Journal on Constitutional Democracy

Inaugural Address of President even under Theodore Roosevelt, saw itself as a force
James Knox Polk (1845) for the good of others, while many European powers
Before declaring war on Mexico over Texas, framed colonialism as primarily, if not exclusively,
Polk delivered an address, excerpted below, that for the benefit of the mother country. While it is still
is commonly seen as the premier of example debated whether or not the US in fact constituted an
of the complex legacy of American expansion empire, some things are without question: the American
and colonialism. government has controlled foreign territories and
countries, often through coercive methods, with
“The inestimable value of our Federal Union is felt imperialist policy often lost in the tangles of rhetoric
and acknowledged by all. By this system of united that ideologically justified imperialism as inherently
and confederated States our people are permitted beneficial to the other nation in question.
collectively and individually to seek their own
happiness in their own way, and the consequences This relationship between imperial action and
have been most auspicious…Beneath its benign ideological justification went hand in hand with
sway peace and prosperity prevail…our trade and America’s early expansion. Since the days of the early
intercourse have extended throughout the world. Republic, frontiersmen and settlers pushed beyond the
colonies, an act discouraged by the Royal Proclamation
*** of 1763. A point of contention, this proclamation would
The Republic of Texas has made known her desire be amended later, as expansionist ideas were forming in
to come into our Union, to form a part of our the heads of many Americans. Indeed, under Thomas
Confederacy and enjoy with us the blessings of Jefferson, the United States expanded greatly, most
liberty secured and guaranteed by our Constitution. notably with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory
Texas was once a part of our country--was unwisely from France in 1803.1 Before and during his presidency,
ceded away to a foreign power--is now independent, Jefferson also actively sought the territories held by the
and possesses a right to… merge her sovereignty as Spanish in the west and south. Even at this early stage
a separate and independent state in ours…by an act in the nation’s history, Jefferson articulated his interest
of the late Congress of the United States the assent in expansion through the terminology of planting the
of this Government has been given to the reunion, seeds of an “Empire of Liberty,” whose ideals would
and it only remains for the two countries to agree lead to the betterment of all individuals who fell under
upon the terms… its jurisdiction, including US citizens. In his letter to
Benjamin Chambers, for example, Jefferson spells out
*** how the spread of the United States “has secured the
I regard the question of annexation as belonging blessings of civil & religious freedom to millions yet
exclusively to the United States and Texas. They unborn,” and that “by enlarging the empire of liberty,
are independent powers competent to contract, and we multiply its auxiliaries & provide new sources of
foreign nations have no right to interfere with them renovation.” To George Rogers Clark, he describes
or to take exceptions to their reunion.” United States expansion as a means of converting
“dangerous Enemies into valuable friends.” Jefferson
in arguments against the classification of the United was not alone in his assessment, as C. W. F. Dumas
States as empire-interested is its lack of established describes the United States in 1781 as the Empire
colonies (Liberia being the only example, and it was of Liberty, adding that it is uniquely set apart from
released quickly). In those cases in which the US did the powers of Europe in this respect. In each case,
assume control of a nation, it often left the existing though, as altruistic as the United States makes itself
government relatively intact; the government merely seem, the language of value reaped for America can
became subject to, or altered enough to create, pro- not be ignored. Politicians such as Jefferson would
American conditions. Even the rhetoric of American use the nation’s founding values—its insistence, for
and European ambition is different. The United States, example, on promoting “civil and religious liberties”—

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 49







America and Democracy in a
Post-War Era

Julian Douglass

In 1945, following the end of the Second World War, Soviet Union was seen, in the words of Ronald Reagan,
two countries remained as dominant forces. The as “the Evil Empire”: a nation where totalitarianism
Soviet Union and the United States were dubbed the prevented freedom and democracy from thriving.
globe’s two major superpowers and in their political, Both superpowers wanted to install their worldviews
philosophical, and economic opposition to one another not only on a fragmented Europe but on the rest of
exemplified what a new world order would look like. the developing world as well, where many third world
On one hand, the United States was viewed as the nation-states were shaking their colonial roots and
torchbearer of democracy. On the other hand, the starting down the path of self-governance. The two

