Journal on Constitutional Democracy

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 151

Why the Moon?: Kennedy’s
Direction of the American Spirit

By Raymond Rhatican



152 Kinder Institute

A Rising Tide crowds that this would improve life for all, regularly
asserting a favorite line: “a rising tide lifts all boats.”6
On December 14, 1962, President John F. Kennedy
stood in a ballroom at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel The plan was a phenomenal success where intended.
and delivered one of his administration’s most The Revenue Act of 1964, which would ultimately
influential domestic policy speeches to a gathering be signed by President Lyndon Johnson,7 “trimmed
of the Economic Club of New York.1 The young corporate rates from 52 percent to 48 percent and
president had won office with a simple promise to “get reduced the top individual rate from 91 percent to
America moving again”2 with strength and youthful 70 percent”; as a result, “the unemployment rate fell
vigor, and he intended to deliver, as he outlined that from 5.7 percent in 1963 to 3.6 percent in 1968 and
night, by spurring growth through tax cuts. Beyond the deficit dropped from $7.1 billion in 1962 to $1.4
economic policy, the remarks served to highlight his billion in 1965.”8
interpretation of Americanism, and they survive today
as a marker both of mid-century America’s great However, the country was in need of more than
successes and its failures. “In short,” Kennedy said, “a economic success alone. An unpopular anti-communist
prosperous and growing America is important not only war in Vietnam would rage on well past Kennedy’s
to Americans, it is…of vital importance to the entire tenure, claiming more than 40,000 American lives in
Western World.”3 pursuit of a humiliating stalemate.9 The stratification
of American society grew and classes began to move
Kennedy’s tax proposal that day was radical, particularly in starkly opposite directions as quickly as the decade
given his background as a national Democrat who came after the Revenue Act went into effect. According
of age during the New Deal era of American liberalism. to Pew Research, “starting in the mid to late 1970s,
As a way of carrying Franklin Roosevelt’s legacy into the uppermost tier’s income share began rising
the post-World War II world, Democratic orthodoxy dramatically, while that of the bottom 90% started
of the time insisted upon direct intervention to support to fall.”10 The tide did not lift every boat, making it
the poor through an expansive interpretation of the
federal government’s economic role in American life.
The 1956 Democratic Party Platform went as far to say
that the Republican Party’s “political considerations of
budget balancing and tax reduction [came] before the
wants of our national security and the needs of our
Allies” and needlessly risked nuclear war.4 In one of
the great about faces in U.S. history, Kennedy placed
his bet on American citizens, free to produce and grow
thanks to cuts across the board, increasing federal
revenue and private sector growth themselves.5

Such an idea was unprecedented, brash and irreverent
to the old economic and political guard. In other
words, it was Jack Kennedy manifest. His major policy
announcement rested on a simple assumption: given the
opportunity to produce, Americans would. Lowering
rates would allow for greater levels of investment,
employment, and innovation. The tax base would
expand as industry grew and workers came off the
sidelines, and Americans and their government would
share in the subsequent prosperity. Kennedy assured

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 153

reasonable to question the Kennedy administration’s not changed. He is charged with exposing our many
agenda-setting priorities during such a tumultuous grievous faults and failures, with dredging up to the
time and warranting an inquiry into America’s ability to light our dark and dangerous dreams for the purpose
succeed and fail on spectacular levels, simultaneously. of improvement.”15 Steinbeck argued that as humans
marched toward perfection, good people must serve as
Stockholm a safeguard and restraint at the fine borderline between
progress and horrific regression.
Just four days prior to Kennedy’s announcement,
another major American figure of the 20th century rose Steinbeck’s Travels
to share his thoughts as he accepted the Nobel Prize in Perhaps no person in the world was more prepared
Literature. John Steinbeck thanked those gathered at than Steinbeck to speak of paradox and the human
the Nobel Banquet at Stockholm City Hall for their spirit that evening. Just that October, Steinbeck’s
recognition of his contributions as a novelist to public Travels with Charley was named the New York Times’
discourse, and he used the opportunity to ruminate on top non-fiction bestseller, a distinction it maintained
the status of global affairs.11 Speaking just weeks after throughout the majority of the Cuban Missile Crisis.16
the Cuban Missile Crisis, Steinbeck was sure to invoke The book was a recollection of Steinbeck’s recent
the award’s founder, Alfred Nobel, whose relevance to 10,000-mile journey of geographic and philosophical
the global moment was lost on neither author nor the exploration throughout his home country and a report
audience. Nobel’s great achievement was his invention of what he found. In seeking to undo the creative
of dynamite, a groundbreaking and productive atrophy of several stagnant years and to regain touch
contribution to industrial efficiency that had also with the country he feared he had forgotten, Steinbeck
found function as a vehicle of war and chaos. Despite produced a book that is reminiscent in task and
its benefits, mastery of such explosives paved the way to substance to Tocqueville’s Democracy in America.
what everyone in the hall had so recently experienced: The impetus for his most recent work was that, by
the looming specter of nuclear destruction. Steinbeck’s measure, it had been twenty-five years since
he had last traveled extensively in the United States.
Steinbeck made an effort to reconcile the paradox He had instead largely remained during that quarter
of an innovation capable of creating and destroying century in New York City, which he considered no more
on equally enormous scales. “Nobel saw some of the particularly American than London is distinctively
cruel and bloody misuses of his inventions,” the author British or Paris distinctively French. “I had not heard
said.12 “He may even have foreseen the end result of the speech of America,” Steinbeck explained in Travels
his probing—access to ultimate violence, to final
destruction. Some say that he became cynical, but I do
not believe this. I think he strove to invent a control,
a safety valve. I think he found it finally only in the
human mind and the human spirit.”13

Steinbeck identified the Nobel Prize itself as part of
that safety valve and emphasized the responsibility of
those present to be champions of good in the world.
He went on to borrow from ideas set forth by Alexis
de Tocqueville a century prior, particularly his belief
that in man exists a capacity and desire for relentless
progression and improvement. “I hold that a writer
who does not passionately believe in the perfectibility
of man has no dedication nor any membership in
literature,” Steinbeck told the crowd.14 He went on to
posit that “the ancient commission of the writer has

154 Kinder Institute

with Charley, “smelled the grass and trees and sewage, and the sword—were allied with” African Americans,
seen its hills and water, its color and quality of light. I “while against them were three hundred years of fear
knew the changes only from books and newspapers.”17 and anger and terror of change in a changing world.”20

