Purushottam's Bright Learners Social Science 7

The language which the majority of the people speak in Bengal is Bengali which is
derived from Sanskrit. Sanskrit remained the language of Brahmins and the
scholars during the pre-Islamic period. Jayadeva, a great poet in the court of
Lakshamana Sena wrote a narrative poem Geet Govind in Sanskrit . As a result of
cultural interaction among various group of people settled here at different
points of time, Bengali developed as a regional language during the medieval
period. People spoke local dialects, wrote in Sanskrit and did official work in the
Persian language. Two categories in which Early Bengali literature may be divided
are : One indebted to Sanskrit and the other independent of it. The first includes
the translation of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (poem dealing with local
deities which are literally auspicious poems) and the bhakti literature by the
leaders of Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal. Biography of Chaitanya Dev
was composed between the late 15th and the mid 18th century. The second
category of Bengali literature were generally written on the basis of oral tradition
which included Nath literature such as fairy tales, folk tales, ballads, stories
related to the worship of Dharma Thakur and the songs of Mayanmati and Gopi
Chandra. The expansion of the Bengali language and literature and its growth
was patronised by Sultans of Bengal. Late in the 14th century Shah Mohammad
Sagir wrote his famous poem Yusuf-Zulekha during the reign of Giasuddin Azam
Shah of the Ilias Shah Dynasty. Composer of Sree Krishna Vijoy patronised Jasoraj
Khan by Barbak Shah of later Ilias Khan Dynasty. In the late 15th century under
Alauddin Hussain Shah the Mahabharata and Ramayana were translated into
Bengali. The Bhagwat Gita was also translated into Bengali later. In the 16th
century several folklores of other regions including Jayasi’s Padmavat were
translated into Bengali. Rajamala was also written during this time which deals
with the history of Tripura and was a historical work.

The most prominent Vaishnava saint of Bengal was Chaitanya (1486-1533 AD)
and he popularised Krishna Bhakti in many parts of Eastern India. He was looked
upon as an avatara (incarnation) of Krishna, and thus his popularity as a religious
personality was very good. His followers belonged to all castes and communities
and he popularised the practice of sankirtan or group devotional singing which
was accompanied by ecstatic dancing. One of his most favourite disciples was
Haridas, who was a Muslim. The songs of Vidyapati written in Maithili
highlighted the Krishna Radhe relationship. Chandidas was the first Bengali

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Bhakti poet. These songs were the part of the growing Vaishnava movement in
Bengal.

After the 8th century on the coastal belt in Southeast Bengal a number of Arab
Muslims had settled, who had to do business. During the 12th century Islam made
its appearance in Bengal when Sufi Missionaries arrived. Many Buddhists and
Hindus embraced Islam at that time. Groups of distinguished and influential Sufis
resided in the successive capital cities of Lakhnauti (from 1204 AD), Pandua (from
1342 AD) and Gaur (from 1432 AD). These men belonged to the organised Sufi
brotherhoods –the Suhrawardi, the Firdausi and the Chisti order especially.

For the expansion of agriculture, large number of peasants and other people
were sent to this region during the medieval period and thus the forests had to
be cleared. There were so many local tribal groups who also joined these groups
and there were lot of hurdles to overcome. To teach them and to guide them
and also to settle their disputes some community leaders took the responsibility
on their shoulders. Such leaders were called pirs irrespective of their religious
affiliations. The people sometimes ascribed to them as supernatural powers and
respected them a lot.

The term pirs included Sufis or Saints and other religious personalities, Buddhist
Gods, brave soldiers, various Hindu, adventurous men out to grab land and even
spirits worshipped among the forest societies. The cult of pirs became very
popular and their shrine can be found everywhere in Bengal.

In the age of Sultans of Bengal the Muslim Architecture became quite developed.
Some examples are the Chota Sona Masjid, the Adina Masjid, the Baro Sona
Masjid, the Dhakil Darwaza of Gaur, the Kotwali Darwaza, the Shat Gumbaj
Masjid, the Qadam Rasul, etc.

The Silver coins were used in buying and selling goods and seafaring vessels were
also built in the shipbuilding factories. High quality of paper was made from the
bark of the trees. The craft people were skilled in making scissors, plates, knifes,
pottery etc. A number of temples were constructed in Bengal from the late 15th
century. The people of low social origin were the ones to contribute for these
constructions such as Kolho (oil pressers) and Kansari (bell metal workers). The

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tribal Gods were getting the acceptance by Brahmins and were decorated in
these new temples. Distinctive four-roofed structure was the typical style of
Bengal. The temples were built on a square platform and the outer wall of many
temples were decorated with paintings, ornamental tiles and terracotta tablets
for example, in Vishnupur in the Bakura district of West Bengal. Kantaji Temple is
a late medieval Hindu temple which was built by Maharaja Pran Nath. It boasts
one of the examples on terracotta architecture and once had nine spires but it
was destroyed in the earthquake of 1897.

Choto Sona Masjid Adina Masjid

 Master, teacher.
 Articles like toys and bricks made of clay.
 Mughal painting with a lot of detailing in a

single painting.

 Most of the theoretical basis of dances as well as the
terminology in Music were drawn from the ancient text of
Natya Shahtra.

 The two forms of classical music developed in India:
Carnatic music in the South and the Hindustani music in
the North India.

 The dance forms that are recognised as classical at present are:
Kathak Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathakali (Kerela), Odissi
(Orissa), Kuchipuri (Andhra Pradesh), Manipuri (Manipur),
Sattriya dance of Assam.

 The Folk dance forms are Chhau of Orissa, Garba of Gujarat
and Bhangra of Punjab, etc.

 The Mughals introduced the art of Miniature painting which
was a new concept in Indian art.

 Two of the most important schools of painting that emerged in
the later times were the Rajasthani and the Pahari School.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. The Ramayana was written in Tamil by

a. Kamban b. Ponna c. Vermana d. Pampa

2. Kathakali is classical dance form of

a. Manipur b. Kerala c. Orissa d. Karnataka

3. The Ramcharitamanas was written by

a. Tulsidas b. Mirabai c. Surdas d. Kabirdas

B. Fill in the blanks:
1. Bengali is a language derived from_______________.
2. The miniature paintings developed during the times of _____________.
3. The two forms of classical music developed in India :_______________ in the

South and _____________in the North.
4. _______________ wrote Amuktamalayada, a work on Statecraft.
5. The main emphasis of Carnatic music is on _____________ music.

C. Write True or False:

1. The ‘Hamza Nama’ consisted of nearly twelve thousand painting drawn in
bold and vivid colour.

2. The ‘Kathak’ were originally a caste of Story tellers in temples of South India.
3. The decline of Mughal Dynasty in the 18th century forced the artist to seek

new patron in the newly created state.

4. The Ganesha Dynasty began with Raja Ganesha in 1414 A.D, but his
successors converted themselves to Islam.

D. Answer the following questions in brief:
1. Name three folk dances.
2. What do you understand by miniature painting ?
3. Which is the oldest Dravidian language of South India ?
4. Who are called the three gems of early Kannada literature ?

E. Answer the following in detail:
1. Who was pir in the context of medieval Bengal ?
2. Write a short note on Sattriya dance.

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3. What is a folk dance? Name five folk dances.
4. Name the two forms of classical music. Discuss their main features.
5. Explain about Bhakti Saints.

E. Match the column: Column B
a. Urdu
Column A b. Marathi
1. Tulsidas c. Tamil
2. Mirza Galib d. Sanskrit
3. Tukarama e. Awadhi
4. Jayadeva
5. Kamban

F. Long Answer type questions:

1. Collect information and images on any one of the following on the internet.
Make a power point presentation on the basis of collected materials:
a. Tamasha of Maharastra
b. Lepcha dance of Sikkim, Chakri dance of Kashmir
c. The mask dance of Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti
d. Kalaripayattu of Kerala
e. The bamboo dance of Mizoram, Chang dance of Nagaland

2. Explain about the growth about Regional language.

3. Fill the following table with appropriate languages, personalities and dance
forms in the blanks spaces:

Sr. Language Personality (medieval Dance form / Region
No or Modern period) Music

1. Marathi

2. Bharatanatyam

3. Birju Maharaj

4. Assam

5. Kuchipudi

6. Awadhi

7. Khayal

8. Sankirtan and
ecstatic dancing

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Image of the timeline showing the slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq
dynasty, Sayyid dynasty, Lodi dynasty, First Battle of Panipat,
Establishment of Mughal Rule

1627 1707 1780

TIMELINE

LATER MUGHAL

In the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD, the period of the great Mughal which
began with the victory of Babur was held together by the dynamic personalities
and efficiency of the early Mughal rulers. With the death of Aurangzeb in 1707
AD, it started on the path of decline. There had never been any law of succession
in the Mughal Empire which was one of the fundamental reasons. To prove the
military superiority over the kinsmen, as a result quite often there was a war of
succession among the son and claimants; thus it weakened the dynasty.