Truman Doctrine Greece is not a rich country. Lack of sufficient
natural resources has always forced the Greek
PRESIDENT HARRY S. TRUMAN’S people to work hard to make both ends meet. Since
ADDRESS BEFORE A JOINT SESSION 1940, this industrious and peace loving country
OF CONGRESS, MARCH 12, 1947 has suffered invasion, four years of cruel enemy
occupation, and bitter internal strife.
Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the
Congress of the United States: When forces of liberation entered Greece they
found that the retreating Germans had destroyed
The gravity of the situation which confronts the virtually all the railways, roads, port facilities,
world today necessitates my appearance before a communications, and merchant marine. More than
joint session of the Congress. The foreign policy a thousand villages had been burned. Eighty-five
and the national security of this country are per cent of the children were tubercular. Livestock,
involved. poultry, and draft animals had almost disappeared.
Inflation had wiped out practically all savings.
One aspect of the present situation, which I wish to
present to you at this time for your consideration As a result of these tragic conditions, a militant
and decision, concerns Greece and Turkey. minority, exploiting human want and misery, was
able to create political chaos which, until now, has
The United States has received from the Greek made economic recovery impossible.
Government an urgent appeal for financial and
economic assistance. Preliminary reports from Greece is today without funds to finance the
the American Economic Mission now in Greece importation of those goods which are essential to
and reports from the American Ambassador in bare subsistence. Under these circumstances the
Greece corroborate the statement of the Greek people of Greece cannot make progress in solving
Government that assistance is imperative if their problems of reconstruction. Greece is in
Greece is to survive as a free nation. desperate need of financial and economic assistance
to enable it to resume purchases of food, clothing,
I do not believe that the American people and the fuel and seeds. These are indispensable for the
Congress wish to turn a deaf ear to the appeal of subsistence of its people and are obtainable only
the Greek Government.

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 53

superpowers thus faced the question of how they toward democracy notwithstanding, the foreign policy
would be able to spread their influence and systems objectives outlined in the Doctrine in no way seem
of governance to the rest of the world. Looking back self-serving or self-interested: the goal, simply put, was
today, we can see that the results were a mixed bag. to articulate the nation’s devotion to “assisting peoples

“In the field of world policy I would dedicate this Nation to the policy of the
good neighbor—the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he
does so, respects the rights of others—the neighbor who respects his obligations
and respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a world of neighbors.”

~ Franklin Roosevelt

Communism still remains in the world, although it is who wanted to fight back against totalitarian regimes
neither as prevalent nor considered as big of a threat in order to achieve and maintain a free way of life.”
as it was in the middle of the twentieth century. With
regard to the United States, we must evaluate post- Throughout the era of the Cold War, we can see
WW II foreign policy in terms of how successfully Presidents trying to articulate their foreign policy
it accomplished its stated goal of helping these new objectives in relation to the Truman Doctrine. One
nations form governments that were consistent with clear example of this occurred in the 1960 Presidential
western democratic traditions but also forged on these debate between then-Senator John Kennedy and
nations’ own terms. As we will see, while at times Vice President Richard Nixon. Interestingly, during
the United States did selflessly help lead developing the debate, it is Republican Nixon, not Democrat
nations toward democracy, there were other times Kennedy, who most closely echoes the sentiments of
when it seemed that the United States used foreign the Truman Doctrine by stressing the United States’
policy as a way to address its own needs and interests. lack of a self-interested foreign policy agenda. In
responding to Kennedy’s claim that the United States
One of the clearest declarations of the United States’ was obligated to fight the evils of communism, Nixon
foreign policy objectives in the post-World War II claimed that “We have to let [other nations] know
era was the Truman Doctrine. The Doctrine was that we want to help them, not because we’re simply
originally designed to secure Turkey and Greece the trying to save our own skins, not because we’re simply
foreign assistance that was necessary, as the document trying to fight communism; but because we care for
puts it, “to work out a way of life free from coercion.” them, because we stand for freedom, because if there
More broadly, the Doctrine spells out the ideas and were no communism in the world, we would still fight
the vision that the United States had for the post-War poverty and misery and disease and tyranny.” The key
world, as well as the role it would play in facilitating the point Nixon makes is that the United States should
achievement of this vision. It asserts how the United help countries start their own governments and figure
States was “willing to help free peoples to maintain their out their own problems and not use them as pawns for
free institutions and their national integrity against its own interests (the nation’s own interest, here, being
aggressive movements that seek to impose upon them the eradication of the supposed political and economic
totalitarian regimes.” Of utmost importance, here, threat of communism). Furthermore, the rhetoric he
is that the United States was not seeking to establish uses, especially the word “tyranny,” also falls in line
colonial rule of the former European colonies, nor with the selflessness of the United States’ foreign
was the intention of its leaders to set up governments policy goals, post-Truman Doctrine: namely, that the
for the people that directly or exactly represented the United States should help countries free themselves
United States’ own version of democracy. The slight from oppression simply because oppression or tyranny
and (obvious) favoritism the Truman Doctrine shows contradicts what the U.S. stands for, “freedom”.

