

promotions, including tribune of most high-profile general, tried numerous marquisates, many of the succession of his half-nephew
Aidi in 7BCE. This caused dissent
the plebs in 18BCE. Augustus’s own to have him displace Lucius and which were granted to the sons of among nobles whose candidates
for the throne had been overlooked.
appointed heir had died in 25BCE, Gaius Caesar as Augustus’s heir. the new kings, weakening the
The Nabataean kingdom of
so he adopted Agrippa’s children, Augustus himself did little to state’s central control. Chengdi northern Arabia grew rich on its
control of the spice trade from
renaming them Gaius and Lucius resolve the question of succession. lacked a male heir, resulting in southern Arabia, reaching its
height in the mid-1st centuryBCE
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to under Malichos I (c.59–c.30BCE).
It then faced a growing threat on
succeed Augustus, but in 12BCE he ROMAN LITERATURE AT THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS its northern borders from Herod I.
A disputed succession in 9/8BCE
died unexpectedly, throwing open between Aretas IV and his chief
minister Syllaeus led the Romans
the question of succession. The end of the Republic and to take an interest in the area. An
expedition led by Gaius, grandson
By threatening to invade Parthia the reign of Augustus saw a of Augustus, may even have
briefly annexed Nabataea in
in 20BCE, Augustus had engineered golden age in Latin literature. 3–1BCE, but the Romans pulled
back, allowing Nabataea another
the return of legionary standards The orator Cicero and the century of independence.

captured by the Parthians at historian Sallust marked the

Carrhae (see 53BCE). In 16BCE, the height of late Republican

Roman governor of Macedonia literature. After Augustus’s

began pushing towards the River rise to power, the poets Virgil

Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius, (right; 70–19BCE), author of
Augustus’s stepson, the son of his the Eclogues and the epic
second wife Livia, moved north poem The Aeneid, and Horace

from Illyria to create the Roman (65–8BCE), author of the
province of Pannonia (modern Odes and Carmen Saeculare,

Austria and Hungary). Tiberius’s both flourished under the

brother Drusus pushed Roman patronage of Maecenas, a

control across the Rhine towards close confidant of Augustus.

the Elbe between 12 and 9BCE,

25oBfCsJEiagtDhnnoeuifoysRrinisongmtRopaoetnhmaewceeoTaertrhlmderopculleo2gsh5keoBidunbC,tEgy JAoufubMgauasIuItrumestaadneia 20PBatCrhEtcehRaiRoopafmotmuCmeraaeaarkdnrnehasdapttaeetnhaadecraeeBr;rdaestttulerned 18aBsCmsEoaAcdigaerttiepriopbfauA,ncuelgoousfsettuh1se,4puBlpeCrEbissMinagjoirnpCehaisnaant 12c–o9GnBeqaCrusEmetRshaotenmoyEfaalbnsefar 9BRCoEGmDebrrerum’tosostauchsnaseumrtccrcoTpibemiabeeipegsdlr;neAihutaueesggsdaauiissentsslue,tsaledaaisnviegnmgc8ophBinenCistrEteooTnreidbxeeirlreiuins gRoheosdes 4 BdCaEtePorof bJaebsluesbCirhtrhist 4 BhCiEsdHikvheiiindsregotdddhorbImeedetiwiessseo;enns

cca.2nf5oornBCtwhE reBitufiterdsndthSdtiriosmiwtLenainnk2a3thBCeEMReorm(omiatonicdsekinrinnvgaSdduoedman) rebu1il9dBsCatEhtHeJeetreroumdspaIlleem con1q5uBeCsaEtnRodfoNRmoaarenitciuamlike1l2yoBspCuEecnDceswesauisltplohsrqouutfcoecAsAegtueirogdinpuApsouatfug,wsu,hsotus com1p0lBeCteEosfHsbeeuraCoilpddaoeiInrstgaartea caMmaMp9raaoBirbCgcEonodRsmuoauamgtsnahanoiennifsDatthlaoennugbe Em7pBCeEroiIsnr sCCubhhhcyeiacnnlAeafg-ei,dnddieie,pdhhisew 2 BCEthAeugpursaitmeutspoereirsaitanalbgbluoisadhryedgsuaasrd
072-073_41_1BCE.indd 73 24/05/2011 17:50

