Siti Zuraifa Binti Md Sah
Nurul Qamar Bin Hazni
LECTURERS
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
POLITEKNIK MALAYSIA
Published By :
POLITEKNIK MELAKA
NO. 2, JALAN PPM 10,
PLAZA PANDAN MALIM,
BALAI PANJANG,
75250 MELAKA
Tel: 06-3376000
Fax : 06-3376007
Website: http: //www.polimelaka.edu.my
HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
Course Notes
ISBN : 978-967-0838-05-2
Authors :
SITI ZURAIFA BINTI MD. SAH
NURUL QAMAR BIN HAZNI
st
1 Edition 2019
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HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
Course Notes
SITI ZURAIFA BINTI MD. SAH
NURUL QAMAR BIN HAZNI
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
POLITEKNIK MELAKA
NO. 2, JALAN PPM 10, PLAZA PANDAN MALIM,
BALAI PANJANG, 75250 MELAKA
http: //www.polimelaka.edu.my
Tel: 06-3376000 Fax : 06-3376007
1 Edition 2019
st
Contents
Content Page
Content i
Preface ii
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC 1 - 19
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The concept of traffic, highway and road laws and acts in Malaysia 9
1.3 The concept of road laws and acts of traffic and transportation 16
2.0 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 20 - 30
2.1 The concepts of transportation engineering 20
2.2 The planning aspects of transportation 22
2.3 The transportation planning process 27
3.0 PAVEMENT MATERIALS 31 - 52
3.1 The materials and test on material 31
3.2 Design the concrete mix of materials in road and highway construction 43
4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT 53 - 66
4.1 The construction of flexible pavement 53
5.0 CONSTRUCTION OF RIGID PAVEMENT 67 - 77
5.1 The construction of rigid pavement 67
6.0 TRAFFIC CONTROL EQUIPMENT AND ROAD FURNITURE 78 - 90
6.1 The traffic control equipment and road furniture in highway engineering 78
6.2 The types of road furniture in highway engineering 81
6.3 The concept of traffic signboard 85
7.0 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN 91 - 104
7.1 The basic design of flexible pavement 91
7.2 The design of flexible pavement 92
8.0 JUNCTION DESIGN 105 - 123
8.1 The fundamental concept of junction 105
8.2 The concept of junction design, conflict area and roundabout 109
9.0 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT 124 - 131
9.1 The concept of road accident and traffic management 124
9.2 The car park necessity for various types of users 126
9.3 The concept of road accident and traffic management 129
10.0 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE 132 - 139
10.1 The technique for highway maintenance 132
References 140
i
Preface
This book is intended to offer the students with a clear and precise understanding the basic of
highway and traffic engineering. The content of each chapter are divide into a few sections with related
topics according to the real situation. This book will prefer students to understand the basic of highway
and traffic engineering easily.
The chapter on this book are include an enlarge section on the technical planning,
preconstruction of the highway, pavement materials used in highway construction and methods of
construction of highway. The chapter also provides the students with the knowledge regarding the
method and design involved in traffic engineering. It also emphasizes on introduction to highway and
traffic, transportation planning, pavement materials, construction of flexible pavement, construction of
rigid pavement, traffic control equipment and road furniture, flexible pavement design, junction design,
traffic management and highway maintenance.
Authors of this book were extremely grateful that the first edition of Highway and Traffic
Engineering has been more useful at any level. The authors of this book were significantly involved in
Highway and Traffic Engineering course throughout the years and put their ideas and knowledge
together in writing up this book. We hope this book will prove valuable for students and it as part of their
reference to help them in basic of Highway and Traffic Engineering.
ii
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Introduction to Highway, Traffic and Transportation Engineering
Road Engineering also known as Highway Engineering, Road
Engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil
engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation,
and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and
effective transportation of people and goods
Traffic Engineering is a branch
of civil engineering that uses
engineering techniques to
achieve the safe and efficient
movement of people and goods
on roadways. It focuses mainly
on research for safe and efficient
traffic flow, such as road
geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, segregated cycle facilities, shared lane marking, traffic signs, road
surface markings and traffic lights. Traffic engineering deals with the functional part of transportation
system, except the infrastructures provided.
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management
of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe,
efficient, rapid, comfort able, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods. Institute of
Transportation Engineers, ITE (1987)
1
1.1.2 The construction structures used in transportation
Transport or transportation is a movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another.
Construction structure used in transportation
i. Road and highway
ii. Railroad
iii. Canal, open channel, river and sea
iv. Airport
v. Pipe network
vi. Power and telecommunication cablings
Figure 1-1: Construction structures
1.1.3 Act related to roads:
a. Road Transport Act 1976
b. Environmental Quality Act 1974
c. Urban and Rural Planning Act 1976
d. Local Government Act 1976 and Federal Territory Act 1973
Road Transport Act 1976
An Act to make provision for the regulation of motor vehicles and of traffic on roads and other matters
with respect to roads and vehicles thereon; to make provision for the protection of third parties against
risks arising out of the use of motor vehicles; to make provision for the co-ordination and control of
means of and facilities for transport; to make provision for the co-ordination and control of means of and
facilities for construction and adaptation of motor vehicles; and to make provision for connected
purposes. [1 January 1988, P.U. (B) 694/1987]
Environmental Quality Act 1974
This act provides for the prevention, abatement, and control of pollution through licensing, and
mandates the conducting of an Environmental Assessment Report for proposed public and private
sector projects to determine and prevent or prepare for the environmental consequences of the project. It
was brought into effect with the implementation of a subsequent set of specific regulations and laws.
PURPOSE:
Prevention of the pollution
Abatement pollution levels
Controlling the pollution from continues
Prepare for the environmental consequences
Urban and Rural Planning Act 1976
An Act for the proper control and regulation of town and country planning in Peninsular Malaysia and
for purposes connected therewith or ancillary thereto.
Local Government Act 1976 and Federal Territory Act 1973
An Act to revise and consolidate the laws relating to local government. WHEREAS it is expedient for the
purpose only of ensuring uniformity of law and policy to make a law with respect to local government:
2
1.1.4 The history of highway and road:
a. Construction
b. Law and acts in Malaysia
The history of highway construction
Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of
the mankind. The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path.
Before invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating foot
paths. Men and material must have been transported either on backs of men
or animals.
th
The famous road designers in 18 century
i. Pierre Tresaguet
ii. John Metcalf
iii. Thomas Telford
iv. John Macadam
Figure 1-2: Highway construction
Robert Philips road
The frontier of road design. In 1736, he suggested that a layer of gravel placed on roadbase with good
drainage would be compacted by traffic and become hard surface
Pierre Tresaguet road
Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was inspector general of roads in France from 1746 to 1775. He developed
an improved method of road construction. He also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and
drainage from the surface. He also emphasized the need for continuous maintenance of road to keep it
in good shape. At the time of Napoleon, quite elaborate road system was developed in France mainly for
use of military adventures.
edge stone broken stone pebbles and broken stone
Longitudal
drain
Quarried stone
Figure 1-3: Tresaguet Road
John Metcalf roads
He was working in England. Known as Blind Jack of Knaresborough. He experimented road
construction with a graded mixture of earth and gravel. Since Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not
be recorded. Gravel layer was used to be compacted in due course of time, by the action of the traffic
using road. Metcalf constructed about 290 Km of road in Yorkshire, northern parts of England.