54 Kinder Institute

from abroad. Greece must have help to import the and its related organizations are not in a position to
goods necessary to restore internal order and security, extend help of the kind that is required.
so essential for economic and political recovery.
It is important to note that the Greek Government
The Greek Government has also asked for the has asked for our aid in utilizing effectively the
assistance of experienced American administrators, financial and other assistance we may give to Greece,
economists and technicians to insure that the and in improving its public administration. It is of the
financial and other aid given to Greece shall be used utmost importance that we supervise the use of any
effectively in creating a stable and self-sustaining funds made available to Greece; in such a manner that
economy and in improving its public administration. each dollar spent will count toward making Greece
self-supporting, and will help to build an economy in
The very existence of the Greek state is today which a healthy democracy can flourish.
threatened by the terrorist activities of several
thousand armed men, led by Communists, who No government is perfect. One of the chief virtues
defy the government’s authority at a number of of a democracy, however, is that its defects are
points, particularly along the northern boundaries. always visible and under democratic processes can
A Commission appointed by the United Nations be pointed out and corrected. The Government of
security Council is at present investigating disturbed Greece is not perfect. Nevertheless it represents
conditions in northern Greece and alleged border eighty-five per cent of the members of the Greek
violations along the frontier between Greece on the Parliament who were chosen in an election last
one hand and Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia on year. Foreign observers, including 692 Americans,
the other. considered this election to be a fair expression of the
views of the Greek people.
Meanwhile, the Greek Government is unable to
cope with the situation. The Greek army is small and The Greek Government has been operating in an
poorly equipped. It needs supplies and equipment atmosphere of chaos and extremism. It has made
if it is to restore the authority of the government mistakes. The extension of aid by this country
throughout Greek territory. Greece must have does not mean that the United States condones
assistance if it is to become a self-supporting and everything that the Greek Government has done
self-respecting democracy. or will do. We have condemned in the past, and we
condemn now, extremist measures of the right or the
The United States must supply that assistance. We left. We have in the past advised tolerance, and we
have already extended to Greece certain types of advise tolerance now.
relief and economic aid but these are inadequate.
Greece’s neighbor, Turkey, also deserves
There is no other country to which democratic our attention.
Greece can turn.
The future of Turkey as an independent and
No other nation is willing and able to provide the economically sound state is clearly no less important
necessary support for a democratic Greek government. to the freedom-loving peoples of the world than
the future of Greece. The circumstances in which
The British Government, which has been helping Turkey finds itself today are considerably different
Greece, can give no further financial or economic aid from those of Greece. Turkey has been spared the
after March 31. Great Britain finds itself under the disasters that have beset Greece. And during the
necessity of reducing or liquidating its commitments war, the United States and Great Britain furnished
in several parts of the world, including Greece. Turkey with material aid.

We have considered how the United Nations might Nevertheless, Turkey now needs our support.
assist in this crisis. But the situation is an urgent one
requiring immediate action and the United Nations

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 55

Since the war Turkey has sought financial assistance coercion and intimidation, in violation of the Yalta
from Great Britain and the United States for the agreement, in Poland, Rumania, and Bulgaria. I
purpose of effecting that modernization necessary must also state that in a number of other countries
for the maintenance of its national integrity. there have been similar developments.