In 1960, during a time of great political realignment In this instance, the American desire to grow and to
and national unrest, Steinbeck wandered corners of elevate countrymen proved capable of superseding
the country from the Pacific Northwest to the Deep an individualistic impulse to defend and expand
South, seeking to understand a unique, defining spirit one’s own lot, and the federal government was able
that united all Americans. “Americans as I saw them to deliver critical social and political victories for
and talked to them were indeed individuals, each one African Americans in a brutally hostile environment.
different from the others,” Steinbeck wrote, “but Like Steinbeck, President Kennedy drew attention to
gradually I began to feel that the Americans exist, the stain of racial oppression in the U.S. and went a
that they really do have generalized characteristics step further by highlighting the damage it inflicted on
regardless of their states, their social and financial the “American Idea” as an exportable commodity. In
status, their education, their religious and political publicly calling for a new Civil Rights Act in 1963,21
convictions.”18 In some ways, he thus found what he Kennedy described how
expected to find. He experienced common senses of
New Deal community and Jeffersonian individualism we preach freedom around the world, and we
throughout the country, and these notions on the mean it, and we cherish our freedom here at home,
one hand came together for Steinbeck to create a but are we to say to the world, and much more
shared quality of and commitment to both self- and importantly, to each other that this is the land of
national promotion. But in recognizing this “American the free except for the Negroes; that we have no
Spirit,” he also confronted its somewhat inscrutable, second-class citizens except Negroes; that we have
irreconcilable nature. “The more I inspected this no class or caste system, no ghettoes, no master
American image, the less sure I became of what it is. race except with respect to Negroes?”22
It appeared to me increasingly paradoxical, and it has
been my experience that when paradox crops up too Succeeding its initial champion in a final push for the
often for comfort, it means that certain factors are Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson
missing in the equation.”19 recognized the great volume of missteps involved in the
pursuit of this goal. In a nod to the nonlinear route to
The major paradox, of course, was the social and racial perfection in the United States, Johnson told Congress
strife that plagued the 1960s, and how individualist that “God will not favor everything that we do. It is
self-interest and pervasive sectionalism threatened the rather our duty to divine His will. But I cannot help
very foundation of the nationally oriented community believing that He truly understands and that He really
Steinbeck purported to discover. For instance, he favors the undertaking that we begin here tonight.”23
described his looming journey to the South as one
filled with dread and compared the region’s tumult In Travels with Charley, Steinbeck found sufficient
to the pains of childbirth. This comparison might be common characteristics to uphold his belief in a shared
read optimistically, however, as perhaps suggesting American spirit and identity, despite the nation’s fault
that Steinbeck viewed the South’s woes not only as lines and scars. “For all of our sectionalism, for all of
temporary but also as capable of producing something our interwoven breeds drawn from every part of the
beautiful: in this case, an end to the long unresolved ethnic world, we are a nation, a new breed…This is not
issue of systemic, violent racial oppression. Ultimately, patriotic whoop de-doo; it is carefully observed fact.”24
he was encouraged by what he saw as the nation’s
painful struggle toward perfectibility, and he praised A Tocquevillian Typology
the role that American institutions played in the South
during desegregation, specifically citing how “the law’s Steinbeck’s difficulty in identifying an American spirit
majesty and the law’s power to enforce—both the scales was not unlike what Alexis de Tocqueville articulated
in Democracy in America over a hundred years earlier:

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 155

it exists, but it is riddled with contradiction. While and rampant destruction that came with continued
both authors were unsatisfied by their own attempts Westward settlement.
to define this spirit, they did agree that critical
aspects of individualism, tribalism, and unity work in As it relates to Tocqueville and Steinbeck’s
concert—and at times in conflict—with one another characterization, the American spirit can be understood
to create Americans. Such was the nature of a new in terms of the aforementioned competing instincts of
nation that Tocqueville pointed out was historically individualism, tribalism, and unity, with the addition
unprecedented. “The Americans are a very old and of a sense of “direction”—outward or inward. The
very enlightened people,” Tocqueville observed, “who last distinction is critical, as it is the most descriptive
have fallen upon a new and unbounded country, where measurement of national and individual self-perception.
they may extend themselves at pleasure, and which they
may fertilize without difficulty. This state of things is In economics, countries that rely on open markets
without parallel in the history of the world. In America, and pro-trade policies for growth are considered
then, every one finds facilities, unknown elsewhere, for outward facing. Inward-facing nations tend to seek
making or increasing his fortune.”25 less beneficial policies of closed-market protectionism.
This distinction became particularly significant in the
As Tocqueville suggested in the passage above, the fact 1980s and 1990s, as researchers sought to understand
that 19th-century America stood alone as a freshly why many developing economies in Asia outpaced
populated nation that offered seemingly unlimited counterparts in Africa and Latin America. As described
resources and unrestricted freedom to exploit them by Hla Myint in Inward and Outward Facing Countries
inspired citizens to behave accordingly. Even the land Revisited: The Case of Indonesia,
itself seemed metaphorically predisposed to this. Lush
farming plains surrounded by deep lakes and massive Some countries seek to promote economic
woods were large enough to share and to support the development through the expansion of foreign
common “pleasure” of individual advancement. On the trade and by maintaining an open-door policy
other hand, vast deserts and fearsome mountain ranges, towards private foreign investment, foreign
nature’s lines of division, compared favorably to the aid and immigration. Other countries seek
American spirit’s blind spots—how individualism alone to promote economic development through
cannot make a place more hospitable or productive domestic industrialisation and import substitution
and, in fact, how it often yields the opposite outcome. and regard “economic planning” as a protective
On balance, then, the many opportunities Americans shell to insulate their economies from what they
encountered, combined with their shared facility to regard as undesirable and disturbing external
execute on impulse, stimulated a primal urge to expand influences.26
that served both as the basis for self-fulfillment and, by
contrast, as self-justification for the inhumane violence The World Bank has reported a “statistically
significant relationship between growth and outward
orientation,”27 suggesting that nations eager to
interact with the outside world are most likely to
prosper economically. As early as President Jefferson’s
engagement in the Barbary Wars28 and the 1823
“passage” of the Monroe Doctrine,29 the United States
made clear its intention to be an engaged player on the
world stage, and its fortunes followed in kind.

Beyond commercial terms, Tocqueville described
another kind of outward-facing nation, one that in
great fits of motivation can seek righteous goals on
a large scale. In this understanding, domestic social
policies such as the Civil Rights Act are as indicative of

156 Kinder Institute

an outward-facing nation as open markets and foreign inclinations to be directed or manipulated.
investment, and tribalism and excessive, often violent
self-interest are as indicative of an inward-facing Tocqueville wrote that he found Americans to be an
nation as protectionism. Again acknowledging the exceptional example to the world. Characterized
conflicting impulses that were central to the difficulty by their energy and their ignorance to prevailing
he experienced in defining the American spirit, European traditions and schools of thought, they
Tocqueville observed how, “although the desire of were free to build and explore on their own. He took
acquiring the good things of this world is the prevailing particular notice of Americans’ affinity for crude
passion of the American people, certain momentary pragmatism and rough business dealings, as well as
their interest in more airy pursuits when it suited them.
“I have frequently remarked that the Americans who
generally treat of business in clear, plain language,
devoid of all ornament, and so extremely simple as to
be often coarse, are apt to become inflated as soon as
they attempt a more poetical diction…to hear them

outbreaks occur, when their souls seem suddenly to lavish imagery on every occasion, one might fancy that
burst the bonds of matter by which they are restrained, they never spoke of anything with simplicity.”31
and to soar impetuously towards heaven.”30
Why The Moon?
In other words, an outward-facing nation seeks to
improve communities and systems for itself and the Steinbeck and Tocqueville’s ruminations on
world at large, while inward-facing nations turn citizens’ Americanism and the traits that support it create a tall
ambitions against one another, basing policy decisions order for leaders when it comes to choosing the correct
on tribal notions of politics or ethnicity and wreaking collective pursuits for a nation and determining for
only destruction. Tilting too close to individualism or history if (or to what extent) individualism is, in fact,
tribalism hampers any ability to face outward, while it a virtue. Tocqueville wrote that “in order that society
might be argued that excessive unity compromises self- should exist [and] that a society should prosper, it is
making. Competing impulses in both directions can be required that all the minds of the citizens should be
indicators of national mood, and as such, they represent rallied and held together by certain predominant
ideas; and this cannot be the case, unless each of them