After the death of Aurangzeb, there was a bitter war of succession. Muazzam, his
third son came out as victorious and assumed the title of Bahadur Shah I. There
was a line of ten rulers who ruled for 150 years and are called the later Mughal
with him.

Among the later Mughals, the most important rulers were Bahadur Shah I,
Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah. In the power struggle in
North India after Muhammad Shah, the Mughal rulers were mere pawns.
Intolerance policies towards the Shiks, Marathas and Rajputs created problems,
which were incapable by the Later Mughals who were weak. The major problems
which were witnessed, led to the decline of the Mughal Empire during the later
Mughal are as follows here under:

i) Because of the master mind of the corrupt and the faction- ridden nobles
who made the later Mughal victims of conspiracies and inefficient.

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ii) Nobles rebel and set up their own independent kingdom which led to the
political fragmentation.

iii) In the absence of royal supervision, the army became insufficient. The
financial bankruptcy rendered the state incapable of handling the foreign
invasions and the administrative machinery broke down.

iv) The English East India Company and the Marathas in the second half and in
the first half involved themselves in the political conflicts with the newly
independent regional power and emerged victorious. When the last Emperor
Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled from India by the British on charges of leading
the Revolt of 1857 AD, the Mughal Empire continued only in name and finally
came to an end in 1857 AD.

The war of succession was fought not only by the royal princes but the ambitious
nobles become the direct contenders for power and they used princes as mere
power to pawns to capture the authority seat; thus a new element entered into
the Mughal politics after the death of Bahadur Shah II. The Irani, Turani, Afghan
(Rohillas) and Hindustani Muslim groups were more prominent but there used to
be many factions or groups of nobles and Mansabdars in the Mughal court. The
nobles from Iran (Shias), Central Asia (Sunnis) and Afghanistan comprise the first
three groups. To come closer to the Emperors, all these groups played politics
with each other. They were neither concerned about the welfare of the emperor
nor the empire. However they were selfish and greedy for the power, motivated
all these groups.

THE MUSLIM INVASION OF INDIA

In 1736 AD Nadir Shah positioned himself from the Army general to be the Shah

of Persia by overthrowing the last Safari ruler of

Iran, Shah Tahmasp. As India was famous for its

wealth, he was attracted by it. Persia was virtually

bankrupted by the continuous campaigns. To

maintain his mercenary army, money was needed.

In 1739 AD he invaded India and brought

Nadir Shah devastation to Delhi and hastened the end of
already declining Mughal Empire.

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 Hidden weakness of the empire was exposed to the Marathas and the foreign
trading companies and thus there was an irreparable loss of Prestige for
Mughal.

 Nadir Shah carried away the loot estimated about 70 crore of rupees and
plundered the wealth of the country. There was a major loss of the men and
resources which had a tremendous effect on the common man.

INDEPENDENT KINGDOMS

The rise of the independent and semi independent states was resulted in the
weakening of Mughal power and authority. Important regional states were as
follows:

In the year of 1719-1748 AD, the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah made
Awadh an independent state during the reign. A renowned noble of Mughal
court Saadat Khan was the founder of Awadh state. As he claimed the Mughal
throne, he has got the grant of Awadh as a reward for supporting Muhammad
Shah.

By crushing the rebellions of ambitious zamindars, Sadaat Khan conquered
Chunar, Benaras and Ghazipur in Awadh and established peace and order in the
state. According to merit he gave the high post to both Hindus and Muslims and
he died in 1739 AD. By selling the rights to the higher bidder he introduced a new
method of collecting the revenue and the local banks were also involved in it.
Thus the new social class came into existence like the money lenders, bankers
who tried to influence the management of the state’s revenue. Safdar Jung was
an able ruler who was a successor. In 1748 AD he was made wazir of the Mughal
Empire. Due to the pretty politics of the court he gave up his job in 1753 and thus
he could not work efficiently due to the continuous interference. He died in 1754
AD and his successor Shuja-ud-Daula in 1762 AD who also served as the wazir of
the Mughal.

The governor of Orissa was Murshid Quli Khan who was efficient and talented at
the time of Aurangzeb’s death. Farruksiyar assigned the governorship of Bengal
in 1717 AD. He virtually ruled the Orissa, Bengal and Bihar for the next 10 years

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till he died in 1727 AD and had no intension of consulting with the Mughal
Emperor about anything. He administered his region efficiently to make it
peaceful. To make the military stronger and economically sound he transferred
his capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. He encouraged agriculture by giving
loans to the poor farmers and his successor tried to manage the state like his
predecessor. His son Sarfaraz Khan became the Nawab of Bengal after his death.
He was defeated in a battle by another ambitious officer named Alivardi Khan as
he was inefficient and pleasure loving. He worked for the establishment of peace
and economic prosperity in the province and he ruled with exceptional
shrewdness during the period, 1740-1756 AD.

He transferred all the Mughal jagidars to Orissa and ordered a major
reassessment of the revenues of Bengal in an effort to reduce the Mughal
Influence in Bengal. From the zamindars, the revenue was collected in cash with
great strictness.

THE PRACTICE OF IJARADARI:
Merchants and Rich Bankers lent money to revenue farmers, selected by the
state, received land as security and collected taxes from lands through their
own agents.

Farrukhsiyar who became the next emperor was supported by one of the
capable Mughal nobles, Chin Qilich Khan (Asaf Jah) during the war of succession,
following the death of Emperor Bahadur Shah I. Asaf Jah was rewarded for his
support. He was given the title of Nizam-ul-Mulik and was granted six subas of
the Deccan. In 1724 AD he practically ruled Deccan as a king and he never
declared his independence from the Mughal control. He made Hyderabad as his
capital and proved to be a brave soldier and a good administrator. He died in
1758 AD. The independent warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau, the
Hyderabad state was associated with and was constantly engaged in a struggle
against the Marathas too. After the death of Asaf Jah, there was a war of
succession between his son Nasir Jung and Muzaffar Jung which gave the
opportunities to hatch the conspiracies and to interfere in the Indian political
affairs for European Trading Companies.

Under the rule of the successors of Aurangzeb, most of the Rajput states

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declared their independence. Especially in face of their mutual rivalries and

exceptionally smart diplomacy of British East Indian Company, not all of them

were militarily capable of sustaining for long. Marwar was never succumbed

completely to Mughal because it continued to carry on in the same manner

under Ajit Singh who was acknowledged as the Marwar ruler. He was murdered

by his own son, Bakht Singh in 1727 AD. The decline of Marwa was underway in

1749 AD. In 1562 AD, Akbar was married to Kachhwaha princess because Akbar

won over the friendship of Kachhwada Rajputs of Amber. Sawai Raja Jai Singh

became the ruler of Amber in 1699 AD. In the last year of Aurangzeb, he

organised many campaigns against the Marathas and he became the subedar of

Agra as the weakness of Aurangzeb’s

successors enabled him to consolidate his

power. Sawai Jai Singh was a shrewd

statesman, a brave warrior and an able

administrator. His achievements were the

Jantar Mantar at Jaipur construction of scientific observation (Jantar
Mantars) with modern advanced instruments

in Delhi, Ujjain, Mathura and Jaipur and the foundation of the city of Jaipur. Jai

Singh’s successors were not able to maintain the independence of Mewar.

Aurangzeb’s policy of Sikhs had completely alienated this community from the
Mughal state. To fight against injustice, Guru Govind Singh found Khalsa Panth
who was the tenth Guru of Sikhs. The states like Jalandhar, Amritsar, Batala,
Kalanaur, Saharanpur and Pathankot were occupied by Banda Bahadur, the
discipline of Guru Govind Singh. In 1715 AD, he was defeated and killed during
the reign of Farrukhsiyar. To resist the Mughal and Afghans, the group called
Jaths were formed by the Sikhs in around 1748 AD. These Jaths were organised
into misls or were grouped each under a separate chief. In the 1799 AD, Ranjit
Singh conquered several misls and found a powerful Sikhs’ kingdom in Punjab
with Lahore as the capital who was the ambitious chief of Sukerchakia Misl.

