BMOS5103 Module

132  TOPIC 5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAMMES

Ć Workers shall not remain on or in the peak/ridge any longer than
necessary to safely complete the task.

(c) Roof Sheathing Operations
Workers typically install roof sheathing after all trusses/rafters and
any permanent truss bracing is in place. Roof structure are unstable
until some sheathing is installed, so workers installing roof sheathing
cannot be protected from fall hazards by conventional fall protection
systems until it is determined that the roofing system can be used as
an anchorage point. At the point, employees shall be protected by a
personal fall arrest system.

Trusses/rafters are subject to collapse if a worker falls while attached
to a single truss with a belt/harness. Nets could also cause collapse,
and there is no place to attach guardrails.

All workers will ensure that they have secure footing before they
attempt to walk on the sheathing, including cleaning shoes/booths of
mud or other slip hazards.

To minimise the time workers must be exposed to a fall hazard, materials
will be staged to allow for the quickest installation of sheathing.

(Name of Company) shall take the following steps to protect workers
who are exposed to fall hazards while installing roof sheathing:

Ć Once roof sheathing installation begins, workers not involved in
that activity shall not stand or walk below or adjacent to the roof
opening or exterior walls in any area where they could be struck
by falling objects

Ć The competent person shall determine the limits of this area,
which shall be clearly communicated to workers prior to
placement of the first piece of roof sheathing

Ć The competent person may order work on the roof to be suspended
for brief periods as necessary to allow other workers to pass through
such area when those would not create a greater hazard

Ć Only qualified workers shall install roof sheathing

Ć The bottom row of roof sheathing may be installed by workers
standing in truss webs

Ć After the bottom row of roof sheathing is installed, a slide guard
extending the width of the roof shall be securely attached to the
roof. Slide guards are to be constructed of no less than nominal 4‰
height capable of limiting the uncontrolled slide of workers.

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TOPIC 5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAMMES  133

Workers should install the slide guard while standing in truss
webs in leaning over the sheathing

Ć Additional rows of roof sheathing may be installed by workers
positioned on previously installed rows of sheathing. A slide
guard can be used to assist workers in retaining their footing
during successive sheathing operations and

Ć Additional slide guard shall be securely attached to the roof at
intervals not to exceed 13 feet as successive rows of sheathing are
installed. For roofs with pitches in excess of 9-in-12, slide guards
will be installed at four-foot intervals

Ć When wet weather (rain, or sleet) are present, roof sheathing
operations shall be suspended unless safe footing can be assured
for those workers installing sheathing.

Ć When strong winds (above 40 miles per hour) are present, roof
sheathing operations are to be suspended unless wind breakers
are erected. Installation of Floor Joists and Sheathing during the
installation of floor sheathing/joist (leading edge construction) the
following steps shall be taken to protect workers

Ć Only the following trained workers will be allowed to install floor
joists or sheathing

Ć Materials for the operations shall be conveniently staged to allow
for easy access to workers

Ć The first floor joists or trusses will be rolled into position and
secured either from the ground, ladders or sawhorse scaffolds

Ć Each successive floor joist or truss will be rolled into place and
secured from a platform created from a sheet of plywood laid over
the previously secured floor joists or trusses

Ć Except for the first row of sheathing which will be installed from
ladders or the ground, workers shall work from the established
deck and

Ć Any workers not assisting in the leading edge construction while
leading edges still exist (example: cutting the decking for the
installers) shall not be permitted within six feet of the leading edge
under construction.

(d) Erection of Exterior Walls
During the construction and erection of exterior walls, employers
shall take the following steps to protect workers

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134  TOPIC 5 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAMMES

Ć Only the following trained workers will be allowed to erect
exterior walls

Ć A painted line six feet from the perimeter will be clearly marked
prior to any wall erection activities to ward of the approaching
unprotected edge

Ć Materials for operations shall be conveniently staged to minimised
fall hazards and

Ć Workers constructing exterior walls shall complete as much
cutting of materials and other preparation as possible away from
the edge of the deck

3. Enforcement
Constant awareness of and respect for fall hazards, and compliance with all
safety rules are considered conditions of employment. The crew supervisor or
foreman, as well as individuals in the Safety and Personnel department,
reserve the right to issue disciplinary warnings to employees, up to and
including termination, for failure to follow the guidelines of this programme.

4. Accident Investigations
All accidents that result in injury to workers, regardless of their nature,
shall be investigated and reported. It is an integral part of any safety
programmes that documentation take place as soon as possible so that the
cause and means of prevention can be identified to prevent a reoccurrence.
In the event that an employee falls or there is some other related, serious
incident occurring, this plan shall be reviewed to determine if additional
practices, procedures, or training need to be implemented to prevent
similar types of falls or incidents from occurring.

5. Change to Plan
Any change to the plan will be approved by (Name of the qualified person).
This plan shall be reviewed by a qualified person as the job progresses to
determine if additional practices, procedures or training needs to be
implemented by the competent person to improve or provide additional fall
protection. Workers shall be notified and trained, if necessary, in the new
procedures. A copy of this plan and all approved changes shall be
maintained at the jobsite.

Reference:
Work Safe Victoria. (2016, October 10). Worker rights and responsibilities.

Retrieved from Work Safe Victoria: http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/laws-
and-regulations/worker-rights-and-responsibilities

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic  Managing

6 Stress at Work

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of stress at workplace;
2. Explain the common source of work stress;
3. Explain the factors of stress at work place;
4. Distinguish between the stress models; and
5. Examine the ways job stress can be reduced.

 INTRODUCTION

Workplace stress is a common phenomenon. However, excessive stress can
interfere with the productivity and even worse, it could impact the physical and
emotional health of the worker. The worker needs to deal with the stress to be
productive and successful in his job. Managing workplace stress does not require
making huge decisions. It is more about focusing on the one thing that is always
within your control, you.

Anybody who has ever held a job has felt the pressure of work-related stress at
some point. Even if you love your job, it still can have stressful elements. Initially,
you may experience the burden to meet a deadline or to achieve a demanding
obligation. However, when work stress becomes too overwhelming, it can be
devastating and destructive to both physical and emotional health.

It is important to tackle the causes of stress in the workplace as stress at work can
lead to problems for the individual, working relationships and the overall
working environment. These issues may include lowered self-esteem and poor

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136  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

concentration skills for the employee. The employer may suffer from increasing
customer complaints, staff turnover and days lost to sickness.

A combination of organisational change and stress management is a productive
approach to preventing stress at work. The prevention and management of
workplace stress require organisational level interventions because it is the
organisation that creates the stress. Organisational interventions can be of many
types, ranging from structural such as staffing levels, work schedules, physical
environment to psychological, such as social support, control over work, and
staff participation in the decision-making process.

In this topic, we will look into managing stress at work. We will discuss the
concept of stress at workplace as well as identifying the common source of work
stress. Then, we will identify the different factors that contribute to stress at work
and consequently, distinguish stress models. Finally, we will discuss on how to
at least reduce work stress.

ACTIVITY 6.1

Discuss your experiences in dealing with stress management at your
workplace.

