One Million Things_ 2nd edition-compressed

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Apollo 15 mission invPeisotnigeaetrecJruapftiter TIMELINE OF SPACE EXPLORATION
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two Russian
cosmonauts

First international space rendezvous Viking craft land on Mars
Giotto
craft flies
into
Halley’s
Comet

Hubble
Space
Telescope
launched

Columbia, the first space shuttle, takes off

Mars Pathfinder and its rover, Sojourner, touch down on Mars

SPACE TRAVELERS 8

Since the first manned space mission in 1961, more than 10 13
560 people have traveled into space—27 on missions to
the moon and the rest in orbit around Earth. To date, 4
only Russia, China, and the United States have launched
humans into space. However, humans are not the only 6
space travelers. Animals such as dogs, monkeys, and spiders
have all been sent into space to help with research.

3
3

1

2 79
5 11
12

32 1 Alan Shepard was the 7 Eileen Collins became the first 12 Baker, a squirrel monkey, was
31 second person, and first female shuttle pilot in February launched into space on May 28,
American, to travel into space. 1995 and the first female shuttle 1959. She traveled with a rhesus
150 commander in July 1999. monkey called Able.
2 Ulf Merbold, from Germany,
became the first European to 8 Yang Liwei was the first 13 Eugene Cernan was part
fly aboard a space shuttle. Chinese astronaut (taikonaut). of the Apollo 17 mission in
China’s first manned space flight December 1972. He was the last
3 Jim Voss set the record for was launched in October 2003. person to walk on the moon.
longest spacewalk (8 hours 56
minutes) with Susan Helms. 9 Svetlana Savitskaya was the 14 Neil Armstrong was the first
second woman in space and person to set foot on the moon.
4 Susan Helms (see above). the first woman to spacewalk. He spent 2 hours 35 minutes
exploring the lunar surface.
5 Laika was the first animal 10 Michael Collins was the
to orbit Earth. The Russian dog third member of the Apollo 11 15 Yuri Gagarin was the first
traveled in Sputnik 2 in 1957. mission in 1969. He orbited the person to fly into space. His trip in
moon, as Armstrong and Aldrin April 1961 took him once around
6 Alexei Leonov made the explored its surface. Earth and lasted 108 minutes.
first spacewalk in March
1965. He spent 10 11 Dennis Tito was the first 16 Peggy Whitson holds the
minutes in space secured space tourist. He paid $20 record for the longest female
to his Voskhod 2 craft. million for a six-day trip in 2001. spaceflight (289.2 days).

30

22

14 21 23
17
23
15 19

16
18

20 24

17 Mike Melvill was the first 22 Bruce McCandless 28 Arabella, a spider, was 25
commercial astronaut. He piloted made the first untethered sent to the Skylab space 26
SpaceShipOne in June 2004. spacewalk in February 1984. station in 1973. Once
space-adapted, she
18 Valentina Tereshkova was the 23 John Glenn was the first spun perfect webs.
first woman to fly into space. She American to orbit Earth,
made a three-day trip aboard in 1962. He became the 29 Albino rats (see above).
Vostok 6 in June 1963. oldest space voyager in
1998, aged 77. 30 Quail chicks hatched from
19 Gennady Padalka holds the eggs on the Mir space station
record for the total time spent 24 Green tree frogs were taken in March 1990.
in space. In his five trips, he has to the Mir space station in 1990.
clocked up 878.5 days in space. 31 Belka and Strelka
25 Buzz Aldrin was the second became the first dogs to
20 Sam was a rhesus monkey person to set foot on the moon. go into orbit and survive
who was sent into space in 1960 the journey in 1960.
to test equipment that would be 26 Swordtail fish traveled
used in future manned flights. on board the space shuttle 32 Ham was the first
Columbia in 1998. chimpanzee to travel in space.
21 Valeri Polyakov holds the In 1961, he was sent to test
record for the longest time spent 27 Squirrel monkeys and equipment that would be
in space during one trip. His 24 albino rats were taken used in the first US manned
record stands at 437.7 days. to Spacelab-3 in 1985. space mission.

29
28
27

151

ANTARCTICA

The Transantarctic Mountains
extend across Antarctica,
dividing the continent into east
and west. This region bordering
the Ross Sea is known as Terra
Nova and is famous for its
spectacular ice caves.

152

Earth

153

PLANET EARTH

Earth was created some 4.6 billion years ago from a mass of iron-rich,
rocky debris orbiting the sun. The rocks smashed into the young
planet as meteorites and were welded together by heat generated
from the energy of impact. The bombardment eventually EARTH’S STRUCTURE
generated so much heat that the whole planet melted. The
The planet is layered like a peach.

Earth’s rocky crust forms its thin skin,

heavy iron then sank toward the center to become Earth’s while the hot, mobile rock of the
core, while the lighter rocks formed the mantle and crust. mantle is like the peach’s juicy flesh.

At the heart of the planet lies its

metallic core, like the hard stone

at the center of a peach.

1 INNER CORE The cool, rocky crust
forms only a tiny fraction
The inner core is a heavy ball of solid of Earth’s vast mass
iron and nickel. It is heated by nuclear The crust is fused to the
reactions within Earth to 8,500°F top of the upper mantle,
(4,700°C), but the intense pressure at which is in constant motion
the core prevents it from melting.

2 OUTER CORE

The solid inner core is surrounded
by a fluid mass of molten iron, nickel,
and sulfur. Swirling currents in the
molten metal of the outer core
generate Earth’s magnetic field.

43 2 1

3 LOWER MANTLE Plumes of heat rise
through the mantle,
The rocky mantle is 1,800 miles pushing the plates
(2,900 km) deep and is heated to of the crust apart
6,300°F (3,500°C) at its base. Intense
pressure stops it from melting, but
rising heat keeps moving slowly.

4 UPPER MANTLE Mountains are 5
pushed up where 6
The upper mantle is heated to almost oceanic crust is
1,800°F (1,000°C). Where movement dragged beneath
in the mantle cracks the cool, brittle continents
crust, reduced pressure makes the
hot mantle rock melt and erupt
from volcanoes.

5 OCEANIC CRUST

The crust between the continents is
less than 7 miles (11 km) thick. It is
made of heavy rock that erupts from
the hot mantle at midocean ridges to
form the bedrock of the ocean floors.

6 CONTINENTAL CRUST

The lightest of Earth’s rocks form vast
slabs that “float” on the heavy mantle
like huge rocky rafts. Up to 45 miles
(70 km) thick, they rise above sea level
to form the continents that we live on.

154

Huge impact craters THE MOON
have filled with dark
lava erupted from Soon after Earth formed, it
ancient volcanoes was hit by a planet-sized
asteroid that completely
disintegrated. Most of its
heavy metallic core melted
into Earth, but the lighter
rocky fragments drifted into
orbit and eventually fused

to form the moon.

7 The Red Sea is a 7 LAND SURFACE
8 spreading rift in Earth’s
crust that will widen Exposed to frost, wind, rain, and hot
into an ocean sunlight, the rocks at the land surface
are broken down by weathering and
9 erosion. This releases minerals that
10 are vital to plants and other life.

More than 70 percent 8 OCEANS
of Earth’s surface is
covered by ocean water The low-lying basins between the
continents are filled with water,
ON THE SURFACE to an average depth of 2.3 miles
(3.7 km). Most of the water erupted
Movement in the thick, hot from volcanoes as water vapor early
mantle has made the thin, cool in Earth’s history.
crust crack into several huge plates.
The boundaries of these plates are 9 WEATHER SYSTEMS
marked by earthquake zones dotted
with volcanoes and mountain ridges The heat of the sun makes water
pushed up where moving plates collide. evaporate from the oceans and rise
into the lower atmosphere. The water
forms swirling masses of cloud that
spill rain onto the continents,
allowing life to exist on land.

10 ATMOSPHERE

Earth’s mass gives it enough gravity
to retain an atmosphere of nitrogen,
oxygen, and other gases including
carbon dioxide. This keeps Earth
warm at night and shields it from
dangerous radiation.

155

PLATE TECTONICSEhdmwatolroraitohtgvrhrvgieeoc’eetnshchmrkcbeaoreyrcrurneaisshnltbtmleheieoasdaaittnthslthlggheemeerrepnsabau.medrnAlrieldataesttntldecthethdaleaserephdr.cyyTaereumrlehcltspoioiotsnnfwvcitasresiiaon,tmdchtmekehioneneeivtpnstpiptnhlaollaagearystocepveeeuserlpsanrmoaanydrfneaastdttklh.eoeTpewpohuglclaeslyeoth,eabesned, s. 2 tipcodsaugosulAletlisitdttnePehisgndeLeogaraAmw.rpaTtTieatghhhErpaqetilvu,rnaBeowatsleOktacheraabieUlsnneo,oaoNuaaletnnsthsDodd.oeapArtm.hrliaARaeecnlrsIels,yEsttthSbhhweoeehsuyepenalrmaderteaoeorvpsnieeuaemssrpheaelirnanettges Ecrdougncketienodefnutp
tmoofuonrmtains
1
Frroicctikivto,oemnlrcuamapknetionltaegsss Pmtloaoptbeoilsfelimdlaeaysneotrlneat
CTgauohrlpwinensvmadeeysorsagburseeenlinntdfateoeiabunutonhnrudadannewndgrohaectersohi.reneestro.inOneecneptasl,naptfeuloshoirns g Erirdugpetisnogf lsaovlaidforormcks

Australian plate

Eurasian plate

wRiiftthzuonnvdeoeldrcwoantatoteeedrs

African plate Pacific plate

Arabian South American Cocos DwuhzishoovueetnarremlgelyaeapnnnoldattnltbeseooosrcluoeiadncarkiednfyatpforlauioeselolsnrirnuesTgp.whTtaehoipnsiceasetraohatl,cnelocrufwlirfostor.
plate plate plate

Philippine Nazca plate Indian ◀TaocahalcrmereeKraroymeInsTctaaofd4lrnOoe0eto1iFsonrm5sfe,PaltnaahAltnlrisegcRd.rkeCTesootornSenmbecttsueio.ntTonelhfiincgetthpahytllefaepotrllaerarmrsotgeacetsknhsdte
plate North American plate
Scotia
Caribbean plate plate
plate
Antarctic than the ocean floors. The oceanic
plate parts of the plates are always changing
size and shape, but the continents,
although moving, do not
change so much.