That integrity is essential to the preservation of At the present moment in world history nearly
order in the Middle East. every nation must choose between alternative ways
of life. The choice is too often not a free one.
The British government has informed us that, owing
to its own difficulties can no longer extend financial One way of life is based upon the will of the
or economic aid to Turkey. majority, and is distinguished by free institutions,
representative government, free elections,
As in the case of Greece, if Turkey is to have the guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech
assistance it needs, the United States must supply it. and religion, and freedom from political oppression.
We are the only country able to provide that help.
The second way of life is based upon the will of
I am fully aware of the broad implications involved a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It
if the United States extends assistance to Greece and relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press
Turkey, and I shall discuss these implications with and radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of
you at this time. personal freedoms.

One of the primary objectives of the foreign policy I believe that it must be the policy of the United
of the United States is the creation of conditions States to support free peoples who are resisting
in which we and other nations will be able to work attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by
out a way of life free from coercion. This was a outside pressures.
fundamental issue in the war with Germany and
Japan. Our victory was won over countries which I believe that we must assist free peoples to work
sought to impose their will, and their way of life, out their own destinies in their own way.
upon other nations.
I believe that our help should be primarily through
To ensure the peaceful development of nations, economic and financial aid which is essential to
free from coercion, the United States has taken a economic stability and orderly political processes.
leading part in establishing the United Nations, The
United Nations is designed to make possible lasting The world is not static, and the status quo is not
freedom and independence for all its members. We sacred. But we cannot allow changes in the status
shall not realize our objectives, however, unless we quo in violation of the Charter of the United
are willing to help free peoples to maintain their Nations by such methods as coercion, or by such
free institutions and their national integrity against subterfuges as political infiltration. In helping
aggressive movements that seek to impose upon free and independent nations to maintain their
them totalitarian regimes. This is no more than a freedom, the United States will be giving effect to
frank recognition that totalitarian regimes imposed the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.
on free peoples, by direct or indirect aggression,
undermine the foundations of international peace It is necessary only to glance at a map to realize that
and hence the security of the United States. the survival and integrity of the Greek nation are
of grave importance in a much wider situation. If
The peoples of a number of countries of the world Greece should fall under the control of an armed
have recently had totalitarian regimes forced upon minority, the effect upon its neighbor, Turkey,
them against their will. The Government of the would be immediate and serious. Confusion and
United States has made frequent protests against disorder might well spread throughout the entire
Middle East.

56 Kinder Institute

Moreover, the disappearance of Greece as an If further funds, or further authority, should be
independent state would have a profound effect needed for purposes indicated in this message,
upon those countries in Europe whose peoples are I shall not hesitate to bring the situation before
struggling against great difficulties to maintain their the Congress. On this subject the Executive and
freedoms and their independence while they repair Legislative branches of the Government must
the damages of war. work together.

It would be an unspeakable tragedy if these countries, This is a serious course upon which we embark.
which have struggled so long against overwhelming
odds, should lose that victory for which they I would not recommend it except that the
sacrificed so much. Collapse of free institutions alternative is much more serious. The United States
and loss of independence would be disastrous not contributed $341,000,000,000 toward winning
only for them but for the world. Discouragement World War II. This is an investment in world
and possibly failure would quickly be the lot of freedom and world peace.
neighboring peoples striving to maintain their
freedom and independence. The assistance that I am recommending for Greece
and Turkey amounts to little more than 1 tenth of 1
Should we fail to aid Greece and Turkey in this per cent of this investment. It is only common sense
fateful hour, the effect will be far reaching to the that we should safeguard this investment and make
West as well as to the East. sure that it was not in vain.