SELF-CHECK 6.1

1. Why is it important to prevent work-related-stress in an
organisation?

2. What are the two elements when combined will produce affective
approach in preventing stress at work?

6.1 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS AT THE
WORKPLACE

There are many conditions that constitute a healthy job. First and foremost, the
pressures on employees must be appropriate in relation to their abilities and
resources. Then employees must have some control over their work. The support
that they receive from other people is also really important to having a healthy
job. A healthy working environment is not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and social well-being

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TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK  137

(WHO, 1986). A healthy working environment is one in which there is not only
an absence of harmful conditions but an abundance of health-promoting ones.

A healthy work environment is an environment where staff have made health
and health promotion a priority and as part of their working lives. In order to
make this happen, a continuous assessment of risks to health must be included.
Another important step is the provision of appropriate information and training
on health issues.

6.1.1 Definition of Stress

Work related stress is common and is not confined to particular sectors, jobs or
industries. Stress is a state, not an illness. Stress can hit anyone at any level of the
business. However, if stress becomes too extreme and lengthy without proper
treatment then mental and physical illness may develop. Work related stress is
defined as the adverse reaction people might have to extreme pressures or other
types of demand placed on them at work.

It is always good to have a well-designed, organised and managed work but
when insufficient attention to job design, work organisation and management
has taken place, it can result in work-related stress. Work related stress starts to
develop when a person is incapable of handling with the demands being placed
on that person. Work-related stress can be a significant cause of illness and is
known to be linked with high levels of sickness resulting in high absenteeism,
staff turnover and other issues such as more job-related errors. There is a
difference between pressure and stress (see Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1: Difference between pressure and stress

6.1.2 What is Work-related Stress?

People may experience work-related stress when they are entrusted with tasks
which do not match with their knowledge, experience, abilities or skills. These
tasks will challenge their ability to handle and deliver the tasks successfully. If
they are unable to cope with the challenge they will then feel the stress at work.
Stress can also occur in a variety of work circumstances such as when employees

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138  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

feel they have little support from supervisors and colleagues. Sometimes, they
feel stressed when they have minimal control over their work processes.
However, employees sometimes confuse between work challenge and stress.
Therefore, some of the employees might use it to justify bad management
practice.
The demands of the contemporary positive work environment make the pressure
at the workplace unavoidable. On the good side, when the pressure is perceived as
acceptable by an individual, the pressure may even keep workers alert, motivated,
able to work and learn, depending on the available resources and personal
characteristics. However, when that pressure becomes excessive or otherwise
unmanageable it leads to stress. Stress can damage an employees' health and the
business performance. Figure 6.2 depicts a model of stress at work.

Figure 6.2: A model of stress at work
Source: Cooper& Marshall (1976)

Another cause for work-related stress is poor work organisation. This includes
poor job design and work systems as well as the way we manage them. Lack of
control over work processes, poor management, unsatisfactory working
conditions, and lack of support from colleagues and supervisors all contribute to
stress.

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TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK  139

SELF-CHECK 6.2

Based on the model of stress at work by Cooper & Marshall (1976),
what are the sources of stress at work?

6.1.3 What is Stress-related Hazard at Work?

Stress related hazards at work can be divided into two which are (see Figure 6.3):

Figure 6.3: Types of stress related to hazards
Now, let's look into more detail on both types of stress related to hazard.
(a) Work content of stress related hazards includes job content such as

monotony, under-stimulation, meaningless of tasks and lack of variety,
among others.
Other examples are: Too much or too little workload; work under pressure
and unrealistic work pace; strict or inflexible working hours; badly
designed shift systems that are long and unpredictable. Lack of
participation in decision-making, lack of control over work processes, pace,
hours, methods, and the work environment are some more examples.
(b) Work context includes job insecurity, lack of promotion opportunities,
under- or over-promotion, work of „low social value‰, piece rate payment
schemes, unclear or unfair performance evaluation systems, being over- or
under-skilled for a job. Unclear or conflicting role in the organisation is
another example.
Other examples include: Depraved interpersonal relationships such as
inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupportive supervision; poor relationships
with colleagues; bullying/harassment and violence; isolated or solitary

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140  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

work; absence of good organisational culture such as poor communication,
poor leadership, lack of behavioural rule, lack of clarity about
organisational objectives, structures and strategies; inequality work-life
balance such as conflicting demands of work and home, lack of support for
domestic problems at work, lack of support for work problems at home,
lack of organisational rules and policies to support work-life balance.

SELF-CHECK 6.3

Differentiate between the work content and work context concepts in
stress related hazard at work.

6.1.4 Common Sources of Work Stress

There are certain factors that come together with work-related stress. Some of
those common workplace stressors are (see Figure 6.4):

Figure 6.4: Common workplace stressors

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6.1.5 Balancing Demand and Pressure with Skills and
Knowledge

A person may experience stress when they perceive that their work demands are
greater than their capability to cope. Coping means balancing the demands and
pressures of the job requirements placed on you with your capabilities such as
skills and knowledge. For example, if a member of your team is given a tight
deadline on a project they feel they have neither the skills nor ability to do well
in, they may begin to feel undue pressure which could result in work-related
stress.
Stress can also result from having too few demands, as people will become
bored, feel undervalued and lack recognition. They may feel they have little or no
say over the work they do or how they do it and this may cause them stress.

6.1.6 Stress Factors

Stress affects people in different ways and because of that what one person finds
stressful can be normal to another. People will decide in each new situation what
the challenge is and whether they have the resources to cope. If they decide that
they do not have the resources, they will begin to feel stressed. How they
appraise the situation will depend on various stress factors (see Figure 6.5):

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142  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

Figure 6.5: Various stress factors
Source: Occupational Health & Safety Environment (2016)
A manager has a duty to ensure that the workload given does not make the team
stressed and become ill. A good and alert manager will be able to spot the signs
of stress in the team and knows what to do to reduce the stress.

ACTIVITY 6.2

Discuss what the typical stress factors at your work place are.

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6.1.7 Causes of Stress

There are various causes that could lead to work-related stress. The main causes
that could lead to work-related stress if they are not managed properly are (see
Figure 6.6):

Figure 6.6: Main causes that could lead to work-related stress
It is, therefore, imperative to understand each of the factors and how those
factors are related to each other. Understanding this relationship can influence
the amount of stress an individual may experience:
(a) A person can reduce the impact of high demands if they have high control

over their work;
(b) The impact of high demands and low control can be reduced by having

high levels of support, either from colleagues or from you as a manager;
(c) Relationships can be one of the biggest sources of stress, especially where

there are problems like bullying and harassment;
(d) Problems with role are probably the easier problems to solve; and
(e) Change does not have to be at an organisational level to have an impact on

individuals or teams, for example, changes in team members, line managers
or the type of work or technology used by the team can be just as stressful.

ACTIVITY 6.3

Discuss what are the biggest causes of stress that you have experienced
in your work environment.

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144  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

SELF-CHECK 6.4

1. What are the factors that cause stress at the workplace?
2. Explain how these factors relate to each other in causing the stress

at the work place.