3
Gravel
Excavated
road material
Large stone
foundation
Figure 1-4: John Metcalf Road
Telford roads
Thomas Telford was Scottish road engineer and founder of the institution of civil engineers. He used big
size stones in foundation wearing from 7.5 – 25 cm to develop a firm base. Road was designed with flat
formation, subbase and camber.
20 mm max size
gravel and broken stone
50 mm max size
Knapped top
75 mm
Flat Formation
150 mm
Figure 1-5: Telford Road
John Macadam road
John Macadam, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road construction in 1826.
He was a Scottish engineer and was surveyor general of roads in England. He designed road with
cambered formation and small angular aggregate as road material.
75 mm broken stone
20 mm broken stone
Cambered Formation
Figure 1-6: McAdam pavement
4
The method of construction for Macadam roads
i. Sub-grade was prepared and compacted to the required width of the road.
ii. Prepared sub-grade with a camber
iii. Construction of road consists of three layers: foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing
surface layer.
iv. Cross slope of finished surface was kept as 1 in 36.
v. Macadam method was first scientific method based on modern concepts and hence is still in use
in most parts of the world.
The historical road development can be divided in to the following era:
i. Early/ Basic roads
ii. Roman roads
iii. Modern roads
Early/ Basic roads
The needs of road started from the invention of wheel in Samaria in 3000 BC. Among the early
road inventions in many parts of the world were:
China Dynasty – ‘China Silk Route’ was the first road built around 2600 BC. The road was used
to transport silk and elephant tusks between China and India
Persian Empire – Big trade involving import and export such as silk, porcelain and wood crafts
between China and Europe.
Britain – ‘Raft Road’ believed was built around 2500 BC
India – Indus Valley where roads made of bricks with drainage system equipped with pipe
Mesopotamia and Egypt – Brick road and asphalt road was found in Babylon and mountainous
area of Mesopotamia. In Egypt, the road was built to transport block of rock to construct pyramid
Roman Road
Roman’s developed very elaborate system of
roads mainly for the purpose of military movement.
They constructed in all about one lakh kilometres of road,
extending in whole of their empire. An important road
constructed by Romans in 312 B.C called Appian way is
still in existence in Rome.
Figure 1-7: Roman Road
Kerb stone typical road width 5.5 – 6 metres (18 – 20 feet)
Compacted Slabs of Crushed Dressed Stone
layer of sand stone in stone in stone drainage
cement cement blocks ditch
Figure 1-8: Roman Road
5
Constructional features of a Roman Road
i. They weary very thick. Total thickness of the road varied from about 0.7 m to as much as 1.2 m.
ii. They were straight, without any regard for gradient. Probable reason for straightness may be
their main use for army.
iii. Roads were not built on soft soil formations but on hard stratum reached after excavation.
Modern roads
In eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads again began to develop. Mr.
Pierre Tresaquet developed an improved method of construction in 1764 in France. At the time when
Mr. Pierre Tresaquet was busy in developing his road construction method, Mr. John Metcalf was
engaged in his development in England. Metcalf constructed about 290 Km road in northern region of
England. Since Metcalf was blind, his work was not recorded and thus got lost. Telford and Macadam
were the pioneers in road development in England. Telford believed in using heavy foundation stones
over the soil sub-grade, while Macadam advocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the
bottom. Macadam’s method of road construction is still in used and is named after his name.
Type of road pavements
Laterite/Dirt Road
Use original soil or compacted embankment as surface. Normally constructed in rural area and typical
soil is laterite
Soil subgrade
Figure 1-9: Dirt Road
Gravel Road
Layer of aggregate spread on compacted soil forming stronger road
Figure 1-10: Gravel Road
Flexible Pavement
Cater for higher volume and heavier traffic compared to gravel and dirt roads
i. Asphaltic Concrete – more superior material and widely used. Designed for higher traffic
volume and provide good riding quality
ii. Porous Pavement – same structured layer with asphaltic concrete pavement except the wearing
course is constructed with open graded mix to provide
interconnected voids to enable water to infiltrate and
flow on the impermeable binder course layer to side
drain. The advantages of porous pavement are :
Reduce flash flood on road surface Surface Course
Reduce water spray from front vehicle Base Course
Reduce glare effect Subbase Course
Reduce noise from tyre-surface contact
Figure 1-11: Flexible Pavement
6
iii. Stone Mastic Asphalt – same structured layer with asphaltic concrete pavement except the
wearing course is constructed with gap graded aggregate
Rigid Pavement
Similar structure layer s with flexible pavement except
concrete is used as surface material. The advantages are : Longitudinal Joint Tranverse Joint
Stronger material
Longer service life Surface Course
Less maintenance Base Course
Subbase Course
However, the cost is much higher need more time before Subgrade (Existing Soil)
open to traffic and could cause higher maintenance cost if Figure 1-12: Rigid Pavement
defects occur
Semi-rigid road Pavement
Used widely at intersection, curves, bus stops and terminals and ports where interlocking block is used
as surface material
Paving
Bending
Base
Sub base*
(Optional)
Sub grade
Figure 1-13: Semi-Rigid Pavement
7
The history of highway and road law and acts in Malaysia
Enakmen Kenderaan 1899
Traction Engines and Motor Cars
Enactment 1912
Enakmen Lalulintas Jalan Negeri-Negeri
Melayu Bersekutu 1937
Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958
Road Transport Act 1987-Act 333
Figure 1-14: The history of highway and road law and acts
in Malaysia
Enakmen Kenderaan 1899
This is the first legislation relating to road transport in Malaya. It covers non-motorized operated vehicle
such as chariots and tricycles.
Traction Engines and Motor Cars Enactment 1912
This legislation covers the engine and the motorized car and road regulations in the Federal Malay
States.
Enakmen Lalulintas Jalan Negeri-Negeri Melayu Bersekutu 1937
This enactment is more comprehensive, covering the motorized vehicle regulations, provisions for third
party risks, provisions for highway use, the rules governing civil service and commercial vehicles as
well as general provisions.
Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958
Content of the ordinance:
Part I: The introduction of the act [Definitions of the purpose of ordinances]
Part II: Classification of the registration and licensing of motor vehicles and drivers.
Part III: Highway Code and speed, limiting entry of vehicles in certain areas, the provision of car
parking and traffic lights from entrance to the existing roads.
Part IV: Third-party insurance coverage for the use of the vehicle and owner responsibility.
