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Akbar’s brother-in-law was given a rank of 7000 in the
Mughal court and his name was Raja Man Singh.

The officers do not have the hereditary rights
over the jagirs and they were given special
duties by the emperor and could be
transferred to another place or recalled.

Collection of Revenue

The major source of income for the Mughal

Empire was the revenue from the land. In the

rapidly expanding empire it was very

important that in the collection of revenue in

Mughal troops the from of land tax, there should be

appropriate administrative machinery involved in measurement. Due to the

abundance of land, mobility of peasants and availability of labour there was a

clear expansion of agriculture during the Mughal rule. As other methods of

agriculture, irrigation was developed by the peasants and thus monsoon was no

more the only hope for agriculture. The projects of irrigation got the support of

the state as well. The state undertook digging of new canals and also repaired

old ones like the shahnahr in the Punjab during ShahJahan’s reign.

The land classification under Akbar was given in Ain-i-Akbari as follows:
Different revenues were fixed for each land under Akbar:
i) The land which was never allowed to lie fallow and was annually cultivated

for each crop in succession was Polaj.

ii) The land which should recover its strength and was left uncultivated for a
time was Parauti.

iii) The land which had remained fallow for three to four years was called
Chachar.

iv) Land cultivated for five years or more was called Banjar. For the first two
kinds of land, there were three classes: good, middle and bad. An average
was calculated and the each sort was added for the net production. Thus as a
royal due of one third of this amount was exacted.

The cultivation of the basic staple crops was the main focus of agriculture
production. The crop that cultivated more revenue was encouraged by the

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Mughal state. Most lucrative cash crops were sugarcane and cotton. Zabti was a
revenue system under Mughals. Akbar borrowed a lot from Sher Shah’s legacy
and was the first ruler to formulate the policies of revenue administration. Under
Sher Shah his revenue minister, Raja Todar Mal had received his training in the
revenue matters. Every province was divided into revenue circles and for
individual crops with its own schedule rates. Two stages involved in revenue
administration were – First assessment and then actual revenue collection. The
assessment of land belonging to a particular peasant after the calculation of the
amount was called jama. Hasil was the actual calculated amount. Quite often
the hasil was lesser than the jama because of various reasons like the less
production of agriculture resulting from less rain, drought or flood. For a period
of ten years, 1570-1580 AD Raja Todar Mal carried out the survey of crop yields,
prices and areas cultivated. The tax that was fixed on each crop was based on
this data. It was the instruction of Akbar to collect the revenue in cash to the
circle level revenue collector and the amil-guzars. But for certain circumstances
the peasants were allowed to pay in kind too. For the work of collection of
revenue, the qanungos who operated at the village level and the local zamindars
also often assisted to the state.

The settlement of the border security of the northwest frontier was the main
issues for the Mughal rulers of the Mughal Empire. The rise of the Mughal
Empire in India coincided with the three great dynasties in Ottoman (Turkey),
Central Asian and Iran which was designed to tackle by the Mughal foreign
policy:

 Uzbeks of Central Asia

 Safavids of Iran and

 Ottomans of Turkey

In the year 1665 AD, this is an order to the revenue official made by
Aurangzeb’s excerpt: The amins of the parganas should be directed in
such a way that they should discover the actual condition of
cultivation (maujudat), village by village, peasant-wise (asamiwar),
after minute scrutiny, assess the jama, keeping in view the financial
interest (kifayat) of the government, and the welfare of the
peasantry.

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Against the Shia Safavids of Iran, an alliance of Sunni dynasty of Uzbek, Ottoman
and Mughal was wanted by Central Asia and the Uzbeks of Balkh. There was
cordial relationship with early Mughals and Iran which they did not want to risk.
To divert the attention away from Kabul, Uzbeks otherwise got occupied with
Iran, as a strong Iran was essential to be kept. Kabul and Multan were the gate
ways to India and were long under the Mughals. These posts were protected
against all the foreign invasions and Afghan tribal disturbances encouraged by
the Uzbeks was all which the Mughals needed. The most potent factor which
brought the Mughal and the Safavids together was the dread of Uzbek power.
Both the parties wanted the Kandahar which was the only spot of trouble. It was
considered to be one of the strongest in the region as it was located in the
Central Asia trade route. During the Jahangir’s rule Khandahar was lost to
Safavids and later on there was an attention to these issues by both Aurangzeb
and Shah Jahan. To contain these forces they developed diplomatic ties and to
control over the areas military forces were used to increase the Mughal power.
But Mughal did not gain any territory beyond their existing boundaries or
borders.

Around this time in West Asia the

Ottoman Turks were the most

powerful empire. The successor of

Caliph was Turkish Sultan who

lived in Cairo. The Ottomans

claimed for superior position and

thus the Mughals avoided close

interaction and did not challenge

them. Under the Ottomans control,

Ottoman Empire the Mughals wanted a safe and free
movement for their pilgrims and

merchants especially in the Hijaj area of Arabia where the important pilgrim

place of Mecca and Medina is located. Both religion and commerce was

combined by exporting valuable merchandise to Aden and Mokha, both Red Sea

ports and distribution was done of some parts of the sales in charity to keepers

of the shrines by Mughal Emperors.

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Elizabeth I (1558-1603 AD)

The Tudor Dynasty was bringing the same religious,
economic and political stability in England, while
there where Great Mughal ruling in India. In English
history, the 45 years reign of Queen Elizabeth I was
considered to be the most glorious in the last Tudor.
During this time a secular Church of England was
established. She chose well ministers and astute
political judgement. Her administration consisted of
nearly 600 officials administrating the great offices of state and a similar
number funded the administrative costs dealing with the crown lands.
The sheriffs at the local level, supported by unpaid justices of peace were
responsible for the law and order and for social and economical
regulation. Paving the age of colonisation and trade expansion Elizabeth’s
reign also saw many brave voyages and she also sanctioned the East
India Company in the year 1600 AD. The company came in India to
establish its political rule in the year 1757 AD. The art flourished during
Elizabeth’s reign, miniature painting reached its high point and the
theatres thrived. The first performance of Shakespeare’s ‘A Midsummer
Night’s Dream’ was attended by the Queen. It was one of the triumphs
and success.

 Land tax
 The number of troops that a mansabdar had to maintain
 Measurement of agriculture land to fix the

revenue to be paid to the state
 Personal status of a mansabdar

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 The visible centre of Mughal power was the court. The
emperor occupied position on the Takht.

 A number of courtesies had to be performed by
everybody who wished to meet him. The most popular form
of courtesy was sijda or prostration before the king.

 The officials assisting the emperor at the centre were: a. Mir
Bakhshi, b. Diwan-i-ariz, c. Sadr-i-sudur, d. Qazi, e. Khan-i-
Saman.

 The empire was divided into a number of provinces each of
which was headed by a Subedar or governor. Each suba was
divided into sarkars (districts).

 There were two components of the mansabdar’s position in
the royal service: His rank or zat (personal status) and sawar
-the number of sawars or troops that the mansabdar had to
maintain.

 The revenue system under the Mughals was known as zabti
system. There were two stages involved in the revenue
administration-first assessment and then actual collection.

 The Mughal foreign policy was designed to tackle the three
great dynasties of Iran, Central Asia and Turkey whose rise
coincided with the rise of the Mughal Empire in India.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:
1. The revenue minister during the time of Akbar was

a. Jai Singh b. Birbal c. Todar Mal d. Sher Shah

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2. Who looked after military administration?

a. Wazir b. Qazi c. Diwan d. Mir Bakhshi

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. The mansabdars with a rank of 500-5000 were called_____________.

2. While the Great Mughals ruler in India, the Tudor ______________was
bringing about the same political, religious and economic stability in England.

3. The ______________was the centre of all power

4. Kandahar, an important fortress, beyond Kabul was lost to ____________
during Jahangir’s rule.

5. Mansabdari system was introduced by_______________.

C. Explain the following in brief:

1. Jama and Hasil.

2. Mughal relations with Safavids.

3. Importance of the military posts of Kabul.

4. Land classification under AKbar through Ain-i-Akbari

D. Answer the following questions in detail:

1. What do you know about the central and provincial administration of the
Mughals?

2. Did Akbar introduce a new system of administration in India? Explain your
answer with the help of examples.

3. How was the land classified during the Mughal Empire for the purpose of
revenue fixation?

4. Why did the Mughals try to establish good relations with the Safavids of Iran?

E. Long answer type questions:

1. What was the relation of Mughal Empire with the other states? Give detail
study of it.

2. Imagine that you are one of the courtiers at the Mughal Court. Describe the
day-to-day working of the court in a paragraph.

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VARIETIES OF ARCHITECTURE (800-1200)

The medieval period was a great building period in India. On one hand there were
wars waged between the rulers and the dynasties and on the other hand there
were attempts of building mosque, temples, forts, public structure and palaces.
They did this in order to impress others. They wanted to show their wealth,
power and position and also for the service to their people to gain moral sanction
for their rule. Rich merchants also built interesting and impressive structures to
suit their way of style. The buildings tell us about the art and skill of the artisans
and craftsmen.

In period of 1000 years, medieval buildings (monuments) can be categorised as
follows:

 Sacred structures like dargahs, temples and mosques
 Forts and fortresses built for security reasons
 Palaces and Havelis
 Sarais and Kos minars for the convenience of the travellers
 Lakes, reservoirs and water for harvesting systems in forts
 Wells and stepwells or baolis

A Sufi shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufi saint, is
called a dargah. Examples: Nizamuddin Dargah, the dargah of the Sufi saint,
Nizamuddin Auliya, located in Nizamuddin, West of Delhi. Salim Chishti’s
dargah at Fatehpur Sikri. Dargah Sharif of Hajrat Khwaja and Moinuddin Chisti
in Ajmer.

