International Journal of Educational Benchmark (IJEB) - Vol. 8, Issue 2, July/September 2017

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

there is no significant difference by gender of agricultural science teachers’ responses on the
re-training skills need areas for effective implementation of the new animal husbandry trade
curriculum

Discussion of findings

The current changes in educational policy and curriculum reform in Nigeria are worthwhile
to promote self-reliance and to meet societal demands. Agricultural trades and
entrepreneurship newly introduced into the programme and curriculum of Nigerian
secondary schools are relevant as it would facilitate learning and skills acquisition as well as
hands on experiences in farming practices. Quality of education is reflected in its philosophy,
policy, its implementation mechanism and machinery as well as in the beneficiaries. By this
assertion, the mechanism (strategies) and the machinery (Teachers) play vital roles in
achievement of quality education. Indeed quality of teachers need considerable attention in
the country as governments and their key partners strive to ensure the production of
sufficient and quality human resource development for higher education in Nigeria.

There is a yawning gap where agricultural science teachers with Bachelor, Masters or Ph.D
degrees, trained generally in Agricultural Education without specialty areas, are responsible
for training Secondary Agriculture for implementation of the new specialized curriculum in
Agricultural Trades and Entrepreneurship subjects (Fishery and Animal Husbandry). This
therefore explains the need to retrain Agricultural Education Instructors in Nigerian Tertiary
Institutions for up-skilling and knowledge update in the indicated agricultural trades and
entrepreneurship curriculum. Therefore governments’ commitments to recruiting, training
and retraining of teachers for up-skilling and update of their knowledge in line with current
societal and technological development in secondary school is vital.

The findings of this study reveal the areas of need for agricultural science teachers to be re-
trained.in animal husbandry. There are several re-training skill needs identified in the results
of the study. The results are in consonance with Egbule (2002) assertion that, to achieve the
goal of Agriculture Education Programme, teachers’ qualification and re-training for up-
skilling are of immense importance. There is an increasing evidence that, the current
challenge of Agriculture Education is the definition of her professional needs. There are
professional tasks that must be clearly understood and professionally performed to achieve
the set goals of agriculture education programme at all levels of education (Tenny and
Berkey, 1981).

Animal farm budgeting skills and analyzing financial records to make wise decisions would
aid proper planning and implementation of the school farm project. Skills in identification of
prolific breeds of farm animals are necessary to facilitate production Identification of hybrid
of vigour and crosses with desirable characteristic is relevant. Good farm animal housing
skills makes for comfort and proper growth of animals kept therefore skills in animal house
construction is needful. Students need to be guided on the choice of proper bedding and
proper fencing materials and calculation of space requirements during the housing
construction. Hygiene maintenance skills are very vital for reduction of mortality rates of
farm animals. Learners need to use facilities that can be cleaned and disinfected efficiently.
Farm animal feeding Skills is important as the animals feeding patterns directly influences
growth and productivity. Farm animal paste control skills. Training for acquisition of
competencies in application of the different types of pesticides and good health practices are
needful.

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Animal health management skills such as identification of pests and diseases symptoms, sick
animals among others, proper de-worming practices and appropriate culling practices need to
learnt by the teachers to be able to teach the students with demonstration. Farm Animal
growth and reproduction management skills includes, carrying out artificial insemination
successfully, delivering a pregnant animals, Handling newborn animals, Castrate animals,
trimming of animals hooves etc . These skills are needed to ensure optimum growth and
production of animals. Farm animal harvesting and processing skills are necessary to be
learnt. Farm Animal marketing skills may extend to cover; developing a marketing plan,
determining when an animal is ready for market, accurate financial record keeping, financial
records, identification of marketing options (sales, private treaty, cooperative marketing and
direct marketing), Figuring out break-even point for a specific enterprise and determining
the value of an animal at different stages. Animal Feeding skills involves mastering the types
of feeds and nutritional values, gaining competence in the feeding methods, sometimes
formulating feeds for animals and recognizing common nutritional disorders.

Conclusion
The introduction of Trade and entrepreneurship Education in the Nigerian

Educational system has the goal of providing specialized type of training for skills
acquisition and self-reliance. (FRN, 2013). The non-readiness of the Agriculture Education
Instructors undermines the realization of the programme’s set goals Agricultural
entrepreneurship or trades skills are popular vehicles for any one (students) who wants to
fast-track into well-paying highly skilled career(s). It should be pointed out that the
introduction of trade and entrepreneurship education has brought so much joy and laughter to
many because of the prospects it holds. It hoped that it is coming to ameliorate the
challenges pose by unemployment. It is also worthy of note that, mere reforms will rather
create more problems to the society if the right measures are not taken to ensure effective
implementation. The quality of education is largely dependent on the quality of teachers, who
are the propellers of the teaching and learning process. This is why all hands need be on
deck to ensure that previously trained agricultural Science teachers are equipped with all it
takes to achieve the set goals and objectives of the newly introduced curriculum in
agricultural trades in secondary school education generally. Curriculum at various instances
may undergo different reforms to meet the society’s needs, but its reforms will remain a myth
if the various measures for implementation are not a properly considered (Okon 2005).