We must take immediate and resolute action. The seeds of totalitarian regimes are nurtured by
misery and want. They spread and grow in the
I therefore ask the Congress to provide authority evil soil of poverty and strife. They reach their full
for assistance to Greece and Turkey in the amount growth when the hope of a people for a better life
of $400,000,000 for the period ending June 30, has died. We must keep that hope alive.
1948. In requesting these funds, I have taken into
consideration the maximum amount of relief The free peoples of the world look to us for support
assistance which would be furnished to Greece out in maintaining their freedoms.
of the $350,000,000 which I recently requested
that the Congress authorize for the prevention of If we falter in our leadership, we may endanger the
starvation and suffering in countries devastated by peace of the world -- and we shall surely endanger
the war. the welfare of our own nation.

In addition to funds, I ask the Congress to authorize Great responsibilities have been placed upon us by
the detail of American civilian and military personnel the swift movement of events.
to Greece and Turkey, at the request of those
countries, to assist in the tasks of reconstruction, I am confident that the Congress will face these
and for the purpose of supervising the use of such responsibilities squarely.
financial and material assistance as may be furnished.
I recommend that authority also be provided for
the instruction and training of selected Greek and
Turkish personnel.

Finally, I ask that the Congress provide authority
which will permit the speediest and most effective
use, in terms of needed commodities, supplies, and
equipment, of such funds as may be authorized.

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 57









Udo J. Keppler, “Cuba’s Opportunity” (1902)

Each vote offered a variety of opportunities and a number of ballots had no answer on the second
outcomes for Puerto Rico. First, independence, the question, and they argued that abstention constituted
least voted for option in the last election, would make a vote against statehood. However, President Barack
Puerto Rico a completely sovereign, independent Obama suggested that the Governor convene a
nation. A free association would establish Puerto Rico constituent assembly, and the United States budgeted
as a sovereign nation as well, though it would still be $2.5 million for a future election to determine the
legally bound to the United States, with both nations feelings of Puerto Ricans on this issue of statehood.
maintaining the ability to annul the association at any
time. Finally, becoming a sovereign state would bring Cultural/National Identity
political stability to the United States-Puerto Rico
relationship as a whole, with some arguing, for example, One question relating to the issue at hand is whether
that Puerto Rico would be able to pursue better or not statehood would diminish the self-identity and
economic development as a sovereign state, because sense of national pride that citizens possess by virtue
increased funding from the federal government would of being able to identify as Puerto Ricans. While
be available. Puerto Rico’s current status as a commonwealth allows
residents to enjoy citizenship in the United States,
As the non-binding referendum was occurring, the much of Puerto Ricans’ sense of identity and national
governor-elect of Puerto Rico, Alejandro Garcia pride derives from the fact that they are viewed as
Padilla, pushed citizens to vote against changing the separate from the United States by foreign nations
territorial status, advertising it as a “trap” and an “anti- as well as other United States citizens. Puerto Ricans
democratic process.” His party, the Popular Democratic demonstrate their cultural pride in international
Party, also questioned the validity of the results, since events such as the Miss Universe competition, the