Moinuddin Chishti’s Dargah at Ajmer According to the religious or non-
religious military nature and also
according to the nature of Dynastic
patronage there were varied
structures of Architectural buildings
and features. Now we are trying to
understand the characteristics of the
building construction in the medieval

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period, the Mughal and the Sultanate period.

During the medieval period in India haveli was a place where the wealthy
officials, merchants and aristocrats used to live. It was also called a private
mansion. The word Haveli derived from the Persian word meaning the enclosed
place. The buildings which had distinctive architectural characteristic have

survived till today. Examples: Khajhachi Haveli
built during the reign of Shah Jahan located in
the city of old Delhi (Shahjahanabad). There
was often a courtyard at the centre of which
there was a fountain in the haveli of the
Mughal. This style of haveli became very
famous and popular in the 19th century which
was used in building many impressive buildings of the rich Marvari traders. The
haveli of Ghalib was built in Delhi in the 19th century.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

There was a great deal of freedom given in the field of architecture and sculpture
and that is why we will not be able to find such an architecture anywhere in the
world. Temples were built according to certain rules and regulations. Though the
basic design was same but the temples showed a large variety of different
architectures in India. The architectures of different style of temples are as
follows:

i) The Nagara or Northern style,

ii) The Dravida or Southern style, and
iii) The Vesara or hybrid style which developed in the Deccan

This style of temple was first developed in the fifth century in North India and
was characterised by a beehive shaped tower called a Shikhara. The shikhara
crowned the place where there were the deities and the sitting place called the
garbhagriha was a square shaped room. The shikhara had a huge stoned disc
called amalaka and above it was the kalasha. We find elaborate decoration in the
12th century. The shikhara was based on the square but often gave the
impression of a circular shape. The garbhagriha was surrounded by a narrow
corridor on all four sides. There was usually a surrounding boundary wall with
gateways. The shikhara was the most prominent element of the Nagara temples

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Jagannath Temple, Puri and the gateway was usually modest.
Distinct regional variations were seen
in the temples of north India. For
example: All of these temples are
classified as Nagara: the Sun temple
of Konark, the Jagannath temple at
Puri in Orissa and the temple of
Khajuraho.

They have a dome on the top and have a pyramid-shaped tower called vimana

consisting of progressively small storey of small pavilions. From the development

of more sophisticated festivals and rituals, the temples became grander and
bigger from the 8th century onwards. There were more corridors, more

subsidiary shrines and other structures. There were pillared halls such as the

‘thousand-pillared halls, mandapas etc. for

various purposes such as dancing, eating,

assembly and also to house Nandi, Shiva’s

sacred mount, as in Vijayanagar Empire.

Enclosure walls were built around the whole

complex. These were generally set in the

East-West and the North-South axis. Meenakshi temple
Elaborate and magnificent gateways called

gopurams led to the devotees into the sacred courtyard along these walls.

Examples: Meenakshi Temple at Madurai and Shore Temple at Kanchipuram.

This style of temple combined both the Dravidian and the Nagara styles and is
found in the Deccan region. Example: Hoysala Temple with its multiple shrines
and remarkable ornate carving.

Shore temple There is a difference in the southern and
northern peninsula of India. Broad climatic,
historical, linguistic, cultural, racial and
geographical difference resulted in the distinct
architectural styles. There was a natural impact
on carving possibilities, construction

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techniques and consequently the overall appearance of the temples because of

the varied type of the raw materials available from region to region. The 12th and
13th centuries allowed sculptors working in the tradition of ivory and sandalwood

carving, to produce the most intricate and ornate of all Indian styles because of

the soft soap-stone type material used
by the Hoysala architects. In the 7th and
the 8th centuries associated with Pallava

were hard crystalline rocks like granite,

typical of the area around

Mamallapuram prevented detailed

carving and resulted in the shallow relief.

Hoysala Temple Temples constructed of bricks had a
quite different characteristic of style

mainly in the parts of Bengal where there are areas without stone. There was a

very significant effect on the stylistic development of temples in royal patronage.

The dynasty which had produced the regional styles was often identified by the

dynasty. For example: we can speak of Chandella, Chalukya, Chola, Hoysala,

Pallava and Gupta temples. Sometimes the temple styles were different for the

various Hindu cults, but in India this was never the case. Some identical styles to

the Hindu temples are the temples such as Jain temples as those of Khajuraho.

THE NEW ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES UNDER THE SULTANATE

India had brought face to face the two great architectural traditions which had
very little in common with each other, during the period of Mughal Rule in India.
The basic structures built during the early period of the Delhi Sultanate i.e. the
constructions of Tomb and mosques were completely different to the Indian
tradition. The beginning of synthesis of the Indian and Islamic architectural
tradition was marked by a number of palaces, fortresses and forts.

i) The Islamic style buildings were constructed with mortar,
lime and bricks. The Indian buildings materials were stones. The Hindu style
incorporated the pyramidal tower pillars and lintels were also adopted in the
construction in the Sultanate period. Muslim wanted the Indian craftsmen as
the number of Muslim craftsmen was not sufficient.

ii) During this period, the Persian and the Arabic features
like the domes, minars, minarets, vaults and arches were used for building
construction. An important feature of Indo-Islamic architecture was arches
and the corbel arches were used in the early Sultanate period. A corbel arch

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Corbel Arch was formed by a series of overlapping stones
(in which each stone stuck out further than the
one below) and at the centre there was a true
arch which had a wedge shaped stone. In
actuate style of architecture the true arch was
used and the keystone transferred the weight
to the base of the arch.

REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE

In the 15th to 17th century and ever later, the independent dynasties establishing
themselves in outlying provinces, came into being just because of a number of
regional styles of architecture. They had the Islamic features inspired from the
rulers’ preferences at Delhi and that was how the structures were built and the
dominating local features.

Some of the important regional styles are mentioned below:

The Bengal style 13th-16th century Adina Mosque, Eklakhi
Tomb

The Gujarat style 14th-16th century Jami Masjid at Broach,
Tanka Masjid at Dholka

The Malwa style 15th-16th century Tomb of Hoshang Shah,
Jahaz Mahal

The Jaunpuri style 14th-15th century Atala Mosque, Lal Darwaza
Mosque

The Adilshahi or Bijapuri 16th-17th century Gol Gumbaz- the
style mausoleum of Muhammad
Adil Shah, Zanziri Masjid
Qutubshahi or Golconda 16th-17th century Royal tombs at Golconda,
style 15th-17th century Charminar at Hyderabad

Kashmir style (use of timber Mosques of Madani and
due to climatic factors) Shah Hamadan in Srinagar

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE: INDO-ISLAMIC FEATURES

There is distinct common style throughout India in the Mughal buildings even if
there are some variations. The Indo-Islamic architecture style occurred because
of the of Indo-Islamic interaction during this period. There were forts, public
buildings, sarais, mosques, baolis, palaces, etc magnificently built by Mughals.

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Many gardens were also laid down by them such as Shalimar at Lahore, Nishant
Bagh at Kashmir, the Pinjore Garden in the Punjab foothills, etc.

The Mughal buildings usually had:

 Domes with constricted necks and inverted lotus tops.
 Marble carvings, delicate perforated screens and pietra dura.
 Impressive front sides (facades) with four centred arches.
 Use of running water in the garden, palaces and pleasure resorts.
 Use of red, yellow sandstones and marble as the building material.

Akbar was the first Mughal ruler to have time and means to undertake
construction on a large scale. The Agra Fort and the Fatehpur Sikri complex with
its massive Buland Darwaza are the examples of series of forts built by Akbar
which became marvels of all times. Shah Jahan who developed the Indo-Islamic
architectural style was also a great builder. The climax of the building of Red Fort
in Delhi was witnessed by his reign. The superb craftsmanship and the use of

Buland Darwaza Humayun’s Tomb

white marble in the construction of his wife’s Mausoleum, Taj Mahal in Agra has
given one of the seven wonders of the world. Not too many remarkable buildings
were built during Aurangzeb’s reign except the Tomb of Rabia Daurani,
Aurangzeb’s wife in Aurangabad (Bibi ka Makbara, 1661 A.D) and Badshah Masjid
of Lahore built in 1674 AD against the backdrop of Satpura Hills.