Part V: Errors and miscellaneous [Rules for commercial transportation - taxis, rental vehicles
and goods vehicles]
8
Road Transport Act 1987-Act 333
ROAD TRANSPORT ACT 1987
Date of Royal Assent ... ... ... ... ... 30 August 1987
Date of publication in the Gazette ... ... 24
September 1987
Figure 1-15: Road Transport Act 1987-Act 333
The purpose of the drafting of the Road Transport Act 1976
An Act to make provision for the regulation of motor vehicles and traffic on the streets and other matters
connected with roads and vehicles thereon to provide for the protection of third parties against risks
arising from the use of vehicles motor:
To provide for the coordination and control of the means and facilities for transport,
To provide for the coordination and control of the means and facilities for the construction and
adaptation of motor vehicles, and
To provide for connected purposes
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF TRAFFIC, HIGHWAY AND ROAD LAWS AND ACTS
IN MALAYSIA
1.2.1 The category of highways in Malaysia
The FIVE (5) road categories in Malaysia
i. Toll highway
ii. Federal routes
iii. State road
iv. City/council road
v. Rural road
Toll Highway
• Built and maintained by concession company under the
Malaysian Highway Authority monitoring
• Alternative to federal road and maintained by Malaysian
Highway Authority
• Typical concession period is 30 years under “design, built
and operate”
• The facilities such as rest and relax areas, shelters for
motorcyclists and emergency phones are also provided
• PLUS, NKVE, ELITE, SPRINT and KESAS are some examples
of Toll Highway in Malaysia
Figure 1-16: Toll Highway
9
Figure 1-17: Toll Highway in Peninsular Malaysia
(Source: Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia)
Federal Routes
• Used to link the state capitals, airports, railway station and ports and these roads are gazetted
under the Federal Road Ordinance
• To connect entry points, main cities and states
• Include the roads within FELDA land schemes and those in other regional land schemes
constructed with federal funds
• Built and maintained is the responsibility and funded by the federal government and carried out
through the state JKR
• Federal routes are labeled with only numbers for example Federal Route . However, federal
route numbers can also be added with the prefix, which is normally used by JKR and
Malaysian police.
Figure 1-18: Federal Routes
10
Table 1-1: Type of federal roads and route number categories
(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_Federal_Roads_System)
Examples Information Number digits
Main federal route numbers 001 - 249
Institutional facilities federal roads 250 - 479
EXIT 1 EXIT 1 - EXIT 99
Federal road exit numbers
EXIT 226 EXIT 201 - EXIT 299
Main federal route numbers 1-1 - 1-59
(Sarawak) 3-1 - 3-99
Main federal route numbers
(Sabah; old numbering system) A01 - A99
Main federal route numbers
700 - 799
(Labuan)
FELDA/FELCRA federal route 1000 - 1999
numbers 2000 - 2999
Industrial federal route numbers 3000 - 3999
The differences between toll highway and federal road in Malaysia
i. The maximum speed limit for a highway is 110km/h while the maximum limit for regular
road is 90 km/h.
ii. Geometry requirement for highways is higher than federal road.
iii. Highways are constructed in two lanes or more while regular roads are usually constructed
in a two lane.
iv. Accessibility in highway system is limited while in federal road system there is a lot of
accessibility.
v. Highways provided a higher traffic volume movement than a federal road.
State Road
• All the other road within the states outside the jurisdiction of the local authority or district office
• These roads are built according to JKR standards and constructed with state funds
• The maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the state government and c arried out
through the state JKR
• Built to improve within state transportation mode
• The standard of state roads are similar with the federal roads except for the coding system,
where the codes for state roads begin with state codes followed by route number, for example
Johor State Route J32 is labeled as J32
11
List of state codes in Malaysian State Roads system
- A - Perak
- B - Selangor
- C - Pahang
- D - Kelantan
- J - Johor
- K - Kedah
- M - Melaka
- N - Negeri Sembilan
- P - Pulau Pinang
- R - Perlis
- SA - Sabah
- T - Terengganu
Council / City Council /District and Municipality Road
• Within a township council or district including roads built by housing developers
• Using own budget subsidized by federal
Figure 1-19: Rural/Small Road
Rural / Small Road
• Built in rural areas and maintained by district office using state budget
• Some are substandard due to low traffic volume
12
1.2.2 Agencies that are involved in:
a. Road and Highway construction
b. Road laws and acts
c. Traffic
d. Transportation
Agencies that are involved in highway construction
i. Economic Planning Unit
ii. Road and highway Planning Unit
iii. Public Works Department
iv. Malaysian Highway Authority
v. Town / District / Local Council
vi. City Council
Economic Planning Unit
The Economic Planning Unit is the principal government agency responsible for the preparation
of development plans for the nation.
The unit established on 1961, evolving from the Economic Secretariat of the Economic
Committee of the Executive Council of the then Federation of Malaysia, was to “focus on
development planning, on high problems in plan execution and on all forms of foreign aid”.
Public Works Department
To provide Federal Roads facilities that can assist is generating the country’s economy and to
improve the people’s quality of life.
To ensure high quality development projects are implemented according to the specified
duration, cost and specification.
To provide a condusive environment for the construction industry and professional services in
order to contribute to the country’s economic growth and to be able to compete internationally.
To develop and stabilise entrepreneurs in the construction industry.
Malaysian Highway Authority
The establishment of the Malaysian Highway Authority functions is:
Supervise and implement the design, construction and maintenance of highways as determined
by the Government;
13
Collect tolls from users and other costs of the necessary facilities along the highway;
Plan and conduct research to ensure the efficient use of highways and other facilities along the
highway;
However, after the privatization of the North-South Expressway, Kuala Lumpur-Karak
Highway and the Penang Bridge concession to the company, role and functions of the MHA has
been altered from an implementing agency for the regulatory agency.
Agencies that are involved in Road laws and acts
i. Department of Environment (Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS))
ii. Road Transport Department (Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan)
Department of Environment (Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS))
The main function of the DOE is to prevent, eliminate, control pollution and
improve the environment, consistent with the purposes of the Environmental
Quality Act 1974 and the regulations there under DOE is also responsible for the
implementation of the resolutions decided by the conventions of the international
environment such as Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone Layer
1985, Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987, the
Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste and
Their Disposal Act 1989 and other areas while the success of programs of bilateral
cooperation and multilateral cooperation between Indonesia, Singapore and other ASEAN countries on
environmental management.
Road Transport Department (Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan)
Objective
To establish and regulate the registration and licensing of motor vehicles in
a systematic, reliable and innovative manner.
Establish and administer the road transport law with the commitment to
produce competent, law abiding and prudent drivers of motor vehicles.
To enforce and administer the road transport law with integrity and
commitment to create a society that has a culture of adherence to the rules
of the road.
To monitor and administer motor vehicle safety standards with efficiency and integrity to meet
the needs of the environment and the country's automotive industry.
Agencies that are involved in Traffic
i. Royal Malaysia Police (Polis Diraja Malaysia)
ii. Road Safety Department of Malaysia (Jabatan Keselamatan Jalanraya Malaysia)
Royal Malaysia Police (Polis Diraja Malaysia)
Objectives
Reduce crime to a minimum;
Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of human resource development;
Increase the rate of disposal of cases and combating organized crime;
Reduce drug supply and demand;
Improve the efficiency of financial management and optimal logistics
requirements for the success of the police;
14
Enhance the effectiveness of enforcement, public order and national security and
Enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the acquisition and analysis of security intelligence
for combat activities that threaten national security and / or public order.
Road Safety Department of Malaysia (Jabatan Keselamatan Jalanraya Malaysia)
Objective
It's an agency responsible for advocacy programs and road safety education
Agencies that are involved in Transportation
i. Ministry of Transport (Kementerian Pengangkutan Malaysia)
ii. Road Transport Department (Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan)
Ministry of Transport (Kementerian Pengangkutan Malaysia)
Objective
To provide a supply driven integrated transport network infrastructure.