Recommendations

Based on the findings above, the following recommendations have been made:

 The federal government of Nigeria should consider a re-training programmes for
already existing agricultural teachers in the following areas;
 Re-training skill needs identified included; Farm Animals health
management skills,
 Farm Animal growth/reproduction management skills
 Farm Animal Housing Construction skills among other skill needs
identified.

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 Government should continuously plan and organize training and re-training of
teachers in workshops and seminars with the aim of improving teachers’ general
teaching skills.

 The Federal Government of Nigeria should introduce and support the teaching of
teacher trainee in agricultural trades and entrepreneurship, so they can effectively
implement the new curriculum.

 Government should ensure sponsorship for teachers to enable them attend
conferences where they can exchange ideas with other (senior) colleagues so s to
update their knowledge and skills

 Teachers should adopt a learner-cantered and skill oriented approaches in the delivery
of their lessons.

 The ministry of education should make room for industrial cooperative education for
senior secondary school students to explore career opportunities.

 Teachers should be trained to adopt instructional methods that are in line with the set
objectives of skills acquisition in trades’ subjects.

References

Egbule, P. E. (2002) Fundamentals and practice of agricultural education. Owerri: Totan
Publishers Limited

Okon. U.A. (2005) . Defects in designs and implementation of agricultural education
curriculum for Nigeria secondary schools. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies .12
(2) p.198

Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2013). National policy on education (6th edition). Lagos:
NERDC Press

Tenney, R.W. and Berkey, L. A. (1981). Professionalism in teaching agriculture education:
what and how. Magazine. 54(2)

Danmole, B. T. (2011). Emerging issues on the UBE curriculum in Nigeria: Implications for
the science and technology component. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences. 8 (1)
pp.62-68

Obanya, P. (2004). Education for the knowledge economy. Ibadan: Mosuro Publishers.

Odubunmi E.O. (2006). Science and education in Nigeria: The euphoria, the frustration and
the hopes. 21st Inaugural Lecture Series. Lagos State University, Nigeria.

Ibrahim, A. I. (2015). In-service staff training programme for effective Science teaching.
American Journal of Educational Research, 3(2), 185-190.

Orji, S. (2013). The trade/entrepreneurship curriculum for Nigeria senior secondary schools.
Retrieved Sept. 1st, 2015 from http://www.academia.edu

Osuafor, A. M. (2012). Implementation of the Nigeria new senior secondary
entrepreneurship curriculum structure: Prospects, challenges and the way forward for
sustainable development. International Journal of Education, Science, Public Policy
in Africa-IJESPPA 2.(1) p 26

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Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition for Youth Employability in Nigeria:
Technical Education Intervention

1Abidiak A. Nduononwi (Ph. D), 2 Comfort G. Surveyor,
3Idara N. Nduaesa & 4Ime E. Bassey

1&3 Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo, Uyo,

Akwa Ibom State Nigeria.

2Department of Vocational Education,
Niger Delta University,

Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State.
4Department of Educational Foundations,

Guidance and Counselling,
Faculty of Education,
University of Uyo,

Uyo, Akwa Ibom State,
Nigeria.

[email protected] (07067023646
Abstract
This paper was set to examine entrepreneurial skills acquisition for youth employability in
Nigeria through technical education intervention. The paper examined Technical education
skills that can be used to reduce youth unemployment in Nigeria. The importance of
entrepreneurial skills acquisition in the overall development of a nation cannot be over-
emphasized. Entrepreneurial skills acquisition seems to be more pronounced in technical
education sub-sector of the pedagogical enterprise. Technical education as an important
sector of total education, which is useable, purposive, and performance sector programme,
offers employable skills and competence for job opportunities and wealth creation. It
provides the necessary information and psycho-productive skills required in the present day
technological society and in eradication of youth unemployment through entrepreneurial
activities in our state and nation. Indeed, technical education has been proven the bedrock of
national development in the area of entrepreneurial skills development, science and
technology. In this paper, the authors have listed and provided insight on careers under
technical education programmes for entrepreneurial exploits. This paper concludes that the
establishment of business enterprise requires training in the applications to risk-taking
venture (entrepreneurship). The paper recommends that the principles that guide successful
establishment of private enterprises can best be taught through technical/entrepreneurship
education; that entrepreneurship education will thrive in Nigeria only to the extent that
government made available financial resources for refundable loan for procurement of the
expensive tools, equipment and materials required by certain entrepreneurial training; and
that government must, therefore, wake up from slumber and implement
technical/entrepreneurship education as measures to create jobs, as an instrument for
change/development and a provider of service oriented skills which plays significant role in
economic development of our state and nation, at least to create opportunities so that
individuals can be economically empowered to become self employed and or be gainfully
employed.

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Key words: Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition, Youth Employability, Technical Education
Intervention

Introduction
Unemployment in Nigeria has grown at an alarming rate with it attendant depressing

impacts on the state economy. The rate of unemployment estimated at fifty percent (50%) of
employable population in Nigeria is alarming and calls for a concerted effort by government
and all stakeholders to fight the menace (Nkechi, Emeh and Okechukwu, 2012; Udo, 2013).
Through technical education, the issues of joblessness can be tackle successfully. It is a
known fact that the acquisition of creativity skills, psychoproductive skills, competencies,
and techniques, as well as mental and physical abilities that qualify a person to live and
contribute to the development of the society is one of the cardinal aims and objectives of
technical education as outlined in the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2013; Nduononwi, 2011). The acquisition of technical skills ensures a person is self-
reliant to generate and or create employment for him/her self and others.