6.2 THE OCCUPATIONAL STRESS MODEL

There are several psychological theories and models that address occupational
stress because stress results from the complex interaction between large systems
of interrelated variables. These different models of workplace stress are
important in guiding research and practice and these models vary in popularity
and empirical support.
A list of key models for the occupational stress model will be outlined below;
including influential models from the past and present, as well as some of the
most up-to-date models (see Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7: Key models for the occupational stress model

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(a) Social Research Model
(i) Objective environment ă anything in the employee's work
environment.
(ii) Psychological environment ă employee's perception of the objective
environment.
(iii) Response ă immediate physical, behavioural and emotional responses
of an employee after appraisal.
(iv) Mental and physical health and disease ă depends on the duration
and severity of the immediate response, enduring properties of a
person and interpersonal relations.

(b) Beehr and Newman's Facet Model

(i) Occupational stress process can be examined in a number of "facets".
Facets represent categories of variables to be studied:
 Personal facet ă stable characteristics that employees bring them to
the workplace (age, gender, personality);
 Environmental facet ă stimuli in the work environment that
employees must confront (work characteristics, level of
complexity, nature of job-related interpersonal relations); and
 Process facet ă employees appraise the work environment and
decide whether it is harmful.

(ii) If the employee perceives stressors after appraisal, there may be
several consequences:
 Human consequences facet in which employees may respond to
stressors such as health problems and substances abuse;
 Organisational consequences facet where employee responses that
have implications primary for organisational functioning such as
absenteeism and even turnover; and
 Adaptive response facet which efforts on the part of individuals
and organisational to respond adaptively to stressors.

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146  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

(c) Control Model

(i) The most stressful situations in the workplace are those in which
employees face heavy job demand but at the same time are given little
control over their work.

(ii) This model of stress-strain relationship is the most common approach
in the field of stress and its effects on both psychological and physical
health. It is defined as the interaction between job demands and
individualÊs potential control over his task and his conduct during the
working day.

(d) Environment Fit Model î

(i) An employee perceives the work environment stressful when there is
a lack of fit.

(ii) This model suggests that the match between a person and their work
environment is key in influencing their health. It is crucial that
employeesÊ attitudes, skills, abilities and resources match the
demands of their job. Furthermore, work environments should meet
workersÊ needs, knowledge, and skills potential. Therefore, any lack
of fit in either of these domains can cause problems, and the greater
the gap or misfit between the person and their environment, the
greater the strain these strains can relate to health-related issues,
lower productivity, and other work problems.

(e) Reward Imbalance î

(i) It is stressful in the workplace when employee's efforts are out of
proportion with the rewards that the job provides.

(ii) This model focuses on the reciprocal relationship between efforts and
rewards at work. This model claims that work characterised by both
high efforts but low rewards represents a deficit which could elicit
negative emotions in exposed employees. This model also concerns
with individual differences in the experience of effort-reward
imbalance. The model assumed that employees characterised by a
motivational pattern of excessive job-related commitment will
respond with more strain reactions to an effort-reward imbalance, in
comparison with less overcommitted people.

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TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK  147

SELF-CHECK 6.5

1. Discuss the various occupational stress models.

2. Analyse which of the stress models better explain your working
environment.

6.3 JOB STRESS AND WORK RELATED
ACCIDENTS, UNSAFE ACTS, SAFETY
BEHAVIOUR AND INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES

People who are experiencing stress may experience changes in their
psychological and behavioural aspects. These changes and the signs could be
identified easily as usually there are clear indicators that people are experiencing
stress at work. It is good if these signs could be identified at the early stage as the
actions to rectify the problem could be taken before the problems get out of hand.
Early detection also is very important for the respective parties responsible for
occupational safety and health to reduce or even eliminate the causes.

It is really important that we are able to spot the psychological and the
behavioural changes of our team members or our colleagues at work. However,
most of the time, the changes is only noticeable to the affected person with the
stress at work. Then, you need to be alert of the changes in your feeling or in
your behaviour. If you notice the changes, it is important that you identify the
issue as soon as possible, accept that you have issues and then find the solution
of the issues. The solution might be that you need to raise the matter with your
supervisor or talk to an occupational health professional or even your own
doctor.

Stress and stress management are directly related to personal well-being and
specifically to workplace well-being. Employers should make available a stress-
free work environment, recognise where stress is becoming a problem for staff,
and take action to reduce stress. Stress in the workplace reduces productivity,
increases management pressures, and makes people ill in many ways, evidence
of which is still increasing. Workplace stress affects the performance of the brain,
including functions of work performance; memory, concentration, and learning.

Stress at work also provides a serious risk of litigation for all employers and
organisations, carrying significant liabilities for damages, bad publicity and loss

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148  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

of reputation. Dealing with stress-related claims also consumes vast amounts of
management time. So, there are clearly strong economic and financial reasons for
organisations to manage and reduce stress at work, aside from the obvious
humanitarian and ethical considerations. If you are suffering from stress yourself
the stress management guidelines here are just as relevant.

6.3.1 Signs of Stress in Individuals

Anybody suffering from some of the following symptoms (see Figure 6.8) might
be an indication that they are feeling the effects of stress. It is advisable that these
people talk to their supervisor or line manager or the Human Resources
Department if they find that their work or aspects of their work make these
symptoms worse. It may be that some action taken at an early stage will ease the
stress and reduce or stop the symptoms.

Figure 6.8: Symptoms of stress

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Now, we will look at the descriptions of each symptom.
(a) Emotional symptoms

(i) Depressive or negative feeling;
(ii) Disappointment with yourself;
(iii) Increased emotional reactions;
(iv) Loneliness or withdrawn;
(v) Loss of motivation, commitment and confidence; and
(vi) Mood swings.
(b) Mental
(i) Confusion and indecision;
(ii) Unable to concentrate; and
(iii) Poor memory.
(c) Changes from your normal behaviour
(i) Changes in eating habits;
(ii) Increased smoking, drinking or drug taking;
(iii) Mood swings effecting your behaviour;
(iv) Changes in sleep patterns;
(v) Twitchy, nervous behaviour; and
(vi) Changes in attendance routine.
(d) Signs of stress in a group
(i) Disputes and disaffection within the group;
(ii) Increase in staff turnover;
(iii) Increase in complaints and grievances;
(iv) Increase sickness absence;
(v) Increase reports of stress;

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150  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

(vi) Difficulty in attracting new staff;
(vii) Poor performance; and
(viii) Increase in customer complaints.

If anyone of your team members or your subordinates displays the stress
symptoms, do not diagnose the stress yourself. Recommend them to see their
doctors. It is very helpful if you could recognise that their behaviours have
changed and are aware that something is wrong and take prompt action. Take
care not to over react to small changes in behaviour and if these behavioural
changes continue for a longer period then use these symptoms as clues to take
action.

ACTIVITY 6.4

Check whether you have the stress symptoms based on the indicators
specified in this video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82LAV
1kCYF0

SELF-CHECK 6.6

Analyse how each of the stress symptom affects the performance of the
staff.