To provide technology driven, modern and efficient transport systems.
To provide an excellent and safe seamless public and cargo transportation.
To provide a competitive environment for the transport industry.
To provide effective enforcement and monitoring with integrity.
1.2.3 The connection between government agencies involved in highways and traffic in Malaysia
PRIME MINISTER'S DEPARTMENT
ECONOMIC PLANNING UNIT
MINISTRY OF
MINISTRY OF HOUSING & MINISTRY OF ENTREPRENUERIAL & MINISTRY OF WORKS MINISTRY OF HOME
LOCAL GOVERNMENT TRANSPORTATION COOPERATIVE AFFAIRS
DEVELOPMENT
TOWN & COUNTRY ROAD TRANSPORT COMMERCIAL HIGHWAY PLANNING ROYAL MALAYSIA
PLANNING DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT VEHICLE LICENSING UNIT POLICE
BOARD
MALAYSIAN HIGHWAY
AUTHORITY
ROAD BRANCH
Figure 1-20 : A chart that shows the connection between government agencies involved in highways and traffic in
Malaysia
15
Table 1-2 : Summary of the Functions of Government Agencies
in Road & Transport Administration
Functions Department / Agency Involved
Planning, financing and control of road Economic Planning Unit
construction Highway Planning Unit
Design, construction and maintenance of roads and Public Work Department
highway Malaysian Highway Authority
Road Transport Department
Road licensing
Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board
State Police
Control and enforcement
Road Transport Department
Road safety Road Safety Council
Preservation of the environment Department of Environment
Town and country planning Department of Town and Country Planning
Providing urban traffic facilities Local Authorities
1.2.4 The importance of the introduction of acts related to roads
The enforcement of an Act or legislation is to protect the public’s safety and
health and to provide an efficiency in the transportation system of Malaysia.
Observation of compliance are conducted by agencies to identify important issues
of traffic law enforcement in the country, examine traditional and innovative
enforcement approaches and tools, and assess their potential to improve
compliance for increased safety on roads.
1.2.5 The importance of act enforcement aspects related to roads and road laws
Protection of third parties against risks arising from motorized vehicles.
Co-ordination and control of means of and facilities for transport
Control of means of and facilities for road construction
Protection for the environment and public health
Justice for victims of transportation abuse.
1.3 THE CONCEPT OF ROAD LAWS AND ACTS OF TRAFFIC AND
TRANSPORTATION
Environmental Quality Act 1974. This act provides for the prevention, abatement, and control of
pollution through licensing, and mandates the conducting of an Environmental Assessment Report for
proposed public and private sector projects to determine and prevent or prepare for the environmental
consequences of the project. It was brought into effect with the implementation of a subsequent set of
specific regulations and laws.
16
Purpose:
Prevention of the pollution
Abatement pollution levels
Controlling the pollution from continues
Prepare for the environmental consequences
(Control of Lead content in motorized fuel 1985)
Prohibition to import or produce fuel with more than 0.4g/litre lead content.
Prohibition to possess fuel with more than 0.4g/litre lead content after 1st January 1986.
Prohibition to import, produce, own fuel with more than 0.4g/litre lead content after 1st January
1986.
1.3.1 The Environmental Quality Act 1974 that resulting from motorized vehicles from the aspect
of pollution:
a. Air
b. Noise
Figure 1-21: Environmental Quality Act 1974 that resulting from motorized vehicles
from the aspect of pollution (Air) (Source: Environmental Quality Act 1974)
Air Pollution
(Kawalan Pelepasan Asap dan Gas 1977)
Not use or allow the car which cause to smoke with a density greater than 50 unit Hatridge of
smoke or a comparable to it
Ringlemann smoke chart can be used as well Hatridge chart to check the density of smoke
emission
Smoke limit means smoke density ambiguity is acceptable for any volume that is released by a
motor vehicle at any time at the source or near to the source of emission
Figure 1-22: Environmental Quality Act 1974 that resulting from motorized vehicles
from the aspect of pollution (Sound) (Source: Environmental Quality Act 1974)
Noise Pollution
The maximum emission of noise allowed by a 2 or 3 wheeled motorized vehicle manufactured
and assembled after 1st January 1990 is according to Standard B:
The maximum sound level that can be produced by more than 3-wheel vehicle is as in Stand. C
90cc and above → 95 dB(A)
17
EXERCISE 1
1. List FOUR (4) road categories in Malaysia.
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain TWO (2) differences between toll highway and federal road in Malaysia.
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. List FOUR (4) act related to roads.
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
18
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 1
1. List FOUR (4) road categories in Malaysia.
(4 marks)
Toll highway
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Federal routes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
State road
_____________________________________________________________________________________
City/council road
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain TWO (2) differences between toll highway and federal road in Malaysia.
(4 marks)
The maximum speed limit for a highway is 110km/h while the maximum limit for regular road is 90 km/h.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Geometry requirement for highways is higher than federal road.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Highways are constructed in two lanes or more while regular roads are usually constructed in a two lane.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. List FOUR (4) act related to roads.
(4 marks)
Road Transport Act 1976
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Environmental Quality Act 1974
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Urban and Rural Planning Act 1976
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Local Government Act 1976 and Federal Territory Act 1973
_____________________________________________________________________________________
19
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
2.1 THE CONCEPTS OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
2.1.1 Introduction of transport and road engineering
Transport Engineering
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods
Relationship between transport, human and goods
Transport
Human Goods
LIFE
Figure 2-1: Relationship between transport, human and goods
20
The relationship between transport, people and goods
Transport People Goods Infrastructures
• used to move people • that need to be • that need to be • which includes a
and/or goods transported transported variety of fixed
• the development of • Community lifestyle • Transportation installations such as
transport system developed – new system increase roads and streets,
causes the changes transportation caused supply and railroads, pipelines,
community lifestyle systems exist & demand goods also canals, airports and
and become more introduce more increase harbors
modernize sustainable • movement of
transportation system. goods/freight (going
in and out) to a
certain location also
increases.
Figure 2-2: Relationship between transport, human and goods
2.1.2 The duration of transportation planning
Transportation planning is a field involved with the evaluation, assessment, design and sitting of
transportation facilities (generally streets, highway, footpaths, bike lanes and public transport lines)
which is process to look ahead for provides service in terms of movement of goods and people from a
place of origin to a place of destination in future.
Both plans are synchronized for compatibility
i. SHORT TERM (Action Plan)
Review matters that can be completed within three years and involve high costs.
Example: Installing various traffic control devices such as signs and signals to improve a
traffic congested zone due to sudden increase of traffic demands
ii. MEDIUM/LONG TERM (more than 5 years)
This type of planning is more structured and complicated and it must be designed better
than short term planning
For example; An urban transportation planning process involves planning the next 20 to
25 year
2.1.3 The function of:
a. Transportation
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another.
Transportation allows people and things to go places, whether it is across a room or across an ocean.
There are many forms of transportation, like walking, bicycles, cars, trains, aircraft, boats, and in fact
anything that allows a person or item to move.
21
b. Transportation planning
Characteristic of a good transportation planning
Determine the transportation needs
Make/built a transportation formulas
Study the profitability
Traffic/travel pattern is clear, stable and can be control
Relationship between the various modes of transport.