73

71

700 BCE 599 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

THE RISE OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE

FROM CITY, TO REPUBLIC, TO DOMINANT EUROPEAN EMPIRE

Soon after its foundation in 753 BCE, the city of Rome began fighting its AT L A N T I C
neighbours to gain new territory. Gradually the Romans became entangled OCEAN
in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE,
the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen.

The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars their military successes to bolster their position in Rome. T ARRACON

against neighbours often threatening the survival of Rome itself. It was in this period that Pompey annexed Syria and Julius

By 290 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy, and began Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51 BCE.

expanding into the Italian Peninsula. Rivalry with Carthage led The collapse of the Roman Republic and the accession of

to the three Punic Wars between 264 and 146 BCE, but victories the first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE did not end the empire’s LUSITANIA

brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and expansion. The quest for security along the existing frontiers Olisipo Emerita Toletum
Augusta
then North Africa itself. resulted in the frontiers being pushed even further forward.
BAETICA
In the early 2nd century BCE the Romans fought campaigns in Rome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns

the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43 CE, and

146 BCE. The pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of Trajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern

,,BOUTNODTHAERIREOSMINATNIMS IESOERT SNPOACE. ,,the Republic, as generals competed for political power and used Romania) and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117CE. Tingis

MAURETANIA
TINGITANA

Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future
greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid

MILL4I.O5N 100 CE
By around 100 CE, the Mediterranean had
7:1 Roman population KEY become a Roman “lake”, and the acquisition
Around 1 CE, the Roman Roman territory of territories in northwest and Central Europe
Empire contained just had brought the northern Roman frontier as
under one seventh of the world’s population far as the Rhine and the Danube.
– 45 million out of 300 million people.
45 A GROWING EMPIRE
5,000,000 km² It took the Romans nearly 500
MILLION years to complete the conquest
117 CE An empire of non-citizens of Italy, but only half that time to
In 1 CE, only a tenth of the enlarge their territories to include
Roman population were full Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany,
citizens. The rest were slaves most of the Balkans, much of North
or had limited civic rights. Africa, and large parts of western
Asia. Over the following 100 years
2,750,000 km² Expanding empire they acquired Morocco, Britain, and 240BCE The Romans dominated most of
Between the accession of Augustus and Dacia, and made small advances the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First
25 BCE the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire into western Asia, but the empire Punic War (264–241BCE) brought new
almost doubled in size, acquiring vast began to contract after 250 CE. territory in Sicily, but the Romans still faced
new territories in northwestern Europe resistance to their rule in northern Italy.
and western Asia.

72

bernia
Caledonia

Sea
North

10,000S e a
Eburacum Baltic KILOMETRES
Camulodunum THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH
Lindum OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS
BRITANNIA G e r m Burgundians AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT
Londinium Colonia nia
Agrippina a

GERMANIA Augusta
INFERIOR
Treverorum

Durocortorum Mogontiacum Sarmatians

Marcomanni Quadi
Vindobona Carnuntum
LUGDUNENSIS AGERMANIA MOSIA
DSUPERIOR
BELGICA
Lugdunum RAETIA I CUM Brigetio INFERIOR BOSPORAN
PENRIOONIRAVirunun KINGDOM
AQUITANIA
NO R Aquineum Apulum
ALPS GRAIAE
ET POENINAE Aquileia PANNONIA Roxolani
INFERIOR
Mediolanum PASNU Black Sea
DACIA Durostorum
ALPS COTTIAE Trapezus