156

Tweerbaahauncrethtsrhffeooeqttwruhwmaevokrbo.epolTscluhaaantinlseodoscnaeaagrsuir.eteshsesselTifdfhraieenuqsgleut peflionanrstemt Ldmaisnopdvleafmceeaedtnubtryesplate

Pifnlaadutilectabltioneduenbdyary

Plates grind and
snap, causing
earthquakes

3 North American
Pacific plate slides plate
along transform
boundary of San Caribbean plate
Andreas Fault
CraonagTFeotftehllRocacvodeootbeAtiisvnpherv,eCevl.egaareSreTnmgtoreptdegUmsoslneaCbvfRetntieaietgtbEmprstgioblDboaeaeuobgtnrrnueeeeGtbdnsatboehadLanefcrearOiaipetrrnehuilsgteBmaes,osteEdbo.ePfeutTsvaoh▶shitcrnteimetrfghoifcreyta,ihenpwedgaoretrsld Cocos plate
shows how the plate
boundaries are formed.

Pacific plate

Nazca plate

Plates pull apart at South
East Pacific Rise, a American plate
divergent boundary
157
Cocos plate pushes
baetnceoantvheCrgaerinbtbbeoaunnpdlaatrey

158 VOLCANOES

Volcanoes are the most spectacular and destructive of Eruptions produce
Earth’s geological features. Most volcanoes lie along plate clouds of gas, made
boundaries, where the slabs of rock (plates) that form mainly of water
Earth’s crust meet. Opening rifts and the friction of vapor, carbon dioxide,
plates grinding against each other make the hot rock and sulfur dioxide
beneath the crust melt and burst up through fissures
(cracks). Volcanoes also occur over “hot spots” away Some of the molten rock
from plate boundaries, caused by rising plumes of hurled into the air cools
heat in the mantle beneath Earth’s crust. and hits the ground as
streamlined “lava bombs”
KILAUEA Lavvoarlo,cacacrkinnoyiducbenaurdssth,tfahbrnaeugdiclirdlaeutrepirdage

The Hawaiian islands are a chain of 1
volcanoes that have erupted from the
Pacific Ocean floor as it slips over a hot
spot in Earth’s mantle. The oldest
volcanoes in the north are now extinct,
but Kilauea in the south is the most
active volcano on Earth.

2
3

A small cinder cone The erupting lava
surrounds Kilauea’s has a temperature
of about 1,830°F
most active crater (1,000°C), making it
glow bright orange

4

1 ERUPTION 4 LAVA FLOW Lava flows downhill 5
at speeds of up to
When Kilauea erupts, basalt lava and The lava that erupts from Kilauea is 60 mph (100 km/h)
gas are forced up from deep within extremely hot and is so fluid that it The surface of the lava
the volcano. Basalt lava is very fluid, flows downhill away from the crater cools to form a wrinkled
so a lot of it just spills over the rim of like a river of fire. Since 1983, the or rough, fractured skin
the crater. Erupting gas can also cause volcano has been erupting almost of solid black rock
explosive “fire fountains” of gas and constantly, spilling lava over more
red-hot lava, like this one. than 40 sq miles (100 sq km).

2 CRATER 5 TYPES OF LAVA

Lava boils up through a vent to build Hawaiian lava is molten basalt rock
up a cone of rocky debris. More pushed up from beneath the ocean
eruptions make the inside of the cone floor. It is fluid because it contains
collapse or even explode upward to very little silica (the mineral used to
create a roughly circular crater. Its make glass). Other volcanoes erupt
almost sheer walls reveal layers of lava that is high in silica, which is
cinders, ash, and solidified lava. much stickier and does not flow far.

3 CONE 6 LAVA TUBE

This small volcanic cone is just the As the lava streams away from the
summit of a huge, dome-shaped active crater of Kilauea, the surface
shield volcano, which rises all the of the flow cools and hardens.
way from the ocean floor 23,875 ft Underneath, however, the hot lava
(7,277 m) below. The dome is built keeps flowing. This creates “lava
up by the fluid lava that erupts on tubes” that extend to the coast,
Hawaii. Volcanoes that erupt stickier, where the lava spills into the
less fluid lava have steeper sides. sea in clouds of steam.

The lava that erupts
on Hawaii solidifies
into black basalt—a
heavy, iron-rich rock

6

159

EARTHQUAKES

The vast rocky plates of Earth’s crust are always moving.
Where the plates meet, the movement causes earthquakes.
Frequent slight movement just causes tremors (shaking),
but often the rocks on each side of a plate boundary lock
together. The strain builds up, distorting the rocks until
the locked section gives way. The rock springs back,
often shifting several yards, and the shock of this can
cause a catastrophic earthquake.

CHILE 1960 Charles Richter as a way
of measuring earthquakes
The biggest earthquake ever using instruments called
recorded struck Chile in 1960. seismographs.
It reached 9.5 on the Richter
Scale, which was devised in
1935 by American scientist

ALASKA 1964

On March 27, 1964,
the Pacific Ocean
floor slid 65 ft (20 m)
beneath Alaska in a
few minutes, causing
a colossal earthquake.
So few people live in
this remote region,
however, that only
125 lost their lives.

SAN FRANCISCO 1906 MEXICO CITY
1985
The San Andreas Fault in California marks where the Pacific
plate is sliding past North America. San Francisco is built on Mexico’s capital city
is built on the dried-
the fault line, and in 1906 the city was almost destroyed when out clay bed of an
the fault slipped 20 ft (6 m) and triggered disastrous fires. ancient lake. The
earthquake that
160 hit the city in 1985
made the clay shake
like jelly, making the
shock waves six times
as destructive. More
than 400 multistory
buildings in the city
were shaken to the
ground, and at least
9,000 people died.

KOBE 1995 anywhere else. In 1995, an
earthquake wrecked the city of
Japan was created by intense Kobe, destroying this elevated
ground movements in the highway and killing 6,433 people.
western Pacific, and it has
more earthquakes than almost

INDONESIA 2006 TSUNAMI 2004

In 2006, a serious earthquake struck the Indonesian The Asian tsunami that
island of Java, wrecking up to 135,000 houses and killed more than 283,000
killing at least 5,780 people. It also damaged the in 2004 was caused by
ancient Hindu temple of Prambanan, a World an earthquake on the
Heritage Site, but did not destroy it. ocean floor off Sumatra.
The shock sent huge
waves racing across
the Indian Ocean,
devastating communities
all around its shores.

Above left: the
city of Banda
Aceh, Sumatra,
Indonesia, as it
was in April 2004

Left: the same
area pictured
in January 2006,
after the tsunami
had struck

161

MOUNTAINS

The world’s mountains were raised by the titanic forces that keep 1 MOUNT EVEREST
the plates of Earth’s crust moving. Where the plates grind together,
the edges of continents are forced up into high, folded ridges, like the The world’s highest peak, Everest lies 29,035 ft
Andes Mountains in South America. Hot rock deep beneath the (8,850 m) above sea level. It is part of the
surface may erupt through cracks in the folded rock to form Himalayas, a range of fold mountains created
volcanoes. These also erupt where the crust is being torn apart and by the collision of India with Asia 50 million
over “hot spots” deep within Earth. The landscape below has been years ago. India is still moving north, so the
created from images of the highest peaks on each continent and one Himalayas are still rising.
that rises from the depths of the Pacific Ocean.
2 MOUNT ACONCAGUA
1 HuantEtdevremerdpessttoteofvpcelerimoypybleear ThAecoosfnmnEocoawaurgtynhuts’aaus imilnsomnpragaintretgostef
The Pacific Ocean floor is plunging beneath
2 South America, rucking up its western edge to
form the rugged, earthquake-prone mountains
of the Andes. Mount Aconcagua is the highest
peak, at 22,834 ft (6,959 m).

ThMecooAtuvhlneartorsekuMdagnchwKopiitnuehlatekstynhoioesfwyear

3

162

3 MOUNT MCKINLEY 5 MAUNA KEA 7 MONT BLANC

Rising 20,321 ft (6,194 m) above sea level, The highest point on Hawaii is the top of a The folded ridges of the European Alps have
Mount McKinley in Alaska is the highest peak huge volcano that rises 33,000 ft (10,000 m) been raised by the northward movement of
of the North American Western Cordillera. Its from the Pacific Ocean floor. So although its Africa. Mont Blanc is the highest peak at
isolation and bulk make it one of the world’s peak is only 13,796 feet (4,205 m) above sea 15,774 ft (4,808 m), but since its summit is a
most spectacular mountains. level, it is the biggest mountain on Earth. dome of ice, its height varies from year to year.

