b. Design life
The design life refers to the span of time between the initial opening to traffic until the pavement
requires a strengthening overlay. The design life should not be confused with the pavement life since
the pavement life can be extended by routine maintenance and rehabilitation. The typical design life is
10 years.
The design life on JKR Design Method is suggested for 10 years. The design life begins from the road
starts in use for traffic until the maintenance is required.
c. Sub-grade condition
In case of varying CBR for 1m depth of sub-grade, mean CBR is determined as follows:
3
1/3
CBRm = [(h1CBR1 1/3 + h2CBR2 + … + hnCBRn ) / (1000)]
1/3
Where:
CBRm = mean CBR for that location
CBR1, CBR2, … CBRn = CBR of soil strata
h1, h2, … hn = thickness of soil strata (mm)
h1 + h2 + … + hn = 1000 mm
A minimum CBR of 5% is recommended for pavements that have to support traffic volumes
corresponding to Traffic Classes T2 through T5.
For road pavements that designed for large volumes traffic (Traffic Classes T4 and T5), a minimum sub-
grade strength corresponding to CBR of 12% is recommended. For pavements design purposes, the use
of average CBR or sub-grade modulus test results is not recommended.
d. Drainage
To ensure the safety of the travelling public, careful consideration must be given to remove the runoff
from the roadway through the structure of the pavement drainage facilities.
7.2.2 Explain traffic loads and axle weight
Figure 7-5: Vehicle Classifications
94
Example
120 kN 100 kN 80 kN
The total mass of a commercial vehicle is 300kN and is transmitted to the pavement via three axles. The
first axle is 120kN, second 100kN and the third is 80kN. The value of equivalent factor, F.
F = (L/Ls)
4
F = (120/80) + (100/80) + (80/80)
4
4
4
F = 8.50
7.2.3 The Public Work Department flexible design pavement method.
Malaysian Design Methods
Adopt design method based on AASHTO Guide, and catalogue of structure method:
i. Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 – based on AASHTO road test, developed using multi-layered
elastic theory. Suitable for major roads with heavy and medium traffic
ii. Overseas Road Note 31 – based on research in tropical and sub-tropical countries
Pavement thickness Design Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85
Data required:
i. Design life, x – suggests 10 years
ii. Class of roads
iii. Initial Annual Daily Traffic – AADT (Veh/day)
iv. Percentage of Commercial Vehicle - Pc
v. Average annual traffic growth - r
vi. Sub-grade strength - CBR
vii. Terrain condition
Design Procedure:
i. Calculate Initial Annual Comercial Vehicle Traffic per direction, Vo
Where AADT = average annual daily traffic (veh/day) in both direction
Pc = percentage of commercial vehicles
D = Directional distribution (0.50 if directional split is 50:50)
L = Lane distribution (1.00 if single lane)
95
ii. Total Number of Commercial Vehicles per direction, Vc
Where r = traffic growth rate
x = Design life
iii. Total Equivalent Standard Axles, ESA
ESA = Vc x e
Where, e = equivalent factor (Refer Table 3.1 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85 or e = 2.52)
iv. Daily Traffic Flow at the end of the design period, Vx
V x = V 1 (1 + r) Where V1 = AADT / 2 (per direction)
x
v. Capacity Estimation
Maximum Hourly Capacity, c
c = I x R x T
Where I = Ideal hourly capacity (Refer Table 3.2 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85)
R = Roadway Reduction Factor (Refer Table 3.3 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85)
T = Traffic Reduction Factor (Refer Table 3.4 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85)
vi. Daily Capacity, C
C = 10 x c
Note: Assume c is 10% of C
96
Check C > Vx
If C > Vx Capacity will not be exceeded at the end of the design period (OK)
If C < Vx Capacity will be exceeded by the end of the design period (not OK)
When C < Vx happens, need to reduce design period.
Years required to reach capacity,
vii. Thickness Calculation, TA
T A = a 1 D 1 + a 2 D 2 + … + a n D n
Where a1, a2, a3 = Structural Coefficients (Refer Table 3.5 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85)
D1, D2, D3 = Layer Thickness (Based on Refer Table 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8 in (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85)
97
≥
≥
≥
≥
98
viii. Define equivalent thickness, TA’ using Nomograph Thickness
Based on subgrade CBR, ESA and TA values (Using Figure 2)
In case of varying CBR for 1m depth of sub-grade, mean CBR is determined as follows:
CBR m = [(h 1CBR 1 + h 2CBR 2 + … + h nCBR n ) / (1000)]
3
1/3
1/3
1/3
Where:
CBRm = mean CBR for that location
CBR1, CBR2, … CBRn = CBR of soil strata
h1, h2, … hn = thickness of soil strata (mm)
h1 + h2 + … + hn = 1000 mm
Make sure TA ≥ TA’
vii. Sketch the designed thickness
99
Example
Worked example
The following conditions are given:
Class of road JKR 05
Initial daily traffic volume (ADT) 6,600 bothway
Percentage of commercial vehicles 15%
Annual growth rate 7%
Equivalence factor 2.0
Subgrade CBR 5%
Rolling terrain
Initial annual commercial traffic for one way, Vo
Vo = = 6600 x 15 x 365 x 0.5 x 1
100
= 180,675
Accumulative sum of commercial traffic one way for 10 year design period
Vc = 180,675 [(1 +0.07) - 1]
10
---------------------------------
0.07
= 2.50 x 10
6
Total Equivalent Standard Axles
6
ESA = 2.0 x 2.5 x 10
= 5.0 x 10
6
Maximum Hourly One Way Traffic Flow
c = I x R x T
c = 1000 x 1.0 x 0.77 = 770 vehicles per hour
Assuming hourly capacity is ten per cent of daily capacity.
C = 7700 veh/day/lane
The estimated daily traffic Vx after 10 years is given by
Vx = 6,600 (1 + 0.07)
10
--------------------------
2
= 6490 veh/day/lane
Check C > Vx
Hence capacity has not been reached after 10 years.
100
6
From figure-2, the Nomograph shows that for an ESA of 5.0 x 10 , the required TA’ is 26 cm.
1
2
4
3
5
101
Design of Layer Thickness
TA = a1D1+ a2D2+ ... + anDn
1st Trial
Nominate D1 = 12.5 cm
D2 = 18.0 cm
D3 = 20.0 cm
Then TA = 1.0 x 12.5 + 0.32 x 18 + 0.23 x 20
= 25.36 cm < TA'
2nd Trial D1 = 15.0 cm
D2 = 20.0 cm
D3 = 20.0 cm
Then TA = 1.0 x 15 + 0.32 x 20 + 0.23 x 20
= 26.0 cm
Make sure TA ≥ TA’, so choose 2 trial
nd
Taking into consideration the minimum thickness requirements, the pavement structure then comprise
of the following layer thicknesses
Wearing - 5 cm
Binder - 10 cm
Base - 20 cm
Subbase - 20 cm
102
EXERCISE 7
1. Heavy trucks and buses are responsible for a majority of flexible pavement damage. Figure
shows two axles vehicle is loaded with 200 kN. Calculate the load equivalency factor for the
vehicle.