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 157

sometimes draws his opinions from the common America was uniquely pre-ordained to shape the world.
source, and consents to accept certain matters of belief If this capsule history of our progress teaches us
at the hands of community.”32 anything, it is that man, in his quest for knowledge
and progress, is determined and cannot be
Few presidents have enjoyed the immense popularity deterred. The exploration of space will go ahead,
required to be that common source as much as John whether we join in it or not, and it is one of the
F. Kennedy, who maintained an average approval great adventures of all time, and no nation which
rating above 70 percent and who demonstrated both expects to be the leader of other nations can expect
a forceful belief in American vigor and a willingness to to stay behind in the race for space.37
manipulate it in pursuit of policy initiatives.33 In 1962,
faced with the opportunity to rally Americans to the One of Kennedy’s more forceful lines brought this
existential crusade of his choosing, Kennedy made the point home. “The vows of this Nation can only be
astounding choice to pursue outer space. The challenge fulfilled if we in this Nation are first, and, therefore,
of the final frontier possessed relevance to all that we intend to be first. In short, our leadership in science
Tocqueville and Steinbeck had observed in Americans, and in industry, our hopes for peace and security, our
who were, after all, the products of a nation built by
colonists who departed Europe for the blank canvas obligations to ourselves as well as others, all require us
of the New World. Under the leadership of Kennedy, to make this effort, to solve these mysteries, to solve
Americans would now set their sights on departing them for the good of all men, and to become the
Earth to explore the great unknown. world’s leading space-faring nation.”38
The benefits of global preeminence aside, to
The American push to the moon was primarily accomplish its goals, the Kennedy Administration
a response to the scientific victories of Soviet
communism,34 a worthy cause but not one devised
by common Americans in their living rooms. In the
face of demoralizing psychological defeats in space
exploration, President Kennedy moved quickly to
gain an advantage. Immediately upon taking office, he
appointed Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson as chair
of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
in a show of commitment to the endeavor. After Soviet
astronaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to
enter space and orbit earth, the Americans shifted into
higher gear. According to Steven Watts in JFK and The
Masculine Mystique: “By 1963, under prodding from the
White House, the NASA annual budget would grow to
$5.7 billion, an increase of over 300 percent.”35 It wasn’t
nearly enough to “win” the budget race; Kennedy had to
make sure the American people believed in the mission.
And so he took his case directly to them, framing his
interstellar ambitions not as a response to the Soviets
but rather in terms of America’s destiny to lead.

“Why the moon?” Kennedy asked the students and
onlookers assembled at Rice University for a Fall 1962
speech promoting the space program.36 The President
answered his own rhetorical question with a soaring
vision for the future, which contained his belief that

158 Kinder Institute

poured extraordinary resources into a fledgling 1Kennedy, John F. “Address to the Economic Club of
NASA program. In total, the Apollo Program ran up
more than four times the expenses of the Manhattan New York.” 14 December 1962. American Rhetoric.
Project in inflation-adjusted dollars.39 Moreover, the
total outlay for the program exceeded this immediate 11 March 2018. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/
financial allocation and included the opportunity
cost of projects that were neglected in the interest of speeches/jfkeconomicclubaddress.html
reaching outer space.
2Kennedy, John F. “Remarks of Senator John F.
The space budget was increased in the five years
that followed by more than tenfold while the Kennedy, Allentown, PA.” 28 October 1960. The
total American expenditure on research and
development did not even double. Of every three American Presidency Project. 11 March 2018. http://
dollars spent on research and development in the
United States in 1963, one went for defense, one www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=74265
for space, and the remaining one for all other
research purposes, including private industry and 3Kennedy, John F. “Address to the Economic Club of
medical research.40
New York.” 14 December 1962. American Rhetoric.
The program chaffed Americans who, already
alienated by Kennedy’s tax cuts, felt doubly insulted 11 March 2018. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/
by the money spent in space. One such individual was
Booker Griffin of the Los Angeles Times, who criticized speeches/jfkeconomicclubaddress.html
the space program and its legacy in his 1969 column,
“Moon Dust and Black Disgust.” “Here is a country 4“1956 Democratic Party Platform” 13 August
that cannot pass a rat control bill to protect black
babies from rats,” Griffin contended, “but can spend 1956. The American Presidency Project. 11 March
billions to explore rocks, craters and dust thousands of
miles away.”41 2018. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.

The goal was chosen, however, and American ingenuity php?pid=29601
and neglect—its conflicting outward and inward
impulses—went on to put the first man on the surface 5Lowndes, Charles L. B. “The Revenue Act of 1964: A
of the moon in a legendary show of national strength.
However, it came at the expense of considerable pain Critical Analysis” Duke Law Journal (1964): 668-669
at home. As Steinbeck and Tocqueville warned, the
American capacity to daringly succeed is omnipresent, 6Kennedy, John F. “Remarks of Senator John F.
but so to is the need to consistently manage the
competing impulses of the American spirit, individualism Kennedy, Municipal Auditorium, Canton, Ohio.” 27
and unity (the desire to be first and the desire to be
good). Given the racial tumult and wartime fiasco of the September 1960. The American Presidency Project.
1960s, coupled with knowledge of the destructive result
of Alfred Nobel’s own well-intentioned breakthrough, 11 March 2018. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/
it is thus important that history ask Kennedy, a man in
charge of so much national energy at a time when so ws/?pid=74231
much beyond space needed to be addressed: “Why the
moon?” 7Johnson, Lyndon B. “Statement by the President

Upon Signing the Tax Bill.” 28 June 1968. The

American Presidency Project. 17 April 2018 http://

www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=28964

8Kondracke, Morton and Barnes, Fred. Jack Kemp:

The Bleeding Heart Conservative Who Changed

America. New York: Sentinel, 2015. 35

9“Vietnam War U.S. Military Fatal Casualty Statistics.”

National Archives Online 11 March 2018. The U.S.

National Archives and Records Administration.