4 MOUNT KILIMANJARO 6 VINSON MASSIF 8 AORAKI (MOUNT COOK)

The highest mountain in Africa, Kilimanjaro is The most remote mountains on Earth lie The highest peak in New Zealand, Aoraki’s
actually a colossal volcano with three volcanic on the frozen continent of Antarctica. name means “cloud piercer” in the native
cones. The highest peak on the tallest cone, Overlooking the vast mass of the Maori language. The mountain is also known
Kibo, rises 19,340 ft (5,895 m) above sea Ronne Ice Shelf, Vinson Massif in as Mount Cook. Now 12,284 ft (2,744 m) high,
level. The other volcanic cones are the Ellsworth range is the highest Aoraki was 33 ft (10 m) higher before a
Mawenzi and Shira. point at 16,067 ft (4,897 m). landslide in 1991.

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4 6

7
8

5

163

OCEANS

The oceans cover more than two-thirds of the surface of Earth, with
an average depth of 2.4 miles (3.8 km), but they are not just
huge pools of saltwater. The ocean floors are where
the great plates of Earth’s crust are splitting
apart or grinding together, creating Iceland
long, high ridges and deep
Hudson Bay Atlantic
Ocean
trenches dotted with Aleutian Trench
volcanoes. As a result
of this, the oceans are
changing their size
and shape all
the time. Sargasso Sea

Gulf of
Mexico

Hawaii is just one
of many volcanic

islands and
seamounts

Pacific Ocean Caribbean
Sea
PACIFIC
OCEAN East Pacific Rise
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
As big as all has been built up
other oceans by a spreading rift
put together, in the ocean floor
the Pacific is
shrinking as the Peru-Chile Trench has
edges of its floor been created by the
slip into deep ocean Pacific floor sliding
trenches like the Mariana under South
Trench. The East Pacific America
Rise, however, is the most
active midocean ridge, spreading Atlantic
at up to 8 in (22 cm) a year. Ocean

164 ATLANTIC OCEAN

The Atlantic formed when North and
South America split from Europe and Africa
and gradually moved west. The ocean is still growing
as new ocean floor is created at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The ridge breaks the surface in the north to form
Iceland, with its volcanoes and geysers.

Arctic Ocean ARCTIC OCEAN

Baltic Sea Most of the Arctic Ocean is covered
by thick floating ice in winter. A lot of
Black Sea this melts in spring, allowing sunlight

to reach the cold waters and fuel
the growth of ocean life. The sea
near the North Pole stays frozen
in summer, but the area covered

by ice is shrinking every year
because of global warming.

North Sea Caspian Sea

Mediterranean The 2004 Asian Ocean trench marks
is an enclosed, tsunami was caused where the Pacific floor
almost tideless sea by an earthquake in is grinding beneath
that was once a the Java Trench Japan, causing
great ocean off Sumatra earthquakes

Red Sea Pacific Mariana
Ocean Trench is
the lowest
Maldives
point on
Earth, 6.8
miles (11
km) below
the waves

Indian Great Barrier Reef INDIAN
Ocean is the world’s OCEAN
biggest coral reef
Southern Ocean This mainly
tropical ocean is
notorious for the
tsunami that swept
across it from Sumatra
in 2004. It had a serious
impact on nearby coasts and
low-lying coral islands like the
Maldives, which crown the peaks
of an underwater mountain ridge
extending south from India.

SOUTHERN OCEAN

With no obvious northern boundaries, the
Southern Ocean forms a ring of cold, stormy water
around Antarctica. Ice covers a vast area in winter, and
the giant icebergs that break off Antarctic glaciers

and ice shelves sometimes drift far to the north.

165

166 ROCKS AND MINERALS 13 Granite One of the main rocks that 18 Corundum This dull-looking stone is
form continents, granite results from a type of corundum, the hardest mineral
molten rock cooling slowly deep after diamond. Its crystals are used to
make rubies and sapphires.
Rocks are mixtures of natural chemical compounds called minerals, which underground to form big quartz,
feldspar, and mica crystals. 19 Albite A pale, sodium-rich form of
feldspar, albite is a common ingredient
form crystals with distinctive shapes. There are three main types of rocks. 14 Breccia This sedimentary rock is made of granite, visible as big, blocky crystals
Igneous rock is formed when molten rock cools and hardens, a metamorphic of broken, sharp-edged rock fragments that glint in the sunshine.
rock is one that has been changed by heat or pressure, and sedimentary rock cemented together by finer particles.
is generally made from fragments of rock cemented together. 20 Graphite Made of pure carbon—
like diamond—graphite is a soft,
1 Slate This dark rock is created when 7 Limestone All limestones are made of 15 Obsidian Also known as volcanic metallic mineral that leaves a dark
sedimentary shale is put under intense chalky minerals, particularly calcite. They glass, this shiny black or dark green rock streak. It is used to make the
pressure. It forms thin sheets that can be are easily dissolved by rainwater, creating is formed when molten lava cools too “lead” in pencils.
cut into squares and used for roofing. extensive cave systems. quickly to form crystals.
21 Basalt Heavy, dark basalt is the
2 Cockscomb barite This whitish mineral 8 Halite Formed by the evaporation of 16 Gabbro This is a coarse, dark, iron- fine-grained form of gabbro, created
is often found in veins running through salt lakes, halite is rock salt—the mineral rich, crystalline rock that makes up much when iron-rich lava from oceanic
rocks. Its crystals form clusters that can that we use to flavor our food. of the deep ocean floor. volcanoes cools quickly, often underwater.
resemble cockscombs (roosters’ head crests).
9 Biotite Dark brown biotite is a type of 17 Pumice Gas erupting from volcanoes 22 Sandstone Sand cemented together
3 Schist Like slate, schist is created by mica, a mineral found in most granites often forms bubbles inside cooling lava. by other minerals forms sandstone. This
pressure and heat, which transforms a and schists. Its platelike crystals resemble This can then form pumice, red sandstone was once a desert dune.
soft sedimentary rock into a very much thin, flaky sheets of hard plastic. which has so many
harder metamorphic rock. gas bubbles that it 23 Pyrite Known as “fool’s gold,”
10 Eclogite A dense, heavy metamorphic floats on water. this yellow metallic mineral is actually
4 Chalk A type of limestone, chalk is rock formed deep beneath Earth’s surface, made of iron and sulfur. It often
built up from the remains of tiny marine eclogite contains bright green pyroxene 1 forms big cubic crystals like the
organisms that sank to the bottom of a and glittering red garnet minerals. ones seen here.
tropical sea during the age of dinosaurs. 3
11 Tremolite Thin, transparent, fibrous- 24 Conglomerate Very like breccia, this
5 Marble Hard and usually pale, marble looking crystals of tremolite form from 2 rock is a solid, cemented mass of
is a metamorphic form of limestone. It can limestones that have been subjected to rounded pebbles, like those found
be carved and polished into statues, and intense heat deep underground. on riverbeds and lake shores.
decorative slabs are used in architecture.
12 Beryl This very hard mineral
6 Calcite The main mineral in forms transparent, often
limestone and marble, calcite forms greenish crystals that can
the stalactites and stalagmites be cut to create emeralds
seen in limestone caves. and aquamarines.

4
5

6 12
7

8 11
10 14
15
9
13 21

16 20
22
17 19
18

24
23

167

Amethystine spinel Golden sapphire Brown tourmaline Chrysoberyl can be Green beryl is a Danburite is Danburite is named
is named for its is a golden form is one of hundreds honey yellow to pale variety of colorless, yellow, for the US city of
amethyst color. of blue sapphire. of the gem’s colors. mint green. green, or brown. Danbury, CT.
emerald.

Mauve spinel is Amethystine Pied tourmaline Yellow beryl is Citrine is a warm Garnet was a Andalusite glints
mined in Myanmar sapphire is made has two colors tinted with iron yellow type of favorite with with green and
(Burma), like most of hard corundum. in one crystal. quartz. ancient civilizations.
and uranium. orange.
spinels.

Red spinel is Ruby is the same Red tourmaline Chrysoberyl is Amethyst is Topaz is said to Opal has changing
often used in mineral as that looks like ruby valued as a good always violet dispel sadness, colors caused by
place of rubies. fear, and anger. scattered light.
sapphire but red. is called rubelite. luck charm. or purple.

Blue zircon is Tanzanite is Green tourmaline Iolite looks like Green tourmaline Emerald catseye has
the most named after can resemble a different colors from is sometimes a pale stripe.
Tanzania where fine emerald.
Opal matrix is desirable form it is found. different angles. called verdelite.
polished rock with of zircon.

veins of opal.

Green beryl is a Chrysoprase is Catseye quartz has Carbuncle is a Tiger eye is Albite is always Moonstone is a
paler form of prized for its a pale, glowing polished, domed striped with white. magical gem in
apple color. streak or “cat’s form of garnet. yellow and
emerald. eye.” India.
brown.

Zircon is one of Star sapphire has Amethyst is a Tourmaline has Green zircon is Brown zircon is Colorless
the heaviest a star pattern on violet form of more colors than more rare than one of many topaz can be
gemstones. common quartz. any other gem. the blue form. color varieties. mistaken for a
its surface.
diamond.