One of the methods adopted by the government, through technical education, to
tackle unemployment has been the introduction of entrepreneurship development as a course
in the educational system (Udo, 2013). Today entrepreneurship is included in the general
studies courses in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Nkechi et al (2012) had recommended the
introduction of this programme at all levels of education in the country with the intent of
improving employment generation abilities of the programme products. This is because
entrepreneurship education is an avenue for discovering a desirable, acquisition of human
and social skills that are relevant to participatory development and change (Udo, 2013).

According to Atakpa (2011), entrepreneurship education is designed to inspire and guide
potential entrepreneurs into the field as well as improve upon current knowledge and ginger
prospective entrepreneurs into action. With the government inability to gainfully employ
every citizen, the need for creating employments by individual increases by the day just as
the increase in the population of trained workers in the employment market.
Entrepreneurship has created jobs and saved the economy of various nations (Udo, 2013). To
Steinhoff and Burgess (2007)and Ibrahim (2012), small businesses through which
entrepreneurship is given free expression, is the backbone of the market economy of the
United States and the rest of the world. The Asian tigers, South Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia
and Singapore portray the veritable manifestation of the impact of entrepreneurship on any
nation’s economic progress. Therefore, Entrepreneurship gives or finds expression for
individuals to impact on the economy of any nation.

Technical Education

Technical Education is the training of engineers and technicians for work in industry,
construction, transportation, communication, agriculture, and forestry. The preparation of
skilled workers for the national economy is carried out within the system of technical
education. The term “Technical Education” is also understood to include the theoretical and
practical scientific knowledge and skills that permit a person receiving such education to
solve production, engineering, and economic problems in his/her area specialty. According to
Usoro and Edu (2006), technical education is the training of individual at the adult, post-
secondary and high school levels as highly skilled technicians for entrance into employment
in occupations, which are defined as technical by industrial, scientific, commercial and

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government agencies. From the above definition, technical education is apparently a complex
affair when it is subjected to spectrum analysis as presented below as in figure 1, the picture
of its complexity becomes clearer.

Figure 1: Spectrum Analysis of Technical Education Skills

Technical education

Unskilled Skilled Technician Training/ Technology Scientist Engineering
Education Education Technical Education education education education
Technical

vocational Technical

Vocational Home Business Technical Trade Health Computer
agriculture economics &office education /industrial occupations education
education education.

(Sources: Usoro & Edu, 2006). Qualifications Obtained after formal Technical Education
Training/graduation are N. C. E.; B. Sc (Ed.); M. Sc (Ed.); and Ph. D (Ed.), all in Technical
Education. [The above foregoing spectrum analysis of technical education has been possible
due to the efforts and ingenuity of Victor Della Vos, a Russian engineer and father of manual
dexterity and those of American scientists and vocational educators (Evans, 1971; Roberts,
1978; Scientific American, 2005
and Clemons, 2005; Usoro and Edu, 2006)].

Usoro & Edu, (2006), explained the levels of the above spectrum analysis of technical
education skills as following:

a) Unskilled Education: this is the level of education that does not involve special
training of technical nature. For example, one does not need training to use a
wheelbarrow to move cement blocks to a building site. Training an individual to fell a
tree using a chain saw is also unskilled education.

b) Skilled education: this is the level of education designed to equip individuals with
expert abilities in technical and industrial vocations. Examples are vehicles’
mechanics, block/brick layers, block moulders, welders and bicycle repairers among
others.

c) Technical Training/Technical Education: this is designed to produce highly skilled
scientific or industrial workers who are specialists in the practical details of a subject,
e. g. Small engines technician, a radio/television technician, etc.

d) Technologist Education: this is education, which equips individuals with special
knowledge in scientific and industrial methods and their practical applications in
industry. This also includes computer education in all its ramifications.

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e) Scientist Education: this is education designed to train individuals to work
(especially novel work) in the sciences covering physics, chemistry, biology etc.

f) Engineering Education: this is education designed to assist individuals acquire or
develop skills in planning and designing and the fabrication of roads, bridges,
harbours, machines, and civil and electrical engineering projects. It is the highest
level of technical education (Usoro & Edu, 2006).

Objectives of Technical Education

The objectives of technical education with regards to its definition include the
followings:

i. To assist the students develop an insight and understanding about industry and its
place in our society. Since industry is a constructive, dynamic force in the world
today, it is the responsibility of the school to provide opportunities for student to
understand this force better.

ii. To assist the students develop problem-solving abilities related to materials, processes
and products of industry. The problem-solving approach in technical education
involves creative thinking and gives the students the opportunity to apply principles
of planning and design, construction techniques and computations to the solution of
problems.

iii. To assist the students develop skills in the proficient and safe use of tools and
machines.

iv. To assist students to make choices regarding educational and occupational goals.
v. To train students to exhibit safe behaviours in the workshop and relate these to

situations in the school, home and community.
vi. To assist students/trainees to evaluate manufactured and constructed projects on the

bases of set criteria such as quality of construction, appropriateness of materials,
function, utility or purpose (Usoro and Edu, 2006).
From the above discourse, one can agree that technical education is the supreme component
of human resources development with unlimited potential for supplementing better value to
goods and services and for improving the worth of life of the citizens.