100 kN 100 kN
Figure 7-6 :
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. From the data below, determine:
i. Initial annual commercial traffic for one way, Vo .
ii. Cumulative commercial traffic for the design period, Vc .
(The required follow as a JKR Malaysia Design Method on these data)
Descriptions Data
Carriageway width 7.5 m
Shoulder width 2.0 m
ADT, both ways 9,600
Percentage of commercial vehicles 15%
Traffic growth rate 7%
Subgrade CBR 5%
Terrain Rolling
(6 Marks)
103
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 7
1. Heavy trucks and buses are responsible for a majority of flexible pavement damage. Figure
shows two axles vehicle is loaded with 200 kN. Calculate the load equivalency factor for the
vehicle.
100 kN 100 kN
Figure :
(4 marks)
e (2 axle) = (L 1 / 80) + (L 1 / 80)
4
4
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4
4
= (100 / 80) + (100 / 80)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
=
4.9
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. From the data below, determine:
i. Initial annual commercial traffic for one way, Vo .
ii. Cumulative commercial traffic for the design period, Vc .
(The required follow as a JKR Malaysia Design Method on these data)
Descriptions Data
Carriageway width 7.5 m
Shoulder width 2.0 m
ADT, both ways 9,600
Percentage of commercial vehicles 15%
Traffic growth rate 7%
Subgrade CBR 5%
Terrain Rolling
(6 Marks)
i. Initial annual commercial traffic for one way , Vo .
Vo = PLH x ½ x 365 x Pc
= 9600 x ½ x 365 x 0.15 = 262800
ii. Cumulative commercial traffic for the design period, Vc .
x
Vc = Vo [(1 + r) - 1]/ r
10
= 262800 [(1 + 0.07) - 1]/0.07 = 3630962.524 x 10 6
104
JUNCTION DESIGN
8.1 THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF JUNCTION
8.1.1 Junction
A road junction is where two or more roads either
meet or cross at grade (they are at the same level)
or different levels (interchange). Such a road
junction may also be called a crossroads.
8.1.2 The factors that affect junction load
Geometrical design and traffic control
devices
Total or length wide
Distribution design
Turning radius Figure 8-1: Junction
8.1.3 The types of movement at a junction
Junction without signage / control
Priority junction
Junction with channelization
Roundabout with and without traffic light
Signal Controlled Intersections
Grade Separated Intersections (Intercharges)
Junction without signage / control
Figure 8-2: Junction without signage/control
105
Priority junction
Three forms of priority junction are simple T-junction, staggered T-junction and crossroad
junction (not recommended)
T- junction or staggered junction without any ghost or physical island in the major road and
without channeling islands in the minor road approach.
Simple T-junction Crossroads Staggered Junction
Figure 8-3: Priority Junction
Junction with channelization
Figure 8-4: Junction with channelization
Roundabout with and without traffic light may be applicable
for total traffic volume (sum of all directions) of up to 6000
vehicles/hour and may if the layout can be freely chosen, be
designed to cater for any distribution of turning traffic.
Figure 8-5: Roundabout with and without traffic light
Signal Controlled Intersections are applicable to very high
traffic volume of 8,000 veh/hour or more provided that the
necessary number of approach lanes are present and that there is
no interference from other nearby intersections.
Figure 8-6 : Signal Controlled Intersections
106
Grade Separated Intersections (Intercharges)
Trumpet interchange
Diamond interchange
Partial cloverleaf
- Full cloverleaf
- Modified cloverleaf
Trumpet interchange Diamond interchange Partial cloverleaf
Figure 8-7: Grade Separated Junction
Types of movement at a junction
i. Diverging ii. Merging
iii. Crossing iv. Weaving
Figure 8-8: Movement at a junction
107
8.1.4 The selection factors of junction types;
The principal factors influencing the design of a junction are:
i. Traffic volume and characteristics : an intersection should accomodate with comfort and safety
a design peak traffic volume. The needs of commercial vehicles should be considered.
ii. Topography and environment : the location and design of an intersection will be affected by
many factors including the allignment and grade of approach roads, the need to provide for
drainage, the extent of interference with public utilities, proper acces and the presence of local
features, both man-made natural.
iii. Economics – variotion to existing intersections should be justified by commensurate benefits to
traffic
iv. Human factors – in an intersection design, driver characteristics should be considered
8.1.5 Traffic light design and phases
Figure 8-9: Two Phase Cycle
Figure 8-10: Three Phase Cycle
Figure 8-11: Four Phase Cycle
108
8.2 THE CONCEPT OF JUNCTION DESIGN, CONFLICT AREA AND
ROUNDABOUT
8.2.1 The term of traffic light circulation phase design:
a. Lost time - Time during which the intersection is not effectively used by any approach
b. Actual green time - The time within a cycle in which an approach has the green
indication
c. Effective green time - The time that is effectively available to the permitted traffic
movements. It is the equivalent time during which the actual flow can be maintained at
the saturation level. Taken to be green time plus the change interval minus the lost time
for approach.
d. Red time The time during which a given traffic movement is effectively NOT
PERMITTED to move. It is the cycle length minus the effective green time.
e. Amber/yellow time - The amber plus red intervals that provide for clearance of the
intersection before conflicting traffic movements are released.