62 Kinder Institute

World Cup, the Olympics, and the Caribbean World re-districting that would likely result in incumbents
Series, all of which Puerto Rico sends a national team or competing against each other for Congressional seats
participant to. In the United States, Puerto Rico often in a newly constructed district. Another method for
finds itself listed in international, rather than domestic, the House to accommodate Puerto Rico’s acceptance
travel brochures, further proving a mutual relationship would revolve around adding five new representatives
of incomplete association and affirming the basis for to the House to represent Puerto Rico. If this addition
that sense of pride that revolves around remaining were to occur, the Electoral College would increase
distinct from the United States. Still, history shows to 545, and the presidential race would be a race to
that previous territories acquired by the United States, 273. The direct acceptance of Puerto Rico could force
such as Texas and Hawaii, kept a sense of “state” pride states to endure less representation, or it might begin a
after acceptance into the Union. It would seem, then, larger conversation about representation in the United
that Puerto Ricans would not implicitly lose the basis of States. The House of Representatives has had a cap of
their cultural pride if the Union admitted Puerto Rico. 435 members since 1929. At that time, the population
of the United States was around 121 million people.
The Make-Up of Congress Undoubtedly, representation has weakened over time
due to the expanding population of the United States
If the upcoming election demonstrates support for the and the stagnant amount of members in the House of
statehood of Puerto Rico, the next step would be for Representatives. If Puerto Rico received representatives
Puerto Rico to produce a formal state constitution. without consequences to other states, one would wonder
Congress then would have to approve any legislation if a deliberation about adding additional members to
created for the acceptance of Puerto Rico as a state. increase overall representation would occur.
However, acceptance would raise an issue similar
to what arose when Hawaii and Alaska applied for More importantly, the political make-up of Puerto Rico
statehood: each state would lose political power if Puerto would change the current power dynamic within and
Rico were to be accepted as a state. First, the direct between the major political parties. Currently, many
acceptance of Puerto Rico would create two new Senate believe that Puerto Rico would heavily align with the
seats, thereby increasing the Senate to 102 members Democratic Party. The fear of a new state becoming
and the Electoral College to 540. Thus, the “Race to a decade’s long political safe state for a party raises
270” would in turn become a presidential race to 271. tremendous concerns for members of the other party.
In addition to this aggregate change, there would be a However, it is entirely possible that the potential for
quantifiable, if small, redistribution of authority. The Puerto Rico to function as a safe state never materializes.
relative power of states in the Senate would decrease For example, at the time of their acceptance into the
from 2% to 1.96%. Although a miniscule amount, Union, Alaska was widely viewed as a state that favored
this change presents the biggest obstacle. In American the Democrats and Hawaii was viewed as a state that
history, political balance in the Senate delayed states’ favored Republicans. These views played a large role in
acceptance into the Union due to the implications the immediate acceptance of Hawaii after Alaska as the
of this power shift on issues such as slavery and civil Senate moved to maintain continual political balance.
rights. Even in 1959, politicians orchestrated the (more In modern times, Hawaii votes heavily Democratic
or less) simultaneous acceptance of Alaska and Hawaii and Alaska favors Republicans. Both parties consider
into the Union in order to maintain political balance in Alaska and Hawaii as safe states, but retrospectively,
the Senate (a scenario obviously impossible in Puerto both also recognize that they misconceived the original
Rico’s case). partisanship of the each state. These two historical
examples demonstrate that the implied partisanship
Mathematically, Puerto Rico’s current population of over of a potential new state does not coincide with future
3.5 million citizens would warrant five representatives election outcomes. Therefore, implied partisanship
in the House. If the Union accepted Puerto Rico, does not necessarily warrant the amount of concern it
five states each would lose a representative. Due to often garners.
this reallocation, these states would have to undergo

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 63

64 Kinder Institute

IMAGE CREDITS in U.S. Supreme Court from rear” (ca. 1920-1950). The Library of
Congress: Prints and Photographs Division. Accessed March 11,
Cover: Thomas U. Walter, “Elevation of Dome of U.S. Capitol” 1859 2016. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/thc1995011438/PP/
Ink and Water Color on Paper, bequeathed to the Library of Congress
by Ida Walter, 1915. The Library of Congress: Photos, Prints, Page 30: Untitled image. Accessed March 12, 2016. https://pixabay.
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cph.3a08057/
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Statue of Freedom, Intersection of North, South, & East Capitol Congress: Prints and Photographs Division. Accessed March 12,
Streets & Capitol Mall, Washington, District of Columbia, DC. 2016. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/97500087/
Historic American Buildings Survey Collection. Library of Congress
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www.loc.gov/resource/hhh.dc1054.photos/?sp=10 Seneca Falls, Seneca County, NY. Location of the first women’s rights
convention (1848).” Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs
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March 11, 2016. item/ny1624.sheet.00001a/