168

Blue spinel, also Pink sapphire is Green tourmaline Chrysoberyl is Morganite is a Iolite can look Sphalerite is a
called cobalt the same gem as is tinted with traces often a honey- pink beryl with black from soft stone that
spinel, is rare. colored brown. sparkles like a
a pale ruby. of chromium. manganese. some angles.
diamond.

Sapphire containing Indicolite is a Chrysoberyl is Aquamarine is Topaz is meant to Peridot is made Almandine garnet
iron oxide is blue variety of thought to a light blue protect against from vivid green is bigger than a
tinted yellow. sudden death. olivine crystals. typical garnet.
tourmaline. promote harmony. variety of beryl.

Green zircon can Yellow sapphire is Sapphire Yellow Kunzite often Fire opal is a Topaz is usually
glitter like a rarer than blue frequently shows tourmaline comes flashes various clear opal with yellow but can
but less valuable. a starry pattern. shades of violet.
green diamond. from Malawi. red in it. be colorless.

Pink tourmaline Jade has been Jade is usually Hematite is a Lapis lazuli was Star garnet Opal is often
catseye has a known for at green but can lustrous form one of the first glints with a mounted on onyx
least 7,000 years. of iron ore. gems to be worn. starry pattern.
bright highlight. be mauve. as a “doublet.”

GEMS Jade is often carved Sinhalite is a Rhodolite is a Kunzite was
and was once used rare stone from velvety red unknown until
agTathicTlinenhmnaahmtdnretoedoygtfgcsonoeactolpmraniaaltmtaltndueesmz,crrbcg,saitioaenliullaolngsicmesonpthsxganyiastienarrnhdcmeskeormodrslywsiaalin.lsfelpaMstfngleaprytsrlahhahse.vrne,ainrarwrtyaetleymu,ihamitarsooiaecbfwkpuhleceeuroxocm.ruratTliotrptnahheirlemrsiebsno.eetcehkcl,yuastt 100 years ago.
for tools. Sri Lanka. form of garnet.
Moonstone is
Garnet is Turquoise gets named for its
usually a warm, its sky blue shimmering glow.
brownish red. from copper.

169

Galena
(lead ore)

METALSLead scuba weights ◀ LEAD

Very dense and heavy,
lead is a dark, soft metal
with a low melting point,
which makes it easy to shape. It is
widely used in lead-acid car batteries
but also for heavy weights and roofing.
The main lead ore is galena, a compound
of lead and sulfur that forms big crystals.

Native Metals are minerals with a closely packed atomic structure, which The nickel in the stainless
silver makes them excellent conductors of electricity and heat. Most are steel makes this hip joint
also strong, workable materials, ideal for making a huge range of corrosion-proof
artifacts. Pure metals are elements, with only one type
of atom in their chemical structure. In nature, many are Garnierite (
mixed with rocks or combined with other elements
to form chemical compounds. These ores must be
mined and processed to extract the pure metals.

SILVER ▲ Sterling silver flute Platin nickel ore)
Platinu
One of the most prized metals, silver occurs um ring
in pure “native” form in volcanic rocks. It is m
very shiny when polished but soon tarnishes.
Since it is quite soft, it is often mixed
with other metals to make harder
alloys such as sterling silver.

◀ PLATINUM

A beautiful, very heavy metal,
platinum is often used in jewelry
because, like gold, it never tarnishes.
It is tougher than gold, and rarer,
so it is more precious. It is sometimes
found as nuggets of pure metal.

▼ COPPER ▼ GOLD

Copper is a soft metal, often alloyed Easily worked, always shiny, and the
with zinc to make brass, or with tin only metal that is always found in
to form bronze—both much harder. pure form, gold has been used
A good conductor, it is widely to make precious objects for
used for electric wire. Its main thousands of years. It is also
ore is chalcopyrite, a compound used to make electrical
of copper, iron, and sulfur. contacts that do not
degrade by tarnishing.

Chalcopyrite Gold audio connectors
(copper ore)

170 Copper Gold nugget
pipes and

wires

sAubdmeeeprs-sibelae Aluminum baking foil

TITANIUM ▶ ALUMINUM ▶ Bauxite
(aluminum ore)
Light yet very strong, titanium is Abundant and
often combined with other metals m ore) resistant to corrosion,
Rutile (titaniu lightweight aluminum is
to make lightweight alloys used in widely used for foil, cans, and in
aircraft, spacecraft, and the pressure-proof aircraft. Its ore, bauxite, is a rock that
contains many aluminum compounds.
capsules of deep-sea submersibles.
One of its main ores is rutile, a Hematite
(iron ore)
compound of titanium and oxygen.

Mercury thermometer

Stainless steel MERCURY ▼ Steel nuts and bolts
its own,
hip replacement The only metal that is liquid at room ▲ IRON
temperature, mercury is most familiar
◀ NICKEL as the silvery contents of a medical The most useful of all
thermometer. Its ore, cinnabar, metals, iron is strong,
Rarely used on
is a colorful compound of abundant, and easy to work
mercury and sulfur found with, especially when refined
into various types of steel. Its
near volcanoes. main ore is hematite, an iron
oxide—the same thing as rust.
nickel is often alloyed with iron

to make stainless steel. This is used

for all kinds of applications, from

knives and forks to replacement

hip joints. Nickel is also alloyed

with silver to make coins.

Cinnabar (mercury ore) Sphalerite
(zinc ore)

Tin can Cassiterite ZINC ▶
(tin ore)
Zinc is a white metal that is alloyed
TIN ▲
with copper to make brass. Its
Well known for its use in tin cans—which
are actually tin-plated steel—tin is widely main use, however, is plating or
used in electronic components because of
its high electrical conductivity. It is also “galvanizing” steel to make it
alloyed with lead to make the solder used
to assemble electronic circuits. rustproof. Its main ore is

sphalerite, a sparkling

mineral that is a

compound of zinc,

iron, and sulfur.

Galvanized
chain

171

PALEOZOIC ERA (ANCIENT LIFE) Sea lilies were plant-
shaped relatives of
Life began in the Precambrian Era, more than starfish, attached to
3.5 billion years ago, but for most of that time, the seabed by stalks
life was restricted to single-celled organisms
like bacteria. The start of the Paleozoic waitlhal rmfLeoooutbdhreeel-refcnigonsaunnseiidnmsfaiolsshf
Era 540 million years ago saw an explosion
of multicellular life, such as marine arthropods,
mollusks, and primitive relatives of fish.

FOSSILS

ResemsbetrlaiilnbogetbhdiwetseotPshoalrdiloveeluoidcgzeoho,ioncuEtra The remains, impressions, or traces of organisms (such as
plants and animals) that have been preserved in the rocks
are known as fossils. The process of fossilization generally
takes millions of years, and since special circumstances
are needed for fossils to form, only a tiny proportion of
Earth’s organisms have been fossilized. It is not always
easy to date fossils absolutely, so the paleontologists
who find, analyze, and identify fossils usually assign
them to named eras and periods. These cover the
FinsheoolyfwoAdfterthchtheaeaiflfeeeiodraspttfh-tokeesnrrsysiolxsw, onnbeirdms ajor phases in the long history of life on Earth.

Whole animals such
as insects are preserved
in amber, or fossilized
tree resin

This model of a
Deinonychus skull helps
paleontologists understand
the biology of this predator

Fossil ammonites (prehistoric sea
creatures) were recorded in this
book more than 100 years ago

Familiar animals, like
this dragonfly, were
already common
150 million years ago

MESOZOIC ERA (MIDDLE LIFE)

Beginning 252 million years ago, this was the age of
the dinosaurs, when giant reptiles stalked the
land, pterosaurs swooped through the skies,
and marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs
swam alongside squidlike ammonites.
Flowering plants and small mammals also

appeared on land. The era ended with a mass
extinction 66 million years ago.

172

Fossils from about
10 million years ago reveal
details of ancient corals

CENOZOIC ERA (RECENT LIFE)

Nonbird dinosaur fossils do not appear in rock

formed less than 66 million years ago in the Large collections of
Cenozoic Era, showing that they had died out specimens help with
by that time. Yet mammal fossils become more the identification and
varied and include early relatives of humans,
dating of fossils

which date back to 6–7 million years ago. The first

true humans appeared about a million years later.

Mammoth tooth found
on the bed of the North

Sea shows the sea was
once dry land

Reconstructed Hammer and chisel
fossil fragments form used to remove rock
this skull of Homo
habilis, an extinct cousin from around fossil
of modern humans

Magnifying glass

Geological
hammer

Chisels

PALEONTOLOGY

The word “paleontology” means the study of ancient
life, preserved as fossils. But paleontologists also
study nonbony life forms such as mollusks, plants, and
even bacteria. Their work involves carefully removing,
cleaning, and preserving the fossils, as well as identifying
them and recording their features. Special tools ranging
from hammers to medical scanners help them prepare
and interpret their finds.

Split rock reveals the Opalized
mineralized fossil of an marine snail

ammonite and a cast 173
of its shell

FOSSILIZATION

Normally only the hard parts of living things,
such as shells and bones, survive as fossils. Over
millions of years, these become impregnated with
minerals, so they become stony. Often the original
shell or bone disappear, leaving a mold later filled
by another mineral. Rarely, soft body parts such
as feathers may leave detailed impressions in
fine-grained rock.