Guru Govind Singh Maharaja Ranjit Singh

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RISE AND FALL OF THE MARATHAS

The landed aristocracy of Deccan was with Marathas who

formed the backbone. He had a position similar to the one

held by the Rajputs in large parts of North India. From the

16th century onwards, the Deccan states accorded military

services and positions to the Maratha. Shahji Bhonsle was

an ambitious military officer in the state of Bijapur and his

son was Shivaji, and the credit for carving a large Maratha

Kingdom goes to Shahji Bhonsle. Near Poona, in 1627 AD,

Shivaji Shivaji was born and under the supervision of his mother

Jijabai, he was brought up. Shivaji became an expert soldier and an efficient

administrator under the guidance of his Dadaji Kondadev. He also looked after

his father’s jagir. He was also influenced by the writing of the religious reformers

of Maharashtra. Shivaji at the age of 19 years, began his military career and

conquered some forts in the Bijapur state in 1646 AD. Shortly after, he captured

the forts of Purandhar, Raigarh, etc. The sultan of Bijapur state sent his general

Afzal Khan in 1659 AD against Shivaji as he was alarmed by the rise of Shivaji.

Afzal Khan was killed by Shivaji and in 1662 AD, the king of Bijapur made peace

with Shivaji and acknowledged him as the independent king of his conquered

territories.

Shiivaji began to attack the Mughal territories because of his encouraging
success against Bijapur. Aurangzeb sent the viceroy of Deccan Shaista Khan
against him. Shaista Khan defeated the Maratha forces who adopted the Guerilla
techniques against the Mughal forces. For catching the commander, Shivaji
retaliated by attacking Shaista Khan during the night. Shaista Khan was called
back by Aurangzeb because he had failed in the mission.

To subdue Shivaji, Aurangzeb also sent his own son, Prince Muazzam, and then
Raja Jai Singh of Amber. Raja Jai Singh besieged Shivaji in Purandhar and
persuaded him to submit to Aurangzeb. Shivaji retained only 12 for himself and
gave up 23 of his forts to the Mughal. In Agra when Shivaji attended the Mughal
Court he was treated with discourtesy and found himself as a prisoner and
became a bitter enemy of the Mughals and after three months, he cleverly made
his escape. Shivaji conquered almost all the forts which he surrendered to the
Mughal after his return from Agra. The title of Chhatrapati was adopted in 1674
AD when Shivaji was crowned himself. He conquered Ginjee, Vellore and some
other places in Karnataka and shortly he made an expedition into southern India.
At the age of 53, Shivaji died in 1680 AD and in the 18th century, the Marathas

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became the great power in India.

GUERRILLA WARFARE TECHNIQUES

A kind of fighting in which small independent bands of soldiers trouble an
enemy, usually a larger and lesser mobile traditional army ambushes, surprise
raids, attacks on communication and the like. It is marked by the withdrawal
of band almost immediately.

i) Besides being a brave general, Shivaji was a great administrator. He
established an efficient administrative system throughout his empire. Shivaji
divided the whole territory into two divisions: (1) Swarajya, i.e., the territory
directly under his rule and (2) Mughlai, i.e., the surrounding territory from
which he collected chauth and sardeshmukhi.

ii) The whole Kingdom was divided into three provinces and each province was
under a Governor who was assisted by 8 chief officers. The provinces were
divided into parganas and villages.

iii) Shivaji was himself the supreme head of the government. He appointed a
council of 8 ministers called the Ashtrapradhan who were in-charge of
different departments of the State. Shivaji carried on his administration with
the help of these ministers.

iv) The land revenue was fixed at 2/5th of the gross produced payable in the cash
or kind. Proper care was taken so that no hardship was caused to the
cultivators. During famines and the failure of crops, they were given loan in
advance to buy seeds, cattles, etc. The loans were payable in yearly
instalment at the convenience of the cultivators.

v) Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were tax charges from the in-charges of Mughal
territory if they wanted protection from Maratha plunder.

After his death, his son named Shambhaji was killed by Aurangzeb and his 7
years old Grand son, Shahu was imprisoned. The war of succession started
among his sons when Aurangzeb died. Bahadur Shah I released Shahu from the
prison and became the next Mughal ruler in 1707 AD. In the meantime, the
Maratha state was under the minor ruler, Shivaji III and his mother, Tarabai who
acted as a Queen Regent. A civil war broke out between the forces of Shivaji III
and Shahu after Shahu’s return. A shrewd Brahmin named Balaji Vishwanath

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assisted Shahu. Shahu was victorious. Balaji was made the Chief Minister or the
Peshwa of the Maratha state.

Peshwa was the head of the Ashtapradhan. The cabinet was formed by Shivaji
and initially this office of Peshwa was assigned on the basis of merit and real
powers remained with the Chhatrapati, or the king. But Shahu lacked
administrative experience. He made the office of Peshwa heredity and appointed
Balaji Vishwanath as his Peshwa and it diminished the King’s power. During the
time of the first three peshwa, the Maratha power witnessed great progress. As
the rightful ruler of Marathas Balaji Vishwanath forced Mughal ruler to recognise
Shahu. Balaji Vishwanath also secured the right to collect Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi in six Mughal provinces in the Deccan viz., Khandesh, Bidar,
Beraar, Bijapur, Golconda and Aurangabad. He helped the Sayyid Brothers to
overthrow Farrkhsiyar and later also assisted in the plans to dislodge the Sayyid
Brothers in the year 1719 AD. He died in 1720 AD and he was succeeded by his
20 years old son, Baji Rao I. He was described as ‘the greatest exponent of
Guerrilla tactics after Shivaji’. Against the Mughal Empire, the Marathas waged
numerous campaigns led by Baji Rao Peshwa. Marathas had won control over
Malwa, Gujarat and the parts of Bundelkhand by 1740 AD, when Baji Rao I died.
The Maratha families of Gaekwad (Baroda), Holkar, (Indore) Sindhia (Gwalior)
and Bhonsle (Nagpur) came into prominence during this process. He defeated
the Nizam of Hyderabad and his forces, several times in the process and in the
year of 1733 AD, he led a campaign against the Sidis of Janjira and expelled them
from the mainland. He also captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese.
However, he paid little attention to the administration of newly acquired areas
and as such the work of real consolidation could not progress. After the death of
his father in 1740 AD at the age of 20, Balaji Baji Rao became the third Peshwa.
Shahuji died in 1748 AD and as a result Balaji Baji Rao’s power increased
manifold. In the North and the South, he worked relentlessly for the expansion of
Maratha Empire. He successfully launched expeditions to Bengal which was
forced to give Orissa to the Marathas. Hyderabad and Mysore were forced to pay
tribute and he also brought the rulers of the Gangetic plains and the Rajput
states to accept his suzerainty and reached Delhi where in 1752 AD, the
Marathas helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir. Thus, the Marathas
became the power behind the Mughal throne by 1752 AD. Marathas turned their
attention towards Punjab, in the leadership of Balaji Baji Rao. The warrior king of
Afganisthan, Ahmad Shah who was Abdali, had supported the king of Punjab,

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Timur Shah. This heralded a major conflict for the mastery over North India in
which Marathas had to fight a bitter battle with Ahmad Shah Abdali and his allies,
the rulers of Rohilkhand and Bengal. The battle became famous as it was the
third battle of Panipat where the Marathas got a crushing defeat. There was a
terrible loss of life among the Marathas.

i) There was no unity among the various Maratha Chiefs whose authority was
based on the hereditary rights and they were frequently involved in mutual
conflicts and wars.

ii) The system of collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi was seen as the
legalised plunder and this made the Marathas very unpopular.

iii) The Marathas continued with their methods of Guerrilla warfare which was
unsuitable to fight with the Afghan on the plains of Panipat.

iv) The Marathas made no effort to win over the loyalty of the people whom
they conquered. They introduced no administrative measures to improve the
condition of the people and did not restore economic and political stability.
At the time of battle when Marathas needed military help from neighbouring
states, the jats, Awadh and Rohillas, etc., didn’t provide them any.

 Not having enough money to pay what you owe.
 The incharge of the ashtapradhan or the cabinet of

Marathas.
 A small group of people within a larger one whose

members have some different aims to those of the larger group.
 Taxes charged by Shivaji and Marathas

from those Mughal territories which wanted to save themselves
from the attacks of Marathas.

 With Bahadur Shah I, the son and the successor of
Aurangzeb, began a line of ten rulers who ruled for 150
years and are called the later Mughals.

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 Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739 AD and brought devastation to
Delhi and hastened the end of the already declining Mughal
Empire.

 Some of the important regional states were Hyderabad under
Nizam Asaf Jah, Awadh under Sadat Khan, Bengal under Murshid
Quli Khan, Amber / Jaipur under Raja Jai Singh, Sikhs under Ranjit
Singh and Marathas under Shivaji.