The transportation system can influence the development for that area and ready to serve it.
2.1.4 The types of transportation
Road networking
Private Transport
Public Transport
Commercial and Trade Transport
Table 2-1 : Mode of transportation
TRANSPORTATION MODES TYPES
Roadways
Private vehicle (motorcar, motorcycle, bicycle)
Recreation vehicle
Heavy vehicle (truck, lorry, bus, etc) Railways
Land transport
Railroads (mostly < 300 miles & suburban commuters;
KTM, ETS – Electric Train Service)
Rail transit (LRT – Light Rail Transit, Monorail, ERL –
Express Rail Transit)
Hovercraft (ferry services)
Waterways transport Ships (cruise traffic, ferry service)
Barges (cargos, containers)
Air carriers (mostly > 300 miles & across bodies of
Airways transport water)
General aviation
Constitute a highly specialized freight transportation
Pipeline transport system
Their market is almost entirely crude oil, petroleum
products and natural gas
Cable and belt system–used extensively for
transportation of freight within industrial complexes.
Other modes – cable & belt system
These are used for specialized passenger
transportation system such as ski lifts and moving belts
in airports
2.2 THE PLANNING ASPECTS OF TRANSPORTATION
2.2.1 The importance on transportation planning
Comfort and Convenience
Ease and Speed
Creation of employment
Production and consumption of products to occur at different locations
Help increase economic development
22
Comfort and Convenience
The world that we live in now will most likely be impossible had it not been for
innovations in transportation. There would not have been any great
infrastructure, industrialisation, or massive production, if transportation was
incompetent. Life would not have kept up with the fast changing times if there
were no huge trucks, bulldozers, trailers, cargo ships, or large aircrafts to carry
them to different places. Today, humanity has technology to thank for all the
wonderful things that it currently enjoys now.
Ease and Speed
Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of goods from one place to
another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers spread in different parts of the country have the
benefit of consuming goods produced at distant places
Creation of employment
Helps in creation of employment: Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals as
drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who are directly engaged in transport
business. It also provides employment to people indirectly in the industries producing various means of
transport and other transport equipment.
Production and consumption of products to occur at different locations
Transport is a key necessity for specialization—allowing production and
consumption of products to occur at different locations. Transport has
throughout history been a spur to expansion; better transport allows more trade
and a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always been dependent
on increasing the capacity and rationality of transport.
Help increase economic development
Transport improvements are not always the best way to improve productivity or increase economic
development. In general, such improvements only increase economic development where inadequate
transport is a significant constraint on economic activity. An area that lacks paved roads may experience
significant economic growth from a new highway or bridge that significantly reduces travel costs, but
once an area has basic highway access, each increase in highway capacity tends to provide less overall
benefit.
Efficiency
To achieve efficient management and better management of existing resources
Effective use of transportation system
Uses of technology
Land use and resource controlling
Quality
To reduce a negative impact to the traffic that produce a pollution
23
Equity
To meet travel demand and response for all communities
2.2.2 The purpose of transportation planning
To identify 4
models of
To recall the transportation
process and
purpose of
construction
To define
transportation planning
planning design
To identify
highway
system
component
Figure 2-3: The purpose of transportation planning
The transportation study conducted in the planning process:
a. Origin destination studies
b. Volume studies
c. Spot speed studies
d. Travel time and delay studies
e. Parking studies
a. Origin-destination/direction studies (O-D)
To show the pattern and nature of daily trips made by the residents
The main purpose of O-D study is to plan the transportation in urban city especially the type of
land use, road/traffic network and public transportation system.
Determine the traffic flow – if traffic congestion occurs, a short cut must be plan to give a
comfortable travel to road user.
Determine whether the existing road system is adequate or not
Determine the suitable/best position of a bridge or new transport terminal to be constructed.
Built a transportation models to make sure the transportation planning will be more easier and
also make a prediction about the traffic pattern in the future.
Method of Origin-Destination (O-D) Study : Road side interviews, License Plate, Return Post
Card Method, Tag on car Method and Home Interview
24
Figure 2-4: Origin-destination/direction (OD)
The work involved in the origin-destination studies
i. Defining the study area
ii. Traffic zone
iii. Data collection
iv. Data analysis
b. Volume study
To collect data on the number of vehicles / pedestrian that pass a point during a specified time
period
To know whether the existing road can accommodate the vehicles that using a road.
To ensure the smooth movement of vehicles and traffic safety
Design for road rehabilitation
Study the traffic at intersection
Study of traffic control systems
Forecast/predict traffic volumes
Study of traffic accidents
Analysis of costs - benefits for highway projects
c. Spot speed study
Conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular
location or spot on a highway
Carried out by recording the speed of a sample of vehicles at specific location
Will be valid only for the traffic and environmental conditions that exist at the time of study.
Establish parameter for traffic operation such as speed zones, speed limits, and passing
restriction
Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices such as variable message sign at work zone.
Evaluate/determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristic
Evaluate the effect of speed on highway and determine speed trends.
25
Figure 2-4: Spot speed study
d. Delay speed study
A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another
on a given route.
Information may also collected on the location, duration, and causes of delays.
Data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problems at the location.
Determine the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
Identification of locations with relatively high delay and the causes for those delay.
Determine the traffic times on specific link for use in trip assignment models
Performance of economic studied in the evaluation of traffic operation alternative that reduce
travel time.
To evaluate the change in efficiency and level of service with time.
A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another
on a given route.
Information may also collected on the location, duration, and causes of delays.
Data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problems at the location.
e. Vehicle parking study
The need of parking spaces is usually very great in the areas where land uses including
business, residential and commercial activities
Providing adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in central parking district
may affect the level of service.
To get the valid information (before and latest)
To know whether it is adequate parking or not
To provide information needed to enable the implementation of payment by the parties
involved.
2.2.3 The general criteria of transport plan selection
Social aspect
Community association
Services and facilities provided
Occupant transfer
26
2.3 THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS
As an engineer, responsibility to planning a new public transportation need to propose transportation
planning process involved with the evaluation, assessment, design and sitting of transport facilities. So
in that process, you can explain :
Evaluation
Transport planning aims to evaluate for ensure that is suitable, safe and interconnected
transport infrastructure for different transport mode such as bus, rail, LRT, Monorail and taxi
services.
It also consider for pedestrian for walking and cycling, which results in improving the
community’s accessibility to jobs, services, recreation and other daily activities.
To provide for and improve the safety and security of transportation customers and the
transportation system.
Collect the data population from survey data to evaluate the size, capacity, location facilities,
land, public transport, material and etc.
Evaluate the duration time for preliminary process, construction process and maintenance
process.
Assessment
Quality assessment especially for quality plan, material quality, workers quality, machinery
quality and investments in transportation systems and services.
Provide a good contractor and developer to organize the quality improvement.
All components related must be systematic, ongoing cycle of collecting and analysing.
The information collected is used to evaluate how the progress to assess the design and
functionality.
To support quality of planning to improvement efforts.
Design
To make sure the design was follow the standard in all aspects covered with transport design,
facilities design, geometry design and infrastructure design.
Environmental consideration to minimize pollution.
The design must be economical to reduce cost of operation and maintenance.
Comfortable design to give users comfortable facilities, convenient and efficient.