f. Cycle length - One complete sequence (for all approaches) of signal indications (green
amber red)
g. Interval - A period of time during which all signal indications remains constant
h. Phase – Part of a time cycle allocated to any traffic movement receiving the right way
8.2.2 The types of junction:
a. Types of At grade junction
Three-leg intersection (Consist of three approaches)
Tee junction and Y junction
Four-leg intersection (Consist of four approaches)
Staggered junction, skewed junction, scissors junction, cross junction
Multileg intersection (Consist of five of more approaches)
Multiway junction
109
8.2.3 The conflict point and the conflict area at a junction
The number of potential conflict points at an intersection depends on the:
i. Number of approaches to the intersection
ii. Number of lanes on each approach
iii. Type of signal control
iv. Extent of channelization and
v. Movements permitted
Table 8-1: The relationship between the Total of conflicts with Junction
Total Junction Intersect Conflict Link Conflict Diverge Conflict Total of Conflict
3 3 3 3 9
4 16 8 8 32
5 49 15 15 79
6 124 24 24 172
(Sources : Arahan Teknik (J) 11/87)
Figure 8-12: Conflict Points
110
8.2.4 The characteristics and the types of roundabout
Roundabouts
A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction
in which road traffic flows almost continuously in one
direction around a central island
Figure 8-13: Roundabouts
Characteristics of Roundabouts
Suitable for 3 to 5 or more junction, have almost similar flow, no intersect flow
Non-serious accident do occur, but less than two third compare to signalized junction
Needed large area, non-warranty of pedestrian safety
If has high volume, roundabout will be locked
Not easily updated as traffic signal
Require a lot of traffic sign, central island must be lighted during night time, can be landscape to
reduce night
Advantages of roundabout Disadvantages of roundabout
Circle requires a wide flat area
Safety Pedestrian safety is not guaranteed
Improved traffic flow The circle will not easily be amended or
Better solution for complex intersections modified
Fewer conflict points If traffic volume is too high, the circle will
be “locked” and causes a long delay
Types of roundabouts
Conventional roundabout, Dc > 25m , Di > 50
Figure 8-14: Conventional roundabout
111
Small roundabout, 25 > Dc > 4m , 50m > Di > 20m
Figure 8-15: Small roundabout
Mini roundabout, 4 > Dc, 20 > Di
Figure 8-16: Mini roundabout
Twin roundabout
Figure 8-17: Twin roundabout
Grade separation roundabout
Figure 8-18: Grade separation roundabout
112
Signalized roundabout
Figure 8-19: Signalized roundabout
8.4.1 Sight distance, design speed and optimal circulation time for two-phase at a junction
Sight Distance
Sight Distance is the moving distance along the road that can be seen clearly by the driver or the
way in which the distance of an object at a certain height can be seen by drivers on an ongoing basis.
According to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the
ability of a driver to see ahead on the roadway is of paramount importance for the safe and efficient
operation of a vehicle. In general, sight distance refers to the driver’s line of sight. Insufficient sight
distance is a significant factor in roadway crashes and many other near collisions.
THREE types of Sight Distance:
i. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
ii. Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
iii. Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
Traffic Signal Timing : Design Principles
STEP 1 : Determination Of Saturation Flow, S
i. No On-Street Parking
a. Effective approach width, W = 5.5m S = 525 W
b. W < 5.5m, Refer Table 8-2
Table 8-2 : Relationship between effective lane width and saturation flow
W (m) 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 5.0 5.25
S (pcu/hr) 1845 1860 1885 1915 1965 2075 2210 2375 2560 1760
ii. B.ON-STREET PARKING, W is reduced where
Z = clear distance of the nearest parked car from the stop line ( > 7.6m)
K = green time in seconds
If LW is negative, take LW as 0. For parked lorry and wide van, LLW should be increased by
50%.
113
STEP 2 : Determination Of y Value
Where,
y = Ratio of flow to saturation flow
q = Actual flow on traffic-signal approach in pcu/hr (refer table 2 for conversion to pcu)
S = Saturation flow for the approach in pcu/hr
The Y value for a phase is the highest y value from the approaches within that phase. For the whole
junction , Y = Σyi
Where,
n = number of phases
yi = highest y value from the approach within phase I
The Y value is a measure for the occupancy of the intersection
Preferably, Y ≤ 0.85
If Y > 0.85, it is recommended that the geometrics of the intersection be upgraded to increase capacity
Table 8-3 : Coversion factors to pcu
Vehicle type Equivalent pcu value
Passenger cars 1.00
Motorcycles 0.33
Light Vans 1.75
Medium Lorries 1.75
Heavy Lorries 2.25
Busses 2.25
STEP 3 : Determination Of Total Lost Time Per Cycle, L
Total lost time per cycle is given as L = Σ (I-a)+Σ ℓ
Where,
I = Intergreen time between phases = R+ a R = all red interval
a = amber time (assumed 3 seconds)
ℓ = drivers reaction time at the beginning of green per phase
(in practice, it is set as 2 seconds but 0-7 seconds can also be used)
STEP 4 : Determination Of Optimum Cycle Time, Co
Co = is the average delay for intersection, but this delay is not increased if the cycle time
varies within the range of 0.75 to 1.5 of the calculated Co (in seconds)
For practical purposes, 45s < Co <120s, although an absolute minimum of 25s
can be used
114
STEP 5 : Determination Of Signal Settings
Effective green time plus the change interval minus the lost for a designated phase.
The total effective green time = cycle time- total lost time
g1+g2+…+gn = Co - L
When n denotes the number of phases and gn is the effective green time for phase n.
For optimum conditions, (2 phase cycle) g1/g2 = yi
With the above ratio, the following formulas apply to each individual phase (in seconds)
Where,
gn = effective green time of the nth single phase
Yn = calculated Y-value of the same signal; phase
G = g + ℓ + R Where,
G = actual green time
K = Controller Setting time
K = G – a – R
= g + ℓ – a
Phase Diagram
Gn = gn + ℓ + R
Kn = Gn - a - R I
PHASE N GREEN a R RED GREEN
ℓ gn = yn (Co - L)/Y
Optimum Cycle, Co = (1.5L + 5)/(1 - Y)
Example 8.1
Table shows peak-hour volumes and saturation flow for a major intersection on an expressway.