 The Marathas became the greatest power in India in the 18th
century and challenged the might of the Mughal Empire.

 Marathas were defeated badly in the third battle of Panipat by
Ahmed Shah Abadali, the ruler of Afghanistan.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. The sikh ruler who established a powerful kingdom in Punjab was
a. Maharaja Ranjit Singh b. Tipu Sultan c. Maharaja Ajit Singh d. Haider Ali

2. The third battle of Panipat took place in

a. 1761 AD b. 1861 AD c. 1771 AD d. 1751 AD

3. The Mughal Empire started to decline with the death of
a. Akbar b. Jahagir c. Shah Jahan d. Aurangzeb

4. The council of eight ministers under Shivaji was called

a. Ashtang b. Ashtabhujh c. Ashtamukhd. Ashtapradhan

5. Nadir Shah invaded India in

a. 1739 AD b. 1729 AD c. 1839 AD d. 1749 AD

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. _____________found the ‘Khalsa Panth’.

2. _____________ laid down the foundation of the city of Jaipur.

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3. _____________ third son, Muazzam, emerged victorious and assumed the
title of Bahadur Shah I.

4. _____________ has been described as the greatest exponent of guerrilla
tactics after Shivaji.

5. Asaf Jah died in______________.

C. Write about the following in brief:

1. Nadir Shah, 2. Saadat Khan, 3. Chin Qilich Khan, 4. Dadaji Kondadev

D. Explain the following terms:

1. Guerilla warfare, 2. Peshwa, 3. Misl, 4. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

E. Answer the following questions in brief:

1. Who was Nadir Shah? Why did he invade India?

2. Why did Kachhwaha Rajputs continue to support the Mughals?

3. What is meant by the law of succession?

4. Who were the Later Mughals?

5. Explain about Sikhs?

F. Answer the following questions in detail.

1. Who were the Peshwas?

2. Describe the causes and the effects of the Third Battle of Panipat.

3. Assess the role of war of succession in the disintegration of the Mughal
empire.

4. Give an account of administration of Shivaji.

5. Who has found the state of Hyderabad? Mention any two achievements.

6. Mention the main state that created problems for Aurangzeb in the Deccan.

G. Long answer type questions.

1. Make a family tree of the Later Mughals starting from Bahadur Shah I.

2. On a political map of India, locate the following places captured by Shivaji and
the new states found by various rulers.

3. Most of the regional rulers became famous in their own right. Collect popular
tales about any one of them and write it down in your copy.

4. Describe about the disintegration of Mughal.

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We all know that we have a surrounding or environment in which we live. Our
living is influenced by all those surroundings and conditions that encompass us.
This is our environment. The word environment comes from a French word
'environer', which means neighbourhood. Our surroundings and living conditions
in which we carry out our daily activities can be referred as our Environment.
Both physical and human components form the environment. All natural
resources like land, water, air etc. make the physical environment. Without
them, life is not possible.

All human elements make up the human environment, i.e., all the factors except
the natural factors. Man, a social being created the Man-made environment. He
dwells in a society. He lives with his family, neighbours and in the community,
place of work, religion, etc. All these create the environment of man.

It can be said that individuals, spot and things that encompass or make up our
surroundings, consist of both biotic and abiotic things. Biotic things consist of
every single living creature including people, plants, creatures and other
different living beings. Abiotic things include all non-living components like land,
air, water, human-made structures, and so forth. Biotic and abiotic things exist
together in the earth.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Four noteworthy circles or domains, like Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere
and Biosphere make up the environment. "Litho" is a Greek word signifying
'rock'. The lithosphere is the external layer of the Earth, comprising of all the
landmasses and the sea beds. It is comprised of rocks (a combination of
minerals with soil). The Earth is comprised of three primary layers:

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i) It is the peripheral strong part of the Earth. This layer is the
thickest under the landmasses (around 35 km) and the most slender under
the water bodies (around 5 km)

ii) It lies promptly
underneath the covering of the crust.
This layer is made of medium
thickness material.

iii) It is the innermost part
of the Earth. The outer core is made
entirely of molten metal and the inner
core is a solid ball of iron and nickel.

Combination of the crust and the upper layer of the mantle is termed as
lithosphere by a group of scientists.

THE ATMOSPHERE

The slight cover of air encompassing the Earth from every side is known as the
atmosphere. The Earth's environment is held by its gravity. The atmosphere is
a blend of gas (containing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and
dust particles). The Earth is a remarkable planet in the Solar System because of
the presence of these components.

Only sodium and potassium are present in the air of Mercury. Venus
has plenitude of carbon dioxide. Mars likewise has a slender layer
primarily made of carbon dioxide. Mainly helium and hydrogen gas
are present in the environment of the planets like Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune. Only the Earth's atmosphere has Oxygen. The
electromagnetic rays which have a wavelength shorter than that of
noticeable light are known as Ultraviolet rays. Different health issues
like sunburns, DNA damage, intense skin and eye problems and even
cancer may be caused by the excess exposure to Ultraviolet rays.

Oxygen is the sole component for which all life exists on the Earth. The plants
breathe in carbon dioxide from the air and breathe out oxygen to the air. The
ozone (03) gas in the air acts as a guard to the destructive radiations. Similarly,
nitrogen and carbon dioxide are also the components of the air. The main source
of nutrition for plants and different other living being on the Earth is Nitrogen.
Dust particles and water in the form of vapour are additionally present in the air.

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These water vapours join to make the clouds in the sky which pours down again
on earth as rain.

FEEL THE AIR AROUND YOU:
How do you feel after closing your nose tightly for a few seconds? Now,
how do you feel after taking a deep breath?

THE HYDROSPHERE

The word "Hydro" implies water. Nearly three fourths of the Earth's surface are
covered by the hydrosphere. All the water bodies on the Earth, like oceans,
rivers, lakes, ponds, wells, etc. make the hydrosphere. All
living organisms need water to live. Water is also
necessary for the plants to make food and to grow. Water
is useful to man in many ways. Water is needed in
drinking, washing and cooking. The water body in the
form of sea is a source of seafood for fishes, shrimps,
lobsters, etc. Electricity or popularly known as
hydroelectricity is generated by harnessing water falling The Blue Planet
from the elevated zones.

The other name of the Earth is blue planet because of the fact that
three fourths of its surface consists of water. The blue colour of
oceans and the atmosphere (with moisture) around the Earth make it
look like a blue planet from the space.

THE BIOSPHERE

The word 'bio' means life. Biosphere is formed by the overlapping of the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere which supports life. Life on earth is
supported by the interaction of different components of the biosphere.

Did you notice any kind of interdependence of biotic and abiotic components
around you? Can you identify the following in your urban area?

 A bird is sitting on a tree.
 Birds and animals which are feeding on the thrown away and waste foodstuff.
 People eating meat, eggs, milk, vegetables, etc.
 To build new houses, forests and other lands are cleared.

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From all these, one can have the idea of urban ecosystem. Ecosystem of an area
is the living of plants and animals of that area with non living elements of the
atmosphere like soil, air and water. It is actually the existence of both the biotic
and the abiotic components in an area. It can also be divided into:
i) The ecosystem which occurs naturally is the natural

ecosystem. It can be subdivided into terrestrial ecosystem (on land surface)
and aquatic ecosystem (in the water bodies).
ii) The man-made ecosystem is the Artificial ecosystem.

The word 'ecosystem' was first used by Roy Clapham in 1930.

We can find different food chains and food webs in an ecosystem. Food chain is
the interdependence of one organism on the other. It is the flow of energy from
any plant to any animal and from that animal to any other animal. For example,
plants are the food of a grasshopper which in turn is a food of a mouse who eats the
grasshopper. This is a food chain. Food web is the interlinked food chains.
The Sun is the source of energy for plants, whose next level is when a

FOOD CHAIN

grasshopper eats grass and further passes to a spider, who in turn eats the
grasshopper. These are the food webs formed from various food chains which
are interconnected. Food which fulfil our energy needs is obtained from the
biosphere. Here is an example of the food web (see next page) -

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HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

It has already been discussed earlier that both the natural and the human factors
make up the environment. The history of the human being reveals that the early
man was a hunter and a gatherer. He was completely dependent on nature. Man
has always changed his environment according to his needs. The discovery and
the use of fire, the invention of wheel and the way to grow crops made his life
settled. People in families started to live together. This formed the communities
and the villages. Surplus of food and goods were there due to the agricultural
and industrial revolution. Society was developed, laws were framed and
economy got stable. Man now felt to be a part of his family, community, state
and nation. Every single individual is a part of some society or community and
religious group.