NARBONES I S ALPS Ravenna Sirmium Viminacium
M MODESIA
ENSIS L

MARITIMAE A SUPERIOR Byzantium PONTUS
A
Massilia T I Philippopolis A ET
Corsica THRACIA CIA
Rome BIT H Y NI

Baleares Aleria ITALIA Thessalonica Ancyra CAPPADO Samosata

Sardinia MACEDONIA ASIA

Valentia Carales EPIRUS GALATIA I A Zeugma
Carthago Nova Antioch
Messana Delphi Ephesus L C
MAURETANIA Miletus
CAESARIENSIS M e Corinth LYCIA CI L

Utica d i Sicilia

Carthage t e r r Syracuse ACHAIA Athens Cyprus SYRIA
Thugga
a nean Sparta Damascus
Tyrus
Sea Creta

Jerusalem JUDEA

Sabratha Bostra

AF Ptolemais
S RICA Leptis Magna Cyrene
Alexandria ARABIA
Petra

CYRENE Memphis
a ET CRETA

h AEGYPTUS
a
r Red Sea
a

200 BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage 120 BCE Most of Spain had fallen 60 BCE New North African territories 14 CE The Roman borders had expanded
in the Second Punic War brought new into Roman possession, as well as were gained in 96 BCE, and in 63 BCE Syria to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well
possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By Carthaginian territory in North Africa. and parts of Palestine were annexed. as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum
200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained Greece and parts of western Anatolia The frontiers in Anatolia were also (Switzerland, south Germany, and
in northwestern Greece. were also acquired. pushed forward. Austria), and Pannonia (Hungary).

73

1–23 24–40

,, QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE

,,ME BACK MY LEGIONS.

Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9 CE

WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF (China’s administrative regions), Consolidating ruler Guard, took day-to-day power, but GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the and reimposed several state Rather than extending his rule was tyrannical and in 31 EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
government under Emperor Ping monopolies. Serious floods on the Roman territory through foreign Tiberius suddenly reasserted alienated the Red Eyebrows and
Di (r.1BCE–6CE). He strengthened Yellow River in 4–11 led to famine conquests, Tiberius concentrated on himself and had Sejanus executed. angered many of China’s nobility
his influence by marrying his and revolts in rural areas. In 23, strengthening the existing empire. and bureaucrats by moving the
daughter to the young emperor. the peasant rebels called the “Red Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy capital from Luoyang back to
On Ping Di’s death, many of the Eyebrows” joined forces with Han When Emperor Augustus (see Completed in the reign of Tiberius, Chang’an. Much of China had
loyalists and overwhelmed Wang 20–2BCE) died in 14, Tiberius was this bridge carried the Via Aemilia already slipped from Gengshi’s
28 Mang’s armies. When the capital his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza) grasp by 25, when Chang’an was
Chang’an fell, Gengshi became Caesar having died). Tiberius across the River Marecchia. sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
THE NUMBER the first emperor of the restored already possessed most of emperor was deposed and
OF DIFFERENT Han dynasty. One of his first acts Augustus’s powers and had the replaced by Guang Wudi (25–57),
TYPES OF COIN was to make Luoyang his capital. loyalty of the Praetorian Guard who is regarded as the first
ISSUED BY – the elite army unit based in Eastern Han emperor. The new
WANG MANG In Europe, Tiberius (see 20–2 Rome, which Augustus had ruler had first to face a civil war;
BCE) returned to Germany in 4 to established. Although there were by 27, he had defeated the Red
nobility rejected Wang Mang’s subdue the tribes there. The moves in the senate to restore Eyebrows, but it took him until 36
choice of successor and rose up Marcomanni resisted, but a the Republic, Tiberius rapidly to overcome the last of the
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put planned attack on them in 6 was squashed them. His reign (to 37) warlords who opposed him. In 37,
them down, and in 9 he took the postponed because of a revolt in was quiet at home. Germanicus, he abolished all except three of
title of first Xin emperor. He Pannonia, which took three years Tiberius’s nephew, campaigned the kingdoms that had sprung up
reissued the currency, forbade to quell. A new Roman commander, extensively in Germany up to 16,
the selling of private slaves, Quinctilius Varus, was sent to but his efforts led to no permanent MONGOLIA Sea
reorganized the commanderies Germany, but his corrupt rule reacquisition of territory beyond Gobi of
angered the German tribes. In 9, the Rhine and he died of poisoning Japan
Varus was ambushed in the in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son,
Teutoberg Forest, and his three died in 23, the emperor tired of Pingchang KOREA JAPAN
legions were annihilated. Augustus public life and retired to the
then ordered a withdrawal to the island of Capri, off Naples. Chang’an Luoyang
Rhine, where the Roman frontier Sejanus, head of the Praetorian Mawangdui Gaixia East
remained for the next 400 years. China
Sea