Table 8-4 : Saturation Flow Table
Unit Lane Group North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Car 259 264 580 557
Motorbike 150 118 158 124
Flow (pcu/hr)
Bus 47 46 43 35
Heavy Vehicle 58 62 40 45
Width (mm) 6.0 6.0 7.0 7.0
Fg 1.00 1.00 0.88 1.12
Fr 0.95 0.99 0.95 0.98
Fl 0.98 0.99 1 1
115
Given : Assume :
Car = 1.00 pcu Amber time, a = 3 sec
Bus = 2.25 pcu Lost Time, ℓ = 2 sec
Heavy Vehicle = 1.75 pcu All red interval, R = 2 sec
Motorbike = 0.33 pcu
From the data given, determine :
i. Optimum cycle time both phases
ii. The actual green time for each phase
iii. The time diagram for each phase
Solution:
Unit Lane Group North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Car 259 264 580 557
Motorbike 150 118 158 124
Q, Flow (pcu/hr)
Bus 47 46 43 35
Heavy Vehicle 58 62 40 45
259 x 1 + 150 x 0.33
Flow, q (pcu/hr) + 47 x 2.25 + 58 x 514.94 798.89 755.42
1.75 = 515.75
Width (mm) 6.0 6.0 7.0 7.0
Fg 1.00 1.00 0.88 1.12
Fr 0.95 0.99 0.95 0.98
Fl 0.98 0.99 1 1
S = 525x Width, (pcu/hr) 525 x 6 = 3150 525 x 6 = 3150 525 x 7= 3675 525 x 7= 3675
3150 x 1 x 0.95 x 3150 x 1 x 0.99 x 3675 x 0.88 x 0.95 3675 x 1.12 x 0.98
S’ actual
0.98 = 2933 0.99 = 3087 x 1 = 3072 x 1 = 4033
y = q / S’ 0.18 0.17 0.26 0.19
y max 0.18 0.26
Y = y1 + y2
= 0.18 + 0.26
= 0.44 ≤ 0.85 (OK)
Time between green, I = R + a
= 2 + 3
= 5 sec
Total lost time, L = ( I - a ) + ( I - a )2 + ℓ 1 + ℓ 2
= (5 - 3) + (5 - 3) + 2 + 2
= 8 sec
i. Optimum Cycle, Co = (1.5L + 5)
1 - Y
= (1.5(8) + 5)
1 - 0.51
= 30.4 ≈ 35 sec ≤ 120 sec (OK)
Effective green , gn = yn (Co – L)
Y
g for each phase, :
Phase 1 N/S : g1 = 0.18 (35 – 8) = 11.04 sec ≈ 11 sec
0.44
116
Phase 2 E/W : g2 = 0.26 (35 – 8) = 15.95 sec ≈ 16 sec
0.44
ii. Therefore, Actual Green Time /Masa hijau sebenar, Gn = gn + ℓ + R
Phase 1 N/S : G1 = g1 + ℓ + R = 11 + 2 + 2 = 15 sec
Phase 2 E/W : G2 = g2 + ℓ + R = 16 + 2 + 2 = 20 sec
Controller Setting time, Kn = Gn – a – R
K1 = G1 – a – R = 15 – 3 – 2 = 10 sec
K2 = G2 – a – R = 20 – 3 – 2 = 15 sec
ii. The time diagram ;
Phase Diagram
K = 10 sec I = 5sec
GREEN a R RED
PHASE 1 GREEN
10sec 3s 2s 20sec
0 10 15 35
ℓ=2s g1 = 11sec
Optimum Cycle, Co = 35 sec
RED GREEN a R
PHASE 2 RED
15sec 15sec 3s 2s
0 10 15 35
Optimum Cycle, Co = 35 sec
117
Example 8.2
Contoh Soalan :
A 2-phase signal is to be installed at the following junction. Q flow is shown in the figure and Saturation
flow is shown in the following table.
N
416
W E
780
1000
356
S
Table 8-5: Saturation Flow Table
Direction/Cabang North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Saturation Flow/Aliran Tepu, S
(pcu/hr) 1950 1950 2250 2250
Intergreen/ Masa antara hijau = 4 sec
Amber/ Masa kuning = 3 sec
Lost time /Masa terhilang = 2 sec
a) Determine the total lost time, L
b) Determine the optimum cycle time, CO
c) Determine the actual green time for each phase.
d) Sketch the traffic signal diagram
Solution:
Direction/Cabang North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Actual flow/Aliran Sebenar (q) 416 356 1000 780
pcu/h
Saturation Flow/Aliran Tepu, 1950 1950 2250 2250
S (pcu/hr)
y = q/s >0.21< 0.18 >0.44< 0.35
a. Select maximum value,
y (E/W) = 0.44
y (N/S) = 0.21
Y = ∑ y maximum
= 0.44 + 0.21
= 0.65 ≤ 0.85 (OK)
Total lost time per cycle /Jumlah masa terhilang, L = ∑ ℓ + ∑( I – a)
Where,
Intergreen time between phases /Masa antara hijau, (I) = 4 s
Amber time /Masa kuning, (a) = 3 s
Drivers reaction time at the beginning of green per phase /Masa terhilang, (ℓ) = 2 s
118
Determine L,
L = [ℓ1 + ℓ2] + [(I1 – a1) + (I2 - a2)]
= [(2 + 2)] + [(4 – 3) + (4 – 3)]
= 6 saat
b. Optimum cycle time / Masa Pusingan Optima, Co = 1.5 L + 5
1 - Y
= 1.5 (6) + 5
1 - 0.65
= 40 s
c. Effective Green Time, g = Co - L
= 40 - 6
= 34 s
Effective Green Time for each phase, :
Phase 1 N/S : g(i) = y (N/S) x g = 0.21 x 34 = 11 s
y 0.65
Phase 2 E/W : g(ii) = y (E/W) x g = 0.44 x 34 = 23 s
y 0.65
Therefore, Actual Green Time /Masa hijau sebenar :
k = g (i) + (ℓ - a)
Phase 1 N/S : k1 = 11 + 2 - 3 = 10 s
Phase 2 E/W : k2 = 23 + 2 - 3 = 22 s
d. Traffic signal diagram:
Phase Diagram
K = 10 sec I = 4sec
GREEN a R RED
PHASE 1 GREEN
10sec 3s 1s 20sec
0 10 14 40
ℓ=2s g1 = 11sec
Optimum Cycle, Co = 40 sec
RED GREEN a R
PHASE 2 RED
14sec 22sec 3s 1s
0 10 14 40
Optimum Cycle, Co = 40 sec
119
EXERCISE 8
1. State FOUR (4) types of grade-junction
(4 marks)
2. Describe briefly TWO (2) advantages and TWO (2) disadvantages of roundabout
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Two phase traffic light is suggested for a junction. Based on Table, determine
i. Total of loss time, L
ii. Optimum Cycle Length, Co
iii. Effective green time for each phase
iv. Actual green time for each phase
v. Sketch the time phase diagram
Table 8-6: Saturation Flow Table
Direction/Cabang North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Actual flow/Aliran Sebenar (q) 550 700 500 880
pcu/h
Saturation Flow/Aliran Tepu, 1975 1975 1875 1875
S (pcu/hr)
Given: Intergreen time = 5 seconds
Amber period = 3 seconds
Lost time = 2 seconds(15 marks)
120
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 8
1. State FOUR (4) types of grade-junction
(4 marks)
Three-leg intersection (Consist of three approaches)
Tee junction and Y junction
Four-leg intersection (Consist of four approaches)
Staggered junction, skewed junction, scissors junction, cross junction
Multileg intersection (Consist of five of more approaches)
Multiway junction
2. Describe briefly TWO (2) advantages and TWO (2) disadvantages of roundabout
(4 marks)
Advantages: Dis advantages:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Safety Circle requires a wide flat area
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Improved traffic flow Pedestrian safety is not guaranteed
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The circle will not easily be amended or modified
Better solution for complex intersections
_____________________________________________________________________________________
If traffic volume is too high, the circle will be
Fewer conflict points
_____________________________________________________________________________________
“locked” and causes a long delay
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
121
3. Two phase traffic light is suggested for a junction. Based on Table, determine
i. Total of loss time, L
ii. Optimum Cycle Length, Co
iii. Effective green time for each phase
iv. Actual green time for each phase
v. Sketch the time phase diagram
Table
Direction/Cabang North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Actual flow/Aliran Sebenar (q) 550 700 500 880