The world today is known as a global village. This is due to the fact that today's
world has been sized into one unit by the electronic innovation, i.e., by the
internet and by the World Wide Web (WWW). Correspondence and
communication has become simpler which made the physical distance negligible
and insignificant. Man today has become a part of the techno-world where he
can correspond with anyone in any part of the world whenever he needs to.
Also, innovative technological progress in transport made possible to reach
faraway places in a couple of hours. Today, man is not isolated. He has become a
part of the global village. He also lives in a computer-simulated or rather

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computer-recreated environment around us which is called virtual reality.

Virtual reality is a computer-simulated surrounding, where a person
can feel his existence in both the real and the virtual world.

MAN'S IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Man is an indispensable part of the nature. Prior to the modern times, man
totally relied on his environment. However, at present day, man has possessed
the capacity to change his surroundings according to his needs.
Man has assumed a double role of being an inventor and developer on one side
and also a polluter on the other side.

Man has heartlessly utilized all the resources to satisfy his needs and desires.
This haphazard and over-usage of these resources has resulted in ecological
contamination or pollution. The undesirable and unsafe agents in the
environment lead to the ecological contamination.

For instance, agricultural improvement is the result of the use of simulated or
artificial chemicals for the growth of crops. This in turn becomes the cause of the
land degradation.

The reduction in the quality of land is known as the Land degradation. Similarly,
the use of excessive vehicles on the road cause Vehicular Pollution.

The increase in carbon dioxide and other harmful gases in the air is due to the
industrial emissions. This in turn has resulted in global warming, which increases
the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere. All these are the roots of
various health problems, happening in today’s world.

 Environment is the conditions and the surroundings
under which we live and carry out our activities.

 Environment consists both the natural and the human
components.

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 Natural environment is made of four spheres, namely lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

 Litho refers to land, atmosphere refers to air, hydro refers to water
and bio refers to life.

 Ecosystem is defined as the simultaneous existence of biotic and
abiotic components in an area.

 Man is a part of the society and the man-made environment.
Modern man is the part of the global village.

 The conditions and surroundings under which we
exist and carry on our activities.

 The thin solid outer crust of the Earth.
 Thin blanket of air encompassing the Earth.
 It is a sphere that is made up of all the water bodies.
 The sphere on which life exists.
 The co-existence of biotic and abiotic components in

an area.
 The flow of energy from plant to animal and again from

that animal to another animal.
 Interlinked food chains.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. Life on the Earth exists in
a. hydrosphere b. atmosphere c. biosphere d. lithosphere

2. We are protected from the ultraviolet rays by the gas

a. nitrogen b. oxygen c. hydrogen d. ozone

3. The living beings are known as

a. biotic component b. abiotic component

4. In the Earth's surface the percentage of water is

a. 70-75 b. 10-20 c. 40-50 d. 90-100

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5. Modern man is a part of d. City
a. Global city b. Global village c. Village

B. Give one-word answer:

1. Non-living components are called ______________.

2. The environment that is Computer-simulated is called ______________.

3. The co-existence of biotic and abiotic components is know as ____________.

4. The electricity that is generated by water, can be called ______________.

5. The interlinkage of food chains is known as ______________.

C. Answer the following in brief:

1. Define environment.

2. What do you mean by lithosphere?

3. Define ecosystem.

4. What is man-made environment?

D. Answer the following in detail:

1. What is the importance of atmosphere for Earth?

2. What do you mean by food chain and food web?

3. What is the importance of hydrosphere for mankind?

4. What impact the man has on the environment?

E. Activity:

1. Snap the photographs that are mentioned below and paste them on your
scrap book. Now paste your photo at the centre and the rest around you to
understand your environment.

Your photo, Your family, Your neighbours, Your school, Your friends, Trees
around Your house, Animals around Your house, Park around Your house

2. Make a chart of five biotic and five abiotic things around you.

3. Draw a desert ecosystem and includ the following: Camels, vultures, cactus,
sand, oasis, etc.

4. Show the importance of all the four spheres of the Earth in a project.

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What do you find when you cut a piece of a round chocolate cake? Different
layers are found inside it. That is how the Earth's interior looks like. This is due to
the density of the layers, where the densest layer is found at the centre.
According to the density of layers the Earth's interior can be divided into three
layers, namely crust, mantle and core.

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH
 Earth is the Third planet from the Sun in the Solar System.
 The Earth is approximately 149 million km away from the Sun.
 The age of the Earth is almost 4.6 billion years and
 the radius of the Earth is 6371 km.

The crust is the topmost layer of the Earth. As already discussed,
lithosphere is a part of the outer crust. It has both the continental crust and the
oceanic crust. The crust has various thickness. It is quite thick below the
continents and much thinner under the oceans. The thickness of the continental
crust is 35 km whereas the oceanic crust is only a km thick. The other name of
the crust is sial where 'si' stands for silica and 'al' stands for alumina. While sial
overlies sima in the continental crust, sima forms most of the oceanic crust. In
the word sima 'si' stands for silica and 'ma' stands for magnesium. The crust has
an average density of 3.0 g per cubic cm.

The mantle lies over the core and beneath the crust layer. Its
thickness is 2,900 km. The rocks in the mantle are thick and hard. The main
constituents are the silicates of iron and the magnesium. Mantle can be
separated into two sections: The upper mantle, i.e., the asthenosphere and the
lower mantle, i.e. the mesosphere. The atmosphere lies underneath the
lithosphere. Its depth is 100-200 km. Because of the warmth and pressure, this
layer is nearly in the form of plastic. The lower mantle is always in solid and
strong form. The normal density of mantle is 5.5 g for each cubic cm.

The core is the deepest layer of the Earth. It is made out of nickel and
iron. So it is also known as nife, i.e., 'ni' for nickel and 'fe' for ferrous. The
researchers believe that iron and nickel in the core is the cause of the magnet of

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the field of Earth. The thickness of the core is almost 3,500 km. It is amazingly
hot. The peripheral portion of core is liquid and the innermost portion is actually
solid. It is 13.0 g dense for each cubic cm on an average.

Inner Structure of the Earth

Towards the interior of the Earth, there is an increase of temperature with the
depth. The temperature increases at an average of 1 °C for every 32 metres of
depth. It is said that the temperature at the core ranges between 4500°C and
6500°C.

Characteristics Crust Mantle Core

Thickness 35 km 2900 km 3500 km

Material silicon, magnesium, aluminium iron, magnesium nickel, iron

Density 3.0 g per cubic cm 5.5 g per cubic cm 13.0 g per cubic cm

Temperature 200°C-500°C 500°C-4500°C 4500°C-6500°C

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ROCKS AND MINERALS

As specified before, the lithosphere is made of rocks. Rocks contain one or more
minerals. The solid substances which have fixed chemical composition and have
a crystalline structure are called minerals. Quartz, mica, calcite, and so forth are
some examples of the minerals. The compounds of metals that are present in
rocks and have business value are called ores. Rocks disintegrate to make soil.
The uppermost layer of very fine particles on which the plants grow, is soil. Rocks
are changed over to soil due to the different agents of weathering such as water,
wind, and so on.

Geology is the study of rocks and
mineralogy is the study of minerals.

"Igneous" means fire. Igneous rocks are the

result of solidification of hot liquid material

inside the Earth which are called magma. The

minerals are present in magma. The hot

magma begins to come out to the surface of

the Earth due to the volcanic ejection. It then

solidifies to frame rocks. Some magma just

solidifies underneath the Earth's surface. The hot molten material that comes out
These are called the intrusive rocks while the to the Earth's surface due to the volcanic

extrusive rocks are stones formed on the eruption, is called Lava. Magma changes

Earth's surface when lava solidifies . to lava when it comes out of a vent of
Earth. The temperature ranges from

Most of the other rocks are formed from these 700°C - 1200°C.

igneous rocks or primary rocks. Granite, gabbro, basalt, etc. are the names of few

igneous rocks.

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Weathering of igneous rocks form soil or is rather called black soil which is rich in
minerals and good for growing cotton.

Many of the Hindu temples in
south India are made of granite.
The most prominent example is
Mahabalipuram.

Did you ever play with clay? Clay is made of smooth and fine texture. It is formed
from sedimentary rocks. Rocks break up into very fine small particles due to the
different agents of weathering like ice, water and wind. Then these fine particles
are transferred by the rivers, glaciers or wind to different other areas which are
piled up in layers.

Over a stretch of time, the topmost

layer thrusts pressure on the lower

layers and then they combine to make

the rocks, known as sedimentary
rocks, which are rich in fossils. Fossils

are the remains or impression of a

The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven prehistoric plant or animal which get

Wonders of the Ancient World has an outside cover embedded in rock and get protected

made entirely from limestone. and preserved in petrified form for

many years. With the assistance of carbon dating, it is conceivable to foresee the

age of a fossil. Few samples of sedimentary rocks are: Limestone, sandstone and

shale.