A CASE STUDY: SHAH JAHAN’S BUILDING ACTIVITIES

Among the Mughals, Shah Jahan proved to be the greatest builder and had a rare
passion for profusely ornamental, unique and beautiful buildings. He built
monuments with great delicacy, grace and rhythm and all his major buildings
characterises with the extensive use of marble and pietra dura. The capital was

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shifted by Shah Jahan from Delhi to Agra in 1648 AD. The new imperial capital
city was called Shahjahanabad. The new city was more formal vision of a grand
monarchy. Some of the important structures that he built in Delhi and Agra are
described below:

i) It is the largest mosque
in India. It was built between 1644 and
1658 AD with red sand stones and
marbles by 5000 and more artisans. It
has three splendid gateways and is
crowned by three bulbous domes. It
stands across the road in front of the Red fort.

ii) In 1648 AD, it was completed
with its garden, halls, pavilions and
palaces. Important buildings inside the
fort are Mumtaz Mahal, Rang Mahal,
Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam, etc. Diwan-i-
Khas was meant for private audience
while Diwan-i-Aam was made for general
public. The fort has massive walls broken at intervals by boldly projecting
bastions topped by domed Kiosks and two main gateways, the Lahore gate
and the Delhi gate. Shah Jahan’s famous Peacock throne was kept here. Kiosk
is a small, separated garden pavilion open on some or all sides. Kiosks were
common in Persia, India, and Pakistan and in the Ottoman Empire from the
13th century onward.

iii) It consists of the open
courtyard surrounded by an arched
corridor on three sides and the prayer
hall on the west. The prayer hall is
covered by three graceful domes of
great beauty. It is in Agra fort situated
on an elevation on a red sandstone
basement in 1655 AD.

iv) It was built on the bank of river Yamuna in 1653 AD by Shah Jahan
In the memory of his beloved wife. The major building material was brought
from Jodhpur. The use of pristine white Makrana marble made it unique. The
precious stones for the inlay came from Persia, Russia, China, Golconda and

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Egypt. Silver and gold, carnelian and Jasper, lapis lazuli and coral were
brought from all over India and Central Asia. Its model resembles that of
Humayun’s tomb. It houses the tombs of Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz
Mahal. The main building stands on a raised platform with its four corners
each marked by a high minaret to the majestic height of 138 ft and crowned
with windowed cupolas (chhatris). Walled garden encloses the magnificent
monument. It rises for over 55 m topped with a huge central dome. Its height
accentuated by a crowning brass spire, itself almost 17 m high. It took over 22
years to complete and 9 crore rupees were spent on its construction. Diwan-i-
Afridi, written by a contemporary author says that Isa Khan was the chief
architect of the building. He was a master craftsman of Agra who hailed from
Shiraz in Iraq.

Gothic Architecture: From the 12th century onwards, large churches were
built in France called Cathedrals. These had pointed lofty roofs and arches
and stained glass windows. This style of architecture was called Gothic.

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 The technique of using cut and fitted, highly polished,
coloured, even precious stones into a design meant for
architectural decoration.

 Covered with a lot of decoration.
 Front of a building.
 Small structure having one or more sided open.
 : With a unique blend of old Indian and Islamic

traditions.

 The medieval period in India marked a period of great
architectural creations.

 The various monuments built during this expansion of
1000 years can be mentioned as follows: Sacred structures
like temples, mosques and dargah, forts and fortresses built
for security reasons, palaces and havelis, sarai and Kos
minars for the convenience of the travellers, lakes and
reservoirs and water harvesting system in forts, wells and
steps or baolis.

 The temple architecture included three styles namely
Vesara, Nagara and Dravidian.

 During the Mughal Period, the Indian and the Islamic
traditions of architecture had blended together nicely to
produce a new Indo-Islamic style of Architecture.

 Shah Jahan is called the greatest builder of Mughal Dynasty.
He was the one to construct the Red Fort in Delhi and Taj
Mahal at Agra which is considered to be one of the Seven
Wonders of the World.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. The Fatehpur Sikri was built by

a. Jahangir b. Shah Jahan c. Aurangzeb d. Akbar

2. Who completed the construction of the Qutub Minar at Delhi?

a. Qutubuddin Aibak b. Humayun c. Babur d. Iltutmish

3. Under which Indian emperor’s reign was the Jama Masjid in Delhi built?

a. Akbar b. Aurangzeb c. Jahangir d. Shah Jahan

4. In which Indian state is the Sun Temple of Konark located?

a. Orissa b. Tamilnadu c. Assam d. West Bengal

5. Everyone knows the Taj Mahal. It was built by the Emperor Shah Jahan, but
for whom?

a. Mumtaz Mahal b. Jahani Mahal c. Toba Begum d. Farida Mahal

6. Name the Rajput princess whom Akbar married

a. Jodha Bai b. Jijabai c. Nur Jahan d. Mumtaz Mahal

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. The buildings in Islamic style were constructed of ________, lime and mortar.

2. A dargah is a ________ built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often
a Sufi saint.

3. Elaborate and often magnificent gateways called _______ are features of the
Dravidian temples.

4. The Nagara style of temples are characterised by a beehive-shaped tower
constructed over the Garbhagriha, called a ________.

5. The construction of the Red Fort was completed in ________.

C. Explain the following in brief:

a. Gopurams b. Kiosk b. Gothic architectural form

c. Pietra dura d. Dargah e. Haveli

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D. Give any two examples for each of the following:

a. Dravidian style of temples b. Nagara style of temples

c. Vesara style of temples d. Chahar Bagh(s)

E. Answer the following questions in detail:

1. Describe any two features of Indo-Islamic architecture.

2. Why did the Kings and the rich merchants spend money on the construction
of buildings in the medieval period in India ?

3. Describe with example the Dravidian style of temple and architecture.

4. Why is Shah Jahan regarded as the greatest builder of the Mughal Period ?

5. How do the monuments help us to infer about the technological and cultural
traditions of a given period ?

6. Describe the case study of any one building of Shah Jahan.

F. Long answer type questions:

1. Find out the philosophy behind the concept of ‘chahar bagh’ incorporated in
the Mughal architecture.

2. Write down the characteristic features of any two monuments of your choice
from the description that you have read in the chapter. Collect more
information about those buildings. Paste their pictures in your copy.

G. Discuss about the following:

1. Regional Architecture

2. Mughal Architecture

3. Temple Architecture

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From the year 1509-29 AD the famous ruler of Vijayanagara named
Krishnadeva Raya composed a work on statecraft in Telugu known as the
Amuktamaiyada where he wrote something about traders:

“A king should encourage its commerce so that horse, precious gems,
sandalwood pearls, elephants and other articles are freely imported. He should
improve harbour of his country. He also should allow distant foreign country
merchants to attach by oneself by providing presents, allowing them profits and
daily audience, and then only articles will never go to your enemies.”

In the medieval period a number of towns developed. There were classifications
based on their functions as Temple Towns, Garrison Town, Capital Towns, etc.
Some town combined of several functions where there were commercial
centres, administrative centres and temples. We will learn about different towns
during the medieval period in this chapter.

NATURE OF MEDIEVAL TOWNS

In town there were people who were traders, merchants and artisans while in
villages there were people who practised agriculture. There were varying sizes of
towns. To differentiate between a large and a small town there is medieval
Persian sources that refer to shahr (city) and qasba (small township). In South
India, there were different types of town, the names used for them are –
nagaram, puram and pattinam.

The Rajputs, the Cholas, the Mughal rulers and the Delhi Sultans developed their
capital as their stronghold of military strength. Decoration of their impressive
palaces, official buildings, palatial residences of the nobles and development of
their capital cities were the important work of the most powerful rulers. The
towns built by the Mughals were famous for their wealth, concentration of
population, their imperial grandeur and monumental buildings in the 16th and
17th century. Important centres for imperial administration and control were
Agra, Lahore and Delhi. In these cities, Mansabdars and Jagirdars maintained
their assigned territories in the different parts of the empire. It was a symbol of
prestige and status of a noble to have residence in these centres of power. A

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wide variety of services had to be provided because of the presence of noblemen
and emperor in the centres. For the household of the nobles artisans produced
exclusive handicrafts. For the army and the town-dwellers, grains were brought
from the village. The treasury was located in the imperial city. Thus the capitals
received the revenue of the kingdom regularly. There was a fortified palace for
the emperor with entry and exit through different gates and the town was
enclosed by the wall. There were gardens, caravanserais, college, mosques,
tombs, temples and bazaars within the towns. The orientation of the town was
focused towards the principal mosque and the palace.

Garrison Town was a town where a group of soldiers used to live. Under the
Muslim rule in India, several towns were developed as Garrison towns. Strong
fortresses on the border outposts were there to ward off the foreign invaders
which were built by the Mughals and the Delhi Sultans. The fortresses were
garrisoned. Often the merchants and thee traders used to settle around these
forts in order to provide them with day-to-day requirements and necessities.

For example, Kabul became commercially and politically important from the 16th

century onwards with its mountainous and rocky landscape which is presently

known as Afghanistan. In the northwest frontier Kandahar and Kabul were

strategic border outposts of the Mughal Empire. These were also linked with the

silk route through which huge trade was

conducted between Europe, Islamic World and

China. Trade was primarily carried out through this

route in horses. The horse trade at Kabul amounted

to Rs. 30,000 annually as estimated by French

diamond merchant Jean Baptiste Tavernier in the

17th century. From Kabul to the subcontinents and

elsewhere dates, carpets, silks, dry fruits and even

fresh fruits were carried by camels. Slaves were also

Jean Baptiste Tavernier brought here for sale.

The towns of South India such as Kanchipuram, Tirupati and Madurai are
famous for their temples. The townships were developed depending on the
importance of individual Gods whose temples were built and these towns often
became important commercial centres. Linking Pilgrimage with trade religious

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festivals often coincided with fairs. The

principal patron of the religious

festivals and the highest authority was

the ruler. The relationship which he had

with other classes of people and groups

determined their position in the town

and in the society. The pilgrimage

Madurai, A temple town centres which slowly became

flourishing towns are Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu and Vrindavan in Uttar

Pradesh. Ajmer had a political and administrative importance because of the

capital of Chauhan Rajputs. After the decline of the Chauhans, it continued to

remain an important town as large number of devotees were attracted there

because of great and popular Sufi saint and Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti’s dargah.

The decline of port cities and town and a period of stagnation is considered to be
the period between 800 - 1200 AD in Northern India. The trade between China,
and the countries of Southeast Asia along with South India had growth in this
period. From the 10th century it began to revive gradually and by the revival of
this trade Malwa and Gujarat was benefited the most. Champaner and Anhilwara
in Gujarat are many new towns that can be traced back to this period.