pcu/h
Saturation Flow/Aliran Tepu,
S (pcu/hr) 1975 1975 1875 1875
Given: Intergreen time = 5 seconds
Amber period = 3 seconds
Lost time = 2 seconds
(15 marks)
Answer :
i. Total Lost Time, L
L = ∑ℓ + ∑( I – a)
= [2 + 2] + [ (5 - 3) + (5 – 3)]
= 8 sec. ≤ 0.85 (OK)
ii. Optimum cycle, Co
Determine Y and ∑Y
Direction/Cabang North/Utara South/Selatan East/Timur West/Barat
Actual flow/Aliran Sebenar (q) 550 700 500 880
pcu/h
Saturation Flow/Aliran Tepu, 1975 1975 1875 1875
S (pcu/hr)
y = q/S 0.28 0.35 0.27 0.47
y max 0.35 0.47
Y = ∑Y max
= (0.35 + 0.47) = 0.82
Determine the optimum cycle time, Co
Co = 1.5 L + 5
1 - Y
= 1.5 (8) + 5
1 - 0.82
= 94 sec
iii. Effective Green Time for Phase 1 and 2, g
g = Co - L = 94 - 8 = 86 sec
122
G for each phase, :
Phase 1 : g (i) = y (1) x g = 0.35 x 86 = 37 sec
y 0.82
Phase 2 : g (ii) = y (2) x g = 0.47 x 86 = 49 sec
y 0.82
iv. Therefore, Actual Green Time /Masa hijau sebenar :
K = g (i) + (ℓ - a)
Phase 1 : K = 37 + ( 2 - 3 ) = 36 sec
Phase 2 : K = 49 + ( 2 - 3 ) = 48 sec
v. Traffic signal diagram:
Phase Diagram
K = 36 sec I = 5sec
GREEN a R RED
PHASE 1 GREEN
36sec 3s 2s 53sec
0 36 41 94
ℓ=2s g1 = 37sec
Optimum Cycle, Co = 94 sec
RED GREEN a R
PHASE 2 RED
41sec 48sec 3s 2s
0 36 41 94
ℓ=2s g1 = 49sec
Optimum Cycle, Co = 94 sec
123
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
9.1 THE CONCEPT OF ROAD ACCIDENT AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Traffic management is the management and controlling of transportation modes, carriers and
services. It is often used to describe the adjustment process of the usage of road system and
transportation, to fulfill the specific objectives without any road construction needed. Traffic
management include the technique that use to make the movement of goods and humans become easier
by using the existing road and direct road users towards a safer and more efficient use of the other
existing infrastructure and also improve environment.
Traffic management focuses on how to use the existing roads and infrastructures to maximize the
effectiveness of the system to reduce traffic ingestion. Traffic management can be in long term and also
in short term. It is therefore an essential element in increasing the efficiency and safety of transport
networks and operations
9.1.1 The factors causing accident:
a. Human
b. Road condition
c. Vehicle
Human Factor
Percent of accident for human factor contribute 85.74 %.
Factor:-
Factors of vision, hearing, comfort, fatigue and emotional drivers.
Hasty attitude and selfish
Driving while intoxicated, unreal @ sleepy.
Interfere with driver attention.
Pedestrians do not obey the traffic rules
Figure 9-1: Human Factors
124
Road Condition
Poor road design,
Sample design and junction layout is not ideal, less visibility.
Poor environment
Example:- a flooded road surface causing a slippery roads, poor maintenance, and weather
conditions.
Less equipment and road markings
Signs and road lines that is not enough and not clear, and lighting is not good.
Narrow roads cause many vehicles do not have room to move in the event of an emergency.
Vehicle Factors
Vehicle defects
Such as tires and brake defects (the vehicle is not functioning properly).
Capacity against resistance and skid
If the vehicle is in good condition vehicle can stop safely (tires).
Acceleration and deceleration
Good vehicle is a vehicle that can acceleration and deceleration quickly.
Figure 9-2: Vehicle Factors
9.1.2 The functions of traffic management
To ease traffic congestion
Enhance road safety
Improve traffic flow
Improve the transportation of people and goods
Reduce the impacts of traffic on the environment
Create a balance modal split
9.1.3 The purpose of traffic management
To reduce the number of accidents
To ensure the smoothness of traffic movement
To improve the movement of goods and humans
To balance the modal split
To minimize the clash between vehicles and the pedestrian
To control and manage car parks
To reduce the conflict of the movement of traffic
125
9.1.4 Traffic management techniques:
a. Physical management of road system
b. Instruct form and traffic regulation management
c. Management of information to road user
d. Management of payment for traffic facilities.
Physical management of road system
Separation of traffic movement
Junction improvement
Geometry of local area improvement
Physical detention of traffic movement
Changing of level, texture of surface and alignment for speed control purpose
Introduce the coordination of phase traffic control Modification of traffic sign and road sign
Provision of public transport facilities
Provision of facilities for pedestrian and cyclist
Modification of landscape and road tools
Example : Car park control and Metered ramp
Instruct form and traffic regulation management
Traffic Control
Turning movement barriers
One-way street
Limiting vehicle speed
Tidal flow method (Tidal)
Road Marking
Management of information to road user
Traffic direction sign
Control traffic route
High occupant vehicles campaign program (HOV)
Management of payment for traffic facilities
Method of Additional License
Parking Management
Appreciation Blockade
Physical Barriers
Reward system path
9.2 THE CAR PARK NECESSITY FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF USERS
The observation of the car park
Main Purpose: To identify the necessity of car park and to determine the physical necessity so that the
car park supply can be change or added.
The importance of car park management
To improve the value of the passenger/vehicle
To decrease the time travel
To decrease traffic jam
To reduce pollution and noise
To reduce accident
126
9.2.1 The effects of car park areas on traffic flow
a) Traffic congestion
road capacity is reduced
pedestrian speed will decrease
travel time will increase
delays
b) Accident
can caused accident
users tend to change the direction of movement towards parking
Parking at the wrong place can caused accident.
the user opened and come out from the vehicles suddenly
c) Obstacle to the operation of the fire extinguishing
Blocked traffic may interfere with the passage of emergency vehicles travelling to their
destinations where they are urgently needed.
9.2.2 The method of preparing inventory, car park area and types of car park area
Inventory Preparation
Inventory of parking space
Things needed in preparing the inventory/information on parking space
Data related to the amount of space, location and potential areas for parking.
Detailed study area with the mark in the form of a map or plan.