17 April 2018. https://www.archives.gov/research/

military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics

10DeSilver, Drew. “U.S. Income Equality, On Rise for

Decades, is Now Highest Since 1928.” 5 December

2013 Pew Research Center. 17 April 2018 http://www.

pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/12/05/u-s-income-

inequality-on-rise-for-decades-is-now-highest-

since-1928/

11Steinbeck, John. “John Steinbeck – Banquet Speech.”

10 December 1962. The Official Website of the

Nobel Prize 17 April 2018 https://www.nobelprize.

org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1962/steinbeck-

speech_en.html

12Ibid

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 159

13Ibid 31Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. New
14Ibid York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 2004 edition. 594
15Ibid 32Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. New
16“The New York Times Bestseller List: Week of York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 2004 edition. 517
October 21, 1962 Fiction.” Hawes Publications. 6 July 33“Presidential Approval Ratings – Gallup Historical
2018 Statistics and Trends.” Gallup 17 April 2018 http://
http://www.hawes.com/1962/1962-10-21.pdf news.gallup.com/poll/116677/presidential-approval-
17Steinbeck, John. Travels with Charley. London: ratings-gallup-historical-statistics-trends.aspx
Penguin Group, 1986 edition. 5 Jorden, William J. “Soviet Fires Satellite Into Space:
18Steinbeck, John. Travels with Charley. London: It is Circling the Earth at 18,000 MPH.” The New
Penguin Group, 1986 edition. 244 York Times. (1962) https://archive.nytimes.com/www.
19Steinbeck, John. Travels with Charley. London: nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1004.
Penguin Group, 1986 edition. 244 html
20Steinbeck, John. Travels with Charley. London: 35Watts, Steven. JFK and The Masculine Mystique:
Penguin Group, 1986 edition. Sex and Power on the New Frontier. New York: St.
21Kennedy, John F. “Report to the American Martin’s Press, 2016
People on Civil Rights.” 11 June 1963 John F. 36Kennedy, John F. “John F. Kennedy Moon Speech
Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. 17 – Rice Stadium.” 12 September 1962. NASA 17 April
April 2018 https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/ 2018 https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm
LH8F_0Mzv0e6Ro1yEm74Ng.aspx 37Kennedy, John F. “John F. Kennedy Moon Speech
22Ibid – Rice Stadium.” 12 September 1962. NASA 17 April
23Johnson, Lyndon B. “President Johnson’s Special 2018 https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm
Message to Congress: The American Promise.” 15 38Kennedy, John F. “John F. Kennedy Moon Speech
March 1965. The LBJ Library. 17 April 2018 http:// – Rice Stadium.” 12 September 1962. NASA 17 April
www.lbjlibrary.org/lyndon-baines-johnson/speeches- 2018 https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/ricetalk.htm
films/president-johnsons-special-message-to-the- 39Stine, Deborah D. “The Manhattan Project, the
congress-the-american-promise Apollo Program, and Federal Energy Technology R&D
24Steinbeck, John. Travels with Charley. London: Programs: A Comparative Analysis.” Congressional
Penguin Group, 1986 edition. 210 Research Service (2009) https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/
25Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. New RL34645.pdf
York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 2004 edition. 546 40Anitai, Etzioni. The Moon Doggle. New York:
26Myint, Hla. “Inward and Outward-Looking Doubleday & Co., Inc, 1964.
Countries Revisited: The Case of Indonesia.” Bulletin 41“Space Race: African American Newspapers Respond
of Indonesian Economic Studies 20.2 (1984): 39. to Sputnik and Apollo 11.” University of North Texas
27Dollar, David. “Outward-Oriented Developing Theses and Dissertations. 17 April 2018
Economies Really Do Grow More Rapidly: Evidence
from 95 LDCs, 1976-1985.” Economic Development
and Cultural Change 40.3 (1992) http://www.tcd.ie/
Economics/staff/minnsc/EC4020/dollar%20edcc%20
1992.pdf
28“The First Barbary War” The Thomas Jefferson
Encyclopedia. 17 April 2018 https://www.monticello.
org/site/research-and-collections/first-barbary-war
29“Monroe Doctrine.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 14th
ed. 1929
30Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. Bantam
Dell, 2004.

160 Kinder Institute

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 161

Image Credits

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“A visual representation of the states that have laws to punish faithless electors.” Wikimedia Commons. 17 October
2009.
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This image is made public by His male lover at English Wikipedia under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share
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of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

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“2000 presidential election recount in Palm Beach County.” Wikimedia Commons. 18 November 2000.
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No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.

162 Kinder Institute

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

6. Pete Souza, “United States President Barack Obama casts his ballot” (2012)

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Riley Messer

Cover. “Political carton featuring Charles Sumner and Carl Schurz” (1872)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Political cartoon featuring Charles Sumner and Carl Schurz.” The New York Public Library Digital
Collections. 11 May 1872.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/32799ec0-5102-0130-e4b1-58d385a7b928

1. “Preston S. Brooks” (ca. 1850-55)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Preston S. Brooks.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/
items/510d47dd-ce5a-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

1a. “Hon. Charles Sumner” (1851-1874)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Hon. Charles Sumner. [Signature]: Ever yours, Charles Sumner.” The New York Public Library Digital
Collections. 1851-1874.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/67425ba0-5105-0130-8641-58d385a7b928

2. “James Madison” (ca. 1800)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “James Madison.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. ca. 1800. http://digitalcollections.nypl.
org/items/5e66b3e8-b579-d471-e040-e00a180654d7

3. Ezra Ames, “George Clinton” (1814)

“George Clinton.” Wikimedia Commons. 1814.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:George_Clinton_by_Ezra_Ames_(full_portrait).jpg

4. United States Marshal Service, “Mug shot of Jeffrey Skilling” (2004)

“Mug shot of Jeffrey Skilling.” Wikimedia Commons. 19 February 2004.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jeffrey_Skilling_mug_shot.jpg

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 163

5. Gage Skidmore, “Bob McDonnell” (2010)

“Bob McDonnell.” Wikimedia Commons. 19 February 2010.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bob_McDonnell_(4379673749).jpg

6. United States Senate, “Robert Menendez” (2006)

“Robert Menendez, member of the United States Senate.” Wikimedia Commons. 2006.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Menendez,_official_Senate_photo.jpg

7. “President Nixon” (1974)

“President Nixon, with edited transcripts of Nixon White House Tape conversations during broadcast of his
address to the nation.” Wikimedia Commons. 29 April 1974.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nixon_edited_transcripts.jpg

Rylie White

Cover. U.S. Information Agency, “Shah-Johnson Souvenir Poster” (1964)

National Archives Division of Propaganda Posters Distributed in Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East, ca.
1950-ca. 1965. “Shah-Johnson Souvenir Poster.” National Archives Digital Catalog. 1964.
https://catalog.archives.gov/id/6949226

1. Phillip Maiwald, “Tehran US embassy propaganda statue of liberty” (2008)

“Tehran US embassy propaganda statue of liberty.” Wikimedia Commons. 9 September 2008.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teheran_US_embassy_propaganda_statue_of_liberty.jpg

This image is made public by Phillip Maiwald under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

2. “Iranian coup d’état” (1953)

“Iranian coup d’état.” Wikimedia Commons. August 1953.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat.jpg

3. “Iranian Women Parliamentarians 1970s” (ca. 1975)

“Women Parliamentarians of Iran in front of the gate of the Iranian Parliament” (Majils Shoraye Melli). Wikimedia
Commons. ca. 1975.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iranian_Women_Parliamentarians_1970s.jpg

4. “1978 Iranian Revolution” (1978)

“1978 Iranian Revolution—row of men holding khomeini’s photos.” Wikimedia Commons. 1978.