In trade there was a definite growth in the country with the improvement of
communication and the establishment of the sound currency system. In the
period between 13th to 17th century the flourishing trade centres were
Anhilwara, Lakhnauti in Bengal, Lahore, Delhi, Daulatabad, Multan and Cambay
in Gujarat. Cambay was famous for gold and silver work and even for textiles.
Fine cotton called muslin and raw silk was famous in Bengal in Sonargaon. There
were other works and as well as handicrafts such as carpet, weaving, leather
work and metal work, etc. A new craft work introduced by the Turks was the
manufacturing of the paper. The Mughals maintained imperial workshops for the
production of the variety of textiles and related articles which were used by the
royalty as well as the traders of other countries.

A number of European travellers visited India after 1500 AD, among them the
best was Duarte Barbosa, who was a Portuguese writer and wrote a detailed
account of trade and society in South India. Later on Dutch, French and English

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travellers came to India after 1600 A.D. The French Jeweller Jean – Baptiste
Tavernier, one of the famous travellers who travelled India six times. He was
fascinated with trading condition of India and compared to Ottoman Empire
and Iran. There were some travellers who never went to Europe and settled
in India like the Italian doctor Mannuci.

In the Indian Ocean Trade, Arabs played a dominant role, The Tamils and the
Gujaratis, both Muslims and Hindus played an important role. The coastal trade
between North India and coastal port was in the hands of Gujaratis and
Marwaris, many of whom were Jains. The Bohra merchants also participated In
this trade. Overland trade with Central and West Asia was in the hands of
Khorasins who were Afghans, Iranians, etc. and Hindus who were called
Multanis. Many merchants settled down in Delhi. The merchants such as the
Marwaris and the Gujaratis were very wealthy and some of them particularly the
Jains spent large sum of money for construction of temples. The wealthy
merchants and skilled craftsmen were accustomed to good food and clothing
and lived a luxurious life. There was a special class of traders called Banjaras who
were involved in inter regional trades and were specialised in carrying bulk goods
during the Mughal Period. The Banjaras used to move long distance sometimes
with thousands of oxen carrying food grains, salt, ghee, pulses, etc. and even
expensive goods like textiles, silks, etc., which were laden on camels and mules
or in carts. But it was cheaper to move bulk goods through river by the use of
boats.

The inlay work of copper and silver were so famed that the craftsmen of Bidar
came to be called as Bidris. The building of temples essentially involved
goldsmiths, bronze smiths, carpenters, blacksmiths and masons from the
community of Vishwakarma or Panchalas who also played important role in
the constructions of palaces, reservoirs, tanks and big buildings. Saliyar or
Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities who were weavers.

A CASE STUDY: HAMPI, SURAT AND MASULIPATNAM

Hampi is situated in Karnataka on the bank of river Tungabhadra. In between
1336 AD and 1565 AD, it became famous as the capital of Vijayanagara Empire
and reached the peak of its glory during the rule of Krishnadeva Raya. The name

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was derived from the river Pampa, the old name of the river Tungabhadra on
whose bank the city was built and the local goddess was Pampadevi. There were
many temples in the city besides palaces. For winning support, power, wealth
and pity the rulers’ important means were constructing, maintaining and
repairing temples. The Virupaksha Temple and Mahanavami Dibba, a structure
associated with the rituals performed during Dussehra, and the Vitthala Temple
were the main temples which were built during this period. There were buildings
at Hampi which had orchards and had well planned pleasure gardens with
sculptural motifs such as the Lotus and corbels.

In the 15th century there was an ambassador, Abdur Razzaq who was sent by
the ruler of Persia to Calicut (present day Kozhikode) and who was impressed
by the fortification and mentioned seven lines of forts. . Not only city but also
agricultural hinterland and forests were encircled. The city was linked with
the major roads and thus the fort has to be entered through well guarded
gates. Distinctive architectural features were the gateways that often defined
the structure to which they regulated access.

Ruins of Hampi

Vijayanagara was noted for its spices, textiles and precious stones in market. In
cities which boasted of a wealthy population which demanded high value exotic
goods especially precious stones and jewelleries, trade were often regarded as
the status symbol. The revenue which was derived from the trade contributed
significantly to the prosperity of the state. Portuguese had arrived on the west
coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish trading and military
stations in the year 1498 AD.

Paes gives a vivid description of the bazaar

You would get to see a beautiful street which is broad…….and in the street
one could see many merchants who lived there and find there all sorts of

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diamonds, emeralds, pearls, rubies, pearl steadied clothes and every sort of
things which you want to buy. Then you would find there every sort of things
in the evening fairs, in which they used to sell grapes, oranges, limes, citrons.
One could also find common horses and nags, woods and every other kind of
garden stuff in these streets.

Surat is situated on the bank of river Tapti in Gujarat. Surat also known as Bandar
Mubarak, became the chief port in Western India during the 17th century.
According to merchant traveller, Travernier, the stretch of sand in the Cambay
coast expanded a lot and thus created anchorage problem for the foreign ships
carrying goods to India. This facilitated some diversion in trade routes by the
Mughal annexation in the year 1572 AD which might have contributed to the
emergence of Surat as the new bustling port city. Gulf and Red Sea Port were
connected to India by Surat. From there only the Muslims going for haj also
boarded their pilgrim ship. An imperial mint was established there by the
Mughals which clearly showed the increased importance of it. On average a
hundred ships of different countries could be found anchored at the port at any
given time. In 1689 AD Ovington, an English chronicler wrote an account of the
port.

The society of Surat was marked by considerable diversity. The merchant class
was divided by wealth, races, caste and mercantile practices but the merchants
were dominating. The Banias were mixed group of people which included several
sects who were majority among the merchants in the city. They were known to
live frugally though they were the richest merchants in the town. Their extreme
dominance in Surat over the money market had made them extremely influential
community. Numerically less prominent group Bohras also settled in the town
who were another powerful group. There were Armenians, Arabs, Turkish and
Parse merchants in the town. Constraints of trade and commerce checked the
tendency towards fragmentation and persistence was needed to interact with
the people outside for material profit. All the people of different caste and creed
lived in the city of cosmopolitan. It was usually the merchants to be appointed as
the governor (mutasaddi) in Surat until the mid-17th century. In 1610-11 AD
Khwaja Nizam was an influential merchant of Surat was the governor of Surat
and Cambay. The Portuguese, English and Dutch had their factories and
warehouses at Surat in the 17th century. There were several retail and wholesale
shops for those who were involved in cotton textiles. The textiles of Surat had a

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market in West Asia, Europe and

Africa and were famous for their

gold lace borders (zari). To take care

of the needs of the people from all

over the world who came to the

city, the state had built numerous

rest houses and innumerable

pleasure parks and magnificent

Surat Port buildings. Towards the end of the
17th century Surat began to decline

because of the many factors. The control of the sea route by the Portuguese, loss

of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire and

competition from Bombay (present day-Mumbai) where the English East India

Company shifted its headquarter in the year 1668 AD were some of the factors.

Today it is a bustling commercial centre.

It is situated on the bank of river

Krishna and was called the town of

Masulipatnam or Machilipatnam

(literally, fish port town). The

derivation of its name owes to the

construction of a gateway to the Painting of Masulipatnam
town decorated with eyes of a fish

also called machili means Machilipatnam. It was a flourishing seaport on the east

coast during the time of satvahana to Egypt, Rome, Athens and Arabia. It was a

major port of the Golconda Kingdom and it retained its importance throughout
the history. In the 14th century the trading Arabs flocked here in large number. It
was a centre of intense commercial activity in the 17th century. Masulipatnam

had become the most important port on the Andhra coast and thus the English

East India Company, the French and the Dutch tried to control it. The

representative or the governor Mir Jumla, who was also a merchant, began to

play off the Dutch and the English against each other, as the Mughal began to

extend their power to Golconda. Golconda ruler – The Qutb Shahi had a

complete control over the sales of spices, textiles and other items to prevent the

trade passing into the hands of the East India Company. The Mughal Emperor

Aurangzeb annexed Golconda in the year 1686-1687 AD. The port of

Machilipatnam today is in a desperate need of modernisation.

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The imperial capital of Roman Empire, The Byzantine / Eastern Roman Empire,
the Ottoman Empire and the Latin Empire was Constantinople. It was Europe’s
largest and the wealthiest city throughout most of the middle age. The city was
commonly referred to as Istanbul which was derived from the Greek word
‘Istimbolin’ meaning “in the city” or “to the city” in the 10th century. The official
name of Constantinople was retained in official documents and coinage after
the Ottoman conquest of 1453 AD.

 A small town or group of buildings in a lonely part of a
country.

 A piece of stone or wood that sticks out from a wall to
support something.

 To stop developing.
 A design or a pattern used as a decoration.

 In the towns of South India such as Mudurai and
Kanchipuram, the principal focus was the temple.

 There were three types of towns, the names used for
them are –nagaram, puram and pattinam.

 With the improvement of communication and the
establishment of sound currency system under the
Sultanate, there was a definite growth in trade in the
country.

 During the 13th to the 17th century, Delhi, Daulatabad,
Lahore, Multan, Lakhnauti in Bengal, Anhilwara and Cambay
in Gujarat remained flourishing trading centres.

 Musulipatnam on eastern coast and Surat on the west coast
were important port cities during the medieval period.

 Hampi, the capital of Vijayanagara Empire, was a flourishing
centre of foreign trade.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. Which of these was a temple town?

a. Surat b. Madurai c. Machilipatnam d. Delhi

2. Which Portuguese traveller wrote about trade and society in South India?

a. Marco Polo b. Tavernier c. Duarte Barbosa d. Manucci

3. Terms like pattinam, nagaram and puram were used for

a. Villages b. temples c. ports d. town

B. Write true or false:
1. Surat thrived as a port city in the 14th century.

2. There was no difference between the villages and towns during the medieval
period.

3. The Kings were not worried about trade.

4. Trade and commerce declined in the period 800-1200 A.D in northern India.

C. Fill in the blanks:

1. Ajmer had both _________ and_________ importance.

2. Machilipatnam meant_________.

3. _________ was famous for textiles and for gold and silver works.