Programmes of Training for Employment/Job Creation in Technical Education

The programmes that provide training for employment in technical education are
numerous. Some of these programmes are as follows:

1 Automobile technology 12 Mechanical technology

2 Architectural technology 13 Forestry technology

3 Aviation technology 14 Industrial technology

4 Aeronautical technology 15 Environmental technology

5 Air pollution technology 16 Electrical technology

6 Chemical technology 17 Electronics technology

7 Computer technology 18 Solar energy technology

8 Oceanographic technology 19 Fire arms technology

9 Food Science technology 20 Printing technology, and

10 Fire & safety technology 21 Others.

11 Scientific data technology

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There is technical education in almost all spheres of human endeavour. The level of technical
education presently offered in Nigerian schools systems does not cover all technical skills as
provided by the above, but it is related, to some extent, to the nation’s present interest as
shown in table 1 above (Usoro and Edu, 2006

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organisations, particularly new
business generally in response to identified work opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a
difficult undertaking, as a vast majority of new businesses fail. Entrepreneurial activities are
substantially different depending on the type of organisation that is being started.
Entrepreneurship ranges in scale from solo projects to major undertakings creating many job
opportunities. Entrepreneurship involves risking. According to Casson (2003),
Entrepreneurship forces creative destruction across markets and industries, simultaneously
creating new products and business models. In this way, creative destruction is largely
responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth.

The behaviours of the entrepreneurs reflect a kind of individual willing to put his/her
career and financial security on the line and take risks in manifesting a dream or idea,
spending much time as well as capital on a venture which holds an uncertain future in terms
of positive outcomes. Another view of entrepreneurship is that it is the process of
discovering, evaluating, and exploiting opportunities, which go on to reify themselves in the
form of new business ventures. In this discourse, an entrepreneur could be defined as
someone who acts with ambition beyond that supportable by the resources currently under
his/her control, in relentless pursuit of opportunity (Nduononwi, 2015). Entrepreneurship
received a boost in the formalized creation of so-called incubators and science parks, where
businesses can start at a small scale, share services and space while they grow, and
eventually move into space of their own when they have achieved what it takes to function as
an independent entity entrepreneurship. The effectiveness of the entrepreneurs can be
observed as their characteristics.

Characteristic of Entrepreneurship

There are qualities that characterise entrepreneurship to be resourceful for wealth and
employment generation. These qualities are listed and explained hereunder:

a) Enthusiastic Vision: the entrepreneur should have an enthusiastic vision, which is
the driving force of an enterprise. An entrepreneur should be someone who is
imaginative and can look into the future to see any likely new trend that may occur.
This is very important to entrepreneurs, because changes are common in
entrepreneurial activities and may come without warning. For example, the market
may change without notice, and if this caught the entrepreneurs unprepared, it may
spell doom to his/her business.

b) Honesty: the entrepreneur must be a trusted individual who can be trusted and relied
on his/her actions and deeds by the society. He/she must not be someone who cheats
the customers, who are the essence of his/her business. Entrepreneurs must conduct
their business in a transparent way in order to secure the continuous patronage of their
customers and the general public.

c) Hard work: the entrepreneurs must be hard working in the day-to-day running of
their businesses. In their daily routines, many issues will call for their attention and

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actions, sometime details may be incomplete, flexible, and evolving. All these will
require the spirit of hard work in doing all that is required to be done.
d) Discipline: in running a business enterprise, there are bound to be some regulations
guiding the business enterprise without which there may be derailment. These
regulations will be useless if they are not obeyed. The entrepreneur, who hopes to
succeed in his/her actions and leadership, must be an embodiment of discipline.
He/she must lead in the observation of rules and regulations. If an entrepreneur
schedule to start business at 8.00 am, he/she must always resume work before 8.00
am. Disregarding start up time by the entrepreneur is a signal to the workers that they
should also disregard or circumvent the schedule. Entrepreneurs should, therefore,
promote the observation of the rules of business with enthusiastic passion.
e) Self-confidence: the entrepreneur is someone who makes a lot of policies and takes a
lot of actions, all in an attempt to see to the effective and efficient operation of hi/her
business enterprise. The entrepreneur need to built and instil confidence in his/her
workers to assure them of the correctness and quality of his/her decisions and
policies. This will make the workers respect and always show readiness to cooperate
with the entrepreneur. For self-confidence to be created, the entrepreneur must be an
action man in the scene, a man of ideas, a man of vision and an exemplary leader,
who is always ready to provide solutions to problems now and in the future.
f) Responsibility: the entrepreneur must always be ready to takes the initial
responsibility of the outcome of the enterprise. With persistence and determination,
the entrepreneur must develop strategies to change he/her vision into reality
(Nduononwi, 2015; Udo, 2013; and Usoro and Edu, 2006).
It is evident from the forgoing that the success or achievement of an enterprise is reflective of
the spirit or the drawing force of entrepreneurship, the focus of which combines risk-taking
with determination.