To provide safety design and compatible movement of people and goods.
Sitting transport facilities
Provide proper signage and road marking for helping users as guidance to warning and
regulations.
ITS (Intelligent transportation system) was applied to transport facilities.
Advanced traffic control system such as ramp meter also recommend on this proposal.
Vehicle infrastructure integration in order to improve road safety.
Designing equipment and devices to fit human body and cognitive abilities.
27
Figure 2-5: Diagram which illustrates the transportation planning cycle which included in the elements of transportion
planning
The elements of transportion planning :
Inventory
include the establishment of the data for the evaluation of the existing travel demand and
existing travel capacity
Will involve 2 main task which is collecting and processing data.
Land uses
Required a detailed assessment and forecasting in terms of distribution of area, population,
employment, economic, social and land use activities.
Trip generation
The first model of travel demand used in transportation planning process.
Used to predict which zone the traffic will flow.
Trip Distribution
The second model travel demand used in transportation planning process.
To get a travel/traffic pattern (in/out) in a zone
Shows the total traffic in certain time, distance and cost
Modal Split
To estimate the number of trips by different types of transport
Limited to public and private transport only
Traffic Assignment
Intended to give a traffic direction to which road in road/transport network.
Assessment
Contains the testing and evaluation of the alternatives selected before.
emphasis on the ability of the traffic and environmental impact of each alternative strategy
to choose and determine the best transportation system for future needs
28
EXERCISE 2
1. List FOUR (4) types of transportation system
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Give FOUR (4) purposes of transportation planning
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain briefly FIVE (5) characteristics of a good transportation planning
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
29
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 2
1. List FOUR (4) types of transportation system
(4 marks)
Road networking
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Private transport
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Public transport
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Commercial and trade transport
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Give FOUR (4) purposes of transportation planning
(4 marks)
To identify highway system component
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To define transportation planning
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To recall the process and purpose of construction planning design
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To identify four models of transportation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain briefly FIVE (5) characteristics of a good transportation planning
(4 marks)
Determine the transportation needs
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Make/built a transportation formulas
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Study the profitability
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Traffic/travel pattern is clear, stable and can be control
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Relationship between the various modes of transport.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The transportation system can influence the development for that area and ready to serve it.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
30
PAVEMENT MATERIALS
3.1 THE MATERIALS AND TEST ON MATERIAL
3.1.1 The materials used in highway construction:
The materials used in pavement consist of aggregate mixed with binder which is:
a. Aggregate
b. Bitumen and asphalt
c. Tar
d. Cement
e. Fillers
f. Steel reinforcement
The function of each material is as follows:
a. Aggregate – main material that makes up about 93 % of the mix. The strength is resulted from
the interlocks between the aggregate and assist to distribute loads from the traffic in the
pavement
b. Bitumen or Asphalt – is a binder to glue the aggregate together to form an improved mix
c. Tar - a product of coal (black or dark brown rock consisting mainly of carbonized plant matter,
found mainly in underground deposits)
d. Cement - is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently and can bind other
materials together.
e. Filler – its fills the voids between aggregate and help stiffening the binder to produce a
stronger and stiffer mix that could last long.
f. Steel reinforcement - also known as reinforcing steel, reinforcement steel, or a deformed bar, is
a common steel bar and is commonly used as a tensioning device in reinforced concrete and
reinforced masonry structures holding the concrete in compression.
3.1.2 The objectives and characteristics of asphaltic concrete mix
Asphalt Concrete is the asphalt mix in place on the road including levelling and surface courses
during and after spreading and compacting. The design of an asphalt concrete mixture includes the
selection of the best blend of aggregates and the optimum asphalt content to provide a material that
meets the required specifications as economically as possible.
31
Table 3-1: Different between Asphalt vs Bitumen
Asphalt Bitumen
American European
Thailand Malaysia
Asphalt / Asphalt Cement (AC) Bitumen
Hot Mix = AC + Aggregate Premix = Bitumen + Aggregate
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) / Asphaltic Concrete / Asphalt Concrete
Asphalt Concrete
The objectives of asphaltic mix
The objectives of asphaltic concrete mix design are to produce an asphaltic concrete mix by
proportionating various components so as to have:
• Sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable pavement
• Sufficient stability under traffic loads
• Sufficient air voids
– Upper limit to prevent excessive environmental damage
– Lower limit to allow room for initial densification due to traffic
• Sufficient workability
Characteristics of asphaltic concrete mix
When a sample of asphalt mixture is prepared in the laboratory, the asphalt mixture is analyzed to
determine the probable performance in a pavement structure. The analysis focuses on five
characteristics of the asphalt mixture and the influence those characteristics are likely to have on
asphalt mixture behavior. An asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in
order to obtain the following desirable mix properties:
i. Stability - is its ability to resist shoving and rutting under loads (traffic).
i. Durability - it is the resistance against abrasion and weathering.
ii. Impermeability - Impermeability is the resistance of an asphalt pavement to the passage of air
and water into or through it.
iii. Workability – it is measure of ease with which a bituminous mix can be laid and compacted.
This property is a function of the aggregate grading, shape of particles, texture of particles, type
of bitumen used, and bitumen content.
iv. Flexibility – this property of the mix measures the capability of the surface in bending, without
shearing and cracking.
v. Fatigue Resistance - is the pavement’s resistance to repeated bending under wheel loads (traffic).
vi. Skid Resistance - Skid resistance is the ability of an asphalt surface to minimize skidding or
slipping of vehicle tires, particularly when wet.
An example of the difference between weight and volume of asphalt mixture is given in Figure 3-2
Figure 3-2: Component Diagram of Compacted Sample of Hot Mix Asphalt
32
3.1.3 The uses, types and grades of aggregate and binder
Aggregates
“Aggregate” is a collective term for sand, gravel and crushed stone mineral materials in their natural or
processed state (NSSGA, 1991). In hot mix asphalt (HMA), aggregates are combined with a asphalt
binding medium to form a compound material. The raw material which is used as road aggregate can
be further classified as:
a. Naturally occurring aggregate :
i. Igneus
ii. Sedimentary
iii. Metamorphic
Figure 3-3: Sources natural aggregate
b. Artificial Aggregate
- Blast Furnace Slag
- Burnt Shale
In road construction materials, some other terms used for aggregate are:
i. Coarse Aggregate – pass sieve 28mm and retained sieve 2.36 mm
ii. Fine Aggregate – pass sieve 2.36 mm and retained sieve 75 micron
iii. Mineral Filler – pass sieve 75 micron, consist fine material such as cement, lime, crushed
aggregate dust
Figure 3-4: Different between Fine and Coarse Aggregate
33
Road Aggregate
Natural Artificial
Igneus Sedimentary Metamorphic
Basalt Flint Hornfels
Gabbro Gritstone Quartzite Blast furnace
Granite Limestone Schist Slag
Porphry Gravel Burnt Shale
Sand
Figure 3-5: Classification of road aggregates
Figure 3-6: i. Rounded, ii. Irregular, iii. Angular, iv. Flaky, v. Elongated, vi. Flaky & Elongated
(Source: BSI 812: 1975)
Aggregate physical properties
Aggregates can be classified by their mineral, chemical and physical properties. The pavement industry
typically relies on physical properties for performance characterization. An aggregate’s physical
properties are direct result of its mineral and chemical properties.