4. Mahanavami Dibba was a structure associated with the rituals performed
during __________.

D. Explain the reason for the development of the following:

1. Temple towns

2. Garrison town

3. Capital Town

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E. Why did the following personalities visit India during the medieval period?
What have they written about various centres existing at that time?
1. Tavernier
2. Abdur Razzak
3. Paes

F. Answer the following questions in detail:
1. What did the Delhi Sultans do for the promotion of trade ?
2. ‘The city of Surat was cosmopolitan’. Explain in the context of the 16th

century medieval India.
3. Why did the Mughal never discourage trade and even welcome the European

East India Companies ?
4. Write about Masulipatnam. What is machili ?
G. Long answer type questions:
1. Find out the trade route that the Vasco da Gama, the famous explorer, took

to reach Calicut and the English to reach Surat.
2. On an outline political map of India, mark the cities of each type that you

have read about in this chapter.
3. Find a map to locate the trade routes to Surat, Mumbai and Goa in the

modern times. Paste this map in your scrapbook after highlighting the sea,
land and air routes.
4. Explain about traders and Craftsmen.

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The ancient Indian society was divided into varnas and caste. There were four
main varnas. The varnas were again divided in several jatis or subcaste. Because
of the basis of wealth and caste the jatis became complex. There were some
more sections or groups in society who were living in the dense forests,
mountains, hills and deserts as well, who were called tribal society. They always
remained isolated but were preserving their culture.

THE SOCIAL SETUP AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF TRIBAL PEOPLE

The bonds of Kinship were strong in these tribal societies and there were less
importance of social differences. The rituals and the customs were very different
from the varna based society. There were different types of livelihood such as
small time trading, settled cultivation, Jhum cultivation, hunting and gathering,
etc. Some people in these societies were doing cattle rearing as their livelihood
and were always on the move to search pastures. They were called pastoralist
nomads such as Bakarwals of Kashmir, Labadis of Andhra Pradesh, the Gaddis of
Kullu and Van Gujjars of the Punjab hills.

Abul Fazl had described about the suba of Awadh (part of present day Uttar
Pradesh) in 1595 A.D. about the transactions of the plains and the hill
tribes’:

From the northern mountains many things were carried and in return they
carried back white and black or coloured cloths, asafoetida, ornaments,
earthen ware, salt, glass and amber. The things which were carried by the
northern mountains on the back of men, on stout ponies and on goats, were
gold, copper, lead, musk, tails of the yak, honey, ginger, long pepper,
pomegranate seed, borax, wax, woollen stuffs, wooden ware, hawks,
merlins (a kind of bird), falcons, majith root (a plant producing a red dye)
and other articles.

Sultan Alauddin Khilji used Banjaras for transporting grains in the city market
area and Emperor Jahangir had also written in the memoirs that they were
carrying grains on their bullocks from the different parts and sell the grains in the
towns. The Banjaras were the most important nomad traders and their caravans

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were called tanda. The Kolis were living in the areas of Maharashtra’s highlands
and Karnataka along with numerous others such as Berads. Kolis were also living
in Gujarat. The Khonds of Orissa who lived by hunting animals and were
gathering forests product was another types of tribal community.

In the northwest, the Balochis were another large and powerful tribe. In the
northwest frontier region, the Arghuns and Lungahs were extensively dominating
before they were subdued by the Mughals. In the 13th and 14th century the
Khokhar tribes became very powerful and had created problems for Delhi
Sultans in Punjab. Kamal khan Gakkhar of Gakkhar tribe was made a noble
(mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar. By the late 16th century the Bhils of western and
central India became settled agriculturists, some became zamindars and some
remained hunter-gatherer. The Bhils have helped Maharana Pratap against the
Mughals. The Mundas, Santhals of Chota Nagpur and Gonds were some tribals
who had taken agriculture as their main occupation. The Gonds were found in
great numbers in the present day states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.

In the 12th century, hero chiefdoms had emerged in many areas of Jharkhand and
Bihar. In the year 1591 AD, Cheros was defeated by the Akbar’s general Raja
Man Singh. The Garo, the Khasi, the Nagas, the Ahoms and many others
dominated entirely the north-eastern part of the subcontinent and in South
there were Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and many others composed the large
tribal population.

SOCIAL STRUCTURAL CHANGES: NEW CASTES AND HIERARCHIES

From ancient time in Indian society in the Varna system, the social structure of a
person was defined by a specific position allotted according to his or her birth. In
India, various Central Asian tribes coming as conquerors were Shakas, Parthians,
Kushanas, Huns, etc. They were adjusted by the graded Indian social norms and
accepted them as Kshatriyas into the folds of varna. In the 15th century the
Rajput clans were very brave who were the off springs of these tribes and got the
Kshatriya status in the changing circumstances. Because of the intermarriages
and new skilled craftsmen like masons, sculptors, etc. there emerged in the
society, a place within its fold as jati or caste which was provided by every varna.
Local tribes also claimed and got a place in the Hindu caste system as an example
of Rajput and some acquired it on the strength of their landownership or
lordship over the nearby regions. Such tribes of a large majority joined the lower
jatis of the varna system. As a result of the impact of Islam in the region, the

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dominant tribes of Punjab, North-West Frontier and Sind were not interested in
the Hindu caste systems and have adopted the Islam quite early.

A CLOSER LOOK

Between the 9th and the 13th centuries the Gonds were

settled in the Gondwana or the land of Gonds which

were in the areas of Orissa and northern Andhra

Pradesh, Eastern Maharashtra and parts of Chhattisgarh

and the areas of south eastern Madhya Pradesh. After Gond Woman
the 14th century there was rise in the Gond state as

described by the Muslim writers. They became progressive and wealthy farmers

and gradually transformed into Rajbansi Rajputs.

In Akbarnama, the official chronicle of the Mughal Emperor Akbar’s reign
mentioned the Gond Kingdom as Garha Katanga which had 70,000 villages.

In India between the 16th and in the mid 18th century, when the ruling Rajput
dynasty declined, the Gonds established themselves as the rulers at four centres
in central India as Kherla, Deogarh, Chanda and Garha-Mandla or Garha
Katanga. The Gond kingdoms gradually became centralised by the administrative
system.

i) Each kingdom was divided which was called garhs and was controlled by a
particular Gond clan.

ii) Chaurasi or unit of 84 villages was the division made for each garhs which
were subdivided into barhots made up of 12 villages.

iii) The nature of the Gond society had changed because of the emergence of
large state and the equal society was gradually divided into unequal social
classes.

Sangram Shah, the Gond raja of Garha-Mandla (Garha Katanga), in the 16th
century extended his power over 52 districts by marrying Rani Durgavati, a
Chandella princess. Sangram Shah died leaving a minor son in the year 1548 AD
and his wife took over the reins of the government.

She governed the country with the help of two ministers, Man Brahman and
Adhar Kayastha from 1548 to 1564 AD. She built a great reservoir near Jabalpur

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called Ranital and carried out many useful public works
in the different parts of her kingdom, which won the
heart of the people.

She accomplished the political unification of Gondwana,

also called Garha Katanga and extended the territory

with tact, courage and generosity, like her husband’s

predecessors. People were prosperous and the trade

flourished during the period. There were 12,000 people

directly managed by the government, out of 23,000

people in her kingdom. Her large well equipped army

Rani Durgavati consisted of a good number of foot soldiers, 20,000

cavalry and 1,000 war elephant. With the spread of the Mughal Empire, her

kingdom became a victim of aggression. She distinguished herself as a warrior

and fought with success against Baz Bahadur, the Sultan of Malwa and the

stories of her exploitation as a warrior and hunter are still current in the areas.

Rani Durgawati fought and died for the cause of her kingdom in 1565 AD when

the Mughals attacked Garha Katanga.

In the year 1781 AD the princes of Garha-Mandla maintained a practical
independence until their subjugation by the Maratha governor of Sagar.
However, the Mughal empire enjoyed more than a nominal supremacy. Some
estates (Zamindaris) of Gond survived until recently. The Gonds of today are
similar to many tribal groups who face many hardships and severe economic
crisis. Some are classified as Schedule Tribes which mean they need special
economic and social help and some groups have a great deal of land with them.

They belong to the Mongoloid race, of present day Myanmar, from Hukwang
family of Shan tribe and it entered Assam through the pass in Patkoi range. They
ruled nearly for 600 years from 1228 AD to 1826 AD over the parts of present
day Assam. Sukaphaa, a Shan (Mong Mao) prince defeated the local tribes in the
Brahmaputra Valley. He established Sibsagar as his capital which was a small
kingdom. In the first half of the 17th century, the influence of Brahmins
increased. Land was granted by the king to the temples and the Brahmins.
Immigrants Brahmins from Bengal traced their descent from the Kanyakubjas.
Hinduism became the predominant religion in the reign of Sib Singh between
1714 and 1744 AD. The title ‘Singh’ was taken by Ahoms and their names were
Sankritised. They built temples for the Hindu God and Goddess such as Shiva,

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Vishnu and Jaya and had appointed priests who were Brahmins for performing
rituals. Over a period of time, they adopted Assamese language.

The Ahom kingdom was attacked in 1662 AD by Mughal under Mir Jumla.
Despite of their defence Ahom was defeated but the Mughal rule could not last
for long time. After the celebrated battle of Saraighat, the Mughal expansionism
was stopped. In 1671 AD on the outskirts of Guwahati the Ahom general Lachit
Borphukan defeated the Mughal forces.