This footprint This late Mesozoic clam
of a three-toed left a mold that has
predatory dinosaur is
known as a “trace fossil” become filled with opal
to create a cast fossil

DINOSAURS (A15L5L–O15S0AMUYRAU) S

Long ago, life on Earth was dominated by the S(7T8R–U77TMHYIOA)MIMUS 2
dinosaurs, a group of reptiles that included
huge, lumbering plant eaters and fearsome, agile S(7A0U–6R8OMLYOAP) HUS
hunters. Except for the birds, dinosaurs became
extinct 66 million years ago (MYA), but their 5
fossilized remains survive in the rocks of ancient
continents, allowing scientists to reconstruct
what they looked like and how they lived.

1 STRUTHIOMIMUS 1

Standing taller than a man, this agile, fast-
running dinosaur was more like an ostrich than
a typical reptile. It had no teeth in its long jaws
but had a beak made from keratin, like birds.
It was probably a herbivore.

2 ALLOSAURUS

Although it probably looked very like Tyrannosaurus,
the fossils of this massive meat eater have been
found in rocks that are at least 70 million years
older. This time span is longer than the period that
separates the last dinosaurs from our own time.

3 4 (V75E–L7O1 CMIRYAA)PTOR

T(6Y8R–6A6NMNYOA)SAURUS

3 TYRANNOSAURUS 4 VELOCIRAPTOR 5 SAUROLOPHUS

The biggest of the tyrannosaurs, Tyrannosaurus Found in Mongolia, the fossil bones of this This plant eater had a bony crest on its skull that
rex grew to 39 ft (12 m) and had thick, smallish dinosaur are similar to those of the first may have supported an ornamental crest. Fossils
banana-shaped teeth up to 6 in (15 cm) long. birds, and recent research shows that it may from Asia have longer crests than fossils found
Its fossilized remains have been found in rocks have had feathers. It was an agile, high-speed in America, showing that there were at least
hunter that probably jumped on its prey and two different species.
in North America, notably in Montana gripped with its hooked claws.
6 IGUANODON
174 and South Dakota.
Iguanodon was a large, bulky herbivore with
a strange spike on its thumb. Scientists are
still unsure how this spike was used.

I(G12U9A–1N25OMDYOAN) 9 (1D5I4P–1L5O2 DMYOAC) US

6

(T6R8–IC66ERMAYTAO) PS

8

7 O(7V5–IR73AMPTYOA)R

STEGOSAURUS 10

(155–150 MYA)

8 TRICERATOPS 10 OVIRAPTOR

7 STEGOSAURUS The bony neck shield and three sharp horns Similar to the larger Struthiomimus, this birdlike
of Triceratops were used in combat with
Stegosaurus fed on plants in what is now other Triceratops. Judging from fossilized dinosaur had short powerful jaws and possibly
North America and Europe, 155–150 million bones found in North America, the animal
years ago. Scientists still puzzle over the grew to at least 30 ft (9 m) long. a beak. It was earlier thought to have been an
function of the huge bony plates on its back,
which are not attached to the backbone. 9 DIPLODOCUS “egg thief” because the first fossil specimen was
Two pairs of spikes on the tail were likely
used to ward off predators. This giant dinosaur lived in what is now North found on a nest of dinosaur eggs, and scientists
America at the same time as Allosaurus but
used its long neck to browse over a large area. believed that it may have died trying to steal them.
It was up to 90 ft (27 m) long, with a small
head and whiplike tail. However, further research suggests that it is likely

that the Oviraptor was just incubating its 175
own nest, not stealing the eggs.

176 HAILSTONES ▶

Big thunderclouds contain updrafts that
carry raindrops to heights where they

freeze. The pellets of ice fall through the
cloud but are carried up again so more
ice freezes onto them. This can happen
many times, building up hailstones that
can be bigger than golf balls.

◀ LIGHTNING ▲ THUNDERSTORMS

Ice crystals tossed around inside a Hot sunshine causes water to evaporate
thundercloud can charge the cloud and rise into the air, where it cools and
with electricity like a giant battery. forms clouds. Some clouds build up to
Eventually the charge is released as immense heights of 9 miles (15 km) or
a colossal spark of lightning, which more. They contain a huge weight of
heats the air along its path to about water that is eventually released in
50,000°F (30,000°C) in a split second. dramatic thunderstorms of torrential rain.

FLOODS ▶ TORNADOES ▶

Heavy rain can swell rivers Thunderclouds are built up
until they overflow their by rising warm, moist air
banks, flooding nearby that spirals up into the
low-lying land. The water cloud. Sometimes this can

may rise slowly, but it can develop into a tight, swirling
also surge down valleys in vortex of rising air, called a
sudden “flash floods” that
sweep everything before tornado. Wind speeds inside
them. Either way, the flood the vortex can exceed 300
mph (500 km/h), and the
water can wreck homes
and even swamp cities. powerful updraft can easily
rip the roof off a house.

ICE STORMS ▶ ◀ HURRICANES

Freezing winter weather is normal in The most devastating weather occurs
many regions, but freak conditions over tropical oceans, where intense
can sometimes cause unusually heat creates huge storm clouds that
destructive ice storms. If moist air is revolve around zones of very low air
pressure. Winds spiral into the center
swept over a very cold region, falling at 185 mph (300 km/h) or more,
rain may freeze where it lands to heaping ocean water into “storm
surges” that can drown coastal cities.
form thick ice. This can bring down Hurricanes that form over the Pacific
power lines, paralyze rail networks, Ocean are called typhoons.

and turn roads into death traps.

PREDICTING WEATHER ▶

Satellite images like this view of
a hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico

can help meteorologists predict
the weather. Forecasters also

gather data on wind, temperature,
air pressure, and other variables,
and feed them into computers
that are programmed with
mathematical models of the
atmosphere. The computers use
the new data to predict how the
atmosphere may react and so
produce a weather forecast.

WEATHER

Driven by the heat of the sun, circulating currents of air swirl through the
lower atmosphere, creating the winds that carry clouds, rain, and snow
from the oceans over the land. Without these weather systems, the
continents would be barren deserts, where life would be impossible.
Sometimes, however, the weather can be so violent that it causes
destruction on a terrifying scale.

177

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179

180

RIVERS SAswIonwOlfhlahmirUcmiigvheRpehlftr,CewsmoeEharodatause▼vnrtsehptpaaeroiinnsmuosgr,auinbtirnhcgueesbf.trbsrIootelimuanmrmgcatehyooeumbfteetahnoyaedfbltyaoehokfeauea,ngsgatgrrolearuaicvnimeedrr,..
▼ UPPER COURSE
Most rivers flow downhill from hills or mountains to
the sea. They start as fast-flowing streams, which join The upland part of a river is known as
together to create small rivers. These often cascade its upper course. It is usually fast flowing,
down steep slopes, cutting deep valleys, until they with a rocky bed, rapids, and even
reach flatter ground. Here, regular seasonal flooding waterfalls. Here, the Churun River
creates broad, fertile floodplains. Each river wanders cascades over the rim of the flat-topped
across its floodplain, growing in size but flowing Auyantepui Mountain in Venezuela,
more slowly, until it reaches the estuary or delta South America, at Angel Falls—the highest
where it spills into the sea. waterfall on Earth, at 3,212 ft (979 m).

NTgArtTheTarrthaewiiRbnsvesuueeIZamBctlebnhadaUardrotaliianieTdwimdnsAus.nedetrTrhdR,sienh,itIlsaogtelEthmyrajtSeeonhayaoideln▼mlftsufaatslpdhrofrnrdewliionviHtinewgnorotgtotpdihshikotanejoiwownr“finsrlnbweoRerfnwahrdivtoie,sdebm,nerey.csdmapAo”reotorhc(yrupiaeiannlkrlatglisyaitt(imeMranedfaoats)senmusproenashwst,teotcCemaaforvlenloyelsktd.s),.

SeAVorTsomAiagdeLeerCirrLsvihvLaEeieernYwcraafsolpSi.onlpilGnwadaAtopgisshnsrsNGdaeggttoehoDoVuwosrrf-ognnasnGlhuedicrmefeageOorprehoocngseRomftsrdttnotoGheeicnuvneteeEeasnpaYclSudcl-lraeaesperniyvd▼padiegvtteeeethrsdzrdyrcseosg.otbuRoeuygimrrvgtsheeshert,esht,inhelieklaewnadt.er usually LOWER COURSE ▼
MEANDERS ▼
afofcalisnafmrnrpWonomdeiosdlthelslrsisaceeneiciolnntptagssnd,,plrotofw.fielrvevwHoo.hereoeTlltirrlycidrheslhetedbperh,eb,ulsefataotulthiiohcrniicelhloe.badiyWdTrnaturhwhntyiOpeelikalsnmrasttlemdomoeaogwrantrefooelokdltenaterwafn.esmslvwodaReeotsaaxise,vdmcflrteela.heporlyIelafiofeenycltdnroghhsfptwletyoolahysefwieaanrr,e
fsaotmaaAleiofnwmlesaowdenkaieoxtsey,dphafstirltgethooihtssrgrhpweewoecesusrub(icsabntgaaaetedronhnenonifkddntrfudeagolnatriomonnndcloeodobtfpafhuoretmseber)r,cseoeuaopeosnmsdrrtumodtmtieohnn,sanieearoydPianuvteAebnhenr“emoderucocfeewa,oixnrdtzS-msahsb,oo.tieseonudSeowoterbaRh.moecislTuvvnAaeeehetdkrmtsrriiieseme,s”reicsa.
▼AsauifafsatolplrlaaEtmftedtwhttsStsehouehaalTeertlretectxaeUem,otN.arpteaTAuhiotnwsghhdetwdRei,iafstrrlefIothaivrErvRupetfimeieSsutsuvrwholaefsdArhtfnrrohfreiyaarNovmasonseopnDumriustetpthwtsmhmsrlteDepiaeuuvetsatEaedfheecclrrLtrooehypsTa.rwmaasettAInhrhfehtontoeSetioifcewhgtlsltseefhessho,starte,thrkihimvbiedntneeuieodraNdi.wlefdeAwil,gnloisttniewdhaagreesia.