Important properties of aggregates are:
i. Strength – to withstand crushing, impact during construction and traffic load
ii. Soundness – resistance to disintegration under weathering
iii. Shape and surface texture – help in interlocking, resistance to sliding, affect strength
iv. Affinity – properly coated by binder
v. Relative density and absorption – stripping, drying time and mix design
vi. Resistance to wear (hardness) – polished under traffic, skid resistance
vii. Gradation – quality and pavement strength
34
Bitumen or Asphalt
Asphalt or bitumen is a dark brown to black, highly viscous, hydrocarbon
produced from petroleum distillation residue. This distillation can occur
naturally, resulting in asphalt lakes or occur in petroleum refinery using crude
oil. The primary use (70%) of asphalt/bitumen is in road construction, where it
is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt
concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products,
including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.
Bitumen is graded according to standardised testing methods. Bituminous binders preparations most
commonly used are:
Penetration bitumen: Grade of bitumen is determined by Penetration and Viscosity Test.
Cut-back bitumen: Bitumen (60-85%) + light solvent (kerosene, gasoline, and naphthalene)
Bitumen emulsion: Bitumen (55-70%) + water, either penetration bitumen or cutback bitumen.
Penetration graded bitumen
Bitumen is classified by the depth to which a standard needle will penetrate under specified
test conditions. This “pen” test classification is used to indicate the hardness of bitumen, lower
penetration indicating a harder bitumen. Penetration grades are listed as a range of penetration units
(one penetration unit = 0.1 mm of penetration by the standard needle). Specifications for penetration
graded bitumens normally state the penetration range for a grade, e.g. 50/70.
In Malaysia, use of 80-100 PEN is very common. However, the 60-70 PEN is recommended in the new
JKR specification. For cold climate regions, softer grade is preferred whereas hot climate demands
harder grade. Typical range of pen value is 40 to 300 PEN.
Penetration Graded Bitumen Grades in correspondence to ASTM D946-09 and EN 12591-2009,
including:
ASTM D946-09 Grades:
Bitumen Penetration Grade 40-50
Bitumen Penetration Grade 60-70
Bitumen Penetration Grade 85-100
Bitumen Penetration Grade 120-150
Bitumen Penetration Grade 200-300
EN 12591-2009 Grades:
Bitumen Penetration Grade 20/30
Bitumen Penetration Grade 30/45
Bitumen Penetration Grade 35/50
Bitumen Penetration Grade 40/60
Bitumen Penetration Grade 50/70
Bitumen Penetration Grade 70/100
Bitumen Penetration Grade 100/150
Bitumen Penetration Grade 160/220
Cut-back bitumen
Cut-backs are bitumen preparations in which the viscosity of the binder has been reduced by the
addition of a volatile solvent, normally derived from petroleum (bitumen that is dissolved in a solvent).
Typically the solvents used are white spirit Naptha, gasoline, and kerosene. Cut-back products are
typically used for spraying and some mixing applications. The type of solvent controls the curing
time while the amount determines the viscosity of the Cutback Bitumen.
The advantage Cutbacks have over Emulsions is a much higher residual Bitumen percent, typically
over 80% compares with over 40-65% for Bitumen emulsions.
35
Cutback Classification
Cutbacks are divided into two classifications, Rapid-Curing (RC) and Medium-Curing (MC) depending
on the solvent used. They are further defined by a number which indicates the minimum kinematic
viscosity (fluidity) of the cutback.
Rapid Curing (RC)
• It has been used for the tack coat and surface treatment.
• Produced by mixing the bitumen with petrol.
Medium Curing (MC)
• Produced by mixing the bitumen with kerosene.
• It has been used for prime coat and cold mix for the patching work.
Slow Curing (SC)
• Produced by mixing the bitumen with the diesel.
• It has been used especially for the prime coat, cold mix for patching work and dust control.
Grades and Properties
Table 3-2: Grades and Properties for cut-back bitumen
Penetration of
Grade Curing Speed Viscosity
Residue
MC 30 Medium 30-60 120- 150
MC 70 Medium 70-140 120 -150
MC 250 Medium 250- 500 120 -150
MC 800 Medium 800- 1600 120- 150
MC 3000 Medium 3000- 6000 120- 150
RC 70 Rapid 70-140 80- 120
RC 250 Rapid 250-500 80- 120
RC 800 Rapid 800- 1600 80- 120
RC 3000 Rapid 3000- 6000 80- 120
* Kinematic Viscosity at 140 deg F ( 60 deg C), in Centistokes , Penetration of Residue at 77 deg F (25
deg C) , 100 grams, 5 seconds.
Bitumen emulsion
Bitumen Emulsions have being developed and exponentially increased sinned they were
created in 1900. Bitumen emulsion usually consists of bitumen droplets suspended in water. The
bitumen particle charge can be positive (cationic), negative (anionic), or uncharged (non-ionic)
depending on the emulsifier employed. The binder can be either a bitumen, cutback, or modified
bitumen. Bitumen emulsions are used largely in road surfacing applications, such as surface dressing,
cold mixtures and slurry seals.
They are primarily used for tack coats for use in between hot mix asphalt layers and prime coats for
thin hot mix surfacing layers or a chip seal pavements.
Bitumen emulsions are divided into three categories:
Anionic with negatively charged globules
Cationic with positively charged globules
Non-ionic with neutral globules.
36
The different between bitumen and tar
Table 3-3: The different between bitumen and tar
Bitumen Tar
viscous liquid/solid
black or brown in color adhesive quality
having adhesive qualities, a product of coal (black or dark brown rock
Consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived consisting mainly of carbonized plant matter,
from petroleum or occuring naturally and soluble found mainly in underground deposits)
in carbon disulphate (80-85% C, 10% H)
3.1.2 The types and their objectives of tests on road construction materials:
The types of tests on materials
The tests for evaluate on Aggregates Properties are:
i. Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812:Part 110:1990)
ii. Ten Percent Fine Value (BS 812:Part 111:1990)
iii. Aggregate Impact Value (BS 812:Part 112 :1990)
iv. Los Angeles Abrasion (ASTM C: 131-81)
v. Soundness (AASHTO-T :104)
vi. Flakiness Index (BS 812:Section 105.1 :1989)
vii. Elongation Index (BS 812 :part 1 :1975)
viii. Water Absorption and Specific Gravity (BS 812:part 2:1975)
ix. Coating and Striping (AASHTO-T :182)
x. Polished Stone Value (BS 812:Part 14:1989)
xi. Sieve analysis (BS 1377:Part 2:1990)
The objectives of tests on road construction materials
The objectives of test for aggregates are:
i. Aggregate Crushing Value
To determine the percentage aggregate crushed by applying compressive load. Standard
size of aggregate is normally used i.e passing 14 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve size.