The Ahom kings did not rule for a single line and were called Swarga-deos. The
kings were descendants from the first Ahom and were often selected from a
small number of families. The two patro-montris Burha Gohain and Bor-Gohain

The Ahoms kept a record of the important political and other events in the
chronicles which are called Buranjis. It is the recorded history in India which
was first made.

did the selection process. Later on three more montris were added to the patro
montris. They were called Borpatro, Borborua and Borphukan. At the time of
long disputes the patro montris ruled the country and contributed to the long
reign of Ahom Kings. In the 17th and the 18th centuries the instability led to
palace intrigues and the finally the end of the Ahom kingdom.

The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. Paiks were people who were
forced to work for state. The people were shifted to the less populated places
from the densely populated areas. Their administration become centralised by
the 17th century and during the time of war all the adult males served in the
army. Society of Ahom was divided into khel or clan which controlled several
villages. Like the Scythians and Sakas merged into the indigenous life in course of
time. Ahom introduced wet rice cultivation in the region. Till these kingdoms
were annexed by the British in 1825 AD they remained the rulers of eastern
plains of Assam.

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In the neighbourhood of China, the Mongols of Central Asia was the nomadic
tribe and they responded to the historical changes taking place around them.
In the 13th and 14th century they extended to Europe and Asia, under the
leadership of Chengiz Khan and ultimately carved out a transcontinental
empire.

 Related to empire building
 The process of increasing the size of one’s territory.
 Agricultural.

 Tribals had different lifestyle than the settled varna
society. They adopted different types of sources of
livelihood that included the following: Jhum cultivation,
hunting and gathering, herding, small time trading,
settled cultivation, etc.

 Some of the tribal societies were Bhils, Khokhars, Gonds,
Khonds, Mundas, Santhals, Ahoms, Garo and Khasi, Nags,
etc.

 With the advent of various Central Asian tribes into India
like the Huns, Kushanas, Parthians, Shakas, etc. the graded
Indian social norms made adjustments and accepted them
into folds of varna as Kshtriyas.

 When the ruling Rajput dynasties in theses region declined,
the Gonds established themselves as rulers at four centres in
central India between the sixteenth and mid-eighteenth
centuries: Garha-Mandla or Garha Katanga, Deograh,
Chanda and Kherla.

 The Ahoms were part of the Shan tribe of the present day
Myanmar region belonging to the Mongoloid race. The
Ahoms entered Assam through the pass in Patkoi range.
They ruled over parts of the present day Assam for nearly
600 years.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. Gondwanaland is associated with

a. Ahoms b. Bhils c. Gaddis d. Gonds

2. The most important trader nomads were

a. Gaddis b. Kolis c. Labadis d.Banjaras

3. The Ahoms ruled over

a. Tamil Nadu b. Assam c. Punjab d. Kerala

4. Which tribe helped Maharana Pratap against the Mughals?

a. Kolis b. Bhils c. Gaddis d. Banjaras

B. Match the following:

1. Garh a. Khel

2. Tanda b. haurasi

3. Labourer c. Caravan

4. Clan d. Garha Katanga

5. Sib Singh e. Ahom State

6. Durgavati f. Paik

C. Fill in the blanks:

1. The ______________mention that Garha Katanga had 70000 villages.

2. _______________, a Chandella princes and the queen of Gondwana, resisted
the Mughal imperialism.

3. The new castes emerging within varnas were called ______________.

4. _______________ were historical works written by the Ahoms.

5. As tribal states became larger and stronger, they gave land grant to
_________________ and _________________.

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D. Explain the following:
1. Nomadic pastoral.
2. Importance of Banjaras for the economy.
3. The administration of the Ahoms.
E. Answer the following questions in brief:
1. Who were the Ahoms ?
2. Who were schedule tribes ?
3. Define the term ‘clan’.
4. Who defeated Cheros and when ?
5. Why was Garhgaon famous ?
6. What were the main occupations of the Gonds ?
7. Who was the founder of the Ahom Kingdom ?
8. Where do Gonds live ?
9. Define the term ‘tanda’.
F. Answer the following questions in detail:
1. What do you know about the administrative system of the Gonds ?
2. What led to the rise of new castes and hierarchy in the varna based Indian

society in the medieval period ?
3. Discuss the contribution of Rani Durgavati to the state of Garha Katanga ?
G. Long answer type questions:
1. Make a collage of the tribals of India in their traditional costumes and put it

up on the soft board outside the classroom.
2. Make a power point presentation on the various tribal societies of medieval

period.
3. Explain the tribes: a. Ahoms b. Gonds

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There are numerous Gods and Goddesses in different religions. There were
Hindus who came to have numerous new God and Goddess as the local
traditions and deities were not accepted because of the greater Hindu traditional
God and Goddess like Vishnu, Shiva and many more. There were the older
religions which still had a large following such as Buddhism and Jainism. This
medieval period of India had a variety of belief system, rituals and cults.

Lord Jagannath was identified with the principal deity of Orissa as a
form of God Vishnu but did not show any attributes of Vishnu. Same
with Lord Shiva in the case of principal deity of Hampi, Virupaksha by
the 12th century.

In the medieval period the spiritual tradition were indicated in the composition
of the biographies of the saints, in the compositions of the poet saints and also
by the architectural symbols and there lifestyle continued to influence the life of
the followers.
In the medieval period, there was an idea of bhakti in Hindu texts along the path

EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN THE HINDU SOCIETY

of salvation through gyan marg which was not new to the
society but was already present in the Puranas. Adi
Shankaracharya who was born in Kerala propounded
Advaitvad as the traditional Hindu philosophy in the 8th
century focused on the Brahman as the oneness of
individual. Attaining the path of knowledge for absolute
salvation was not easy for the common man, but he had
chosen it for himself as it was the path of renunciation
from the world too.

Adi Shankaracharya

The need of the common man was basic spiritual which
resulted in the social and religious movement by the spread of bhakti as bhakti
means complete surrender to God and worldly ritual. People were overburdened
with rituals and the Bhakti movement was welcomed by the people who were
facing hardships due to social and religious oppression. The saints who
popularised bhakti were the critics of the caste system.

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There were two conceptualised form of idea of Bhakti- ‘Saguna’ and
‘Nirguna’. In Saguna Bhakti there was growth of Ramaite and Krishnaite cult
i.e. worshipping Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. There were also some other
recognisable attributes of the Supreme God which was visualised. Whereas
on the other hand in Nirguna Bhakti there was no form of the supreme God.

There were Alvars who were the devotees of Vishnu and Nayanmars who were
the devotees of Shiva, who led some of the earliest bhakti movements in the 6th
century. They praised the name of the God by singing the hymns in Tamil while
travelling from place to place. There were 12 Alvar saints and 63 Nayanmars
saints who preached the devotion and ideas of bhakti in the local languages.
They belonged to both lower and higher castes. From the 7th to 9th century there
were impressive buildings built by rich merchants and kings in the places where
these saints halted during their journeys.

In a Shiva temple there was inscriptional evidence that the Chola ruler
Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sundarar and Sambandar
who were the Nayanmar saint poets.

He was a great saint born in the city of Tamil Nadu and
popularised the worship of Lord Vishnu and propounded the
doctrine of Vishishita Advaitvad, according to which the soul
remained distinct even after uniting with the supreme soul.
He was responsible for the origin and plan of the city
Tirupati.

In Tamil Nadu, a lot of vitality has been given to the worship of
temple because of the bhakti movement; this in turn led to the
reaction which was best represented by the Virashaiva
movement. It was initiated by the Basavanna and his
companion Akkamahadevi and Allama Prabhu who was a
minister in the court of a king Chalukya and was a Jain. The
Virashaivas were against all forms of idol worship and ritual

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and strongly argued against the Brahmnical ideas of caste system, treatment of
women and equality among human being. They believed that after death the
devotees would unite with Shiva and never come again back to this world and
that was the main reason why they did not believe in cremation which was
prescribed by the Dharmashastras, but instead they buried the dead bodies.

He was born in Allahabad (Prayag) in an upper caste Brahmin family and spent
most of his life time in Varanasi / Banaras (Kashi) and
was known for his bitter criticism on caste system. He
was a prophet and a renowned philosopher of the new
Vaishnava religion and was an ardent devotee of Lord
Rama and his wife Sita. Ramananda like Ramanuja
believed that the human soul was distinct from the
supreme spirit and always retained its identity and

separate consciousness. He communicated in vernacular Hindi and his disciples
included Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna Bhagat, Nabha, Anantananda, Bhavananda,
Pipa, Naraharyanda etc. among others which came from all castes.

In between the 13th and 17th century there was the emergence of number of
saint-poets in Maharashtra who wrote and sang the songs in
simple Marathi language. Among them the most important ones
were Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram and women
like Sukkubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the
untouchable Mahar caste. All forms of ritualism, outward show of
piety and social differences based on birth were rejected by the
saint poets and they popularised the notion of a personal God Tukaram
residing in the heart of every individual and they worshiped and were devoted
towards a form of Vishnu (Vitthala).

In the 16th century in Bengal Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
emerged as a social reformer and ascetic Hindu monk who
worshiped Lord Krishna and he was a great proponent of
loving devotion to God, Bhakti yoga.

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Since her childhood she was a devotee of Lord Krishna
and one of the most significant figures of the Saint
tradition of Vaishnavi Bhakti Movement. In the 16th
century she propagated her bhakti (devotion) through
songs and music. Her father was a warrior of the
Rathore clan named Ratan Singh. At a very early age Mira’s marriage was
arranged traditionally with Prince Bhoj Raj, the eldest son of Rana Sanga of
Chittor who died early.