Characteristics Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks

Texture Fine grained and no layering Smooth and layered

Formation Due to volcanic eruptions Weathering of rocks

Fossils No fossils Rich in fossils

Colour Light or dark Great variety of colours

Acid reaction Rarely reacts with acid May react with acid

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"Metamorphosis" implies change of form or structure. Under enormous pressure
and extreme high temperature, the rocks change their forms. These are called
the metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks are the only changed form of
sedimentary rocks or igneous rocks. Because of the warmth and pressure, these
stones go through a change in both their physical and chemical composition. This
procedure of changeover is called metamorphism. Because of this process, the
sandstone gets changed to quartzite and shale into slate.

Parent rock Metamorphosed rock
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Slate
Limestone Marble

THE ROCK CYCLE

Rocks get reused from one form to other. They form a process of change.
Solidification of hot magma forms igneous rocks. These rocks get broken into
small pebbles and stones and again are deposited by different agents of
weathering. The layer by layer accumulation of these sediments makes
sedimentary rocks. The heat and pressure of many years make the igneous and
sedimentary rocks change their form. These are known as metamorphic rocks.
During a long period of time these rocks get buried and again are changed to
magma due to the heat and pressure.

THE ROCK CYCLE

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 Rocks are made of one or more minerals.
 Solid substances which have definite chemical

composition and have a crystalline structure.
 The uppermost layer of fine particles in which the plants grow.
 The remains of plants and animals that get embedded in

rocks.
 The hot material inside the Earth.
 Breaking down of rocks due to the wind, water, ice or

any other agent.

 The interior of the earth is made of three layers: The
crust, the mantle and the core.

 The crust is made of silicon, aluminium and magnesium
(sial and sima).

 The upper mantle is plastic and lower mantel is solid.

 The core is made of nickel and ferrous (ni &fe).

 Rocks are made of more than minerals.

 Minerals are the solid substances which have definite
chemical composition.

 Rocks are of three types: Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic rocks.

 Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma.
They are of two types of Igneous rocks: Intrusive and
extrusive rocks.

 Consolidation of sediments, layer upon layer form
Sedimentary rocks.

 Change of form of sedimentary and igneous rocks to
metamorphic rocks happens due to the high temperature
and pressure.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. The innermost layer that is in the Earth's interior is the

a. Crust b. Mantle c. Core d. Lithosphere

2. Inside the Earth from the outside, the temperature increases at the rate of

a. 1 ° C for every 32 metres b. 11 ° C for every 32 metres

c. 32° C for every 1 metre d. 51 ° C for every 2 metres

3. Basalt is belongs to the category of

a. Igneous rock b. Sedimentary rock

c. Metamorphic rock d. Mineral

4. The metamorphosed rock of sandstone is known as

a. Shale b. Quartzite c. Limestone d. Gabbro

5. The remains of plants and animals are known as

a. Carbon-dating b. Sedimentary rocks

c. Minerals d. Fossils

B. Give the definition of the following in one sentence:

1. Metamorphism, 2. Soil, 3. Fossils, 4. Minerals, 5. Lava

C. What are the differences between:

1. Intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks 2. Igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks

3. Crust and core 4. Rock and mineral

D. Give reasons of:

1. Why the Earth’s core is in molten form?

2. Why in the sedimentary rocks, the fossils are found?

3. Why Igneous rocks are the primary rocks?

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E. Answer the following in brief:
1. Name the three layers of the Earth.
2. Name the two parts of the mantle.
3. How are the rocks made?
F. Answer the following in detail:
1. Describe the interior of the Earth.
2. How can the sedimentary rocks be formed?
3. Define rock cycle.
4. What do you know about the formation of igneous rocks?
G. Activity:
1. What the other planets in the Solar System are made of?
2. Give three similar examples of metamorphic rocks.
3. Collect various rocks. Name them and also mention their category. Now

Keep them in the geography lab of your school.
4. Make a presentation on the "The Rock Cycle" in the class.

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It is almost 4.6 billion years
ago that the Earth was
formed. All through these
years, the Earth has gone
through huge changes. It is
said that the Pangaea broke
apart some 180 million years
ago. Pangaea was then a
supercontinent. It actually
broke to form the present day Pangaea about 200 million years ago, began breaking up. The
continents. In the same way southern portion of Pangaea was Gondwana, and the
Panthalasa, the then single northern portion was Laurasia.
ocean encompassing the Pangaea, broke out and formed the oceans of today.

In 1926, Alfred Wegener spoke about the continental drift
theory. According to him, the present-day continents are
formed because of the breaking up of Pangaea and Panthalasa
was the huge ocean surrounding the Pangaea.

The lithosphere has many vast and few small, unevenly shaped hard plates which
carry the landmasses (continents) and the ocean floor. All through these years,
these plates have always moved apart and will continue to move in the same
manner till date. The Earth's surface has been never stable in nature. These
movements of the plates are responsible for the changes on the surface of the
Earth. There are seven noteworthy tectonic plates - the Pacific Plate, the
Eurasian Plate, the African Plate, the North American Plate, the South American
Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate and the Antarctic Plate. The forces working inside
the Earth that cause the movement and changes on the Earth's surface are called
endogenic forces. The formation of the Earth's surface is also affected by the
external forces which are called exogenic forces.

THE ENDOGENIC FORCES

Different land forms and sinking of the land surface are mainly due to the
movements of the plates. These slow forces are known as diastrophic forces and

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the procedure is called diastrophism, which means twisting.
Mountains are formed from two forces namely 'folding' and 'faulting’. Folding
happens because of the impact or the collisions of the plates. The upfold or the
highest point of the mountain is known as the anticline. The valley formed in the
middle of the mountain or the downfold is known as the syncline. This results in
the ascent of the mountains. A few instances of such mountains are: The
Himalayas in India, the Rockies of North America, the Andes of South America,
and so forth. The other type of development is blaming. At the point when two
plates pull away from one another, the crust gets fractured. In many cases one
part of the land is lifted above another. This is the other form of movement
called faulting. The elevated block of land is known as the horst or block
mountain. Faults can move both horizontally and vertically. This can cause rift
valleys. Rift valley is a valley formed between two mountains because of faulting.
The best example is the rift valley of East Africa.

Folding

Faulting, Cross-section of the East African Rift Valley

Earthquake is the severe sudden movement of the Earth's crust
which may cause shaking of buildings, cracks in the walls and sometimes even
cracks in the crust. They are mainly due to the movement of the plates or
eruption of the volcanoes.

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Some sudden movements inside the Earth cause earthquakes and volcanoes
which can have serious and grievous effect on the Earth's surface.

In 1935 Charles Richter developed the Richter magnitude
scale which helps to measure the intensity of an earthquake.

The source of the earthquakes is from the
deep underneath of the Earth's surface. This
point is called the center or focus. The point
on the ground just vertically over the center is
called the epicenter. Seismic waves are the
waves of energy that travel through the
Earth's layers, originating from the focus.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and
the one who studies seismology is called
seismologists. The earthquakes, enlisted
above 5.0 on the Richter scale, are considered extremely dangerous because
they can cause massive disasters.
The three different types of earthquake waves:
 P Waves or Longitudinal waves
 S Waves or Transverse waves
 L Waves or Surface waves

A CASE STUDY: BHUJ EARTHQUAKE

It was 26 January 2001, and India was celebrating its 52nd Republic Day when
the tremors shook the north-western part of India at 8:46 am. An earthquake
measuring 7.6 on Richter scale hit the area of Bhuj, in Gujarat. The earthquake
killed between 13,805 and 20,023 people (including 18 in the south-eastern
Pakistan), injured another 167,000 and destroyed nearly 400,000 homes. Its
effect was felt till New Delhi, the capital city of India. Even the neighbouring
countries like Pakistan and Afghanistan also felt the effect of this earthquake. But
they were the cities of Gujarat that were affected the most.

We were in our house in the morning. At around 8.50 am, suddenly, the whole
building started shaking. All the people of the building rushed towards the open

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ground but few failed to get out and were
caught under the falling slabs of the
building. We lost many of our friends and
relatives. But a miracle happened - one
person had his cell phone with him and
he called from the debris below and said,
"I am alive. Please, save me". The rescue
workers immediately started the rescue
operation. They saved him and after one hour that guy was rescued alive from
the debris.