6.4 MANAGING STRESS

Work-related stress usually doesn't just disappear when you are done working
for the day. When stress continues, it can affect your health and well-being. In the
short term, a stressful work environment can contribute to problems such as
headaches, stomach-aches, sleep disturbances, short temper and difficulty in
concentrating. However, over a longer term, chronic stress can result in anxiety,
insomnia, high blood pressure and a weakened immune system. Chronic stress
can also contribute to health conditions such as depression, obesity and heart
disease. In the worst case, people who experience excessive stress often deal with
it in harmful ways such as overeating, eating unhealthy foods, smoking or
abusing drugs and alcohol.

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Stress can have an impact on the overall health. Our bodies are designed, pre-
programmed with a set of automatic responses to deal with stress. This system is
very effective for the short-term responses we need when faced with an
immediate danger. Experiencing stress for long periods of time will activate this
system, but it doesn't get the chance to "turn off" because our bodies deal with all
types of stress in the same way. Our bodyÊs pre-programmed response to stress
has been called the "Generalised Stress Response" and according to Canadian
Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, those responses include:
(a) Increased blood pressure;
(b) Increased metabolism (e.g., faster heartbeat, faster respiration);
(c) Decrease in protein synthesis, intestinal movement (digestion), immune

and allergic response systems;
(d) Increased cholesterol and fatty acids in blood for energy production

systems;
(e) Localised inflammation (redness, swelling, heat and pain);
(f) Faster blood clotting;
(g) Increased production of blood sugar for energy; and
(h) Increased stomach acids.

Stress can contribute to accidents/injuries by causing people to:
(a) Sleep badly;
(b) Over-medicate themselves and/or drink excessively;
(c) Feel depressed;
(d) Feel anxious, jittery and nervous; and
(e) Feel angry and reckless (often due to a sense of unfairness or injustice).

When people engage in these behaviours or are in these emotional states, they
are more likely to:
(a) Become momentarily but dangerously distracted;
(b) Make errors in judgment;
(c) Put their bodies under physical stress, increasing the potential for strains

and sprains; and
(d) Fail in normal activities that require hand-eye or foot-eye coordination.

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152  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

Stress can also lead to accidents or injuries directly by not giving the person the
control necessary to stop the threat to their physical well-being.

6.4.1 Taking Steps to Manage Stress

There are a variety of steps you can take to reduce both your overall stress levels
and the stress you find on the job and in the workplace. The American
Psychology Association (APA) has detailed out several steps you can use to
reduce the stress level. Those steps include (see Figure 6.9):

 

Figure 6.9: Steps to reduce the stress level
Source: American Psychology Association (2016)

Let's discuss each step in detail.

(a) Track your stressors
You need to keep a journal for a week or two to identify which situations
create the most stress and how you respond to them. What you need to
record are your thoughts, feelings and information about the environment,
including the people and circumstances involved, the physical setting and
how you reacted.

(b) Develop healthy responses
Do not attempt to fight stress with fast food or alcohol. Try your best to
make healthy choices when you feel the tension rise. Exercise is a great
stress-buster but any form of physical activity is beneficial. Also, make time
for your hobbies and favourite activities. Make sure to set aside time for the
things that bring you pleasure. Getting enough good-quality sleep is also
important for effective stress management. Build healthy sleep habits by
limiting your caffeine intake late in the day and minimising stimulating
activities, such as computer and television use, at night.

(c) Establish boundaries
With the availability of technology and information of the digital world
today, you are expected to be available 24 hours a day. However, you need
to establish some work-life boundaries for yourself in order to control the
work related stress. That might mean for you to make a rule, for example,
not to check email from home in the evening, or not answering the phone

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TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK  153

during dinner. Although people have different preferences when it comes
to how much they blend their work and home life, creating some clear
boundaries between these realms can reduce the potential for work-life
conflict and the stress that goes with it.

(d) Take time to recharge
Our body needs to be refreshed from time to time to avoid the negative
effects of chronic stress and burnout. We need time to replenish and return
to our pre-stress level of functioning. This recovery process requires you to
switch off from work by having periods of time where you are not engaged
or thinking about work-related activities. It is critical that you disconnect
from time to time, in a way that fits your needs and preferences. When
possible, take time off to relax and unwind, so that you come back to work
feeling reinvigorated and ready to perform at your best. When you are not
able to take time off, get a quick boost by turning off your smartphone and
focusing your attention on non-work activities for a while.

(e) Learn how to relax
It is good if you could identify knee jerk habits and negative attitudes that
add to the stress you experience at work. It would be of great benefit if you
could learn techniques such as meditation and deep breathing exercises and
observe present experiences and thoughts without judging them to help
melt away stress. Start by taking a few minutes each day to focus on a
simple activity like breathing, walking or enjoying a meal. The skill of being
able to focus purposefully on a single activity without distraction will get
stronger with practice and you will find that you can apply it to many
different aspects of your life.

(f) Talk to your supervisor
The employer has an incentive to create a work environment that promotes
employee well-being because healthy employees are typically more
productive. Start having an open conversation with your supervisor with
the intention to come up with an effective plan for managing the stressors
you have identified. The plan may be designed partly to help you improve
your skills in areas such as time management, identifying employer-
sponsored wellness resources you can tap into, clarifying what is expected
of you, getting necessary resources or support from colleagues, enriching
your job to include more challenging or meaningful tasks or making
changes to your physical workspace to make it more comfortable and
reduce strain. Learn better communication skills to ease and improve your
relationships with management and co-workers so that you can perform at
your best on the job.

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154  TOPIC 6 MANAGING STRESS AT WORK

(g) Get some support
It is not wrong to accept help from trusted friends and family members to
improve your ability to manage stress. Your employer normally has stress
management resources available through employee assistance programme,
including online information, available counselling and referral to mental
health professionals. If you continue to feel overwhelmed by work stress,
you may want to talk to a psychologist, who can help you better manage
stress and change unhealthy behaviour. You need to take the responsibility
yourself to improve your physical and emotional well-being.

6.4.2 Preventing Job Stress from Manager’s Perspective

A manager can bring in an objective outsider such as a consultant, to suggest a
fresh approach if the manager feels that employees are experiencing unhealthy
levels of stress. However, there are many ways managers can prevent job stress
in the first place. Organisational change and stress management is a good
combination that is often the most effective approach. Among the many different
techniques, managers can use to effectively prevent employee stress is the
awareness of the stressful elements of the workplace and the necessary
intervention needed to mitigate any stress that does arise.
Specifically, organisations can prevent employee stress in the following ways (see
Figure 6.10):
 

 
Figure 6.10: Ways organisations can prevent employee stress

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Now, let us discuss each way.

(a) Intentional Job Design

(i) Design jobs that provide meaning and stimulation for workers as well
as opportunities for them to use their skills;

(ii) Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and
responsibilities outside the job;

(iii) Consider flexible schedules such as organisation to allow
telecommuting to reduce the pressure of being a certain place at a
certain time to have better balance of their personal lives;

(iv) Monitor each employee's workload to ensure it is in line with their
capabilities and resources; and

(v) Stress due to the introduction of new technology can be greatly
reduced by training of the employees in the new technology so that
they are comfortable and can easily adjust to the new machines and
work procedures.