Guru Nanak was born in the village called Nankara which is
in present Pakistan (once called Talwandi), as a social
reformer and a Nirguna Bhakti Saint. He believed in the
oneness or unity and preached the unity of God. His
emphasis was on the purity of God, and the first condition
of approaching to God was by attaining the guidance of a
guru. He used the name of Khuda, Allah, Ram and Hari for God and his teachings
are contained in Guru Granth Sahib. His concept of God was attributing less
(Nirguna) and formless (Nirguna). He proclaimed equality in all respect and
opposed to religious rivalry, rituals and caste system.

KABIR (1440 TO 1518 A.D): A CASE STUDY

He is a great personality of the initiated Bhakti movement
by Ramananda in North India. Kabir Das (In Arabic, Kabir
means “great” and Das means “slave” or “servant” in
Sanskrit) was a weaver by profession and believed that God
was formless and resided not in the places of worship like
mosques and temples. He believed in the glory of one God. Kabir’s life was
centred at Varanasi which was also called Banaras or Kashi. There is no dearth of
legend around him as a very little reliable information had been provided of
Kabir’s life. He was found by the weaver named Niru, taught the weaver’s
tradition (trade). Legends says that Kabir was Hindu by birth. He was not ever
married but tradition gave him two children and a wife named Loi but which is
not clear. Julaha was the caste of Kabir. His Couplet (verses) were full of wisdom
and were enormous to the masses, especially to the lower caste or classes.

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Kabir described the ultimate reality on the range of the traditions in the manner
as given below:

 The terms which are of mystery, such as the Sound (Shaba) or Emptiness
(Shania) which had been present from the ancient yogic traditions.

 The ultimate reality was as described in Islam was Per, Hazard, Allah and
Khuda.

 He borrowed the terms Unseen (alike) and the formless (Miramar), Atman
and Brahman etc. from the Vedanta traditions.

Kabir’s verses have been complied in these books as follows:

 Kabirpanth and the Baijak of Kabir were preserved by the followers of Kabir in
the sect form, which is now located in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

 Many of his compositions are found in Adi Granth Sahib, the sacred scripture

SUFISM

of the Sikhs.

It was the conclusion of an attempt to get rid of the religiosity by the outward
show within Islam, just as the Bhakti movement that emerged within Hindu
community as a powerful socio-religious movement. The Sufi saints also
propagated devotion to Allah and the ideas of love. The Muslim saints who
attempted to gain spiritual peace through self denial and completion are termed
as Faqir, Wali, Sufi and Darvesh and whose influence was extended almost in
the entire Muslim community. Sufism had become a universal aspect of Islamic
social life by the 12th century AD. In the medieval society a lot of respect and
reverence had been acquired by Sufi Saints. Dargahs are called tombs and they
were the places of pilgrimage for all desirous of God’s Grace. To reach the age of
ecstasy many qawwalis were sung with lots of devotional music and a practice
called Ziyarat was started in the dargah of the reversed saints.

It was derived from the Persian word, meaning a house or adobe of Sufis and
Derveshes and was an essential aspect of Sufi orders. Khanqahs had residential
buildings, mosque, tombs, etc. which were established as a place of shelter for a
large number of Sufis. Under government patronage Khanqahas were built on
the rent – free lands in most cases and it was the place where the pir resided and
enrolled his murids or disciples.

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i) There were three ‘Silsilah’ or chief orders of Sufis in India: The Chishti, The
Suhrawardi and Silsilah of Firdausi.

ii) The vital part of the Sufi system was the link between the teacher or pir and
his disciple or murid. Every pir was to carry out work nominated by a
successor or wali. The place where the Sufi mystics lived was called
Khanqah.

i)

 In Delhi and Doab region it was popular.

 Extreme abhorrence from the material world was believed by the Chishti
order.

 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer) established the Chishti order in India.
Other prominent saints of the Chishti order were Nizamuddin Auliya,
Bhakhtiyar Kaki and Baba Farid.

ii)

 Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhawardi and Hamid–ud-din
Nagori was a popular saint.

 Saint of this order had close contact with the state and
had big jairs.

 It was popular in Sindh and Punjab. Baba Farid

 A group whose beliefs or practices are other than the
conventional norms.

 Mental state of extreme spiritual bliss.
 One who believes in spiritual truths generally not

understood by common man.

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 The medieval period of India was marked by the
development of a variety of Belief systems, Cults and
related rituals.

 Shankaracharya propounded the traditional Hindu
philosophy of ‘Advaitvad’.

 It was in this background that some saints started
popularising love and devotion to one supreme God. This
was the basis of the Bhakti Movement.

 Nayanmars and Alvars of Tamil Nadu began this trend which
later spread to Karnataka, Maharashtra, Allahabad,
Varanasi, Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Assam and several
other parts of India.

 While the earlier Bhakti saints popularised the worship of
Lord Rama or Krishna, Sant Kabir Das and Guru Nanak
believed that God was formless.

 Sufism was the result of an attempt to get rid of outwards
show of the religiosity within Islam.

 Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystic lived.

 There were three chief orders or ‘Silsilah’ of Sufis in India:
the Chishti, the Suhrawardi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:
1. Virashaivas

a. Follow both the cremation and the burial practices.
b. Follow the ritual of cremation.
c. Ceremonially bury the dead.
d. Do not follow either of these.

2. Which of the following was common to both bhakti movement and Sufism?

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a. Khanqah Life c. Leading a normal lifestyle
b. devotional singing d. asceticism

3. The Chishti Order was established by

a. Sheikh Hamiduddin c. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti

b. Salim Chishti d. Nizamuddin Aulia

B. Fill in the blanks:
1. Alvars were the devotees of _____________.
2. _____________was the place where Sufi mystics lived.
3. Bhakti saints were bitter critics of the __________and ___________.
4. Mirabai was a devotee of ___________.
5. Hinduism came to have numerous new ___________ and ___________.

C. Write two lines about the following personalities:
1. Mirabai 2. Namdev 3. Basavanna 4. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti

D. Explain the following terms briefly:

1. Vishishta Advaitvad 2. Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti 3. Qawwali
6. Ramananda
4. Pir and murid 5. Kabir Panth

E. Answer the following questions in detail
1. Write a note on the philosophy of Sant Kabir.
2. What were the main features of the Bhakti Movement ?
3. Why is it that the Bhakti and Sufi movements are also viewed as Socio-

religious reform movement ?
4. Describe the life of Sufi saint on the basis of this chapter.

F. Long answer type questions
1. Can you identify a Sufi song? Listen to some popular musical CDs of Sufi

singers to understand their main idea.
2. Do you think that the idea of the Bhakti and Sufi saints are still relevant in the

modern society ? Organise a debate in the class on the topic.
3. Collect the content and visuals on the life of Kabir by browsing on the

internet and make a power point presentation.
4. Collect the musical CDs of Mira’s bhajan and songs based on Kabir Das’s

couplets. Listen to the song carefully. Note down the difference in the ideas
contained in the lyrics of the two types of songs.
5. Who was Guru Nanak?

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The historical development which had led to the growth of the common culture
in all the parts of the country, had brought the people of the diverse regions
together. By setting new trends and influencing culture, different regions had
different periods which played a vital role. There was no finished form of the
India’s culture in any specific period. There is development still going on in this
long span of time. A number of regional cultures evolved in the 8th to 18th
century are marked with dance, music, literature and painting and by the growth
of the regional languages. They maintained their regional identity through the
culture, yet all these were the parts of composite Indian culture.

LITERATURE AND LANGUAGES

Awadhi and Brajbhasa were the two main forms of Hindi
before the switch over to Khariboli in the 19th century and

these were very close to each other. Awadhi became

developed and popular because of the fact that the bhakti

saints composed works in this language, such as Tulsidas who

wrote Ramcharitamanas and Surdas who wrote Sur-sagar.

They composed work in this language and also because of the

fact that the court of the Awadh patronised various poets for

Tulsidas writing in this language. In the neighbourhood of Mathura

the dialect spoken was Brajbhasi. The language similar to Hindi and Gujarat was

in the Heroic literature written in Rajasthani. Prithviraj Raso, the beginning of the

bardic literature was marked in this language by Chandbardia.

Narashimha Mehta had a great love for Lord Krishna and he wrote bhakti songs
in Gujarati. Premananda Bhatt wrote poems based on Puranic tales.

Marathi developed in the Deccan region starting in the Bahmani Kingdom and
later in the court of Bijapur. To preach simple devotion to Vithoba or Krishna the
Bhakti saints like Namdeva, Tukarama and Jnaneshwar used this language.

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Arabic was the language of scholars and in the Mughal

courts the language Persian was used. Among the Hindus,

Sanskrit had been retained as a language of literary

exercises. A new language of the common people

developed very fast in and around Delhi and it was Hindavi.

Amir Khusrau Amir Khusrau who was a poet, historian and a scholar

promoted the popularity of this language. He was a follower of Sufi Saint

Nizamuddin Aulia who happened to serve as many as seven Delhi Sultans. The

basis of this language was the Hindi language apabhramsha which was spoken

around Delhi. Gradually it became popular as Urdu because it became the

language of social interaction among the North Indian upper classes. Great

stalwarts like Mir, Mirza Ghalib and Sauda composed impressive poetry in

Urdu.

Urdu was developed in Lucknow, just like Dakhni also developed in South
India by the mixing of the various Indian-based languages and Persian based
languages. A mixture of Urdu, Kannada, Telegu, Arabic, Turkish, Persian,
Konkani, Gujarati and Marathi are the Dakhni dialects. Dakhni was the lingua
franca of the Muslims of South India who were chiefly living in Hyderabad
state and further South except for Moplah Muslims of Kerala State.