Place about 3000 gm of aggregate in the mould in three layers and compact with rod 25
times for each layer. Use compression machine to compress the aggregate for 10 minutes
with gradually applying load from 0 to 400 kN. Then, sieve out the aggregate using 2.36
mm sieve size and determine the weight passing and calculate the ACV
Figure 3-7: Aggregate Crushing Value and Ten Percent Fine Value Equipment
37
Figure 3-8: Aggregate Crushing Value Equipment
ii. Ten Percent Fine Value
To determine the load needs to crush the aggregate with 10 percent fine. Sample is
prepared similar to ACV test, then apply the expected load that could produce ten percent
fine. Calculate the exact percentage of fine and calculate the exact load using the following
formula provided the fine is the range of 7.5 to 12.5%
Where : f = Load applied
y = Percent Crushed
iii. Aggregate Impact Value
To determine percent crush due to impact load. Size used is aggregate passing 14 mm
retained 10 mm. Aggregate is placed in the mould and compacted in a mould with 25 times
of rodding. Then, it is subjected to 15 times of impact loading. After impact, calculate the
weight crushed using 2.36 mm sieve size and determine the AIV :
38
Figure 3-9: Aggregate Impact Value Equipment
iv. Los Angeles Abrasion
To determine the percent of degradation under combination of
abrasion or attrition, impact and grinding. Aggregates weight 5000
gram are placed in a steel drum with specified number of steel balls.
Drum is rotated 500 revolutions at 33 rpm. Then, aggregates are
sieved with 1.70mm sieve size and calculate :
Steel Balls
Result before and after
rotate in steel drum
Figure 3-10: Los Angeles Abrasion
39
v. Soundness
To determine resistance to disintegration due to cycle of wetting and drying, heating and
cooling (weathering). Aggregates are soaked in solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate
for 16-18 hours. Remove sample and put in oven at 105C or 16-18 hours. Repeat the same
process until complete 5 circles. Then wash and dry the sample. Sieve the sample and
calculate:
Result before and
after soaked in
solution
Figure 3-11: Soundness
vi. Flakiness Index
To determine percentage of flaky aggregate. An aggregate is considered
flaky when its thickness is less than 0.6 times its average dimension.
Aggregate that needs to be tested is between 6.3 mm and 63 mm.
Aggregate according to the size and weight is recorded. Each aggregate
is to be inserted to the specific slot and record the weight of passing
aggregate. Aggregate passes the slot is considered flaky.
Sample of flaky
aggregate
Fig ure 3-12: Flakiness Index Equipment
40
vii. Elongation Index
To determine percentage of elongated aggregate. An aggregate is
considered elongated when its thickness is more than 1.8 times its
average dimension.
Sample of elongated
aggregate
Figure 3-13: Elongation Index Equipment
viii. Water Absorption and Specific Gravity
To indicate the strength and porosity of aggregate. Aggregate with high specific gravity is
expected to have high strength.
Figure 3-14: Equipment using water displacement method for specific gravity
ix. Coating and Striping
To determine the adhesion of the bitumen and the aggregate with the influence of water
x. Polished Stone Value
This test is only for aggregate to be used for wearing course. PSV indicates the resistance
to polishing effect by traffic.
41
Figure 3-15: British Pendulum Tester
xi. Sieve analysis
In the sieve analysis, a sample dry aggregate of known weight is separated through a
series of sieves with progressively smaller opening. Once separated, the weight of
particles retained on each sieve is measured and compared to the total sample weight.
Particle size distribution is then expressed as a percent retained by weight on each sieve
size. Result is usually expressed in tabular or graphical format.
Figure 3-16: Sieve analysis (Source: W.S. Tylor Corp.)
42
Notes:
For complete testing procedure, please refer to MS 30, BS 812, ASTM and AASHTO
For road construction specification, refer to JKR/SPJ/1988 & 2008 and Arahan Teknik Jalan JKR/REAM
Table 3-4: Course Aggregate for Bituminous Mix
(Source: Jabatan Kerja Raya, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR ROADWORKS, JKR/SPJ/2008-S4, 2008
3.2 DESIGN THE CONCRETE MIX OF MATERIALS IN ROAD AND
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
3.2.1 Design of asphaltic concrete mix using Marshall Mix Design Method
Asphaltic concrete mix design are to produce an asphaltic concrete mix by proportionating various
components so as to have:
• Sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable pavement
• Sufficient stability under traffic loads
• Sufficient air voids
– Upper limit to prevent excessive environmental damage
– Lower limit to allow room for initial densification due to traffic
• Sufficient workability
Developed by Bruce Marshall for the Mississippi Highway Department in the late 30’s and was
refined by the US Army Corps of Engineers in the 1940s and 1950s.
OBJECTIVE : To determine the optimum bitumen content in the mix wearing course and binder
course in designing the pavement structural of flexible pavement
The two most common traditional methods for making and evaluating trial mixes have been:
i. The Marshall method : use impact hammer
ii. The Hveem method : use kneading compactor
iii. New method (Superpave gyratory) : use gyratory compactor to simulate field compaction,
able to accommodate large size aggregate (Developed by the Strategic Highway Research
Program (SHRP) )
43
Procedures
Figure 3-17: Marshall Mix Design Method Procedures
Aggregate evaluation
i. Determine aggregate physical properties, i.e toughness and abrasion, durability and abrasion,
cleanliness and particle shape
ii. If the aggregate is acceptable according to the step no (i), then performed other required tests
: gradation, specific gravity and absorption
iii. Perform blending calculations to achieve the mix design gradation. Often, aggregates from
more than one source or stockpile are used to obtain the final aggregate gradation used in a
mix design. Trial blends of these different gradations are usually calculated until an
acceptable final mix design gradation is achieved
Sample preparation
i. For each laboratory design mix gradation, four specimens shall prepared for each bitumen
content with the range given in Table 3.1 at increments of 0.5 percent, in accordance with
ASTM D1159 using 75 blows/face compaction standard.
ii. All bitumen contents shall be in percentage by weight of the total mix
Table 3.5: Design Bitumen Contents
(Source: Jabatan Kerja Raya, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR ROADWORKS, JKR/SPJ/2008-S4, 2008
(page 27))
AC 10 - Wearing Course 5.0 - 7.0%
AC 14 - Wearing Course 4.0 - 6.0 %
AC 28 - Binder Course 3.5 - 5.5%
44
Figure 3-18: Aggregate Mixing Specimen
Density determination
Compacted specimens have cooled to room
temperature, the bulk specific gravity of each test
specimen shall be determined in accordance with
ASTM D 2726
Marshall Stability and Flow test
i. The stability and flow value of each test
specimens shall then be determined in
accordance with ASTM D 1559.
ii. The stability portion of the test measures the
maximum load supported by the test
specimen at a loading rate of 50.8
mm/minute (2 inches/minute).
iii. The maximum load achieved, after correction
to allow for variation in specimen size, is
reported in kN as the Stability of the mix.
iv. The differential movement of the between
initial and maximum loading is recorded as
the Flow (mm)
Figure 3-18: Marshall Stability and Flow Test
Using Dial Gauge
Plotting test results and determination of optimum bitumen content (OBC)
i. After the completion of the stability and flow test, specific gravity and voids analysis shall be
carried out for each test specimen to determine the percentage air voids in the compacted
aggregate filled with bitumen (VFB) and that percentage air voids in the compacted mix
(VIM).
ii. The average values of bulk specific gravity, stability, flow, VFB and VIM obtained above shall
be plotted separately against the bitumen content and smooth curve drawn through the
plotted value.
Figure 3-20: Five different types of graphs in Marshall Design
45
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