(b) Clear and Open Communication

(i) Each employee should have stress awareness and promote an open
dialogue;

(ii) Avoid ambiguity at all costs by clearly defining workers' roles and
responsibilities;

(iii) Improve communication skills with specific in work related
communication, interpersonal skills and written communication; and

(iv) Reduce uncertainty about career development and future
employment prospects.

(c) Positive Workplace Culture

(i) Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers;

(ii) Watch for signs of dissatisfaction or bullying and work to combat
workplace discrimination;

(iii) Develop good rapport with employees and subordinates, lead by
example, have good and clear communication with them and always
explain clearly your decisions; and

(iv) Create balance with fun, humour and compassion with your co-
workers but intermingle with strong work ethics to gain respect.

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(d) Employee Accountability
(i) Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions
that affect their jobs; and
(ii) Introduce a participative leadership style and involve as many
subordinates as possible in resolving stress-producing problems.

(e) Conducive Working Atmosphere
(i) Organisations need to provide for example good lighting, ventilation,
washroom facilities, restrooms, first aid, canteen to ensure hygienic
and safe working environment;
(ii) Try not to work long hours and ask whether flexible working hours
are available;
(iii) Set realistic goals and targets which are achievable in the given time
frame with optimum efforts;
(iv) Make an effort to move closer to workplace or find work near to
residence; and
(v) Allocation of shifts to employees making sure that all employees are
awarded shifts in rotations to avoid boredom in work timings and
conditions.

ACTIVITY 6.5

Discuss with your coursemates how each of you handles stress.

SELF-CHECK 6.7

1 What are the steps to manage stress?
2. What actions that could be done by managers in order to prevent

job stress at the workplace?

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 It is important to tackle the causes of stress in the workplace as stress at work
can lead to problems for the individual, working relationships and the overall
working environment.

 The demands of the contemporary work environment make the pressure at
the workplace is unavoidable. The pressure may even keep workers alert and
motivated, but when that pressure becomes excessive it leads to stress.

 It is always good to have a well-designed, organised and managed work is
but when insufficient attention to job design, work organisation and
management has taken place, it can result in work-related stress.

 A good work balance means the demands and pressures of the job
requirements placed on you are well-matched with your capabilities such as
skills and knowledge.

 There are factors that contribute to stress at workplace. It is, therefore,
imperative to understand each of the factors and how those factors can
influence the amount of stress an individual may experience.

 Stress results from the complex interactions between large systems of
interrelated variables and the different models of workplace stress are
important in guiding research and practice.

Emotional health Stress Management
Hazard Work Content
Job Design Work Context
Occupational Stress Model Work Related Stress
Physical Health Workplace Culture

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Alli American Psychological Association. Retrieved on 7 July 2016 from
http://www.apa.org/

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). Retrieved on 7
July 2016 from: https://www.ccohs.ca

Cooper CL, Marshall J. (1976). Occupational sources of stress: a review of the
literature relating to coronary heart disease and mental ill health. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 49:11ă28.

Occupational Health & Safety Environment. Retrieved on 7 July 2016 from
http://healthnsaftey.blogspot.my/

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Topic  Measuring

7 OSH
Performance

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of measuring and monitoring OSH performance;
2. Describe the functions/purposes of measuring OSH performance;
3. Explain the types of performance indicators;
4. Describe the leading and lagging measures of OSH performance; and
5. Explain how to measure inputs or processes.

 INTRODUCTION

Measuring the performance of a labour inspectorate is crucial in order to make
sure the effectiveness of labour inspection activities. Without monitoring and
measurement, it is not possible to assess if the work of labour inspectors is aimed
in the right direction, whether progress and success can be recognised, or how
current and future work activities can be further enhanced.

7.1 THE CONCEPT OF MEASURING AND
MONITORING OSH PERFORMANCE

Many countries have put in place legislation, systems, and have assigned
enforcement staff to improve OSH. However, as time goes by, governments have
come to realise that it is not only the labour inspectorate that can affect OSH
standards; other factors can also have an influence such as the employers,

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employees, supervisors, employee representatives, social partners, the
government agencies and etc.

7.1.1 Labour Inspectorate Role in Improving OSH

The labour inspectorate plays a crucial and critical role by:
(a) Enforcing the law by working within their statutory framework; and
(b) Stimulating improvements and working in partnership with other

stakeholders (such as employers and employees) to ensure that OSH laws
are applied in the workplace.
Figure 7.1 exhibits the possible outcomes resulting from the role and activities of
labour inspectorates.

Figure 7.1: The outcomes resulting from the role of labour inspectorates
Source: Adapted from International Association of Labour Inspection (IALI, 2009)

7.1.2 Performance Measurement of OSH and Labour
Inspectorates

Businesses introduce performance metrics (such as increased revenue, increased
profit, increased market share etc.) to guide which investments and acquisitions
need to be undertaken to attain the desired business outcomes. Measuring
whether businesses have attained these performance metrics can be fairly
straight-forward, such as directly measure increased revenue or profit. But,
measuring OSH improvement is more complex due to a number of factors which
are (see Figure 7.2):

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Figure 7.2: Factors contributing to the improvement on measuring OSH
Now, let us discuss each of the contributing factors.
(a) It is difficult to define what to measure.

For example, one of a labour inspectorateÊs objectives is to improve work-
related safety and health. However, this objective is rather broad and not
precise and therefore a suitable performance measure for this outcome may
also be difficult to achieve.
(b) Expected costs of the performance measurement process.
In order to focus the labour inspectorateÊs resources efficiently,
performance measurement needs to be thought through carefully.
(c) It is complex to determine attribution of OSH results to a labour
inspectorate.
Choosing suitable performance measures and collecting the precise data to
prove that a labour inspectorate has directly influenced change in
employers, employees and the OSH situation involves a deep
understanding of labour inspectorate activities.
(d) It is difficult to access or acquire suitable data.
It can be a challenge to determine what data is required as well as to get
access and acquire this data due to it being privacy-protected by other
agencies such as insurance agencies.

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(e) There is a time lag between intervention and results.
There is a difference in time between the implementation of an OSH
initiative and the achieved improvement in OSH.

7.1.3 A Conceptual Framework for Performance
Measurement of Labour Inspectorates’ Work in
Relation to OSH

Even though a labour inspectorateÊs programmes and activities are well-
managed, the inspectorate needs to show that there is an improvement in the
workers lives as a result of an inspectorateÊs efforts. Without applying an efficient
monitoring and measurement method, it is not possible to gauge if the work of
labour inspectorates is in the right direction, whether progress and success can be
attributed, and how current and future activities can be improved. Therefore, this
section provides a practical approach on how to measure the performance of a
labour inspectorateÊs occupational safety and health (OSH) function. This section
proposes and explains how to use a six-step methodology to measure
achievement in improving safety and health in workplaces.
The following Figure 7.3 illustrates the six-step performance measurement model
(IALI, 2009).