The Entrepreneur
An entrepreneur is a person who organises, operates a business venture, and assumes

much of the associated risk. Entrepreneurs have many of the same character traits as leaders.
They are often contrasted with managers and administrators who are said to be more
methodical and less prone to risk-taking. To Schumpeter (1950), an entrepreneur is a person
who is willing and able to convert a new idea or invention into a fruitful innovation.
According to Cole (1959), there are four types of entrepreneurs. These are i) the innovator;
ii) the calculating inventor; iii) the over-optimistic promoter; and iv) the organisation builder.
The foregoing types of entrepreneurs are not related to personality and not entirely isolated
from it, but to the type of opportunity, which opens to the entrepreneur.
Goals and Objectives of Entrepreneurs

For any action, institution or organisation to exist and move forward, it must be
guided by a set of goals /objectives. This holds true of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs generally
have a set of goals and objectives to achieve. These goals and objectives are stated and
briefly explained as follows:

1. Development of New Markets: under the modern concept of marketing, markets are
people who are willing and able to satisfy their needs. In economic terms, this is
called an effective demand. Entrepreneurs are resourceful and creative. They can
create customers or buyers. This makes entrepreneurship different from ordinary
businessmen who only perform traditional functions of management like planning,
organization, and coordination.

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2. Discovers New Sources of Materials: entrepreneurs are never satisfied with
traditional or existing sources of materials. Due to their innovative nature, they persist
on discovering new sources of materials to improve their enterprises. In business,
those who can develop new sources of materials enjoy a comparative advantage in
terms of supply, cost and quality.

3. Mobilize Capital Resources: entrepreneurs are the organizers and coordinators of
the major factors of production, such as land, labour and capital. They properly mix
these factors of production to create goods and services. Capital resources, from a lay
man’s view, refer to money. However, in economics, capital resources represent
machines, buildings, and other physical productive resources. Entrepreneurs have
initiative and self-confidence in accumulating and mobilizing capital resources for
new business or business expansion.

Advantages of Entrepreneurship
Every successful entrepreneur brings about benefits not only for himself/ herself but

also for the country as a whole. The benefits that can be derived from entrepreneurial actives
are as follows: Self-employment; Employment for others; Development of more industries
especially in the rural areas; Encouragement of the processing of local raw materials into
finished goods for domestic consumption as well as for export; Income generation; Healthy
competition thus encourages higher quality products; More goods and services available;
Development of market; Promotion of the use of modern technology in small- scale
manufacturing to enhance higher productivity; Encouragement of researches/studies and
development of modern machines and equipment for domestic consumption; and
Development of entrepreneurial qualities and attitudes among potential entrepreneurs to
bring about significant changes in the rural areas (Baumol, et al, 2007; Usoro and Edu, 2006;
Casson, 2003).

Technical Education Options for Entrepreneurship Skills Development
The technical education options that will generate self-employments and create

wealth include the following areas of specialization.
1. Technical Drawing (the language of the engineers and technicians) - training for
self-employment should be in engineering graphics, engineering drawing and
drafting etc.
2. Automobile Technology – training should be on sales of motor parts, car engine
maintenance, servicing and repairs; auto body repairs/painting; vulcanization;
alignment and wheel balancing; grinding of valves; reboreing of engine block;
cutting of crankshafts, welding/repairs of wheel shafts; repairs and servicing of
automatic gearbox and automobile electricity etc.
3. Building Technology – individuals should be train on sales of building materials,
block laying, block moulding, tiling and walls screeching, plumbing etc
4. Woodwork Technology – training should be on carpentry work, furniture
construction, doorframes and roofing etc.
5. Electrical Technology – solar energy – training on electrical installations, repairs
of electrical appliances/ maintenance of wiring systems.
6. Electronic Technology: training should be on sradio services, TV, air condition
and ICT issues.
7. Industrial Craft Technology (yet to be adopted by the Nigerian education
system).

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8. Metalwork Technology – training should be on metal protectors, door/window
frames, gates and tanks.

9. Plastics Technology (yet to be offered in the Nigerian secondary schools system).
10. Printing Technology – training should be on both manual and mechanical

printing processes.
11. Graphics Technology, training should be on computer graphics design,

construction graphics design, animation, and multimedia.
12. Rockology – training should be on processing of stone into ornaments of aesthetic

value.

The potentials of skills training in technical education for entrepreneurship development can
be increased by considering and including other technical education options. These options
are plastics technology, printing, industrial crafts including rockology (cutting and polishing
stones into ornaments) and solar energy.

So far, a commendable step has been taken by Nigerian system of education to
include basic entrepreneurship training in all service areas of vocational education, one of
which is technical education. Technical education programmes are offered at the secondary
and tertiary levels of education in Nigeria. The options of interest for the development of
manpower for self and national growth are:

1. Technical drawing {engineering graphics, engineering drawing drafting – the
language of the engineers and technicians};

2. Automobile technology – mechanics, service/maintenance, transportation, sales of
automobiles/parts, gas/petrol station establishment etc.

3. Building technology – house design, construction, sales.
4. Electrical/electronic technology – solar energy.
5. Industrial craft technology (yet to be adopted by the Nigerian education system).
6. Metalwork technology – doors, windows, window/door frames, protectors, tank

construction, ladders, furniture construction are potential exploits.
7. Plastics technology (yet to be offered in the Nigerian secondary schools) -.
13. Printing technology: training should be on both manual and mechanical printing

processes.
8. Graphics technology - computer graphics design, construction graphics design,

animation, and multimedia. and
9. Woodwork technology - carpentry work, furniture construction/doorframes etc.