Guanzhou Taiwan

South
China
Sea

KEY
Qin China in 206BCE
Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 206BCE–9CE
Great Wall under the Han

Chinese Han Empire
When Guang Wudi began the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
Asia. Much of this territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

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076-077_s1p_arcr5e.e1a0adCBsAsuEostdfio.adisnnchodoiumsadtmshatiean7allsa6fltnodurishce.1s iMnoncohrethceurlntaupPrpeeoruin6tRedomtoagnopvreorcnuJrua9SdtMouKardeeinaargnob)eNus(atiialnkdrapittnsragemlsaperargnnoetig--ordsfaacmaylme e 9 WangCMhanianndegesessXtetiainhzbredloissynhneeassty14hDe eaisadtsohupcotecfdeAesudogenudsTbtiubyseh;risius a1n7neCxaepdpatodoR1Oco7ivmaiRdeodmieasn(binp.4oe3exBtilCeE) X2in3redCsyotnloalraseptdys;,ewHoaiftnhCdhitayisntncaLaa’ossputiyytaalng b2e6coPmonestiupsroPocifulJaruatetdoarea c.3o3f JCersuucisfiCxihornist
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41–50

This ornamental brick from China’s Eastern Han period shows
a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages.

JESUS CHRIST (c.4 BCE–33 CE) IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI Colchester, the capital of the EMPEROR CLAUDIUS
NOMADS occupying land in Bactria principal British resistance leader, (10 BCE–54 CE)
Jesus, a carpenter from united under Kujula Kadphises Caractacus. Claudius himself
Nazareth, began his ministry in (30–80), who founded the Kushan made a brief appearance at the Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
his early 30s. He taught in the Empire and conquered parts of fall of Colchester, before returning was an unlikely candidate for
Jewish tradition, calling for Gandhara. Although few details to Rome to bask in the glory of Roman emperor. However, he
the reform of the Temple and of Kujula’s reign are known, he having acquired a new province. turned out to be intelligent
for the love of one’s neighbour minted coins in imitation of both In 47, the Romans paused briefly and forceful, putting down
to take precedence over the Greek and Roman models, in their conquest of Britain, having two revolts in 42, after which
strict observance of religious demonstrating that Bactria and reached a line roughly between he executed more than 300
law. Jesus gathered a group of northwestern India remained very the River Humber in the east and senators. He was unfortunate
twelve disciples around him, much a cultural crossroads. the River Severn in the west. They in his choice of wives: he had
but was targeted by Jewish began establishing legionary his wife Messalina executed
conservatives afraid of his In northwestern Europe, a group fortresses in their new province, after she had an affair, and
growing influence. In 33, the of disgruntled officers of Rome’s including at Exeter and Lincoln. her successor Agrippina
Roman authorities in Judaea Praetorian Guard assassinated Aulus Plautius’s replacement, (Caligula’s sister) is reputed
executed Jesus by crucifixion, Caligula in January 41, tired of Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales, to have poisoned him.
but the disciples, convinced his cruel and irrational behaviour where Caractacus was continuing