181

CAVES LIMESTONE CAVES

When rock is worn away by coastal erosion or Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide from
rainwater, weak areas tend to collapse while the the air, turning it into weak carbonic acid.
surrounding stronger rock survives. This creates In limestone country, the acidified rainwater
cave systems, which may extend for many miles drains into the rock and dissolves it, creating
in limestone country and contain huge caverns chains of potholes and caverns. Where water
and underground rivers. Flowing water containing dissolved rock drips from cave
beneath glaciers can also erode caves in the ice. ceilings, it leaves stony deposits that build up
In places like Hawaii, erupting volcanoes may into hanging stalactites and stalagmites that
create lava tubes—tunnels that once contained grow up from the cave floor.
rivers of red-hot molten rock.
This big stalagmite is
made of stony calcite
deposited by centuries

of dripping water

UNDERGROUND WATER

The water that creates limestone caves flows
through the cave systems as underground
streams and even rivers. In wet weather, these
can fill the caves, eroding them into fantastic
shapes that are revealed as the water level
drops. In some limestone regions, such as the
Yucatan in Mexico, there is no surface water at
all because all the rivers flow under ground. In
places they are open to the sky, they form
beautiful natural wells called cenotes.

Crystal clear water
reveals the banded rock
structure of this cave

CRYSTALS COASTAL CAVE

Water dripping through cave On exposed rocky coasts, pounding waves
systems contains dissolved force water into cracks in the rock at such high
minerals, such as calcite and pressure that they blow the rock apart. This
gypsum. If the water evaporates cuts away the rock at water level. Often the
or changes its chemical nature rock above collapses to form a sheer cliff, but
slightly, the minerals may if the waves cut into a weaker seam, they can
become solid again, forming create deep caves and even rock arches.
crystals with glittering, faceted,
jewel-like shapes.

Delicate calcite crystals
have grown on the end
of this stalactite where

it enters a pool

182

GLACIER CAVE

Near the end of a glacier, melting ice creates
streams of meltwater that often drain down
through crevasses to form vertical sinkholes.
When the water reaches the bottom of the
glacier, it flows between the ice and rock
to erode tunnels and caves in the ancient
glacier ice. At times when the melting rate
is high, these can fill with water, which pours
through the ice in a torrent before finally
emerging at the glacier tip or snout. In
midwinter, however, these glacier caves
may be safe to explore.

Ice covers the floor of this
glacier cave during a period
of reduced melting

ICE CAVE

In some mountain regions, the air inside

limestone caves can be so cold that water

seeping into the cave immediately freezes.

This creates glassy icicles and frozen cascades.

The temperature is critical to the

formation of these ice caves, so

LAVA TUBE they are quite rare. If the rock
around the cave is too cold, water

Now cold and empty, this cave was once freezes solid before it can enter

filled with a torrent of red-hot lava erupting the cave. If the cave is too warm,

from a Hawaiian volcano. The lava from such all the ice melts, and the water

volcanoes is so hot and liquid that it flows drains away through the cave floor.

like water. As it pours downhill, the top of

the flow cools and may become solid, Water dripping into the
forming the roof of a lava tube. This keeps Grotte Casteret, in the
the heat in and allows the lava inside to
keep flowing. When the eruption stops, Spanish Pyrenees mountains,
forms a frozen cascade

the lava may flow out to leave a long cave.

Solidified lava forms the
roof of the lava tube

CALCITE BARRIERS

Water flowing through the
limestone cave of Akiyoshi-do in
Japan is saturated with dissolved
calcium carbonate, or calcite.
Where the water flows over the
sloping cave floor, calcite has
crystallized to form a series of
barriers. The water overflows
these in a gentle cascade that
falls from one pool to the next.

Water is beautifully clear,
despite being full of calcite

183

CLIMATE ZONES MHltimikotgzOreuoohegUAunemhsnerNc,totitaolsuoiTiccnngwAattrus-laoIllgneNoiwnrddpo.rpe▲wtTasheh,iaeanaekrgntesurdveapweertpgaehelreievrnmtyeeaeerh.tdyria,gocvaenoel.lloodsLfiwo,mtwihinlieagsrr

Variations in the intensity of sunlight striking different parts of DESERT ▶
Earth drive global air movements and weather systems. Between
them, these influences create a variety of climate zones, ranging Some regions get so
from steamy tropical rain forests to the icy deserts of Antarctica. little rain that they are
Most of these climate zones have a distinctive type of vegetation,
which is the basis of a whole wildlife community, or biome. deserts. Many lie in a
zone of hot, dry air near
mTInrRoitTsieOrehstantehiuiPsnfnsheerueIteuCooeesFsglnueqpAitOednvnuhitleagLsahselRhnpttehtoaRoEisohneerilrrSraAeamearmnvtTtagnIoydecNaire,ln▶ofkoabawoweufnerroasddlmtorrhsmew.sot,fs.
TEFMOPREERSATT▶E the tropics, but others
are just too far from
alatolhlrvsoeeeewrinmtnyTsheeicsetiglmutordihrerml,podeeldewem.rsaraNvtiaemnvoeetreg,erpagsybricrwanuholointeomwwcdaetmaitawnnsthatnteoeoneessrlrp,yrl.
oceans. Some plants live
in deserts, so they are
not quite barren.

184 POLAR AND TUNDRA ▲ MTtahhtEreheeDadamtrIwaylTiivhsEneheRdrrtueheRbsetAelrhareeNtnycdrEaeasngArteihsoNuamnrtsvo▲liaisvetreebcdoenrmtaywmimneegoednno.autTfhttheeinertetttohhmueepghMehor-eatldetseaiutvezmerodrmnaepensrleasaa.nnntds

The polar regions get only weak sunlight in summer and
are dark all winter. They stay frozen all year, but in the
north, this icy region is surrounded by tundra, which
thaws in summer allowing some plants to grow.

CTLthrIieonMGpctrlihAaicmesaTslalsEarutanebiZdntzrsOoofdnopNeerievcsEseso,Stlofanp▼ntehdawerbhwtoehorreeeralediltqffuioosarrttemoosotrb, idmanrnyotdhsfsteo, drwfaetirrsteehnerotss.rth.

POBLOMAROREUAANLNTFDAOTIRNUENSTDRA TEMMEPDEIRTAERTERAFONERAESNT TETMRTORPOEPPRICIACATALELGRGRARAIANSSSFSOLLARAENNSDDT
DESERT

TToRrsofouOwphfptiiepPcetaahonIvlCrtkytrrAenedrgaoeeLiiswnontGsnfnheasaRalftltsohAacrsaraeaSetnsvaStta.owrnLeToniAhtnahheoNhosyttstaDa,wanrseonid▲tmdhsleoiednantrsitygmhotdefeorsgzodoruaongstesht,etsd. TSucgoEnosrmuoMnaawteslisPlnytyfeeEasbmnrtRemetpscApl.aeapTTurneaosEdsteoe.aGtdnahrRdreyeyApafolrsiSaregiStreariLteteAselti—hstN,tealteDhlhtreehaya▲oirnuatfrgsaehollnf,magtarunerayatlalyre BOREAL FOREST ▲

To the south of the Arctic tundra, the northern

continents support a band of dense forest. Most of

the trees are conifers with stiff needlelike leaves 185

that can survive the long, freezing winters.

Corn on Soybean Dried Soy flour Rice seeds
the cob pods soybeans Rice

CORN ▶ oy sauce SOYBEANS ▲ cakes

The corn grown in High in protein and rich in oil, RICE ▼
the Americas is actually a soybeans were once known
giant grass that grows well only in Asia. Now popular One of the world’s three
in sunny climates. Its big with vegetarians, they staple foods—along with corn
kernels can be cooked and eaten as they are grown in and wheat—rice is a type of
warm climates grass that grows in warm climates.
are or ground into flour to worldwide. It is usually cultivated in flooded
make tortillas and corn chips. “paddy” fields, which cover large
Soy milk
areas of the tropics.

e
es Cooked ric
Corn tortilla Corn chips Dried cocoa Grains of rice
S Tofu is a pod
s food made
from soy

Cocoa beans

Fresh ◀ COCOA Bar of
chocolate
FARM CROPS cocoa pod The main ingredient of

All our plant foods are grown on farms of chocolate, cocoa beans come from the
some kind—from the huge wheat and corn
fields of North America to the banana pods of the cocoa tree, grown mainly
plantations and coconut groves of the tropics.
The crops we harvest today are descended in West Africa and tropical America. The
from plants that once grew wild but which
have been bred to give high yields of juicy beans are first left to ferment in the sun
fruit, edible seeds, or rich vegetable oils.
then dried, roasted, and either ground
WHEAT ▼
into powder or made into cocoa butter.
Wheat is the most important
grain crop in mild northern POTATOES ▶ White potato

climates, where it is cultivated The potato is the tuber
on a vast scale. A member
of the grass family, (storage root) of a plant
wheat has been bred
to have large seeds for related to tomatoes.
grinding into flour.
It was brought to Europe

from South America in the

16th century, and since then,

it has become one of the

world’s main foods.