164 Kinder Institute

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1978_Iranian_revolution_-_row_of_men_holding_khomeini%27s_
photos.jpg

5. James N. Wallace, “Marchers for Salvador Allende” (1964)

Library of Congress U.S. News & World Report Photograph Collection. “Marchers for Salvador Allende. A crowd
of people marching to support the election of Salvador Allende for president in Santiago, Chile. Library of Congress
Digital Collections.
http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3c34154/

6. “Salvador Allende Gossens” (1970)

“Salvador Allende Gossens (Valparaíso, 26 de junio de 1908-Santiago, 11 de septiembre de 1973) 1970 revista.”
Wikimedia Commons. 27 October 1970.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salvador_Allende_(1970).jpg

Divider 1

1a. State Library of Queensland, “Political party information booths outside Brisbane City Hall, State Election”
(1947)

“Political party information booths outside Brisbane City Hall, State Election, 1947.” Wikimedia Commons. 1 May
1947.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Political_party_information_booths_outside_Brisbane_City_Hall_
State_election,_May_1947_(28008209435).jpg

1b. Master Sgt. Dave Ahlschweded, U.S. Air Force, “An Iraqi citizen, turning his head to protect his identity…”
(2005)

“An Iraqi citizen, turning his head to protect his identity, proudly displays the indelible ink on his finger as proof he
voted in Iraq’s first free election in over 50 years.” Wikimedia Commons. 30 January 2005.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iraq-election2005-V.jpg

Sarah Jolley

Cover. George Franklin Cram, “Map of Nebraska” (ca. 1902)

Library of Congress Geography and Map Division. “Map of Nebraska: United States: population, 76,303,387.”
Library of Congress Digital Collections.
https://www.loc.gov/item/2012586807/

1. “William Jennings Bryan” (ca. 1900)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “William Jennings Bryan.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. ca. 1900.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47dd-f5ae-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 165

2. “The ‘Wigwam’ in Fourteenth Street” (1900)

Art and Picture Collection, The New York Public Library. “The ‘Wigwam’ in Fourteenth Street: Tammany Hall,
the headquarters of the political organization of that name.” New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1900.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e1-0647-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

3. Butler Brothers, “New York City in 1909” (1909)

Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division, The New York Public Library. “New York City in 1909.” New
York Public Library Digital Collections. 1909. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/8990d910-f78e-0130-ecf5-
58d385a7b928

4. Henry Wellge, “Lincoln, Neb., State capitol of Nebraska” (1889)

Library of Congress Geography and Map Division. “Lincoln, Neb., State capitol of Nebraska, county seat of
Lancaster Co. 1889.” Library of Congress Digital Collections. 1889.
https://www.loc.gov/item/75694676/

5a. William Allen Rogers, “I Can’t Afford to Have That Left at My Door” (1900).

The Presidential Elections of 1860-1912. “I Can’t Afford to Have That Left at My Door.” Harper’s Weekly Online
Catalog. 4 August 1900.
http://elections.harpweek.com/1900/cartoon-1900-Medium.asp?UniqueID=29&Year=1900

5b. William Allen Rogers, “A Frozen Argument” (1900)

The Presidential Elections of 1860-1912. “A Frozen Argument.” Harper’s Weekly Online Catalog. 9 June 1900.
http://elections.harpweek.com/1900/cartoon-1900-large.asp?UniqueID=27&Year=1900

5c. William Allen Rogers, “I’m Afraid That Ice Has Killed It” (1900)

The Presidential Elections of 1860-1912. “I’m Afraid That Ice Has Killed It.” Harper’s Weekly Online Catalog. 20
October 1900.

http://elections.harpweek.com/1900/cartoon1900medium.asp?UniqueID=51&Year=1900

6. William Allen Rogers, “There Have Been Happier New-Years in Mulberry Street” (1901)

Art and Picture Collection, The New York Public Library. “There Have Been Happier New-Years In Mulberry
Street.”  The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1901. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e1-
063f-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

Divider 2

2a. US National Park Service, “Golden Gate Bridge construction” (ca. 1930s)

“Golden Gate Bridge construction.” Wikimedia Commons. 1930s.

166 Kinder Institute

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Golden_Gate_Bridge_construction.jpg

2b. Currier and Ives, “The great East River suspension bridge” (1883)

“The great East River suspension bridge.” Wikimedia Commons. 1883.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Currier_and_Ives_Brooklyn_Bridge2.jpg

Gaby Martinez

Cover. “Thurgood Marshall and other members of the N.A.A.C.P legal defense team” (ca. 1954-1960)

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Photographs and Prints Division, The New York Public Library.
“Thurgood Marshall and other members of the N.A.A.C.P. legal defense team who worked on the Brown v. Board
of Education case.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. ca. 1954-1960.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/8e0ab460-3604-4be6-e040-e00a18063fa6

1. Al. Ravenna, “NAACP leaders with poster” (1956)

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. “NAACP leaders with poster NYWTS.” Library of Congress
Digital Archives. 1956.
http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3c22432/

2. John T. Bledsoe, “Little Rock integration protest” (1959)

Library of Congress U.S. News & World Report Photograph Collection. “Little Rock integration protest.” Library
of Congress Digital Collection via Wikimedia Commons. 20 August 1959.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Little_Rock_integration_protest.jpg

3. “Little Rock Nine and friends” (1958)

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Photographs and Prints Division, The New York Public Library.
“Little Rock Nine and friends at NAACP’s 49th annual convention in Cleveland, left to right, standing: Terrence
Roberts, Thelma Mothershed, Gloria Ray, Jefferson Thomas, Kivie Kaplan, Minnijean Brown, Ernest Green, Mrs.
L.C. Bates, Dr. James E. Levy; seated, Carlotta Walls, Melba Patillo and Elizabeth Eckford.” The New York Public
Library Digital Collections. 1958. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/8e0ab460-3606-4be6-e040-e00a18063fa6

4. “Court Finds School Board Showed No Discrimination” (1958)

“Court Finds School Board Showed No Discrimination.” Moberly Monitor-Index Digital Archive. 27 June 1958.
https://www.newspapers.com/clip/420915/june_27_1958/

5. “Campaign flyer for Willis Smith” (1950)

“Campaign flyer for Willis Smith for Senate in the 1950 U.S. Senate race in North Carolina.” Wikimedia Commons.
1950.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Campaign_flyer_for_Willis_Smith_for_Senate_in_the_1950_US_
Senate_race_in_North_Carolina.jpg