that Jesus had risen from the (see 24–40). In 43, the new the resistance. In 50, he defeated the Jews within the Roman
dead, continued his teaching. emperor, Claudius (r.41–54), sent an army of Silurian and Ordovician empire, Paul ensured that
an invasion force of four legions tribesmen, and Caractacus fled Christianity spread sufficiently
under his predecessors, and legions in 39, Caligula marched led by Aulus Plautius, governor to the imagined safety of the to help it weather the storms of
reinstated Luoyang as the capital. them to the coast opposite Britain of Pannonia, to conquer Britain. Brigantes tribe in northern persecution that began under the
He faced renewed tension with to launch an invasion; when they The Romans landed unopposed England. However, the Brigantian Emperor Nero in 64. By the late
the Hsiung-nu on China’s got there, he merely had them at Richborough, pushed on to queen, Cartimandua, handed 4th century, Christianity would be
northern frontier, but failed to take collect seashells along the beach. London, and then captured Caractacus over to the Romans, the majority religion within the
advantage of their split into two and Roman Britain remained Roman Empire.
rival chiefdoms in 49. Independent Jewish kingdoms Christian catacomb, Rome relatively trouble free during the
in Palestine collapsed as Roman At first, Roman Christians did not following decade.
The Roman Empire once again power grew, creating a powerful have their own cemeteries. Later,
faced an unclear succession at ferment of religious change. they buried their dead in underground The 40s saw a struggle in the
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had John the Baptist preached in complexes called catacombs. early Christian community
named two heirs, but Gemellus the 20s, followed in around 30 between those who wanted to
was soon pushed aside because by a new preacher, Jesus. After remain within the Jewish tradition
Gaius, nicknamed Caligula (“little Jesus’s death in 33, his disciples and those, led by Paul, who
boots”), was popular with the began to spread his message favoured the inclusion of gentiles
senate and the army. Caligula’s more widely. By around 50, (non-Jews) in the Christian church.
behaviour as emperor became communities of Christians, Paul began a series of missionary
increasingly erratic – he had as Jesus’s followers were known, journeys in 46 which led him
Gemellus executed, and had many would be established throughout through Anatolia and Greece to
of Tiberius’s supporters killed. Western Asia, with particularly Rome, where he was martyred
He also had his sister’s husband – large groups in Antioch and around 62. A charismatic preacher,
his heir apparent – condemned to the first appearance of Paul also wrote a powerful series
death. After visiting the Rhineland Christians in Rome. of epistles (letters) to various
fledgling Christian groups. In
appealing to a wider group than

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076-077_1_50CE.indd 77
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77

75

51–61 62–72

70 THOUSAND
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA’S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt against the Romans,
which began in 66.