MARS INFOTECH TEAM, INDIA
I am a geophysicist doing a seismic survey in the Gulf of Khambhat in North India. We
were on our duty of recording data at the time of the incident. The boat vibrated for
a couple of minutes and the recording instruments went off the scale. All our
thoughts were with the Indian people:
It was obvious immediately to all of us that it was a major earthquake that would
cause widespread damage, destruction and death: John Quirk, India.

The World Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes

VOLCANOES

A sudden ejection of lava, rock fragments, hot vapour, and gas from a mountain
or hill, typically conical, having a crater or vent is termed as a volcano. Volcanoes
are normally seen on the plate margins.

The hot liquefied magma shoots out in the form of lava from a vent or an

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opening on the Earth's surface.

According to history, the volcanic activities are common in
many planets. The word 'volcano' has come from a word
Vulcan', the name of the God of fire, according to Roman
mythology.

There are three types of volcanoes, namely:

i) The Active volcanoes
are those that have erupted recently
or regularly erupt. There are
supposed to be around 50 active
volcanoes as per the current record,
most of which are located along the
Pacific Ring of Fire.

ii) A dormant volcano is an active volcano that is not
presently erupting, but can erupt again. Mount Vesuvius in Italy and
Yellowstone volcano in Yellowstone National Park in the USA are the
instances of dormant volcano.

iii) Extinct volcanoes are volcanoes which the scientists consider
unlikely to erupt again. A volcano which has not erupted in the past 10,000
years is extinct. Zuidwal Volcano in Netherlands and Edinburgh Castle in
Scotland are the examples of extinct volcanoes.

The

Ring of Fire is an area in the ASIA NORTH
basin of the Pacific Ocean AMERICA
where a large number of

earthquakes and volcanic SOUTH
eruptions occur. In a 40,000 AMERICA
km (25,000 mi) horseshoe
shape, it is associated with AUSTRALIA

a nearly continuous series

of oceanic trenches,

volcanic arcs, and volcanic belts and / or plate movements. This ring consists of

452 volcanoes, 75% of which are active volcanoes.

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Almost 10% of the active volcanoes of the world are in Japan. Japan is a place on
the Circum Pacific Volcanic belt. Can you name five main volcanoes in Japan?
Find out the history of the volcanic eruptions in Japan.

EXOGENIC FORCES

Different forces act on the Earth’s surface which wear away the land surface. The
main processes involved behind this are:

i) Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as
well as the artificial materials.

ii) Erosion is the process of eroding of the topmost layer of soil and
other particles from their origin by wind, water, or other natural agents.

These two processes, adding up with the process of deposition, are responsible
for the formation of various landforms.

The fluvial features are formed due to the processes associated with the rivers,
streams and the deposits. Some of the main features are:

i) Waterfall is a cascade of water falling from a height and is formed
when a river or stream flows over a precipice or steep incline. Often the
water falls in steps form rapids.

ii) Valley is a low area of land between hills or mountains, typically with
a river or a
stream, flowing
through it.

iii)
Winding curve or
bend of a river
while entering
into the plain
areas are called
meanders.

iv) Oxbow Lake is a curved lake formed from a horseshoe bend in a
river where the main stream has cut across the narrow end. For that, no
longer flows around the loop of the bend can be found.

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v) When a river overflows its banks, an area of low-lying ground
adjacent to the river is formed mainly of the river sediments and is subjected
to flooding. This is called a Flood Plain.

vi) A levee is an embankment, like a dam, constructed to prevent the
overflowing of rivers.

vii) A river delta is a triangular shaped
landform that forms from the deposition of
sediments carried by a river as the flow
leaves its mouth and enters into an ocean
or a sea in a slow motion which cannot
transport away the supplied sediment.
Here the river divides into many branches,
called the distributaries.

The aeolian features are either the erosive or constructive actions of the wind.

i) Attrition is the process of reducing something's strength or
effectiveness through the sustained attack or the pressure of other particles.

ii) The action or process of deflating or Sand Dunes
being deflated of the rock particles, is called
deflation. As the wind becomes slower and
loses its energy, it starts to drop its load of sand.
Deflation leads to the formation of hills from
sand, deposited by the wind and are called sand
dunes.

iii) Loess is a loosely compacted yellowish-grey deposit of wind-blown
sediment where the extensive deposits occur.

iv) Barchans are a crescent-shaped shifting sand dune, as found in the
deserts of Turkestan.

v) : It is a large, elongated dune lying parallel to the prevailing
wind direction.

The action of sea waves on the sea coast and its rocky structures form the
Coastal features.

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i) A sea cave, also known as a littoral cave, is a type of cave formed
primarily by the wave action of the sea. The primary process involved here is
erosion.

ii) A sea arch is a natural opening eroded out of a cliff face by the
marine processes.

iii) A pillar-like mass of rock, detached by the wave action from a cliff-
lined shore and surrounded by water, is called a stack.

iv) A steep to vertical or overhanging rock slope at the coast, free of soil
is called Sea-cliff.

Sea Caves Sea Arch Stack Sea-cliff

The historical Titanic ship sank forever after it
was hit by an iceberg in the Atlantic Ocean.

Slow-moving rivers of ice are called glaciers. Glacier features are those features
that are formed due to the erosion and the deposition because of the glaciers'
movements.

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i) Glacial deposits are called Moraines.

ii) The cracks that are formed on the upper part of a glacier are called
crevasses.

iii) A half-open steep-sided hollow at the head of a valley or on a
mountainside, formed by glacial erosion is a Cirque.

iv) An iceberg is a large floating mass of ice
which is detached from a glacier or ice sheet and is
carried out to sea.

 The forces working inside the Earth that result in
movements and changes on the Earth's surface are
called endogenic forces. The external forces that act on
the Earth's surface are called exogenic forces.

 The very slow movements of the plates that lead to the
formation of landforms on the Earth’s surface are called
diastrophic forces.

 Sudden and violent movements of the Earth's crust are
called Earthquakes

 Sudden eruption of hot magma and gases from the vent on
the Earth's surface is called a Volcano.

 Active, dormant and extinct are the three types of
Volcanoes.

 Action of rivers, wind, glaciers and sea waves are
responsible for major landforms.

 The forces active beneath the Earth's surface

that lead to the formation of surface features.

 The forces working on the Earth's surface that

form major landforms on the Earth.

 A linear valley formed due to the faulting of two
mountains.

 The origin of an earthquake below the Earth's crust.

 A point on the Earth's surface just vertically above the
focus.

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 Breaking of rocks into very small fragments.
 Process of removal of the top layer of the soil or sediments.
 Features that are formed due to the action of rivers.
 Landform features formed due to wind in sandy area.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. The intensity of the earthquake is measured by the scale, named

a. Weber b. Richter c. Alfred d. Torricelli

2. Mt. Vesuvius is
a. a church b. an active volcano c. an extinct volcano d. a dormant volcano

3. In a river the loops that are formed due to twists and turns are called

a. valleys b. meanders c. delta d. falls

4. The high steep rocky coast which vertically rises above the sea water is

a. sea cave b. sea cliff c. valley d. barchans

5. The cracks that are formed on the upper part of the glacier are known as

a. crevasses b. cirques c. moraines d. icebergs

B. Answer in one-word:

1. By the enlargement of the cavities, the only roof left on the sea coast:
_____________

2. Floating ice hills are named: _____________

3. The process of decomposition of rocks and also of breaking rocks into smaller
particles : _____________

4. From a vent on the Earth's surface, the sudden eruption of magma, ashes and
gases, is know as: _____________

C. Answer the following in brief:

1. Define earthquakes.

2. Define the term "diastrophism"?

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3. What do you mean by the Pacific Ring of Fire?
4. Name some fluvial features.
5. Define volcano.
D.Answer the following in detail:
1. What do you know about the endogenic forces?
2. Discuss different types of volcanoes.
3. Name two exogenic processes that are responsible for the formation of

landforms on the Earth's surface.
4. Describe some aeolian features.
E. Identify the following features:

F. Activity:
1. Give five examples of recent earthquakes that had an intensity of more than

5.0 on the Richter scale.
2. Find out the names of five valleys in India and mark them in the map of India.
3. Make a model of volcanic eruption and show the destructions caused by it.
4. Make a collage and show the fluvial features with the help of newspaper

cuttings, cuttings from different books, self-clicked photographs, etc.

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The Earth is circled by a very thin blanket of air, called the atmosphere.
Atmosphere provides us the air we breathe and at the same time, it protects us
from the harmful effects of the Sun rays. The atmosphere remains intact due to
the gravitational pull of the Earth.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is composed of several 1%
gases in variable quantities, dust particles
and water vapour. Carbon dioxide, 21%
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, etc. 78%
are the primary gases, found in the
atmosphere.