Red potatoes Fresh
tea leaves

Tea bags

◀ TEA

The leaves used to make tea

come from an evergreen

bush that grows in tropical

and subtropical climates. It

is cultivated mainly in China

and India, where the leaves

Bread made are handpicked and quickly
from wheat
Vine of red dried. Leaf tea can be
flour tomatoes used as it is or in paper

TOMATOES ▲ tea bags.

Inside a Closely related to potatoes, and Dried tea
yellow tomato introduced from the same region of South leaves
America in the late 1500s, the tomato is
Bunch of
186 wheat now grown almost worldwide.

seedheads

Sunflower oil

Grapes on Currants SUNFLOWERS ▶
the vine and
The spectacular blooms of
GRAPES ▲ raisins sunflowers are made up of
White hundreds of big seeds. These
One of the oldest cultivated grapes can be eaten as snacks, but most
plants, the grape was grown by
Ancient Egyptians 6,000 years are processed to produce oil, which is
ago. Planted in permanent used in cooking. Bees love sunflowers
vineyards in warm climates, and turn the nectar into honey.
grapes are harvested for
winemaking, eating fresh, Sunflower
and drying as raisins, seeds
sultanas, and currants.

Black grapes

Stalk of ◀ SUGAR CANE Brown
sugar sugar
cane Grown on plantations in
tropical and subtropical
regions of the world, sugar Dried
cane is the thick stalk of a sunflower
large grass. More than half the seedhead
world’s sugar comes from sugar cane.
anana It is also made into alcohol used in Molasses is a Sunflower
biofuels (fuels made from sticky juice in bloom
produced The coconut
renewable organic when sugar grows inside a
material, such cane is thick, fibrous husk
as plants). boiled

Ripe b ◀ BANANAS

Bananas grow in bunches Desiccated Fresh coconut
of up to 200, sprouting from coconut
clusters of huge leaves that
shoot up from fleshy roots.
They are a valuable crop
throughout the tropics and
are usually cut while
green so they are
perfectly yellow and
ripe when sold.
Green
bananas
COFFEE ▼ Red coffee COCONUTS ▶ Creamed coconut
berries Inside the
Coffee is one of the most valuable crops The big nuts of the coconut palm coconut is a
produced in the tropics. It is made from are an important crop on many layer of white
the seeds of a small tree. Each red berry Pacific islands. The fibrous husk is “meat”
contains two seeds, or beans, which are used for matting and rope making.
The white “meat” of the nuts is
dried in the sun before being used for food, either fresh,
roasted and ground. desiccated (dried), as
creamed coconut, or
Roasted coffee as coconut oil.
beans

Cup of coffee 187

ENVIRONMENT

As the human population grows and we exploit
more of the world’s resources, we inflict a lot of ▼TeTbucihnhnhypeGviasgsitmnreLhaiosagseOonecelsmaaessBttuvtiesmAnehsenelaorsrLtditasoaipiasbWusnhbygsfpesalAptooorlheollrbRarb.plaerlMTualahihttcwtetieiIoestaaNonrctmrnamGatospahnifysanedtnmglhewd.eeaarldatirs.imteros
damage on our environment. We are doing this partly
by destruction of natural habitats, such as forests and souisitcnuhhAd▼petaahrlnsoseLcwgttaAeshaoteretsfNoaetetM.urhDeMsieedstdoAaotoishlttvswNeioenprirDgrllpdaatsolsnhiSttifeeshieEcoaal.nnanAtRni.ewnadvPwgeesOcretsahnreLporwceLotlos,awUsogdeTreaodwdIwaOsunanemdyNaaspenneddd
wetlands, and partly by pollution of the land,
oceans, and atmosphere. Many plants and animals
are endangered, and entire ecosystems such as
coral reefs and rain forests are under threat.

Garbage in Guanabara Bay, Brazil
Smog shrouding the Los Angeles skyline

▲ AIR POLLUTION pomlltauhrtPeienlasebseetaaiacncciwahmneaasstltrseaapfnloadantdinkgillin Coocraeanal dnresmebmfaesnacayyormestoydepoyenwisnbaogrefmaecseoxrtr,ianlct

Smoke and gases released by industry,
power stations, homes, and vehicles
have caused visible air pollution, known
as “smog,” in many cities. Badly polluted
air can be dangerous to breathe, but the
main threat from this kind of pollution
is global warming.

188

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Coral reef, Fiji Forest destroyed by acid rain near the Appalachian Mountains Rain forest clearance in Chiapas, Mexico

Giant panda in Wolong Nature Reserve, Chengdu, China tohsTpauAah◀nettsi,cdsiiwisLtemavOisrnla.iedtikAdSmaheulsSaastcelobessnOuishttdrhatFavahteivnsveBeghaarIeelfriOecerhahewladDtdrhveedaIsrsoeVprtpifrreeElocatftyhoiRyceeeersSodsmpfd,ItTlipaloaeifnlYnaleyienvtet.s. Cycling to work in San Francisco
thbewtPyorjoooawrlbtkteoeeocrrrtfkisinngiagPngorsetRvttheheprOereeaonddwTlemluunEaocetvyfCininiodrwtTgonsreI.intvNtWhmlhiinevGeeegeyan,c.EmptatBhrnAiyosoeuacdnRsynleuolTctcthclHieoijentu.fylgps▶t

189

PAINTED BRIDE

At a traditional wedding in the
Balkan village of Donje Ljubinje,
the bride’s face is painted to
ward off bad luck. The custom
is unique, as is the villagers’
language—a mixture of Serbian,
Macedonian, and Turkish.

190

People and places

191

192 Injera is an African flat INNDigeUmriSaaj,ToArRlwsgYoehuSriolirmaeacun,eigtndashoneotlAdddifnfoiLarnaiiinbclrtdaeayhanpdeedrxaiCaoprnmoesoapnrotetguneroroddausalfsnhrg.odaaMmvsZ,eianNmmearabmadilasieb,aiaarne. d copper
bread, served here with
beef stew and veggies

Moroccan spices One-third of the
world’s gold is
produced in
Johannesburg

setlloitnwhegnerasitereadlihlneopaolnsvtmaseae,nrtigramniMocalinosswrun.unodicFdciipcnhssroghhaosaabdbcnenuuAocatddfrernaiTns,rmcauteaeayn’ilansaastFoidsdcmtala,sdOara,eleeppnclOdteramietlsaoaDssfror.paleokIloveoeyntatd,hss.earanrde crops Nigeria is one of
the world’s main

oil producers

AFRICA Drum The Masai
“jump-dance” to
The discovery of fossilized remains in Africa double bSetrllisna,gnsbeudcydcrCpsemhhieaonaueltMpseselstulbisrtctluUrh,arbamaewrltS.odikeiMowIitutnChniangtosspnen,tieyn,oasruatlcAmyrcbuepfheasresaiakacislotesassoont,dafhwipirfdeneflirastekuuthyrromseeuaurndmasnat.,ialemlsayrnoneaatudlsucnhctsdoheosdmer.nmtpsoaonsited music, as a show
has led experts to agree that the world’s first
humans originated from this continent Kuge of strength
millions of years ago. Today, the population
stands at about 1.3 billion, with many Sahara Desert
people living in rural regions of the
54 countries. Africa’s diversity is
seen in its varied cultures, long-
standing customs, striking
scenery, and wildlife. This
captivating mix attracts a
steady stream of visitors.