WHEN CLAUDIUS DIED IN 54, the Roman procurator (chief Britain, was away on campaign in IN THE EAST, Rome faced further After Nero’s suicide, four men
the Roman imperial throne fell to financial official) ruled that Wales, and by the time he troubles with Parthia over the became emperor in rapid
Nero (37–68), his adopted son and Boudicca could not inherit her returned, Camulodunum had border region of Armenia, where succession, making 69 the “Year
son-in-law. The young emperor’s lands, and that they would be been sacked by the Iceni. The the Parthian king had installed of the Four Emperors”. First,
reign began well when he rebels then burnt Londinium his own candidate, Tiridates, as the praetorian guard recognized
promised the senate he would annexed by Rome. (London) and Verulamium (St king in 53. A Roman force invaded Galba (3 BCE–69 CE) as emperor,
avoid making any arbitrary Boudicca raised an Albans) before they were finally Armenia in 59, took its capital but he made himself unpopular
measures. However, the first sign army and marched on trapped and defeated by cities of Artaxata and by refusing to give the praetorians
of Nero’s tyranny surfaced in 59, Camulodunum Paullinus. It is said the Iceni lost Tigranocerta and put in place a the donative, a customary bonus
when he had his mother (Colchester). pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His payable on the accession of a
Agrippina (15–59) murdered. In Suetonius Paullinus, 80,000 warriors and ill-advised invasion of a Parthian new emperor. In January 69, the
62, a new praetorian prefect the governor of Boudicca herself was ally in 61 led to his removal, and governor of Upper Germany,
(commander of the imperial captured, though she Tiridates was restored. A new Aulus Vitellius, revolted, and
bodyguard), Tigellinus (c.10–69), died, possibly poisoned, Roman army was then roundly one of Galba’s former supporters,
took office. Tigellinus pandered to soon after. beaten by the Parthians in 62, and Salvius Otho (32–69), angered
the less desirable side of only a Roman push into Armenia when Galba recognized another
Nero’s personality, Boudicca the following year ended the war. senator as his heir, had the
whose rule became This statue of Boudicca emperor murdered and took the
increasingly stands outside the Tiridates was allowed to keep throne. In April 69, the armies of
despotic. Following a Houses of the throne, as long as he Otho and Vitellius clashed at
fire that destroyed Parliament in travelled to Rome to seek Bedriacum near Cremona in
much of Rome in 64, London, a city Nero’s approval, which he northern Italy, and the Vitellian
Nero is said to have that the Iceni army won. Otho committed
taken terrible queen razed to eventually did in 66. suicide, but Vitellius soon faced
retribution on Rome’s Nero’s position as emperor a further conspiracy when
small Christian the ground. became increasingly precarious T. Flavius Vespasianus
population, who proved when Calpurnius Piso led a
convenient scapegoats. conspiracy in 64, which prompted 960
Later, during the Nero to order further
reconstruction of Rome, COMMITED
Nero alienated senators executions, including those of SUICIDE
by seizing their land to many senators. In early 68, a
build himself a new revolt broke out, led by 7
palace. He also ordered
additional taxes in Gaius Julius Vindex, Survivors
Palestine, which sparked governor of Gallia
a Jewish revolt in 66. Lugdunensis. Roman invasion
Shortly after the When the Romans finally breached
In Britain, the Romans revolt of Vindex, the the walls of Masada, all except seven
faced a serious Iceni defenders committed suicide rather
revolt in 60. When the legion based in Spain than fall into Roman hands.
king of the Iceni died, proclaimed the
he left his lands to his governor, Sulpicius
queen, Boudicca. Galba, as emperor. Vindex’s
The revolt was revolt was put down by Verginius
triggered when Rufus, the governor of Germany,
but Nero panicked and
committed suicide, believing
Rufus would be the next to try to
claim his throne.

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25/05/2011 16:52
76

73–90

A fresco from Pompei – many of Pompei’s elaborate frescoes survived for
nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