Technical education has the potentials for supporting entrepreneurial exploits through the
training of youths in one of the above listed skills options and equipping them to start their
own enterprise on completion of training. In addition, there are many multiblock occupations
in technical education; some of these multiblock occupations include automobile technology,
building technology, metal technology among others. Multiblock occupations are fertile
grounds for the establishment of enterprises or entrepreneurial endeavours.

Conclusion
The foregoing options equip the trainees with skills for employment and for

establishing small businesses for economic self – reliance. However, it is one thing to acquire
technical skills and another to use them in establishing business enterprise in the face of
several challenges. The establishment of business enterprise requires training in the
application of principles to risk – taking ventures (entrepreneurship). The principles that

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guide successful establishment of a private enterprise can best be taught through
entrepreneurship education.
Recommendations

1. The government at both state and federal levels should liaise with schools and
colleges to establish training centers for the training of Nigerian youths on any
technical education skills options of their choice.

2. The state and federal government should provide refundable loans for the trainees on
completion of their training order to purchase materials, tools and equipment to start
their own business.

References
Atakpa, R. A. (2011). A sine qua-non in business education in Nigeria. Journal of Business

Educators of Nigeria. 1 (11) 1-6.

Baumol, W. J., Litan, R. E., Schramm, C. J. (2007). Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, Yale
University Press.

Clemons S. (2005). CAD Skills Increased through Multicultural Design Project. The
Technology Teacher, 65 (4), 19-21.

Casson, M. (2003). The Entrepreneur: An Economic Theory, Second Edition” Edward Elgar
Publishing.

Cole, A. (1959) Business Enterprise in its Social Setting. Harvard University Press, Boston.

Evans, R. N. (1971). Foundations of Vocational Education. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E.
Merrill.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education. Revised: Abuja: NERDC
Press.

Ibrahim, H. (2012). The Role of Rural Entrepreneurship in Employment Generation. Journal
of Arts and Contemporary Society. 2: 78 - 87.

Nduononwi, A. A. (2011). Effects of multiple intelligence instructional and lecture methods
on students’ academic achievement in motor vehicle technology in technical colleges
in Akwa Ibom State. An Unpublished M.Sc. (Ed) Dissertation, Department of
Vocational Education, Faculty of Education, University of Uyo, Uyo.

Nduononwi, A. A. (2015). A technical paper: how to improved technical education
entrepreneurship in Akwa Ibom State for Self – development to generate more self
employment and wealth creation. An Unpublished Seminar Paper.

Nkechi, A., Emah, I. E. J., & Okechukwu, U. F. (2012). Entrepreneurship development and
employment generation in Nigeria: Problems and prospects. Universal Journal of
Education and Generation Studies. 1 (4), 88-102.

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Roberts, R. W. (1978): Vocational and practical arts education. New York: Harper & Row
Scientific American (2005) 13 (1) 43.

Scientific American (2005). How to prevent the end of economic growth. Download from:
www.scientificamerican.com>morescience>scientificamericanvolume312,Issue1>foru
m

Schumpeter, J. (1950). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, 3rd Edition, Harper and Row,
New York.

Steinhoff, D.& Burgess, J. F. (2007). Small business management fundamental. 6th Edition.
New York. McGraw – Hill Inc.

Udo, J. D. (2013). Acquisition of entrepreneurial skills and business education graduates
employment generation in Uyo Senatorial District. An Unpublished M. Sc Dissertation
Proposal Submitted to The Department of Vocational Education, Faculty of Education,
University of Uyo, Uyo.

Usoro, S. U. & Edu, D. O. (2006). Spectrum analysis of technical education. Journal of
Education and Technology. Vol. 1; 2-8.

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eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

An Analysis of Pre-service Chemistry Teachers' Cognitive Preferences in Delta State of
Nigeria

Oyakhirome, A. Helen Ph.D
Omoifo ,C. N. (Prof)

Department of Curriculum and
Instructional Technology

Faculty of Education, University of Benin,
Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
[email protected]
+2348027530479

Abstract
The Study investigated the cognitive preferences of preservice chemistry teachers in Delta
State, Nigeria. The sample of the study consisted of 122 preservice chemistry teachers
randomly sampled from the only government owned (Delta State University, Abraka) and
two colleges of education in the state. The study was guided by five (5) research questions
and adopted an Ex-post facto research design. The instrument for data collection was a
20 item Chemistry Cognitive Preference Test (CCPT). Descriptive statistics of frequency
scores and percentages counts were used to analyse the data collected. The findings of the
study among others showed that the prevalent cognitive preference of preservice chemistry
teachers was Recall (R), the uncommon/unpopular was questioning (Q, and the pattern of
cognitive preferences revealed was Recall  Principles ApplicationQuestioning. R 
P  A  Q. It was therefore recommended that instructors, lecturers in the teacher
Education programmes rather than viewing sciences only as a subject or content to be taught
and mastered by the learners should instead see science (Chemistry) teaching as
opportunities for learners to reflect on their thinking, and learning processes. Strategies for
promoting metacognitive abilities by teacher educators.