1. Nitrogen, a very important
gas, composes 78% of the total volume
of the atmosphere. This atmospheric nitrogen is converted to different
nitrogen compounds by lightning. It is also helpful for the growth of the
plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria helps plants to absorb nitrogen from the soil.
The plants change them into proteins which in turn get transferred to the
animals, as and when they eat plants. This Nitrogen comes back to the
environment when the denitrifying
bacteria acts on the animal wastes and
the dead bodies of plants and animals.

2. The composition of Oxygen in
the atmosphere is almost 21% of the
atmosphere. It is inhaled by the living
beings to live and is also used for
burning fuels.

3. Carbon dioxide is about

0.03% of the atmosphere. It is always a Plants take the carbon dioxide and turn them
into sugar and oxygen with the help of
very important gas. The plants take in

carbon dioxide to form food during the sunlight. The sugar is then used by the plants

process of photosynthesis. It is also for food, and the oxygen is breathed out into

released while fuels are burning. the atmosphere. This process as a whole is
called photosynthesis.

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4. Found in a very small quantity, Ozone is about 0.00005% of the total
volume of the atmosphere. It is an active and capable absorber of ultraviolet
radiation which is extremely harmful to human beings on the excessive
exposure to it.

The layer of ozone in the stratosphere is depleting.
Scientists have discovered a hole in this layer. In every
year, 16th September is celebrated as the World Ozone
Day.

5. Water vapour forms clouds, which results in precipitation. It is
like a spectrum in the sky and beautifies our atmosphere by giving various
colours to the sky and also by forming a rainbow.

Few other gases found in the atmosphere are: Argon, neon, helium, xenon,
methane, krypton, etc.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere of the Earth contains zones or layers arranged like circular
shells, based on the height and temperature variety. These zones do not have
characterized limits yet they have various attributes.

The word 'troposphere' was first suggested by Teisserene
de Bort. The word 'troposphere' means region of mixing.

1. It is the most vital layer of the atmosphere
which is actually the lowermost part of the
atmosphere.

2. The troposphere is about 8 km high at the
poles and 18 km at the equator.

3. Various sorts of gases, dust particles and water Atmospheric Layers
vapour are available in this layer. Different
climatic features for example, haze, cloud,
precipitation, rainstorm, lightning, and so on,
happen in this layer.

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4. In this layer, the temperature falls with altitude at the rate of 1 °C for each
165 m. This is known as the normal lapse rate. There is a sudden change in
the lapse rate at a height of around 14 km. This layer is also known as
tropopause, which is the upper boundary of the troposphere.

5. It consists about 90 per cent of the air in the atmosphere.

1. Stratosphere is the layer above the tropopause.. It extends up to almost 50
km.

2. The lower portion of the stratosphere is isothermal, where there is no change
in the temperature with height but the upper part is characterized by gradual
increase in the temperature.

3. This is a cloud free layer and is also free from other weather phenomena. It is
the ideal zone for the flying of jet planes.

4. Ozonosphere: Concentration of ozone ranging from 15-35 kilometres in this
part of the zone makes it call the ozonosphere. Ozone also absorbs the
dangerous and harmful ultraviolet radiations of the Sun.

5. Stratopause is the upper boundary of the stratosphere.

1. Mesosphere extends from about 50 km to 80 km above the surface of the
Earth.

2. The temperature decreases with height in this sphere and so it is the coldest
layer as it doesn't absorb much of the heat of the Sun. So, its temperature
can drop to -90°C.

3. Meteors that enter the atmosphere usually get burned up into the
mesosphere.

1. The temperature in this layer rises very fast with increasing height.
Ionosphere is a part of this layer.

2. The ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles called ions. Ions
reflect radio waves back to the Earth's surface. This layer helps in the working
of wireless communication.

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1. Exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
2. It lies within 400 km - 1000 km.
3. Hydrogen and helium are the dominating gases in this zone.
4. This layer gradually merges with the outer space and it lacks oxygen.

As the air is very thin in the exosphere, a person or a spacecraft does
not feel the extreme heat there, but the temperature in the
exosphere can reach up to 1,650°C.

 A form of oxygen.
 Fall of temperature with increase in altitude.

 Atmosphere is the blanket of air surrounding the Earth.
 Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ozone

are the important gases present in the air.
 The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere.
 Ozone layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet is present in

the stratosphere.
 The ionosphere has full of electrically charged ions which

reflect back the radio waves, transmitted from the Earth.

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TEST YOURSELF

A. Tick the correct answer:

1. In the atmosphere the main gas is

a. Oxygen b. Nitrogen c. Hydrogen d. Carbon dioxide

2. The layer where cloud can not be found is
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere c. Ionosphere d. Exosphere

B. Fill in the blanks:

1. In the atmosphere, the most important layer is the _____________.
2. We are protected by _____________ from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the

Sun.
3. The atmosphere is held by _____________ to the Earth's surface.
4. In the atmosphere, the outermost layer is _____________.
5. The two gases, _____________ and _____________ make the bulk of the

atmosphere.

C. Answer the following in brief:

1. Define atmosphere.
2. In which layer of the atmosphere, the weather phenomena take place?
3. How the ionosphere is useful?
4. What do you mean by normal lapse rate?

D. Answer the following in detail:

1. Discuss about the structure of the atmosphere.
2. What is the significance of the atmosphere to us?

E. Activity:

1. Light a candle and take a glass. Invert the glass. Now keep the inverted glass
on the candle. You will see that the candle gets extinguished. Give the reason
of this and make a picture of this experiment.

2. Mention five points on the significance of the atmosphere after studying the
composition and the structure of the atmosphere.

3. What is global warming?

4. Write a brief essay on 'Air Pollution'.

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It's raining today. The climate report says that the sky will remain cloudy and
there will be almost no sunlight. 24°C is the maximum temperature and the
minimum is 15°C.

It is a condition of atmosphere at any specific spot at any certain time.
It indicates short-time changes of the climate on the basis of temperature,
pressure, wind, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. Climate is most
variable in nature and changes every day. It is a study done of a small area.

It is an average state of weather of a vast area through a long period of
time, say around 25 or 30 years. Climatology is the study of climate. Meteorology
is the study of weather. The one who studies and is an expert on meteorology is
called a meteorologist.

Temperature means the

level of hotness or coldness of an item.

The instrument used to measure and find

out the temperature is known as a

thermometer. Fahrenheit (°F) and Thermometer
Celsius (°C) are the two units of

measurement of temperature. The main source of heat for the Earth and its

atmosphere is the Sun. A continuous exchange of heat is going on between the

Earth and its atmosphere. Radiation, conduction, convection and advection are

the four main procedures by which heat energy is transmitted.

The heat of the Sun coming on the Earth's surface is called insolation
(coming of the sun powered radiation). These are really very short waves. After
the surface of the Earth gets completely heated, it discharges the heat to the
environment or to the atmosphere. This is known as the terrestrial radiation
which is received as the long waves.

Induction is the transfer of heat due to the contact with a warmer

body.

When the air comes in contact with the hot Earth's surface, it
becomes lighter and goes up. This process of transfer of heat is called
convection.

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Advection is the transfer of heat as a result of the movement of

wind.

HEAT ZONES

Three heat zones can be marked on the basis of the amount of heat received by
the Earth's surface:

'Torrid' means hot
and this zone lies between the
Tropic of Cancer (231/2° North)
and Tropic of Capricorn (231/2°
South). The Sun rays fall vertically
on this zone throughout the year
and due to this, it always remains
hot and is the hottest part of the
Earth.

The temperate

zone is between the latitude Heat Zones
Tropic of Cancer (231/2° North) and

the Arctic Circle (661/2°N) and again between the Tropic of Capricorn 231/2°S)

and the Antarctic Circle (661/2°S). As this zone receives less heat from the sun

compared to the Torrid Zone, the temperature here is always mild.

Between the Arctic Circle to the North Pole and the Antarctic Circle
to the South Pole, lies the frigid zone. Since the Sun rays fall here slanting and
take much longer time to reach the poles, this zone is the coldest part of the
Earth

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE TEMPERATURE OF A PLACE

The temperature distribution in the atmosphere depends upon different factors:

i) As already discussed, temperature is high in the tropics and is
always low at the poles. This is due to the fact that the rays of the Sun fall
vertically on the equator and they get inclined towards the poles. The heat of
the Sun gets reduced at the poles as the sun rays cover longer distance and
takes much longer time to reach the poles.

ii) As height increases, temperature decreases. The temperature falls
at the rate of 1°C per 165 m as we go up. That is why we go to a hill station in
summer holidays.

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