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 167

Alex Galvin

Cover. Bonnie Byler, “Welcome to Alcatraz” (2016)

“Welcome to Alcatraz.” Wikimedia Commons. 16 April 2016
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AlcatrazIndiansWelcom.jpg

This image is made public by Bonnie Byler under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International
license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

1. National Park Service, “Alcatraz Occupation ‘Welcome to Indian Land’ graffiti” (2012)

“Alcatraz Occupation ‘Welcome to Indian Land’ graffiti.” Wikimedia Commons. 16 December 2012.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alcatraz_Occupation_%22Welcome_to_Indian_Land%22_graffiti.jpeg
2. S.T. Fansler, “1886 Little Big Horn victory dance” (1886)

“1886 Little Big Horn victory dance by Fansler.” Wikimedia Commons. 1886. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1886_Little_Big_Horn_victory_dance_by_Fansler.jpg

3. Pnw4077, “Water tower at Alcatraz prison, with Native American graffiti” (2017)

“Water tower at Alcatraz prison, with Native American graffiti.” Wikimedia Commons. 13 March 2017.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_tower_at_Alcatraz_prison,_with_Native_American_graffiti.jpg

This image is made public by Pnw4077 under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International
license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

4. US National Parks Service, “Alcatraz Graffiti Yata Hey” (2012)

“Alcatraz Grafitti Yata Hey.” Wikimedia Commons. 16 December 2012.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alcatraz-Grafitti-Yata-Hey.jpg

5. S.T. Fansler, “1886 Little Big Horn victory dance” (1886)

“1886 Little Big Horn victory dance by Fansler.” Wikimedia Commons. 1886. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:1886_Little_Big_Horn_victory_dance_by_Fansler.jpg

5. Shane Balkowitsch, “Dakota Access Pipline ‘Elder Addressing Crowd’” (2016)
“Dakota Acess Pipeline ‘Elder Addressing Crowd.” Wikimedia Commons. 15 August 2016.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dakota_Access_Pipeline_%22Elder_Addressing_Crowd%22.jpg

This image is made public by Shane Balkowitsch under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0
International license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the
licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

168 Kinder Institute

Divider 3

3a. Tim & Selena Middleton, “St. Jacobs snake oil”

“St. Jacobs snake oil.” Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:St_jacobs_snake_oil.jpg

This image is made public by Tim & Selena Middleton of Toronto, Canada, under the Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0 Generic License. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement
of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

3b. Billy Hathorn, “Tent Revival at Window on the Plains” (2008)

“Tent Revival at Window on the Plains IMG.” Wikimedia Commons. 15 October 2008.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tent_revival_at_Window_on_the_Plains_IMG_0590.JPG

This image was made public by author Billy Hathorn under the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
later. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:GNU_Free_Documentation_License,_version_1.2

Nathan Owens

Cover. Detroit Publishing Co., “Thoreau’s Cove, Concord, Mass” (ca. 1908)

Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division. “Thoreau’s Cove, Concord, Mass.” Library of Congress Digital
Collection. ca. 1908.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2016814387/

1. G.G. White, “Father, I cannot tell a lie” (1898)

Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division. “Father I cannot tell a lie: I cut the tree.” Library of Congress
Digital Collections. 1898.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2006678327/

2. Grant Wood, “Parson Weems’ Fable” (1939)

“Parson Weems’ Fable.” Wikimedia Commons. 1939.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parson_Weems%27_Fable.jpg

3. Edward Eggleston, “Stories of Great American for Little Americans” (1895)

“Stories of Great American for Little Americans.” Wikimedia Commons. 1895.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stories_of_Great_Americans_for_Little_Americans_(1895)_
(14765827612).jpg

4. “Walden Thoreau” (1854)

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 169

“Title page from first edition of Henry David Thoreau’s Walden.” Wikimedia Commons. 1854.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Walden_Thoreau.jpg

5. Leon Abdalian, “Old North Bridge, Concord, Mass” (1930)

Boston Public Library Digital Archives. “Old North Bridge, Concord, Mass.” Flickr. 13 October 1930.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/boston_public_library/2589536591/

Image made public domain by the Boston Public Library under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic
License. The image was not changed and its use in no way indicates the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

6. Detroit Publishing Co., “The site of Henry David Thoreau’s cabin” (1908)

“The site of Henry David Thoreau’s cabin marked by a pile of rocks.” Wikimedia Commons. 1908.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Site_throeau_cabin_loc.jpg

Dylan Cain

Cover. “Woody Gurthrie” (1943)

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. “Woodie Guthrie.” Library of Congress Digital Collections via
Wikimedia Commons. 8 March 1943.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Woody_Guthrie.jpg

1. Walter Smalling, “Woody Guthrie Birthplace” (1979)

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Historic American Building Survey. “Woody Guthrie
Birthplace, Okemah vicinity, Okfuskee County, OK.” Library of Congress Digital Collections via Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WoodyGuthrieBirthplace.jpg

2. Dorothea Lange, “California migratory farm laborers” (1937)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Photography Collection, The New
York Public Library. “California migratory farm laborers-drought refugees from Oklahoma-camped in the brush
on the river bottom with no water or sanitation. On the outskirts of Brawley, Imperial Valley, Calif.”  The New
York Public Library Digital Collections. February 1937. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/ba309cea-978a-4288-
e040-e00a18066c61

3. Dorothea Langue, “Depression” (ca. 1935)

National Archives Franklin D. Roosevelt Library Public Domain Photographs 1882-19632. “Depression:
Unemployed, destitute man leaning against vacant store.” National Archives Digital Collections. ca. 1935.
https://catalog.archives.gov/id/195825

4. Dorothea Lange, “Tracy (vicinity), California” (1937)

170 Kinder Institute

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. “Tracy (vicinity), California. Missouri family of five who
are seven months from the drought area on U.S. High 99. ‘Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!’” Library of Congress
Digital Collections. February 1937.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2017769894/

5. Russell Lee, “Southeast Missouri Farms” (1938)

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Photographs and Prints Division, The New York Public Library.
“Southeast Missouri Farms. Son of a sharecropper dressing in a combination of bedroom and corn crib, 1938.” The
New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1938. http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47df-f94b-a3d9-e040-
e00a18064a99

6. Thomas Hart Benton, “America Today” (1930)

“America Today.” Wikimedia Commons. 1930.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:America_Today_-_Instruments_of_Power.jpg

7. Thomas Hart Benton, “House in Cubist Landscape” (ca. 1915-1920)

“House in Cubist Landscape.” Wikimedia Commons. ca. 1915-1920
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_Hart_Benton_-_House_in_Cubist_Landscape.jpg

8. “An Artist in America” (1937)

General Research Division, The New York Public Library. “An Artist in America.”  The New York Public Library
Digital Collections. 1937.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47db-d774-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

Divider 4

4a. GoodOmens, “Kraftwerk Vocoder,” (ca. 1975)

“Kraftwerk Vocoder custom made in early 1970s.” Wikimedia Commons. 29 June 2006.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kraftwerk_Vocoder_custom_made_in_early1970s.JPG

4b. “Telephone wires for captive balloon” (ca. 1918)

“Telephone wires for captive balloon.” Wikimedia Commons. ca. 1918-ca. 1948
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:111-SC-3180_-_Telephone_wires_for_captive_balloon._-_NARA_-
_55167750.jpg

George Roberson

Cover. “WHPO 3448-21A” (1970)

Nixon Photo Gallery. “WHPO 3448-21A” Richard Nixon Presidential Library Digital Collections. 30 April 1970.