Keywords: Cognitive Preferences, Preservice Chemistry Teachers Metacognition.

Introduction:
In recognition of the pivotal role of quality education at all levels, the National policy

on Education (NPE, 2013), stipulates that teacher Education shall continue to be emphasized
in educational planning and development. Some of the Nation's goals for Teacher Education
include among others to:

1. Produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all
levels of the educational system.

2. Provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their
assignment and to make them adaptable to changing situation.

Teacher education according to Nwanekezi & Ifionu (2010) is a “a pre planned and
articulated set of events and activities which are intended to help a would-be teacher, or
teacher trainee acquire appropriate knowledge, skills, the right attitudes, habits and
competences needed to be able to enter the teaching profession and to become a resourceful,
effective and efficient teacher". Those professionals who engage in this activity are called
Teacher educators, or in some contexts, teacher trainers. Teacher education in Nigeria may

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either he preservice (initial teacher training/education) or in-service. Preservice teacher
education is the teacher education given to people to make them qualified to teach at any
level of education after their training programme. To implement this, certain institutions are
charged with the responsibility to provide professional training for teachers. These include:

a. Faculties/Institutes of Education of Universities
b. Colleges of Education
c. The National Teachers' Institute (NTI)
d. Schools of Education in Polytechnics
e. National Mathematical centres
f. The National Institute of Nigeria Language.

A very fundamental learner characteristic that is germane to the realisation of the
goals of Teacher Education is the cognitive preferences of pre-service teachers. The
cognitive preference construct was developed by Heath (1964) in the context of the curricula
movement of the 1960s. Health developed the cognitive preference construct to evaluate the
cognitive styles of learners. Heath defined it as 'differing modes of attending, to the subject
matter of a course." He identified four types of cognitive preferences.

a. Memory or recall of specific facts or terms
b. Identification of a fundamental principle
c. Practical application
d. Critical questioning of information
cognitive preferences are the learning methods that are appropriate to each individual. They
are individual characteristic modes by which varied trainees attend to the subject of
chemistry. According to Heath, "the true power of the cognitive preference construct is not to
categorize which one is right, wrong or most powerful but rather cognitive preferences offer
curriculum implementers a gateway to nurturing trainees metacognitive abilities".

According to Lai (2011), metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition" or
"knowing about knowing" metacognition can take many forms, it includes knowledge about
when and where to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. It refers to a
level of thinking that involves active control over the process of thinking that is used in
learning situations. Planning the way to approach a learning task, monitoring comprehension,
and evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task these are skills that are
metacognitive in nature rather than mental or intellectual abilities. The theory
(constructivism) that metacognition has a critical role to play in successful learning is a
pointer to the dire need that it be nurtured, emphasized and developed by preservice
chemistry trainees in Teacher education programmes. Metacognition makes a unique
contribution to learning over and above the influence of intellectual ability (Cambridge
International Exmaination). Learners who use metacognitive strategies are likely to be able to
achieve more. Research shows that improving a learner's metacognitive practices may
compensate for any cognitive limitations they have.

Statement of the Problem
Observed situations in chemistry classrooms at teacher education programmes

indicate that majority of teacher educators do not apply appropriate teaching strategies as
identified and recommended to be effective and/or efficient by research. Rather than viewing
science as contents to be taught, teacher educators do not see learning experiences as
opportunities for teacher trainees to reflect on their metacognition and help learners develop
metacognitively. Great emphasis instead is placed on content delivery and certification

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Teacher education in Nigeria includes four elements: improving the general
educational background of the trainee teachers, increasing their knowledge and
understanding of the subjects they are to teach pedagogy and understanding of children and
learning; and the development of practical skill and competencies. According to Education
Sector Support Programme in Nigeria (ESSPIN, 2010), "the new National council on
Education minimum standards for curriculum content and practice are based on the current
views of what constitute Best practice in education". ESSPIN reported that education in
Nigeria has been based on what educators now consider to be an outdated view of education,
particularly an outdated behaviourist thinking. ESSPIN recommended that the field of
cognitive psychologist has "moved on"and the focus of attention has shifted:

 Education is not just about teaching; these days it is about learning.
 There is a shift from transmitting knowledge to creating understanding

Cognitive preferences of preservice chemistry teachers are critical parameters to be
considered if the educational approach recommended by NCE is to be realized because they
offer teacher educators a gateway to nurturing their students' metaccognitive abilities.
Cognitive preferences are described as consistent and inbuilt preferences in organizing and
processing information,which interaction with other characteristics influence people's
behaviour and academic performance (Okebukola & Jegede, 1988 in Ceaser & Reuven,
2010). One of the most important tasks of education is to teach learners at all levels how to
learn on their own throughout their lifetime and the realization of this goal demands that the
metacognitive abilities of learners (trainees) must be nurtured and restructured by teacher
educators, cognitive to doing this.

Research Questions:
The study was guided by five (5) research questions:

1. What is the prevalent cognitive preferences of preservice chemistry teachers in
universities in Delta State?

2. What is the uncommon cognitive preference of preservice chemistry teachers in
Universities in Delta State.

3. What is the prevalent cognitive preference of preservice chemistry teachers in
colleges of Education in Delta State.

4. What is the unpopular cognitive preference of preservice chemistry teachers in
Colleges of Education in Delta State.

5. What is the pattern of cognitive preferences of preservice chemistry teachers in
colleges of Education and Universities in Delta State.