Divides the study area into several fractions according to the streets.
Parking spaces on a smaller scale or not gazetted also be considered.
The data relating to parking facilities should be recorded as follows: -
The number and length of the road.
The amount of space available on the road somewhere. Location of bus stops and taxi,
pedestrian crossings and other.
Management rules as a one-way
street, airport and other turning.
The amount and types of traffic
signs.
Private streets.
Vacant land, abandoned the right to
be the parking space.
9.2.3 The method of car park area usage
Term studies
To determine the length of time that
the vehicle is placed in the study
area.
Continuous observations need to be
conducted in all areas of the possible
car park.
Reviewers should sit within an area
which is quite hidden for fear of
disturbing the observed values.
Figure 9-3: Car Park
127
Different travel to be considered in this review should not be too long, as it will impact both the
observed values.
Information about the period also possible can be obtained
through parking tickets.
Interview study
Is the most detailed survey parking.
Common questions are about where the journey starts, destination
and purpose of trips made.
Details on the duration and concentration parking can also be
collected during the survey interview.
In this method, the survey area is divided into several areas.
When limited reconnaissance personnel, especially for areas long
term parking, information obtained through interviews indirectly 75
derived through survey questionnaires sent back. Figure 9-4: Car Park
In the above case, the questionnaire given to the driver
The questionnaires should include a request for each driver to answer the questions asked by
complete and return it by post.
9.2.4 Administrative ways and car park area control method
Methods to control the parking:
Time limit (20 minute/hour and etc)
Using Car Park Meter
Through parking tape or other card show.
Parking control
Raising parking fees
Prevent parking for a long time
Limit parking space
Solution to congestion and traffic barriers
45
System of traffic control or retaining Figure 9-5: Car Park
car pooling
Lift giving
Car sharing
Van pooling
Modification of traffic flow
Prohibition round to the right
One-way street
Edges occlude
The differences between Parking Demand and Parking Turnover
Parking demand is the number of vehicles whose drivers desire to park at a specific location or in a general
area where parking turnover is a number of vehicles utilizing the same stall over a given period of time
(four or more during an 8-hour period indicates a high turnover rate)
Parking demand is usually expressed as the number of vehicles during the peak parking hour but parking
turnover measures utilization.
128
9.3 THE CONCEPT OF ROAD ACCIDENT AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
Road accident is a tragedy that affects all people whether as drivers, passengers, or pedestrians. Term
accident according to the “Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka‘ means an unexpected event occurs. Accident rate
in Malaysia is increasing and disturbing our society today. Road accidents occur in many places no
matter straight road, cross roads, traffic lights and roundabouts. Road accidents occur on a daily basis,
whether a minor injury or casualties.
9.3.1 How traffic management reduce road accidents
Traffic Management can help to reduce road accidents through Engineering, Law Enforcements, Road
studies and researches, and Road safety awareness campaign and administration.
Engineering
Various engineering measures can be conduct .This include the elements of road design, road geometry,
road signs, street lighting and visibility.
Enforcement and Legal
The law should be tightened further and impose fines for those who violate the speed limit, the vehicle
in non-emoting, not parking in a reserved and so forth.
Research
Research on road safety should be enhanced as driver attitude, psychological drivers, driver training
and engineering aspects to reduce accidents.
Road Safety Administration
Funding should be sufficient to carry out a road safety precautions.
For example;
Provide a toll system at the entrance to the city.
Prohibit the park on the side of the road for the critical areas.
Build a pedestrian bridge and build a fence on the road under the bridge so that pedestrians
have to use the bridge.
Widening of the critical path.
Provide car sharing program.
Provide parking zone on the outskirts of the city center and basement.
Provide zebra crossings if it is at the crossroads Conner then made sharp at the junction.
Prohibit heavy vehicles entering the city center at certain times.
Increase the one-way street.
Transfer out to the edge of the city bus station.
129
EXERCISE 9
1. State FOUR (4) purposes of traffic management
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Clasify FOUR (4) traffic management techniques.
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe briefly TWO (2) differences between Parking Demand and Parking Turnover
(4 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
130
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 9
1. State FOUR (4) purposes of traffic management
(4 marks)
To reduce the number of accidents
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To ensure the smoothness of traffic movement
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To improve the movement of goods and humans
_____________________________________________________________________________________
To minimize the clash between vehicles and the pedestrian
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Clasify FOUR (4) traffic management techniques.
(4 marks)
Traffic physical management techniques
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Instruction form and traffic regulation management
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Management of information to road users
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Management of payment for traffic facilities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe briefly TWO (2) differences between Parking Demand and Parking Turnover
(4 marks)
Parking demand is the number of vehicles whose drivers desire to park at a specific location or in a
_____________________________________________________________________________________
general area where parking turnover is a number of vehicles utilizing the same stall over a given period of
_____________________________________________________________________________________
time (four or more during an 8-hour period indicates a high turnover rate)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Parking demand is usually expressed as the number of vehicles during the peak parking hour but
_____________________________________________________________________________________
parking turnover measures utilization.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
131
HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
10.1 THE TECHNIQUE FOR HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
The techniques for highway maintenance
Road maintenance is a continuous process that involves keeping and repairing of the existing road. So, it
is carried out to control the rate of damage and to ensure the safety towards the road users or the public.
The purposes on road maintenance:
i. To ensure the durability of road.
ii. To maintain the usage for the traffic user.
iii. To improve the traffic system operation.
The organizations that involve with road maintenance in Malaysia:
i. Federation Government by Highway Malaysian Boarded for highway link maintenance.
ii. Federation Government by Federation JKR for federation road link maintenance.
iii. State Government by State JKR, District JKR, Town Council etc. For local and state roads link.
Visual Assessment of Surface Conditions
Assessment of surface conditions is used by road authorities to:
i. Measure of the ability of the pavement to continue to provide the required service to the public
ii. Determine the inadequacies and deficiencies of pavements
iii. Determine the remedial measures to be taken; and
iv. Planning and programming of pavement maintenance and/or rehabilitation
In this assessment, pavement distresses are categorized and quantified. Distress in flexible pavement can
be categorized as cracks, surface deformations, surface defects, patches, potholes and edge defects.
Crack
Cracks results from partial or complete fracture of pavement surface. Cracks can be isolated or
interconnected. The damaging effects of cracks are: loss of water proofing layers, loss of load spreading
ability, loss of fines from road base due to pumping, loss of riding quality and loss of appearance.
132
Possible causes of cracks include: depression, age embrittlement, fatigue life has been exceeded,
reflection cracks from underlying layers, pavement shrinkage, insufficient thickness, poor bonding,
braking and turning and poor construction joints.