Figure 7.3: Performance measurement model
Source: Adapted from International Association of Labour Inspection

(IALI, 2009)

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Step 1: Analyse the OSH situation.
Consist of two steps:
(a) Define the problem ă what is the issue that needs to be addressed? How to

improve OSH?
(b) Establish a starting point ă a particular date and data serve as the baseline

for measurement and comparison.
Step 2: Define goals to be achieved.
The labour inspectorate needs to design a clear goal in support and in line with
the government vision and mission. Labour inspectorate needs to recognise what
it wants to measure and needs to design a measuring technique suitable for its
particular situation. The labour inspectorateÊs objective statement establishes a
basis for measurement. For example, a safer and healthier workplace. Figure 7.4
depicts the goal(s) that need to be established by different stakeholders.

Figure 7.4: Goal(s) established by different stakeholders

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Step 3: Allocation of resources (Inputs)

Resources are defined as:

(a) The number of staff, not only inspectors but including enforcement staff,
policy and programme development staff, administrative staff, IT staff and
legal staff etc.

(b) The budget, this includes staff remuneration or compensation package, the
cost of office renting, cars, computer, stationeries, fax machines and
printers, training and development costs etc.

Step 4: Undertake activities

Programmes and activities are developed and designed to fulfil or accomplish
the labour inspectorateÊs statutory obligations, in addition, to deliver any vision
or goals in support of this. Frequently, risk assessment, or risk-based targeting of
activities, has become popular and is considered as the best practice among
labour inspectorates.

The following criteria act as guidance in the development of „activities‰:
(a) Relevant;
(b) Understandable;
(c) Controllable;
(d) Accurate; and
(e) Timely.

Step 5: Measure outputs

Refers to the amount of programmes and activities carried out by the labour
inspectorates, for example:
(a) The number of inspections conducted;
(b) The number of targeted interventions;
(c) The number of charges laid;
(d) The number of prosecutions undertaken;
(e) The number of partnerships developed;

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(f) The number of events undertaken;
(g) The value of the fines collected; and
(h) The number of publications.

The important consideration for the labour inspectorate and the government is to
measure the correct outputs as they relate to achievement of the outcomes and
established goals.

Step 6: Measure outcomes

This refers to the degree of change against a defined problem as a result of a
labour inspectorateÊs programmes and activities. Outcome is the measurement of
the impact of output. Outcomes are influenced by:
(a) Economic climate or changes;
(b) Changes in business cycles; and
(c) Other stakeholders.

Therefore, outcome statements should be:
(a) Related to well-defined goals;
(b) Quantitatively measurable/parameters such as workplace accidents, noise

level, absenteeism and etc.; and
(c) Specific and sensitive to changes.

By exercising these six steps, a labour inspectorate will have the needed data to
make decisions on how to refine or improve its effectiveness and efficiency as
well as demonstrating how it can affect:
(a) Achievement of public policy ă the extent to which a labour inspectorate

accomplishes the public policy objectives;
(b) Outcomes for workers ă the extent to which the workerÊs and OSH

condition improve as a result of a labour inspectorateÊs programmes and
activities;
(c) Outcomes for enterprises ă the extent to which labour inspectorate
programmes and activities benefit the enterprises; and
(d) Outcomes for society ă the extent to which labour inspectorate programmes
and activities contribute or add to increasing the living standard at the
national level.

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The following case study on Ontario OHS System is taken from the International
Association of Labour Inspection (IALI, 2009).

Connecting all the steps.

Case study: Ontario OHS System

Step 1: Analyse the OSH situation

In 2003, the injury rate in Ontario was one of highest in Canada, despite over
48,000 health and safety inspections annually, Ontario had more than 104,000
injuries at work and the number of injured workers had increased by 15% since
1995.

Step 2: Establish goal(s) and baselines and timelines for goals identified

In 2003, the goal of the Ontario Government was:

(a) A more prosperous Ontario

(b) Safer, fairer and healthier workplaces and a competitive economy

(c) Safer and healthier workplaces through effective efficient enforcement

To reduce workplace injuries by 20% in four years (2004 ă 2008) thereby also
avoiding over $960 million in costs to employers.

The strategy baseline lost-time injury rate (2003) was 2.3 injuries per 100 workers.

Step 3: Allocate resources (inputs)

The Ministry of LabourÊs „High-Risk Firm‰ strategy (2004 - 2008) applied a
doubling of the number of labour inspectors (from 200 to 400, representing an
additional annual expenditure of $25 million) to the targeting of enforcement
activities to the poorest performing employees.

The total budget of the labour inspectorate was approximately $50 million and
for the Ministry of Labour Occupational Health and Safety Programme $89.65
million.

Step 4: Undertake activities

In 2004, the Ministry of Labour led the design and implementation of the
„high-risk firm‰ initiative. Under this programme, the poorest performing 10% of
Ontario workplaces (30,000 enterprises) were selected annually for either
intensive labour inspection attention (up to four inspection visits per year) or for
targeted services from the health and safety associations. These workplaces
accounted for 40% of all lost-time injuries and claims costs.

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Also, the Ministry of Labour conducted the following activities, for example,
raise awareness of the importance of preventing ergonomic-related injuries such
as back pain, muscle strain and tendonitis, which account for 42% of all lost-time
injuries in Ontario.
Step 5: Measure output
Based on the targeted initiatives described above, along with an increase in the
inspectorate, outputs for the period between 2004 and 2008 are as follow:
(a) Visits by labour inspectors to enterprises increased from 52,673 (2004/05) to

101,275 (2007/08).
(b) Inspections increased from 34,530 (2004/05) to 66,230 (2007/08)
(c) Investigations increased from 16,202 (2004/05) to 25,430 (2007/08)
Prosecutions increased from 618 with $7 million in fines to 1191 with $12 million
in fines.
Step 6: Measure outcomes
Since the targeted enforcement strategy was launched in 2004 ă 2005, the
Ministry has achieved the following:
(a) Approximately 54,000 lost-time injuries were avoided;
(b) The lost-time injury rate has been reduced to 1.8 per 100 workers, from 2.2

entering 2004 ă 2005.

SELF-CHECK 7.1

Discuss the framework of performance measurement model.

7.2 THE FUNCTIONS/PURPOSES OF
MEASURING AND MONITORING OSH
PERFORMANCE

The key functions or purposes of measuring OSH performance are to:
(a) Determine whether OSH plans have been implemented and objectives

achieved;
(b) Check that risk control measures are in place and are effective;

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(c) Learn from system failures such as areas of non-compliance, accidents and
incidents;

(d) Promote the implementation of plans and risk controls by providing
feedback to all parties;

(e) Provide information that can be used to review, and if necessary to improve
aspects of an OSH management system;

(f) Identify areas for improvement and /or corrective action;
(g) Do comparative analysis and benchmarking;
(h) Review OSH policy and practices;
(i) Allow identification of poorly performing organisations, departments,

sections, etc; and
(j) Evaluate the effectiveness of OSH interventions such as training.
In addition, active measuring systems are used to check compliance with the
organisations OSH activities. Examples of active monitoring information are:
(a) The extent to which plans and objectives have been set and achieved;
(b) Whether a director for OSH has been appointed;
(c) Whether a safety policy has been published;
(d) The number of trained management and employees in OSH;
(e) The number of risk assessments completed; and
(f) The extent of compliance with risk controls.
Furthermore, there are three ways in carrying out performance monitoring (refer
to Figure 7.5):
(a) Reactive monitoring (Past);
(b) Proactive monitoring (Present); and
(c) Predictive monitoring (Future).