Methodology
An ex-post facto design was adopted for the study. This is because it enables the

researcher verifies facts on ground with minimal bias and the researcher cannot manipulate
any variable. The sample for the study was drawn from Government owned institutions only:
One university and two college of Education in Delta State as at the time of the research
work. The sampled subjects consisted of available 122 preservice chemistry teachers 2015/16
academic session Of the 122 subjects, 52 were selected from the only Government owned
university and 70 subjects were selected from two Government owned colleges of Education.

Instrument for Data Collection:
The instrument for the study was a chemistry cognitive preference test (CCPT). The

instrument was developed by Omoifo (1988), and was adapted by the researcher. Section A
of the instrument elicited general information such as sex, school type and location. Section

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B was based on Heath modes of attending to scientific information and was made of 20 items
drawn from concept of matter viz physical and chemical changes, states of matter, kinetic
theory and its applications. Each item in the test presented an introductory statement
followed by four extension statements, each one of which corresponds closely to one of the
four modes (recall, principles, application and questioning). The examinee is told that all four
extension statements are correct and he/she is asked either to select the most appealing
statement or to rank all four statements or to chose the most and least appealing. In doing so,
the respondent is assumed to display his/her cognitive preference style or pattern.
Data analysis and Results

Research Questions 1 and 2

Table 1: Descriptive of preservice Chemistry Teachers' cognitive preferences in Universities

in Delta State

Cognitive preferences Frequency Percent (%)

Recall 32 61.50

Principles 07 13.50

Application 05 09.61

Questioning 03 5.80

Recall & Principles 02 3.906

Recall & Application 01 1.90

Recall & Questioning 01 1.90

Principles & Application 01 1.90

Total 52 100

Table 1 shows that cognitive preference Recall, 32 (61.50%), most appealed to the

respondents. The table also shows that the least appealed, 03 (5.80%) was cognitive

preference questioning. Some of the subjects showed a combination of preferences. Recall &

principles 202 (3.90%) Recall and Application 01 (1.90%), Recall & Application and

principles &Application also 01 (1.90%).

Research Question 3 and 4

Table 2: Descriptive of Preservice Chemistry Teachers Cognitive Preferences in Colleges of

Education in Delta State

Cognitive preferences Frequency Percent (%)

Recall 35 50.00

Principles 10 14.30

Application 08 11.40

Questioning 05 07.10

Recall & Principles 05 07.10

Recall & Application 02 02.90

Recall & Questioning 03 04.30

Principles & Application 02 02.91

Total 70 100

Table 2 shows that cognitive preference questioning, least appealed 05 (07.10%) to

the respondents, cognitive preference recall, most appealed 35 (50%) to them that is half of

the respondents indicated that they respond to chemistry content by acceptance of

information without consideration of implications, applications or limitations. Some of the

respondents found a combination of cognitive preferences appealing.

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Research Question 5:

Table 3: Descriptive of preservice Chemistry Teachers' pattern of cognitive preferences in

Delta State

Cognitive preferences Frequency Percent (%)

Recall 67 54.91

Principles 17 13.93

Application 13 10.60

Questioning 08 6.56

Recall & Principles 07 5.74

Recall & Application 03 2.46

Recall & Questioning 04 3.28

Principles & Application 03 2.46

Total 122 100

Table 3 indicates that cognitive preference Recall appealed most 67 (54.91%) to the
subjects of the study, followed by cognitive preference principles 17 (13.931%), then
cognitive preference, Application 13 (10.60%) and the one that least appealed to them was
cognitive preference questioning 08 (6.56%). The pattern of preferences found there is Recall
 Principles  Application  questioning R v P  A  Q.

Conclusion
The findings of the study have shown that:

1. cognitive preference Recall, appealed most to preservice chemistry teachers in
Universities and colleges of Education in Delta State.

2. cognitive preference questioning appealed least to preserves chemistry teachers in
universities and colleges of Education in Delta State.

3. the pattern of cognitive preferences appealing to them is
Recall  Principles  Application Questioning
RPAQ

Recommendations
In the light of these findings it is therefore recommended

1. that teacher educators at all levels of education should move on with the field of
cognitive psychologist: the focus of attention for teacher education program is no
longer a question of teaching and covering the curriculum content, the question to ask
should be "did the students learn the appropriate concepts and ideals.

2. Colleges should ensure that student teachers learn and practice to be effective
teachers rather than being told or "taught" what effective teachers might look like
from the outside.

3. Educators should assist all students in learning how to learn, as this will make people
independent and effective life-long learners.

4. The metacognitive approach to teaching and learning should be emphasized and
taught. Metacognition is not expensive to implement. Unlike many other educational
intervention, implementing metacognition does not require expensive specialist
equipment or changes to school infrastructure. The only cost of implementing a
metacognitive approach is the cost of professional development.

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5. Instead of the present situation that seem to place premium on content delivering,
examination and certification the nurturing and restructuring of preserves teachers'
cognitive preferences should be emphasized and practiced by all asundry.

References

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Oyakhirome, A.H. (2015). chemistry Student-Teachers Cognitive Preferences, Attitude and
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Thesis, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.

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