Jewish revolts between Ptolemais Sea of BY THE MID 70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT destroyed by a volcanic eruption. far into Scotland, until a final
66 and 74 GALILEE Galilee had fizzled out and the rest of Showers of ash came raining defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
Although the Jewish Vespasian’s reign was largely down from Vesuvius, and those Graupius (possibly near
rebels of 66 initially Nazareth peaceful. With a reputation for who did not escape in time were Aberdeen) made it likely the whole
managed to gain control frugality, he restored the empire’s overwhelmed by the pyroclastic of Scotland would be annexed.
of a large part of Caesarea finances, imposing levies on a flow (a fast-moving mass of hot But emperor Domitian (81–96)
Palestine, by 69 they had Mediterranean Sea number of provinces, including gases, ash, and debris) from the was facing trouble on the Danube
lost control of all but the SAMARIA tadiniEgypt. By the time he died in 79, volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the and a legion was withdrawn from
area around Jerusalem. Dead Sea DECAPOLIS stability had been restored to population of 20,000 died, Britain around 86, leaving an
JUDAEA such an extent that the succession including the naturalist Pliny the insufficient force to garrison
KEY of his eldest son, Titus (r.79–81), Elder, who was commanding a northern Scotland, which was
Emmaus Gadara was unopposed. naval unit nearby and perished in evacuated.
Area of major revolt 66 Bethlehem Beth a failed rescue attempt.
Horton Two months after the accession Domitian had managed to fend
Area of revolt in 69 of Titus as Roman emperor, on 25 In Britain, the Roman- off the threat from the
Jericho August 79 the city of Pompeii, controlled area continued to Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and
Siege Jerusalem near modern Naples, was expand, with governor Petillius Quadi along the Danube by 84,
70 CE Cerialis (71–74) occupying the but war then erupted with the
Jewish victory Figure from Pompeii northern English kingdom of Dacians (of modern Romania)
Gaza The bodies of those who died in the Brigantia. Julius Frontinus who crossed the Danube and
(Vespasian) (9–79) – the Pompeii eruption were coated in (74–77) completed the subjugation killed the governor of Roman
general in charge of Machaerus volcanic ash, which then solidified, of Wales, defeating the Silures, Moesia. By 86, Domitian had
suppressing the Jewish leaving their outlines behind. but it was left to Julius Agricola defeated the Dacians, under their
revolt – set himself up as yet Masada (77–83/4) to send Roman armies new king, Decebalus. Dacia was
another rival emperor. The whole 74 CE not occupied by Rome, leaving
of the East and the Balkans Caledonii Decebalus in place to cause the
defected immediately to Jewish laws caused great Romans further trouble.
Vespasian. At a second battle discontent. In 60, the rebuilding Inchtuthil
near Cremona in October, of the Temple that Herod had
Vitellius’s forces were crushed. ordered built decades before was Dumnonii Vo North KEY
By December Vespasian’s army finished, and 20,000 unemployed Sea Atrebates, absorbed 70s
had taken Rome and Vitellius workmen added to the rising Selgovae Iceni, conquered 60–61
was executed shortly afterwards. tension. The Roman procurator Brigantes, conquered 69–74
Rome had an unchallenged of Judaea aggravated these Novantae
ruler once again. feelings with his heavy-handed
rule, and in 66 an uprising broke Irish Sea Stanwick Roman expansion 43–47
Vespasian moved quickly to out. Although the commanders of Brigantes Roman expansion 47–50
re-establish the loyalty of the the uprising were competent, it Roman expansion 69–74
army, dismissing Vitellius’s lacked political leadership and Eboracum
praetorian guard and recruiting the Jewish strongholds were
another. He also had to face a gradually reduced, first by Anglesey SilDuOruredBsmouvnircorenisuiimIDsDCcuVeoarirvroGcantloreoVnDivvgeiouieuribmusmulCnaConmCaritiautiuavlnelmelilvaauLniniLTCdrouainInnmcodteviianannicCitueiasmmRuolomduannumexpahRoBnfsayoiEdom7nnr4age,7nla9Rac–son8hmdi4en.daTBnthrhelieetyagntiihonoenrtnsh
serious revolt along the Rhine, Vespasian and then by his son Noviomagus pushed north into
where Julius Civilis, a noble of Titus (39–81). In 70, Jerusalem Isca Dumnoniorum Scotland until 83.
the Batavian people, joined forces came under siege, and in late Maiden Castle Hengistbury Gallia
with dissident legionaries and August the city fell and the
almost established an Temple was destroyed. Perhaps
independent Gallic empire. as many as 200,000 people died,
many sacred Jewish treasures
Judaea had been under direct were taken to Rome, and
Roman rule since the death of thousands of Jews were
King Agrippa I in 44. Foreign rule enslaved. Resistance continued
and Roman insensitivity towards at Masada until 74, when it fell
after a two-year siege.