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 171

https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/photo-gallery-images/37-whpo-3448-21a-a.jpg.

1. Warren K. Leffler, “Vietnam War on Television” (1968)

Library of Congress U.S. News & World Report Photograph Collection. “A man and a woman watching a film footage
of the Vietnam war on a television in their living room.” Library of Congress Digital Collections. 13 February 1968.
https://www.loc.gov/item/2011661230/

2. Edward N. Jackson “Photographic Study of Mrs. Warren G. Harding” (1921)

“Photographic Study of Mrs. Warren G. Harding.” Wikimedia Commons. 5 February 1921.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Finest_picture_front_page.jpg

3. Stanley Wolfson, “President Johnson Go to Selma now!” (1965)

Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division. “President Johnson go to Selma now!” Library of Congress
Digital Collections. 15 March 1965.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2005685852/

4. Uncredited (ca. 1960-1970)

Uncredited. Pixabay. ca. 1960-1970.
https://pixabay.com/en/military-vietnam-war-1348228/

Made public domain by FotoshopTofs under the CC0 license. No changes were made to the image and its inclusion
in no way reflects the endorsement of the licenser.

5. “U.S. Army Rangers parachute into Grenada” (1983)

“U.S. Army Rangers parachute into Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury.” Wikimedia Commons. 25 October
1963.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Rangers_parachute_into_Grenada_during_Operation_
Urgent_Fury.jpg

6. “Sign that is Anti-Richard Nixon” (1972)

Florida Memory Collection. “Sign that is Anti-Richard Nixon—Miami, Florida.” State Library & Archives of Florida
Digital Collections. 1972.
https://www.floridamemory.com/items/show/17323

7. “Ronald Reagan and General Electric Theater” (ca. 1954-1962)

“Ronald Reagan and General Electric Theater, 1954-1962.” Wikimedia Commons courtesy of Reagan Library. 1954-
1962.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ronald_Reagan_and_General_Electric_Theater_1954-62.jpg

8. Denelson83, “SMPTE Colors Bars” (2006).

172 Kinder Institute

“SMPTE Color Bars.” Wikimedia Commons. 18 August 2006.

This image is made public domain by Denelson83 under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the
licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

Matt Orf

Cover. “Donald Trump is greeted by President Ronald Reagan” (1987)

“Donald Trump is greeted by President Ronald Reagan at 1987 White House reception” Wikimedia Commons
courtesy of Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. 1987.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Trump_Meets_Reagan.jpg

1. NASA, “Buzz Aldrin and the U.S. Flag on the Moon” (1969)

“Buzz Aldrin and the U.S. Flag on the Moon” Wikimedia Commons. 20 July 1969. https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag.jpg

2. Wags05, “Televisions for consumer purchase” (2008)

“Televisions for consumer purchase.” Wikimedia Commons. 14 May 2008.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cptvdisplay.jpg

3. Shealah Craighead, “President-elect Donald Trump” (2017)

“President-elect Donald Trump walks to take his seat for the inaugural swearing-in ceremony at the U.S. Capitol
in Washington, D.C.” Wikimedia Commons. 20 January 2017.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trump_inauguration_capitol.jpg

4. Evan Nesterak, “White Supremacists Clash with Police” (2017)

“White Supremacists Clash with Police.” Wikimedia Commons. 12 August 2017.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:White_supremacists_clash_with_police_(36421659232).jpg

This image is made public domain by Evan Nesterak under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.
No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

5. Evan Nesterak, “Nazi Salute” (2017)

“A counter-protester gives a white supremacist the middle finger. The white supremacist responds with a Nazi
Salute.” Wikimedia Commons. 15 August 2017.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nazi_Salute_(36543229556).png

This image is made public domain by Evan Nesterak under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 173

No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

6. Joyce N. Boghosian, “Photo of the Day: April 16, 2018” (2018)

The White House Collection. “Photo of the Day: April 16, 2018). Flickr. 16 April 2018.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/41501181481/

Divider 5

5a. Liz Sullivan, “TV static and No Signal warning” (2009)

“TV static and No Signal warning.” Wikimedia Commons. 12 January 2009.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:No_Signal_23.JPG

This image is made public by author Liz Sullivan under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0
International license. No changes were made to the image and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the
licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

5b. “How long must women wait” (1917)

“How long must women wait.” Wikimedia Commons. February 1917.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:How_long_must_women_wait.jpg

Abby Kielty

Cover. “Men of the day. No. 20” (1889)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Men of the day. No. 20. ‘The Fifth Avenue journal.’ A mirror of art, literature and society. Published every
Wednesday at 27 City Hall Square, New York.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1889.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/c0cf23fd-1a6f-fa46-e040-e00a18065ef0

1. “Lady Tennyson” (ca. 1897-2910)

The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Lady Tennyson.”  The New York Public Library Digital Collections. ca. 1897-1910.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/2ccb8dd0-7dcb-0130-9af9-58d385a7b928

2. “Poetic Fancy” (1872)
The Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs: Print Collection, The New York Public
Library. “Poetic fancy.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 13 April 1872.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/544c1b70-7dcb-0130-8ad6-58d385a7b928

3. “The poetic and dramatic works of Alfred Lord Tennyson” (1899)

174 Kinder Institute

“The poetic and dramatic works of Alfred Lord Tennyson.” Wikimedia Commons. 1899.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_poetic_and_dramatic_works_of_Alfred_lord_Tennyson_(1899)_
(14597922109).jpg

4. “Arac” (1902)

George Arents Collection, The New York Public Library. “Arac.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1902.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-d8dd-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

5. “Florian” (1902)

George Arents Collection, The New York Public Library. “Florian.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections.
1902.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-d8dd-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

6. “King Hildebrand” (1902)

George Arents Collection, The New York Public Library. “King Hildebrand.” The New York Public Library Digital
Collections. 1902.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-d8dd-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

7. “Princess Idea” (1902)

George Arents Collection, The New York Public Library. “Princess Ida.”  The New York Public Library Digital
Collections. 1902.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e3-d8dd-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

Carley Johansson

Cover. “Copied from ‘Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl’ by Harriet Jacobs (1835)

State Archives of North Carolina General Negative Collection. “Copied from ‘Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,’
by Harriet Jacobs, p. 215. The book states that the ad ran in the Norfolk, VA, American Beacon newspaper on July
4, 1835. Flickr. 4 July 1835.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/north-carolina-state-archives/6803433903/