Possible treatment depends on the causes but may include: pavement strengthening, reconstruction, cut
and patch, improve drainage, crack sealing, thin overlay, reconstruction of joint, widen and strengthen
pavement edge and use stiffer mix.
Cracks can be divided into six types based on their shape:
i. Longitudinal crack: Cracks parallel to the pavement’s centerline or laydown direction, can be
isolated or in series with limited branching.
ii. Transverse: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement’s centerline or laydown direction.
iii. Edge crack: Crescent shape or continuous, parallel and usually 300 to 600mm from the road edge.
Usually occur along unpaved shoulder.
iv. Block crack: A series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the MHA surface under
repeated traffic loading. As the number and magnitude of loads becomes too great, longitudinal
cracks connect forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces with size between 100 to 300 mm
v. Crescent shape: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks generally having two ends pointed into the
direction of traffic, usually related to shoving and occur only on bituminous layer. Also known
as slippage cracks.
Surface Deformation
Posibble causes : inadaquate pavement thickness, inadequate compaction, low stability mix, low stability
base/sub-base, change in subgrade volume, settlement of layers, lack of adhesion between surface
layers, stop and start of vehicles at intersections or rounabouts, settlement of trenches/service line.
Possible treatments: strengthening overlay or reconstruction, mill of and replace surface with stiffer mix,
reconstruction or strengthening of road base, improve subsurface drainage and reconstruction of
subgrade or base.
Types of surface deformation :
i. Rutting : longitudinal depression in the wheel paths after repeated application of axle loading.
ii. Shoving : an abrupt wave or bulging of road surface where braking or acceleration movements
occurs, cause by traffic pushing against the pavement. Transverse shoving may occur with
turning movements.
iii. Corrugation : a form of plastic movement typified by closely spaced ripples resulting in rough
ride and becomes worse with time. The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction.
iv. Depression : loacalized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the
surrounding pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.
Surface Defect
Posibble causes : excessive application of binder, paving over flushed or excessively primed surface,
insufficient binder content, poor adhesion of binder to aggregate, inadequate tack coat, seepage of water
into pavement and adhesion of binder to vehicle tires.
Types of surface defects :
i. Bleeding : the presence of film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface, likely to occur in the
wheel paths. It usually creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface that can become sticky when
dry and slippery when wet.
ii. Raveling/Stripping : the progressive disintegration of the pavement surface due to loss of bond
between aggregates and asphalt binder resulting in dislodgement of aggregate particles.
133
iii. Polishing : the smoothening or rounding of surface aggregate. Aggregate extending above the
asphalt binder is either very small or there no rough or angular aggregate particles.
iv. Delamination : the loss of discrete and large area wearing course, exposing the layer underneath.
Figure 10-1: Types of Cracks
Figure 10-2: Types of Surface Defects Figure 10-3: Types of Surface Deformation
(Source: Jabatan Kerja Raya (1992). “A Guide to Visual Assessment of Flexible Pavement Surface Conditions.”
Kuala Lumpur: IKRAM)
10.1.1 The types of highway maintenance in Malaysia
The highway maintenance operation is specifically planned according to restorative and preventive
methods. The types of highway maintenance in Malaysia listed below:
i. Emergency maintenance
ii. Routine maintenance
iii. Periodic maintenance
iv. Rehabilitation maintenance
134
Emergency maintenance
• To solve the problems that occurred outside expectations and outside maintenance schedule.
• It is a immediate maintenance is carried out to overcome an incident that happened outside the
immediate maintenance area.
• Need urgent maintenance that can’t be postponed.
• The incidents are ;
a. Bank avalanche
b. Erosion
c. Flood
d. Carcass
e. Traffic light damage
f. Accident
Erosion Flood Traffic Light Damage Accident
Figure 10-4: Incidents that happened need urgent maintenance
Routine maintenance
• Routine maintenance is implemented in order to avoid massive destruction that was caused by
heavy traffic and weather condition.
• Schedule maintenance must be performed within specific time given
• Involves elements of planning and provision of term finance.
• The activities include:
a. Grass cutting.
b. Drainage cleaning
c. Puddle patch/tile.
d. Road shoulder maintenance.
e. Bridge and culvert cleaning.
f. Sign board cleaning.
g. Bridge maintenance.
h. Traffic light and
i. intersection checking
135
Table 10-1: Routine Operation Maintenance
Activities Return period
• Grass cutting • 4 – 6 times per year
• Drainage cleaning • 12 times per year
• Puddle patch/tile • if needed
• Road shoulder maintenance • 2 – 3 times per year
• Bridge and culvert cleaning • 2 times per year
• Sign board cleaning • 2 – 3 times per year
• Bridge maintenance • 1 – 2 times per year
• Traffic light and Intersection checking • When have any requirement.
Periodic maintenance
• Maintenance work performed regularly scheduled
• Involves the monitoring, measurement & evaluation of road components.
• But cycle for the Periodic maintenance activities plan carried out in longer frequency.
• The activities include:
a. Rebuild A2 road surface with premix.
b. Surface dressing.
c. Grading and rebroadcast shoulder roads stone.
d. Paint the center road line.
e. Repainting road furniture
f. Repavement the road
g. Cut and patch the crack road
Table 10-2: Periodic Operation Maintenance
Activities Return period
• Rebuild A2 road surface with premix • 7 – 10 years per time
• Surface dressing • 3 – 5 years per time
• Grading and rebroadcast shoulder roads stone • 2 – 3 years per time
• Replace the members of wooden bridge • 2 – 3 years per time
• Paint the center road line • 1 – 2 times per year
• Gravel and Soil Road Surface Maintenance. • 3 – 5 years per time
Rehabilitation maintenance
• Required when the routine and periodic maintenance is not able restore to a good road condition.
• Required when the routine and periodic maintenance is not able restore to a good road conditions
• Road assessment is required when there are increases in traffic volume more than the limits
specified.
• Frequency of restoration depends on road and traffic conditions
10.1.1 The duties carried out by the road maintenance management
a. Inventory management
b. Damaged inspection
c. Determination of the need of maintenance management
d. Cost estimation and sources to execute works
e. Identify priority
f. Preparation of work schedule
g. Monitoring
136
10.1.2 The maintenance techniques for flexible pavement
Road maintenance is a continuous process that involves keeping and repairing the existing road.
It is carried out to control the rate of damage and to ensure the safety towards the road users or the
public. The rehabilitation techniques for flexible pavement that are listed below:
Restoration
Is designed to restore the surface to suitable condition and best applied to pavement with
distress limited to the surfacing.
Techniques include rejuvenation, crack sealing, patching and thin bituminous overlay.
Rejuvenating: spraying a layer of bitumen or polymer modified bitumen onto the
hardened/aged bituminous surface.