Kora

Stunning views M e d i t erra
over Cape Town and
Table Mountain in TUNISIA n e a n Sea Mount Kilimanjaro lies
South Africa on the Tanzania/Kenya

MOROCCO Gulf border and rises
19,340 ft (5,895 m)
of Sirte
Tropic of
ALGERIA LIBYA Cancer

Tropic of Cancer WESTERN SAHARA Red Sea

(disputed territory EGYPT

administered by Morocco)

MAURITANIA

The Sphinx MALI NIGER
and Great
Pyramids THE SENE BURKINA SUDAN ERITREA DJIBOUTI Gulf of Aden
attract GAMBIA • IVORY
tourists to COAST GHANA CHAD
Egypt all GUINEA- • LANoSNarthDhaSAraCf,rAAwilcofahraPniebcgNEc(raooAeea’asnsftttsrutcetirerrcsmaianavstl’tpethselreaethr)orn,iwaigdastthohnmumeredrlaasedgtrLis’nkrasmcalsklyasaoiensnrruyagcVtnilpeoinutcslpadtatfoieion1dnrr2)eKise,a2sidstel°(thioFtrmeahtw(,nae5Ntnnd0hlija°lseareCorirvg)u(o.etethrhsset., lake).
BISSAU GUINEA SOMALILAND
BENIN (not internationally
year round SIERRA LEONE • TOGO NIGERIA
recognized)
GAL
LIBERIA • CENTRAL AFRICAN SOUTH ETHIOPIA M
REPUBLIC SUDAN ALIA

GizcaVlToiinssOievtEioiUssrgsMioraltysaRnaeopntkdgrtoIdio,SenhsAbc.MgicoTusfotrfhuioil,cepttrahaisentceoghcdsmoSoeiteSneesooyousn4cumnhi,ts5sehyoa0tlfhnl0Aieaseftsryarh.iaeliOtsecnaooarcnb,sisbeeeaeaonaseogoctwfothsphAt.eeyeelsfrldrawoiacmbfsialyTtdi’sdhutliosmenfSueoiAosPEOrfiRQasiaIGTsUtNtO,UtACMsIITNPOEEERA&IAL CAMEROONCONGO UGANDA KENYA SO
GABON
RWANDA • Equator
D E M • R E P • • BURUNDI
SEYCHELLES
CONGO COMOROS
TANZANIA

ANGOLA • MALAWI
ZAMBIA
E OCEAN

U

Q R

I A

B e

AM C
qu
S

NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE M OZ A MAURITIUS
nmebli
G

a A
n
BOTSWANA
Tropic of Capricorn z D
a

o A
h

M M
C
N
Endangered mountain
gorillas live in Rwanda’s SOUTH • ESWATINI IA
Volcanoes National Park AFRICA (formerly SWAZILAND)
IND
• LESOTHO

Head the wGoahrnltaMdden’asaacaFobnncpAproedyrnuoscRActotdtiMfocatturrlo.iicusmcgCItesaNieoloanfltttrnGshateu,oteiinwftnrmosrph.irausKrirclrogekeuadrenlltotuthyviwscvaie.leal’nNsaItmvigrofnoaoerogritrsnyrhedegfCeaxartrolophtnleawoayssArni,tetrfo.aolhrdlinoaicsvdaltfehvhsie,gaghsetDthaeabtleess bTeGWcaoheaalMdnutsmIsoanLaeyretrdsDoe,itracrazaeLhsgemb.sIabelwTFisrfrshcaEirvhtaeeseher,esdc’gslwoiynitanriowlnatdKifipilnemftirefhneoeasony,t.lausteeT’tcsaalhetrflnrapeeRAedrahieffgnroTra-eiqganoucsun-atfnttsaz’dahsi,asriuawltnnlaeenmioinradldsdwadhnlbohiiafsifegevr.ee else.
of corn
lemurs are native
to the island of
Madagascar

Zebra

Coco a pod

193 Fibers from the
cotton boll plant are
used to weave cloth

194 The stock exchange
in Tokyo is the third
largest in the world

Freshwater
crocodile

Judo INBDyUgexaSpsITr,oaARrqJtsYa,iinapaggnanrndornIe,nwaKstdtootuhiihouaowan,r,fvcacrCsheaeoihtasrsbmusish,noecsacafnhietlv,eooseeaaftincsilhnbutaSrtedetaeantscpodui,doniatdmdfghnnir-eaeoedAertcmdwrueoAagrlenmbesaeaiocilaaalttmtners,hoscic-ychnpo.nirucoosndlftouorgicreyiesn. xgport. WSefsaoTonInsanntmhahuIdaochndLdneenmoaweedoDdlndaAftonohooesglsmLienefterrrnieoaIesagatoareFithApsnteanflitt.Eeecagd,sshtsSipraauobaweohmdhnt,ulfra,aaoradaiateMrrncnrnhmyekkelBcstdsedasflmosbuf,a’sll,sraripetdsavtoonmuytaaiielmgfesnsrnrAfoi.otegaadlsstre,rtiahstaes,h,e,.e Tiger

STPhOerAeeRwscxiTMihocsareSmoe,aolrswnmasltoeglthionbnocincgarglhiicpactikkninurneasrrcJtdsiada,luiunwpteidtidrao.hesnIn,iTsnleaiadojbunnitfeaddadtm,boarPkl,anaeaukrcsknttiawniiegsarngtaelafntraruneieers,,timoinasasnnnaiaCncdidlnhesSosisneruaipxamLpo.aoepnruktlaar. RUSSIA South Korea is
the fifth-largest
Table tennis, car-manufacturing
along with nation in the world
soccer, is
China’s most
popular sport

JAPAN

NKOORTRHEA

MONGOLIA SKOOURTEHA

Rice is Asia’s ZAKH S T A N Tropic of Cancer
staple food TAIWAN
and has been K A Aral Sea The Sasakia charonda
cultivated butterfly, nicknamed
for more than TURKEY ARMENIA. •G•EOARZGEIRABAIJANTURKUMZBEENKIISSTTAANN KYRGYZSTAN CHINA Japanese emperor, is
9,500 years Japan’s national butterfly
• TAJIKISTAN

CYLPERBUASN•ON • SYRIA IRAN AFGHANISTAN • BHUTAN SouthSCehaina PHILIPPINES
ISJROAREDLA•N • PAKISTAN
IRAQ NEPAL LAOS
Arabian
ASARUADBBIIAAHQR•AATKIANURW••AITUAE Sea BANGLADESH • M(YBAUNRMMAAR) VIETN

AM INDIA Bay of Bengal I ATHAILANCDAMBODIA
Red Sea I N D O N E SM
Y BRSUNEII • • EAST TIMOR
A

OMAN A L A

YEMEN • SRI LANKA • SINGAPORE

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Pho Bac, Dragon masks make
beef noodle soup a colorful sight at

ASIASushi Petronas Towers dragon boat festivals
in Kuala Lumpur, and Chinese New Year

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The largest continent is a land of extremes. From The bright lights
the ice of the Arctic to the heat of the Indian Ocean of Hong Kong,
At the Western Wall in islands, Asia takes in treacherous mountains, desolate home to 7.4
Jerusalem, Jewish people million people
gather to offer prayers dunes, treeless steppes, fertile plains, and tropical rain
forests. The continent’s 48 countries show many contrasts,
with businesses booming in the expanding cities, while
rural communities farm the fields. Today, more than 60
percent of the world’s population call Asia their home.
Golden Buddha

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banks of the Ganges in Delhi, India’s
River at Varanasi is second largest city
a holy act for Hindus

195

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peanuts grown in
the US are made American movies and TV shows are popular
into peanut butter around the world. Many famous music styles,
such as rock and roll, jazz, blues, country,
and soul, have their roots in the US.
Canada’s annual Calgary Stampede
celebrates its cattle-trading roots, while
Mexico has parades and feasts on saints’ days.

Hamburger Elvis Presley
became the
ultimate icon
of US rock-and-
roll music

Canada’s maple trees A la s
produce 71 percent of all
maple syrup worldwide— Gulf of Alaska (US) k a BSeeaaufort

a favorite on pancakes PACIFIC C
The US grows A
10 percent of the N
world’s oranges
OCEAN UN I TAEMDE
Baseball glove OF
and ball S
R T CAAT E S
SPORTS I

The highlight of the American football calendar
is a championship game called the Super Bowl.
This is the most watched television event
in the US. Baseball and basketball are also
long-standing favorites. The colder climate
of Canada has made skiing, ice skating, and ice
hockey the main winter pursuits.

MEXICO

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Statue of AS AT ECL MVOASATDLAOABRER•LPI•CIAZANE••A•
Liberty

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Rushmore

196 Ice hockey skate has blade
to enable hockey player to
glide across the ice

Mexico’s guitar The Rocky Mountains stretch
groups play and from Alaska in the north to the
sing their traditional
mariachi music US border in the south

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to movie industry
winners at Hollywood’s
Academy Awards

ARCTIC OCEAN NORTH AMERICA

Gr e e n lDenmark) a n Before the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, The Grand Canyon
tribes of native peoples were the only inhabitants was formed by water
BBaayffin (to of North America. Since then, waves of immigration and ice over millions
to both Canada and the US have made these of years
d countries pioneers of financial growth and
contemporary culture. The mainly Spanish-speaking
Davis countries of Central America have lush, mountainous Bison
landscapes and are rich in tradition and culture.
HBuady son Strait

A LaSebarador
D
A

ATLANTIC OCEAN Gray-banded
kingsnake
American
football helmet Canada’s harp seal
pups are born with
INDUSTRY fluffy white fur for
extra warmth
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IDTROI EMP UI NBILCIAC
• HA West Indies

•

Sea

Computer chips
from California,
the center for
microelectronics

Combine harvesters
farm wheat on the
American prairies

Cadillac car 197

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the Amazon River dance evolved
A floods, covering in Argentina’s
large parts of the slums during the
198 rain forest in water late 19th century
In 2002, Brazil won
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a record-breaking

fifth time

Angel Falls in Red-eyed tree
Venezuela drops frogs are active
3,212 ft (979 m) at night, searching
and is the highest for insects to eat

uninterrupted The toucan’s large
waterfall in beak enables it to
the world pick fruit from trees

The Patagonia region Caribbean Sea TLANTIC Coffee beans
at the southern tip of
the continent is known PA NAMA VENEZUELA GUYASNUARINAME (FtGoreuFniracanhnace) O C E A N Sap is collected
for its dramatic glaciers from rubber trees
COLOMBIA Equator
Sharp-teethed, in the Amazon
meat-eating rain forest to
piranhas produce
rubber
swim in South
American rivers

Equator U A D O R

EC Banana

PERU BRAZIL