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91–100 101–117
,,
[AN EMPEROR] UNDER
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS
PERMITTED TO DO

,,EVERYTHING.

Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns
against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN 51 96 BECAME ROMAN Emperor Domitian EMPEROR TRAJAN 98 117 WAS mountains and building a bridge 331,000 kg
EMPEROR after the unexpected Domitian’s reign began well, but FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had across the Danube at Drobeta to
death of his brother, Titus (39–81). his descent into tyranny proved too settled in Spain – he was the first allow easier access across the SILVER
Domitian had never commanded much for his opponents, who had emperor to come from a Roman river. Three years later, in 105, the
armies and was unprepared for him assassinated. province rather than Italy. Having Senate declared that Decebalus 165,500 kg
the exercise of supreme returned to Rome from Germany had violated the treaty, and Trajan
power. He had some success In Central Asia, the northern in 100 to claim his throne, he embarked on his Second Dacian GOLD
in his early campaigns, but Hsiung-nu confederation (see started a new Dacian War against War. This time the legions
he over-extended himself 146–131BCE) collapsed in 89, Decebalus in 101. From a base at reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa The Dacian Fortune
against the Dacians, and in allowing the Han to make large Viminacium (in modern Serbia), in 106. Decebalus fled and then The large amount of treasure Trajan
putting down a legionary gains in the region, led by general he pushed into central Dacia, and committed suicide to avoid acquired in Dacia allowed him to
revolt led by Saturninus, Ban Chao (32–102). Ban Chao fought a major engagement at capture. The Romans acquired an build impressive monuments to
the governor of Germania became protector-general of the Tapae, in which both sides enormous amount of treasure in commemorate his Dacian victory.
Superior. This distraction Western Regions in 92, and suffered serious losses. When Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
allowed Decebalus, King of re-established control over the Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian embark on a building spree, campaign against Parthia itself
the Dacians (r.87–106), to renew key oases along the Silk Route. royal capital at Sarmizegetusa including the construction of a that gave him greater success in
his war against Rome, and By the time he retired in 102 Regia, Decebalus sued for peace, new Forum in Rome. Dacia was the east than any previous Roman
Domitian was forced to pay off the the Han controlled most of the agreeing to give up his army’s annexed as Rome’s first province emperor. By late 114 the
Dacians with an annual subsidy. Tarim Basin. Chinese state weapons and siege equipment, across the Danube. It remained in Armenians had submitted to him,
organization became very and to demolish his remaining imperial hands for over 160 years. and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
The conspiracy of Saturninus complicated under the Han. Three forts. The Roman army did not capturing the Parthian capital of
led Domitian to become supreme officials supervised withdraw totally, establishing a Some time around 106 the Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,
paranoid and he had many large, complex departments. Each legionary base near the Roman governor of Syria annexed Trajan had reached the Persian
senators executed for treason. of these was subdivided into nine the Nabataean kingdom, which
In September 96, he was ministries. Governors oversaw Sacred city became the Roman province of
murdered in a palace conspiracy each region, with regions divided This ruined temple is in the Dacian Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last
and the Senate chose the aged into over 1,000 counties, each capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia (in acquisition in the east – in 113 he
M. Cocceius Nerva (30–98) to supervised by a magistrate. modern-day Romania). It contained set off on a campaign against
replace him. The Senate then Eunuchs became increasingly the kingdom’s most sacred shrines. Parthia. He began by attacking
voted to destroy all statues of influential at the Han court. Armenia in 113–114, but it was his
Domitian and to recall those he
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva
faced a mutiny of the praetorian
guard, who demanded the
punishment of Domitian’s
murderers. Nerva was forced
to give in, weakening his
authority. His position was
further diminished by his lack
of an heir. To rectify this he
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus
(Trajan), the governor of Upper
Germany, a man with a strong
military backing. Nerva died
soon afterwards and Trajan
became emperor.

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78