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Figure 7.5: Three ways of performance monitoring

SELF-CHECK 7.2

1. Discuss the three methods in carrying out performance
monitoring.

2. List down the purposes of measuring OSH performance.

7.3 TYPES OF OSH PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

This section will first discuss the need for indicators followed by describing the
types of indicators (such as inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes indicators).
And finally, we describe their benefits and limitations.

7.3.1 The Need for Indicators

Indicators are important for policy makers to monitor the status-quo and to
measure progress against policy objectives. This applies to policies and strategies
at all levels; at the organisation level, regionally, nationally and globally, and for
public and private sector. Therefore, they serve as a basis for policy change.
Policymaking involves looking at a range of options. The main purpose of the
process is directing the resources to prioritise activity. However, setting priorities
is subject to political legitimation, specifically when it is hard to adequately
describe the status quo. The priorities may then be based on imperfect
information. Basically, indicators are employed in most policy areas including
economy and environment. Nevertheless, they can also be utilised in areas where
quantitative assessment is more challenging such as education.

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Detailed OSH data or record is not readily and sufficiently available. Therefore,
assessment is tremendously challenging due to the size of the field: there are
millions of different companies (workplaces) with different national legislative
frameworks, though these may be coordinated in political unions such as the EU.
For a reasoned decision, policy makers and stakeholders should have basic data,
such as (see Figure 7.6):
 

Figure 7.6: Basic data should have policymakers and stakeholders
OSH performance indicators are employed to measure and evaluate the status
quo and the development of OSH main areas such as:
(a) Prevention in companies, for example, safety of technologies, internal OSH

organisation including indicators for participation and cost-benefit;
(b) Work-related ill-health and occupational hazards;
(c) The performance of the private OSH infrastructure, for example, prevention

services, OSH associations etc.; and

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(d) The performance of the public OSH infrastructure, for example, quality of
enforcement, a collaboration between institutions, cost-benefit etc.

7.3.2 Types of Performance Indicators: Inputs,
Processes, Outputs, and Outcomes

Indicators can be in the form of:
(a) Status-Oriented; and
(b) Progress-Oriented.
There are four types of performance indicators (see Figure 7.7):

Figure 7.7: Four types of performance indicators
 
 

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Now, let's discuss each of the indicators.

(a) Input indicators
Input indicators are utilised to describe the finances and competencies, and
resources available in the system. These indicators determine the status
quo of the infrastructure and help recognise the resources to fund policy
initiatives on. Typically, OSH input indicators include the following:
(i) Financial resources;
(ii) Human resources for supervision and enforcement;
(iii) Legislation status;
(iv) Expertise and training of OSH professionals;
(v) Research institutions;
(vi) Resources for prevention and guidelines in the public sector;
(vii) Resources for prevention and guidelines in the private sector;
(viii) Safety features of the main technologies in different sectors; and
(ix) Total number of OSH professionals.

At the beginning of an assessment, input indicators can be useful to state
the level of resources required to effectively accomplish a certain activity.
For example, the German National OSH Strategy devoted 10% of all
resources to strategy activities.

Generally, there are three other types of indicators (process, output and
outcome) that are useful to measure progress, for example, the success of a
legislation or policy.

(b) Process indicators
In general, process indicators are short-term indicators and are being used
to measure and assess process-related activities such as collaborative
actions, campaigns and communication activities. Due to the limited time
available, outcomes such as Âfewer accidents or diseasesÊ cannot be
measured.

For example, Australia has informed on goal accomplishment by means of
the following process-related indicators:
(i) Industry endorses commitment;

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(ii) Reports, programmes, strategies, are reviewed and action plans are
developed and updated;

(iii) Legislation is reviewed, adapted and executed in operation;
(iv) Established Commission, working groups and regular meetings are

held;
(v) Web tool, information, guidance, training material is developed,

reviewed and updated;
(vi) Number of (inspection) visits, investigations, events, training courses,

audits; number of resolved compliance issues;
(vii) Milestones of specific projects are met;
(viii) Performance indicators are reported by federal states; and
(ix) Targets and principles are incorporated by the target group.

(c) Output indicators
Generally, output indicators are short-term indicators and mostly
quantitatively-operationalised results of processes, for example:
(i) Number of common projects;
(ii) Number of flyers distributed to the target population;
(iii) Number of trained workers; and
(iv) Participants at health promotion meetings and etc.

In addition, they are closely related to the results of process-related
activities.

(d) Outcome indicators
Outcome indicators are assessed or measured the final result, which refers
to the broader results of policies and activities. These are mainly health and
hazard related goals, for example, measures on long-term health effects,
and measures on accident rates after a certain period of time.

7.3.3 Indicators Benefits and Limitations

The following are the benefits of indicators:
(a) Indicators provide evidence whether results have been achieved, or a

certain condition prevails;

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(b) Indicators allow decision-makers to measure the progress of targets and
objectives. As such they are an essential part of a results-based
accountability system;

(c) Indicators provide valid and reliable factual knowledge when measuring
the status and performance of an OSH system;

(d) Indicators act as a motivation factor to organisations and their employees;
and

(e) OSH performance measurements require indicators.

However, you should also be aware of their limitations:
(a) Normally, indicators are so complex thus requiring more detailed

parameters (sub-indicators);
(b) Generally, indicators do not cover all aspects of a subject simply because

the choices of indicators vary significantly between stakeholders and OSH
specialists;
(c) Data are not easy to obtain and quality is often insufficient and
questionable as well; and
(d) Due to different national systems of data collection and aggregation, the
use of indicators in international comparisons is limited.

SELF-CHECK 7.3

1. What are input indicators?
2. What are processes indicators?
3. List down the benefits of indicators.

7.4 LEADING AND LAGGING MEASURES OF
OSH PERFORMANCE

This subtopic will explain in further detail the leading indicators of OSH
performance (utilised to enhance OSH management); lagging indicators of OSH
performance (commonly in used and expressed either in percentages, rates, or
absolute numbers); and economic indicators measure the economic influences
of OSH on organisations.

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7.4.1 Leading Indicators/Measures of OSH
Performance

According to Zwetsloot (2013), leading indicators have predictive value and
therefore can be utilised to enhance OSH management. The following are
examples of leading indicators:
(a) Percentage of management meetings to address OSH matters;
(b) Number of management visits to the areas or locations where OSH is

addressed;
(c) Percentage of managers and supervisors with sufficient OSH training;
(d) Percentage of employees with sufficient OSH training;
(e) Percentage of management-worker meetings to address OSH issues;
(f) Percentage of business associates (such as distributors, retailers, suppliers,

contractors, etc.) evaluated and selected based on their OSH performance or
with accepted OSH certificate;
(g) Number of OSH audits completed;
(h) Frequency of observed unsafe behaviour;
(i) Number of workplace inspections;
(j) Percentage of OSH projects or activities that are concluded on time;
(k) Number of ÂsignsÊ recognised (that lead serious safety problemsÊ);
(l) Percentage of OSH suggestions or complaints where feedback is given to
those reporting within one week; and
(m) The occurrence of certain health problems, e.g. as outcomes of health checks
or health surveillance.