1. Solomon Northrup, “The staking out and flogging of the girl Patsey” (1853)

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Manuscripts, Archives and Rare Books Division, The New York
Public Library. “The staking out and flogging of the girl Patsey.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections.
1853.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47da-7495-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

2. DC Like a Local “Lady’s Whip” (2012)

“Caption reads: This elegant silver dresser set includes a brush, comb, mirror—and a whip. The whip could be
used to punish house servants who displeased their mistress. Although the whip is small, slave narratives show that

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 175

southern women were capable of brutally punishing enslaved people. National Geographic exhibit America I AM,
Washington, DC.” Wikimedia Commons. 25 April 2012.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ladys_whip_Nat_Geog_Museum_America_I_AM_exhibit_Wash_
DC.jpg

Image made public domain by DC Like a Local under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic License.
The image was not changed and its use in no way indicates the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

3. Elvert Barns, “Donald Trump Supporters in Maryland” (2016)

“Donald Trump Supporters in Maryland.” Wikimedia Commons. 12 September 2016.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_supporters_in_Maryland_(29209632543).jpg

Image made public domain by Elverr Barnes under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic License. The
image was not changed and its use in no way indicates the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

4. Gage Skidmore, “Donald Trump Supporters” (2016)

“Donald Trump Supporters.” Wikimedia Commons. 29 October 2016.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_supporters_(30618448036).jpg

Image made public domain by Gage Skidmore under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic License.
The image was not changed and its use in no way indicates the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/

5. “Harriet Ann Jacobs” (1894)

“Harriet Ann Jacobs.” Wikimedia Commons. 1894.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harriet_Ann_Jacobs1894.png

Bailey Conard

Cover. “Hannah Snell, a woman who passed as a male soldier” (1750)

“Hannah Snell, a woman who passed as a male soldier.” Wikimedia Commons. 1750.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hannah_Snell,_a_woman_who_passed_as_a_male_soldier._Wood_
eng_Wellcome_V0007233ER.jpg

Image made public domain by Wellcome Images, a website operated by Wellcome Trust, a global charitable
foundation based in the United Kingdom, under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.
The image has not been changed and its use in no way suggests the endorsement of the licensor.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en

1. Nathaniel Coverly, “Illus. from: Mary Rowlandson. A Narrative” (1770)

176 Kinder Institute

“Illus. from: Mary Rowlandson. A Narrative of the Captivity, Sufferings and Removes of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson.”
Wikimedia Commons. 1770.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1770_MaryRowlandson_Captivity.png

2. John Boyle, “1773 Mary Rowlandson” (1773)

“[Soveraignty & goodness of God] A narrative of the captivity, sufferings, and removes of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson,
who was taken prisoner by the Indians…By Mary Rowlandson. Printed and sold at John Boyle’s Print[ing office,
next door] to the Three Doves in Marrlborough[-Street], Boston. 1773.” Wikimedia Commons. 1773.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1773_MaryRowlandson_Boyle04264010.jpg

3. “Front Page of Mary Rowlandson’s A True History” (1682)

“Front Page of Mary Rowlandson’s A True History of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, a
Minister’s Wife in New-England.” Wikimedia Commons. 1682.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rowlandson2.jpg

4. Henry Davenport Northrop, “Our greater country” (1901)

“Our great country; being a standard history of the United States from the discovery of the American continent to
the present time.” Wikimedia Commons. 1901.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Our_greater_country;_being_a_standard_history_of_the_United_
States_from_the_discovery_of_the_American_continent_to_the_present_time_(1901)_(14784821265).jpg

5. “War and Pestilence! Two young ladies taken prisoners by the savages” (ca. 1830-1840)

Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division. “War and Pestilence! Two young ladies taken prisoners by the
savages.” Library of Congress Digital Collections. ca. 1830-1840.
http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2001696053/

6. John Vanderlyn, “The Death of Jane McCrea” (1804)

“The Death of Jane McCrea.” Wikimedia Commons. 1804.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vanderlyn_McCrea.jpg

Divider 6

6a and 6b. “View from the Aft” (2002)

“View from the Aft (Fantail) Section of the Memorial, Looking Forward Toward the Stack and Bow Sections—
Rosie the Riveter National Historic Park.” Wikimedia Commons. 2002.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VIEW_NORTH_FROM_THE_AFT_(FANTAIL)_SECTION_
OF_THE_MEMORIAL,_LOOKING_FORWARD_TOWARD_THE_STACK_AND_BOW_SECTIONS_-_
Rosie_the_Riveter_National_Historical_Park,_Rosie_the_Riveter_Memorial,_HAER_CA-326-D-4.tif

This file comes from the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), Historic American Engineering Record
(HAER), or Historical Landscapes Survey (HALS). These are programs of the National Park Service established

Journal on Constitutional Democracy 177

for the purpose of documenting historic places. Records consist of measured drawings, archival photographs, and
written reports.

Ray Rhatican

Cover. “Seamans, von Braun, and President Kennedy at Cape Canaveral” (1963)

“Seamans, von Braun, and President Kennedy at Cape Canaveral.” Wikimedia Commons. 16 November 1963.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seamans,_von_Braun_and_President_Kennedy_at_Cape_Canaveral_-_
GPN-2000-001843.jpg

1. “Alfred Nobel,” (ca. 1850)

“Alfred Nobel.” Wikimedia Commons. ca. 1850.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alfred_Nobel_young.jpg

2. Peter Stackpole, “J. Steinbeck, sitting on a chair” (ca. 1930-1960)

Henry W. and Albert A. Berg Collection of English and American Literature, The New York Public Library. “J.
Steinbeck, sitting on a chair.” The New York Public Library Digital Collections. 1930-1960.
http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47db-bd6b-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99

3. Bureau of Public Roads, “United States system of highways” (1950)

Library of Congress Geography & Maps Division. “United States system of highways, adopted for uniform marking
by the American Association of State Highway officials, November 11, 1926, with additions and amendments
subsequently approved 1950.” Library of Congress Digital Collections. 1950.
https://www.loc.gov/item/00562124/

4. Théodore Chassériau, “Alexis de Tocqueville” (ca. 1830-1840)

“Alexis de Tocqueville.” Wikimedia Commons. ca. 1830-1840.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexis_de_tocqueville_cropped.jpg

5. “Orbit, Post-Landing, Post-Extravehicular-Activity—Magazine 37/R” (1969)

NASA/Project Apollo Archive. “Orbit, Post-Landing, Post-Extravehicular-Activity—Magazine 37/R.” Public
Domain Review via Flickr: The Commons. 20 July 1969.
https://publicdomainreview.org/collections/hi-res-images-from-the-apollo-missions/

6. “President John F. Kennedy Speaks at Rice University” (1962)

“President John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University.” Wikimedia Commons. 12 September 1962.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_F._Kennedy_speaks_at_Rice_University.jpg

178 Kinder Institute