The oldest Dravidian language of South India is Tamil. In the

early centuries of the Christian era there was a collection of

poems and verses composed by sages and the scholars in Tamil.

It is known as the famous Sangam literature composed in the

region of Tamil Nadu. Later there was enrichment in the Tamil

literature by the ideas of Bhakti in the local language by the

Kamban Nayanmars, Shaivite saints, Alvars or Vaishnavites saints.

Kamban’s Ramayana, Thiruvallavur’s Thirukurral, dealing with the various

aspects of life and religion, along with the Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai

which were the most notable works in Tamil in the medieval period.

The three gems of the early Kannada literature were Ranna, Pampa and Ponna
who had the influence of Jainism is their unmistakable works. The three works
written by these three respectively were Adipurana, Shantipurana and

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Ajitpurana which were based on the life of the various Trithankaras of Jainism.

The translation of Ramayana, Mahabharata, works of grammar and science in
Telugu was produced by this great religious and secular literature during the
period. Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara, was himself a great
Telugu Scholar. His work on statecraft was included in Amuktamalayada. He
patronised scholars like Tenali Rama and Allasani Peddanna.

OTHER REGIONAL LANGUAGES

Several other languages developed in different parts of India as a result of similar
cultural and historical experiences of the people. Bengali emerged in eastern
India, Punjabi in the north, Gujarati in western India, Oriya in Orissa, Sindhi in
Sind, Malayam in Kerala and Assamese in Assam. All of the above languages
mentioned, developed out of Apabhramsha and Prakrit languages and dialects.
The classical Sanskrit which was the language of the scholars and Brahmins was
against Apabhramsha which literally mean something which is broken or crooked
and referred to the local language of the people.

DANCE & MUSIC

The two aspects of India’s culture that developed as composite whole terms of
creative and artistic expressions of the people were Dance and Music. These are
also called performing arts and most of the theoretical basis of dances as well as
terminology in Music has been drawn from the ancient text of Natya Shastra. The
music developed in India are of two classical forms as:
 Hindustan music
 Carnatic music

With the advent of Turks and the Mughal, the Hindustani music, popular in North
India was influenced by the Arab-Persian traditions which came to India. There
was no actual means or form of traditional music for Islam but the Sufi was
adopted and practiced for devotional singing and through them the new trends
reached the royal court. The renditions of Hindustani music which are the forms
of classical music are Khayal, Dadra, Tappa, Dhamar, Dhrupad and Thumri. Amir
Khusrau with the Sufi tendencies created a new form of popular style of music
called Qwwali, which is associated with dargah. He also introduced the Thumri
and Khayal as a new form of Hindustani Classical Music. Tansen had introduced
new ragas and was a great personality of medieval period who had an excellent

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command over ragas. During this period the stringed instruments like veena of
different types, sitar, santoor, sarangi and sarod, percussion instruments like
mridangam, tabla and pakhawaj and wind instruments such as flute, shehnai
and nadaswaram were the classical musical instruments which evolved gradually.

The sarangi and rabab were brought by Turks to India. Tabla and sitar were
invented by Amir Khusrau.

Veena

Sarod
Sitar

Thyagraja

The Carnatic music was mainly developed by the musical trinity of Thyagaraja,

Muthuswami Dikshitarand Purandardasa. The main emphasis has always been

on the vocal music in Carnatic music. Most of the compositions were written to

be sung. Even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in

gayaki (singing) style. Carnatic music are performed by a band of musician

consisting of a principal performer usually a vocalist, a melodic accompaniment

usually a violin, a rhythm accompaniment usually a mridangum, and a tambura,

which acts as a drone throughout the performance. Veena, flute, kanjira and

ghatamare are the typical instruments used in performance.

Along with the folk dance the folk musical tradition had existed in most of the
region. Some prominent modes of devotional music were also developed apart
from usual casual music like haveli sangeet, choirs, bhajans, kirtans, etc. In the
accompaniment of music most of the dances in India developed as refined
enactment of themes revolving around Krishna and Radha. There were two
categories of performing art which was generally seen:

 Classical dance

 Folk dance

Based on performing art style, the term classical was used to denote the Natya
Shastra. The use of mudras, hand gestures and facial expressions to narrate the
story are an integral part of the dance form in the Indian Classical dances.

The classical dance which are recognised at present are:

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Kathak, Kathakali (Kerela), Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Odissi (Orissa),
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Sattriya dance of Assam, Manipuri (Manipur)

Indian classical dance which includes various codified art form,
originated from the principles stated in the Natya Shastra of Bharat
Muni (200 B.C).

In the 15th century in Assam since its creation by the

Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankaradeva Sattriya had

remained a living tradition. A form of Assamese one act

play devised by the saint was actually an additional part of

Ankiya Naat. On the monasteries or in Sattras these plays

were usually performed. There were mythological stories

in the core of Sattriya Nritya. Bhokots or the male monks

Sattriya dance in monasteries performed Sattriya Nritya as a part of their

daily rituals or to mark special festivals traditionally.

Sattriya dance or nritya is based on classical ragas accompanied by musical
composition called borgeets (composed by people like Shankaradeva and
others). For traditional performance the instruments such as Drums (Kohl),
Cymbals (taal) and flute are accompanied.

A CASE STUDY: KATHAK

Kathak actually originated to achieve a lot of gestures and
foot movement and tell stories by a caste of story tellers
which was desired in the temples of North India. To make the
performance more effective local musical instruments and
songs were incorporated. In the 15th to 16th century with the
spread of Bhakti movement kathak began to evolve into a
distinct mode of dance. ‘Rasa Lila’ was a folk play with the
combination of basic gestures of kathak story tellers which were enacted to
describe the legends of Radha Krishna in the form of folk dance.

This form acquired a form of court dance with a distinctive style with the
coming of the Mughal who patronised this dance. Under the patronage of
Wajid Ali Shah the last Nawab of Awadh, it developed a different form in
Lucknow. It reflected Rajput influence in terms of costume and expression in
the court of Rajasthan (Jaipur).

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FOLK DANCES

Every region of India has its own local rural

features which reflected a unique and distinct

folk dance for each and various tribal regions

have various tribal dances too. Folk dances are

really simple and are performed to express joy

during a particular occasion for example, to Chhau Dance
celebrate the birth of child, wedding, festival and

arrival of seasons. Dancers sing themselves while being accompanied by artists

on the instruments on most occasions and each form of dance has a specific

traditional costume.

Folk dances of various regions of India are as follows: Chakri dance of Kashmir,
Wangla dance of Meghalaya, Lepcha dance of Sikkim, the Mask dance of
Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, Chhau of Mayurbhanj in
Orissa, Tamasha of Maharashtra, Bamboo dance of Mizoram, Bihu of Assam and
Chang dance of Nagaland.

PAINTING

It was an age old tradition. Mughals introduced the art of miniature painting
which was a new concept in Indian art in the medieval period. Miniature painting
is a small painting in any medium and on any surface. The themes such as royal
processions, durbar scenes, elephant fight and hunting scenes etc. were adopted
as the material aspect in the Mughal painting. Two great painting artists named
Abdus Samad and Mir Sayid Ali were Persian who were brought by Humayun
to India. He patronised several local artists and Hamza Nama was the most
important work of art produced during his period which consisted of nearly
twelve hundred paintings drawn in bold and vivid colours. Akbar had taken keen
interest in painting of impressive illustrations given in the works of Abul Fazl and
other chronicles of Akbar’s time. Both Hindus and Muslims contributed their
individual painting skills to the Mughal miniature. Abul Fazl mentioned the
names of 15 such painters. A new trend was picked up at the instance of Mughal
ruler Jahangir and it freed the painting from its bond with the text of manuscript.
The Mughal painters introduced occasional European scenes and the figures in
their works during the reign of Shah Jahan and they also adopted the light and
shade techniques. In the 18th century the Mughal Dynasty declined and resulted
in the withdrawal of court patronage and it forced the artists to seek new
patrons in the newly created states of Bengal, Hyderabad and Awadh. Rajasthan

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Rajput rulers patronised the painters seeking support from them. The Rajasthani

Miniature Painting

and the Pahari School were the two important schools of painting that emerged
in the later times. These school paintings were drawn from the myths, epics,
legends and love themes and the source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite
tradition.

CASE STUDY: CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN BENGAL

Bengal was ruled by Palas in the beginning of medieval period that promoted
Buddhism and Hinduism and were followed by Senas. In the beginning of the
13th century the Muslims under the leadership of Bakhitar Khilji entered as a
royal power in Bengal. The expedition managed to defeat Lakhman Sena, one of
the great Hindu rulers but he failed to bring Bengal under his control. Vikrampur
was a place where the two sons of Hindu ruler moved and this dynasty
continued to rule until the late 13th century. Till 1450’s Hindus state continued to
exist in the Southern and Eastern parts of Bengal because of the Eva Dynasty.
There was one more dynasty called Ganesh Dynasty which began with Raja
Ganesh in 1414 AD but his successors were converted into Islam. In Bengal a
Muslim social structure developed and between the 14th and 16th century Bengal
was ruled by Sultans who were independent of the rulers in Delhi. Persian was
introduced as a language of administration in 1586 AD when Akbar conquered
Bengal. Bengal was called the “Paradise of Nations” because Bengal trade and
wealth impressed the Mughal. Under the Nawabs of Mursidabad, who respected
the nominal sovereignty of the Mughal of Delhi administration, governors were
appointed by the court of Mughal emperor and gave way to four decades of
semi-independence.

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