Crack sealing: seal the cracks from ingress of water to reduce water infiltration into pavement
.Small cracks may be filled with crack filler.
Cutting and patching: replacement of deteriorated asphalt surface with new bituminous mixture
placed and compacted to the same level with the surrounding surface to maintain the riding
surface.
Thin bituminous overlay: improves the surface riding quality and can extend the pavement
service life. Commonly methods are surface dressing, slurry seals and thin hot mix overlay.
Resurfacing
For pavement with severe and extensive structural damage.
It involved placement of fresh material on an existing surfacing to increase its structural strength
and improve the riding quality of the surface.
Necessary to carry out a proper overlay thickness design to achieve the desired design life.
Two methods for resurfacing: thick asphalt overlay with or without granular overlay.
With granular overlay – involves construction of a crushed aggregate layer on the existing
pavement prior to laying the asphalt layer. Without granular overlay – require pre-treatment such
as crack sealing, application of hot sand, cut and patch, reconstruction and the use of
geosynthetic material have to be carried out at localized failed areas.
Recycling
Has long been practiced in developed countries.
Is essentially old pavement that is reclaimed for use
Material collected in loosed granular from as a by product of pavement.
Pavement can be recycled via hot or cold methods or in plant or in place
The benefits are lost cost maintenance, reuse existing material effectively and avoid costly
construction.
Reconstruction
2 categorized : Full and Partial reconstruction
Needed when all pavement layers including subgrade have deteriorated
Removal and rebuilding of all or part of the pavement using new material & construction
specification
Partial reconstruction : needed when pavement layers (except subgrade) have lost their stability
and strength
If the failure of the road base is too extensive , recycling of the surfacing usually carried out
The surface and road base are pulverized, additional aggregate or stabilizers may be added &
laid as a new road base
137
EXERCISE 10
1. Describe briefly THREE (3) purposes of road maintenance.
(3 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain in details the reconstruction techniques for flexible pavement
(5 marks)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Match the correct return period and its activities of routine operation maintenance below.
Activities Return period
Grass cutting 1 – 2 times per year
Drainage cleaning 12 times per year
Road shoulder maintenance 4 – 6 times per year
Bridge maintenance 2 – 3 times per year
138
FEEDBACK ON EXERCISE 10
1. Describe briefly THREE (3) purposes of road maintenance.
(3 marks)
i. To ensure the durability of road.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
ii. To maintain the usage for the traffic user.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
iii. To improve the traffic system operation.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain in details the reconstruction techniques for flexible pavement
(5 marks)
2 categorized : Full and Partial reconstruction
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Partial reconstruction : needed when pavement layers (except subgrade) have lost their stability and strength
_____________________________________________________________________________________
If the failure of the road base is too extensive , recycling of the surfacing usually carried out
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The surface and road base are pulverized, additional aggregate or stabilizers may be added & laid as a new road
_____________________________________________________________________________________
base
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Removal and rebuilding of all or part of the pavement using new material & construction specification
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Match the correct return period and its activities of routine operation maintenance below.
139
REFERENCES
1. Arahan Teknik Jalan (Jalan) 8/86. A Guide On Geometric Design Of Roads. Cawangan Ibu Pejabat
JKR.
2. Arahan Teknik Jalan (Jalan) 5/85. Manual On Pavement Design Cawangan Jalan Ibu Pejabat JKR
Kuala Lumpur
3. Arahan Teknik Jalan (Jalan) 11/87. A Guide To The Design Of At Grade Intersection Cawangan
Jalan Ibu Pejabat JKR Kuala Lumpur
4. Atkins, H.N.(2003) Highway Materials, Soils and Concrete. Saddle River, New Jersey Prentice
Hall.
5. Banks, J.H.(2002). Introduction to Transportation Engineering (2nd ed.). New York:McGraw Hill.
6. Bent, T.(2005). Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. UK: Spon Press .
7. Bent, T.(2004). Road Engineering For Development.UK: Spon Press.
8. Martin, R (2009). Highway Engineering. 111 River StreetHoboken, NJ:Wiley, John & Sons,
Incorporated
9. Maycock,G.(1996).The Problem of Water Thrown up by Vehicles on Wet Roads.TRRL Laboratory
Report 4,UK
10. O’flaherty. (2008).Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering. Butterworth-Heinemann:U.S.A
11. Ahmad Kamal Ariffin Bin Abd Rahim, (2002). “Kejuruteraan Jalan Raya dan Lalulintas”.
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia: Batu Pahat, Johor.
12. Abdul Latif Halim, “Kejuruteraan Jalan Raya”. Jabatan Kejuruteraan Awam, POLIMAS: Kedah.
13. Everett C. Carter, Wolfgang S. Homburger, (1994). “Pengenalan Kejuruteraaan Pengangkutan”.
Terjemahan: Amiruddin Ismail. Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka: Kuala Lumpur.
14. Meor Othman Hamzah, Asri Hasan, Mohamed Rehan Karim, (1993). “ Reka Bentuk Jalan Raya
Untuk Jurutera”. Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.
15. Jabatan Kerja Raya (1992). “A Guide to Visual Assessment of Flexible Pavement Surface
Conditions.” Kuala Lumpur : IKRAM
16. PM Dr. Mohd Rosli, H, Tn. Hj. Che Ros, I, and Dr. Haryati, Y, (2011). Edition 2012/13 Highway
Engineering Lecture Notes. Skudai, Desktop Publisher. 1-98 (Tidak Diterbitkan)
17. Malaysian Federal Roads System. Retrieved Jun 2015, from the World Wide Web:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_Federal_Roads_System
18. Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). 1987a. Parking Generation, 2nd edition. Washington, DC.
______. 1987b. Trip Generation, 4th edition. Washington, DC.
140
Siti Zuraifa Binti Md Sah started her career as
Lecturer in Civil Engineering Department, Politeknik Sultan
Idris Shah in 2004. She obtained her Bachelor In Civil
Engineering (B. Eng (Hons.)) from Kolej Universiti Teknologi
Tun Hussien Onn (KUiTTHO) now known as Universiti
Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn (UTHM) and Diploma in
Education (Technical Education) from Institut Sultan Mizan
Zainal Abidin, Besut, Terengganu. She has 8 years experience in teaching
highway engineering courses at Politeknik Sultan Idris Shah and 4 years
experience teaching at Politeknik Melaka. Now, she as a lecturer at Politeknik
Mukah, Sarawak.
Nurul Qamar Bin Hazni obtained his Bachelor In
Civil Engineering (B. Eng (Hons.)) and Master of Technic and
Vocational Education from Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun
Hussien Onn (KUiTTHO). He has 11 years experience in
teaching highway and civil engineering at Politeknik Melaka.
Involved in the setting of final examination questions for
Traffic Engineering.
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