Page 14: Arthur Rothstein, “Franklin Delano Roosevelt Meets a Page 36 Untitled image. Hill Street Studios. Getty Images. Accessed
North Dakota Farmer” (1936). The Library of Congress: Photos, March 11, 2016.
Prints, Drawings. Accessed March 11, 2016. http://www.loc.gov/
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voting center in Matun District, Khost province, Afghanistan, Sept.
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Tocqueville” (1849). Wikimedia Commons, The Free Media Rights Reserved). Accessed March 11, 2016. https://www.flickr.com/
Repository. Accessed March 11, 2016. https://commons.wikimedia. photos/isafmedia/5007269322/in/photolist-5FTDqj-74Cjaa-8BDiog-
org/wiki/File:Tocqueville_by_Daumier.jpg 8CqscR-8BD7jt-93F83B-7KVsYL-8C9vSM-8Ctztf-8BD7G4-
8BGcg9-5RjrKt-7uTF9D-8C9sHx-7KRu5B-8C9X2o-8CqsVx-
Page 19: Denar (Brutus-Denar), Allgemein from the Berlin 8CtyHG-8Cbvhx-8BGmHj-7d3Aas-ceng43-8BGe4s-7d3Ahm-
State Museum. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, SMB-digital 8CtAfq-8C9XTY-9h22ii-82vAL9-7bUb65-8Ca1wV-nGx8a1-
Online Collections Database (Creative commons Attribution- 8C9Xm5-cTyLFw-cTyJ3o-7cYGBv-cTyHdh-cTyJcw-6RvXxv-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Germany License.) Accessed March cTyLy7-cTyJCN-cTyKpd-cTyL4d-cTyJUW-cTyJrm-cTyH3s-
11, 2016. http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=direct/1/ cTyLny-cTyKfY-cTyLby-cTyHxA-cTyKTw
ResultLightboxView/result.t2.collection_lightbox.$TspTitleLink.
Page 41: “Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Harris & Ewing bw photo
Page 20: Untitled image. “I Have A Dream: Martin Luther King Jr., portrait” (1919). Wikimedia Commons, The Free Media Repository.
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, August 28, 1963” Accessed March 11, 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Accessed March 11, 2016. https://pixabay.com/en/martin-luther-king- File:Thomas_Woodrow_Wilson,_Harris_%26_Ewing_bw_photo_
washington-682116/ portrait,_1919.jpg

Page 21: The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints Page 44: “Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, The
and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public Library. New York Public Library. “A new map of the north parts of America
“The tea-tax-tempest, or the Anglo-American Revolution.” New claimed by France under ye names of Louisiana, Mississippi, Canada
York Public Library Digital Collections. Accessed March 11, 2016. and New France, with ye adjoyning [sic] territories of England and
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47db-b05f-a3d9-e040- Spain…” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. Accessed
e00a18064a99 March 11, 2016. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47da-
f186-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99
Page 22, Top: Theodor Horydczak, “U.S. Supreme Court exteriors.
Close-up of door to U.S. Supreme Court I” (ca. 1920-1950). The Page 47: Udo J. Keppler, “The Pull of the Monroe Magnet” (1913).
Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs Division. Accessed The Library of Congress: Photos, Prints, Drawings. Accessed March
March 11, 2016. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/thc1995013035/ 11, 2016. https://www.loc.gov/item/2011649618/
PP/
Page 51: World map by cartographer Guillaume Delisle, French
Page 22, Bottom: Theodor Horydczak, “Construction, main entry to Royal Academy of Sciences (1720). Library of Congress: Maps.
the U.S. Supreme Court” (ca. 1920-1950). The Library of Congress: Accessed March 11, 2016. http://www.loc.gov/resource/g3200.
Prints and Photographs Division. Accessed March 11, 2016. http:// ct001352/
www.loc.gov/pictures/item/thc1995004603/PP/
Page 60: Jack Delano, “Pledging Allegiance to the Flag in a School in
Page. 24: Theodor Horydczak, “U.S. Supreme Court. Front façade Puerto Rico” (1946). Gift of Stuart Klipper, in memory of his father.
of U.S. Supreme Court under construction, from street IV” (ca. Minneapolis Institute of Art. March 11, 2016. http://collections.
1920-1950). The Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs artsmia.org/art/11921/pledging-allegiance-to-the-flag-in-a-school-in-
Division. Accessed March 11, 2016. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/ puerto-rico-jack-delano
item/thc1995002902/PP/
Page 62: Udo J. Keppler, “Cuba’s Opportunity” (1902). The Library
Page 28: Theodor Horydczak, “U.S. Supreme Court, Courtroom of Congress: Photos, Prints, Drawings. Accessed March 11, 2016.
https://www.loc.gov/item/2010651559/

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 65



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