Based on the examples given, leading indicators incline to focus on the positive
rather than the negative indicators. They focus on actions carried out to avoid
OSH problems. Sometimes whether a Key Performance Index (KPI) is considered
as positive or negative is more or less subjective. For example, a high number of
reported dangerous situations can be held as negative as there are many
dangerous situations, but also as positive as the employees are motivated to
report dangerous situations and trust that the managers will use the information.

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7.4.2 Lagging Indicators/Measures of OSH
Performance

Lagging indicators are still commonly used in organisations, even though they
do not allow assessment of the OSH level. The indicator KPIs can be expressed
either in percentages, rates, or absolute numbers. The following are the most
important OSH lagging indicators (Zwetsloot, 2013):

(a) Injuries and work-related ill health in terms of LTIs, Lost Time Incident
Frequency (Rate) (= number of lost-time injuries x 1,000,000 divided by
total hours worked in the accounting period);

(b) Production days lost through sickness absence (% of total work days lost by
sickness absence; this can also be specified further, e.g. for short-term
sickness and long-term sickness absence);

(c) Incidents or near misses (including those with the potential to cause injury,
ill health, or loss);

(d) Complaints about work that is carried out in unsafe or unhealthy
conditions; and

(e) The number of early retirements.

Based on the above discussion, there is often a strong focus on the negative
indicators, i.e. on measuring what went wrong. Nevertheless, many people and
most organisations prefer positive feedback. Then the focus is on measuring
what went well. The following are examples of positive lagging indicators
(Zwetsloot, 2013):

(a) Percentage of productive planned work days realised (i.e. 97% productive
work days as opposed to 3% sickness absence);

(b) Number of hours worked (by the total workforce) without lost time injury;

(c) Number of working days since the last accident; and

(d) Employee satisfaction (survey).

7.4.3 Economic Indicators/Measures of OSH
Performance

It is also applicable to measure the economic influences of OSH on organisations.
This is important because financial resources are scarce and should be used
efficiently. Therefore, it can be beneficial to know how much the organisation

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TOPIC 7 MEASURING OSH PERFORMANCE  177

„invests‰ in certain preventive actions because many preventive actions have a
positive impact on production, but these are usually much more difficult to
measure. However, it is important to show a positive" return on prevention" as
this result may facilitate future investments in OSH prevention
programmes/activities.
Currently, many organisations manage their business activities by utilising the
„balanced scorecard" which combines four perspectives: finance, customer,
process, and learning. Therefore, it can be helpful for organisations to develop an
OSH balanced scorecard which translates the four dimensions as:
(a) The economic dimension: cost and benefits analysis and economic goals

associated with OSH;
(b) Strategic OSH goals defined by the internal stakeholders;
(c) The OSH processes contribute to safety and health and to OSH-relevant

behaviour; and
(d) The learning of OSH, i.e. what potentials of the workforce can be developed

through OSH (e.g. higher productivity or greater creativity).
To associate other KPIs with costs and benefits, for example, to determine the
costs associated with lost time injuries; in this scenario, not only the loss of
production time due to the injury must be taken into consideration, but also the
other associated costs, e.g. material damage and etc. (Zwetsloot, 2013).

7.5 MEASURING INPUTS OR PROCESSES

Safety and health risks need to be controlled in order to achieve an outcome of no
incidents, injuries, accidents, work-related ill health and satisfy stakeholders.
Effective risk control is originated on an effective safety and health management
system as shown in Figure 7.8.

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178  TOPIC 7 MEASURING OSH PERFORMANCE

Figure 7.8: Effective risk control
The safety and health management system consist of three levels of control:
Level 1
The main components of the safety and health management system: the
management arrangement (including objectives, goals, and plans) is required to
organise, plan, control and monitor the design and implementation of risk
control systems (RCSs).
Level 2
Risk control systems (RCSs): the basis for ensuring that adequate workplace
precautions are provided and maintained.
Level 3
Effective workplace precautions provided and maintained to stop harm to people
at the point of risk.
Furthermore, each level will be supported by a positive safety and health culture.
Additionally, to successfully answer the question „What is our safety and health
performance?‰, performance measurement should cover all components in
Figure 7.5 and should be grounded on a balanced approach which combines:
Input
Monitoring the scale, distribution and nature of hazards created by the
organisationÊs activities ă measures of the hazard burden.

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TOPIC 7 MEASURING OSH PERFORMANCE  179

Process
Active monitoring of the adequacy, development, implementation and the
deployment of the safety and health management system and the activities to
promote a positive safety and healthy culture ă measures of success; and

Outcomes
Reactive monitoring of adverse outcomes resulting in accidents, injuries, ill-
health, and incidents with the potential to cause incidents, injuries, or accidents ă
measures of failures.

 The concept of measuring and monitoring OSH performance discuss the
labour inspectorate role in improving OSH; performance measurement of
OSH and labour inspectorates; and a conceptual framework for performance
measurement of labour inspectoratesÊ work in relation to OSH.

 The functions/purposes of measuring OSH performance describe key
functions or purposes of measuring OSH performance; examples of active
monitoring information; and the three ways in carrying out performance
monitoring.

 The types of performance indicators explain the need for indicators; types of
performance indicators (such as inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes);
and indicators benefits and limitations.

 The leading and lagging measures of OSH performance describe leading
indicators/measures; lagging indicators/measures; and economic
indicators/measures.

 The measuring inputs or processes suggest that safety and health risks need
to be controlled in order to achieve an outcome of no incidents, injuries,
accidents, work-related ill health, and satisfy stakeholders. Effective risk
control is originated on an effective safety and health management system.

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180  TOPIC 7 MEASURING OSH PERFORMANCE

Economic indicators Output indicators
Input indicators Predictive monitoring
Lagging indicators Proactive monitoring
Leading indicators Process indicators
Measure outcomes Progress-oriented
Measure outputs Reactive monitoring
Outcome indicators Status-oriented

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7, 2016 from: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/
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Geotsch, D. (2014). Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers,
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Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Measuring performance. Retrieved on June
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measuring- performance.htm#selecting.

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TOPIC 7 MEASURING OSH PERFORMANCE  181

Helle Tosine& Nils-Petter Wedege (2009). Measuring Performance of the
Occupational Safety and Health Function: A Handbook for Labour
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LotharLißner (2012). OSH performance indicators ă and their application in the
monitoring and evaluation of OSH-infrastructure, OSH-policies and OSH
legislation. OSH Wiki Networking Knowledge. European Agency for Safety
and Health at Work. Retrieved on July 12, 2016 from:
https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/Key_performance_indicators

North Caroline Department of Labor (NCDL). Retrieved on June 7, 2016 from:
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publications/publications/reports/workers-participation-in-OSH_guide

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