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Encyclopedia of Biology

Encyclopedia of Biology

Keywords: Encyclopedia of Biology

334 urea

therefore the more kinks, the more beneficial it is to
human health. The kinks, by completely changing the
physical and chemical properties, allow it to form
essential protein associations more easily, disperse
more saturated fatty acids, and interact with water or
blood.

See also SATURATED FATTY ACID.

urea A nitrogen-containing waste product; a result of
the normal breakdown of protein in the liver in mam-
mals. It is created in liver cells from ammonia and car-
bon dioxide, and carried via the bloodstream to the
kidneys, where it is excreted in the urine along with
nitrogen. Urea accumulates in the body of people with
renal failure. Urea is also a synthetic source of nitrogen
made from natural gas.

urease A nickel ENZYME, urea amidohydrolase, that Colored scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of crystals of calci-
catalyzes the HYDROLYSIS of urea to ammonia and car- um carbonate on the surface of an otolith, found in the utricle. An
bon dioxide. The ACTIVE SITE comprises two Ni(II) ions otolith or otoconium is a calcified stone that is found in the otolith
bridged by a carbamate. organs of the inner ear. They are attached to sensory hairs, and,
when the head tilts, the stones’ movements cause nerve impulses
ureter Tubes, about eight to 12 inches in length, that that allow a sense of balance and orientation to be maintained. In
run from the kidney to the bladder on each side and humans, otoconia range from 3 to 30 microns (millionths of a
carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. meter) across. Magnification unknown. (Courtesy © Susumu
Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
urethra A narrow tube or canal that carries urine
from the bladder, and semen from the prostrate and bone, also called a tunicate or sea squirt; a sessile
other sex glands, out via the tip of the penis to the out- marine animal composed of a sack with two siphons in
side of the body. which water enters and exits, filtered inside by the
sack-shaped body.
uric acid The end results of urine breakdown, a
product of protein metabolism, which is the major urticating The act of causing itching or burning sen-
form of excreting metabolic nitrogen out of the body. sation to the skin or eyes as a result of being inflicted
Too much uric acid in the blood and its salts in joints by the entry of poison-filled spines (tips often break
lead to gout, which causes pain and swelling in the off) or setae that contain venom capable of causing
joints. When urine contains too much uric acid, “kid- pain and irritation. Found on the abdomen of tarantu-
ney” or uric acid stones can develop. las, some caterpillars, and the Urticaceae, plants of the
nettle family.
urochordate A chordate (organism having a noto-
chord at some stage of development) without a back-

utricle 335

uterus A pear-shaped hollow female reproductive entrance to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear. The
organ in the pelvis area, at the top of the vagina, where utricle contains receptors for balance and a macula that
eggs are fertilized and/or development of the young is responsive to linear acceleration. The macula is a
occurs. group of hair cells residing in either the saccule or the
utricle and covered with gelatinous material containing
utricle The larger of two membranous sacs (the other otoliths, which are small granules of calcium carbon-
is the saccule) within the vestibule, the cavity at the ate. The ear’s semicircular canals lead to and from the
utricle.



V

vaccination Injection of a killed or weakened infec- vacuole A large membrane-bound, fluid-filled space
tious organism (virus, bacterium) in order to prevent within a cell. In plant cells, there usually is a single
the disease. Vaccinations are administered via needles, large vacuole filling most of the cell’s volume, which
orally, or by aerosol spray. helps maintain the shape of the cells. Vacuoles can con-
tain food, gas, ingested bacteria, and other debris. In
vaccine A preparation that stimulates an immune species such as the paramecium, two vacuoles are
response in the body that can prevent an infection or important: the contractile vacuole is used in osmoregu-
create resistance to an infection or disease. Vaccines are lation, which is the removal of excess water; the food
administered via needles, orally, or by aerosol spray. vacuole contains recently ingested food, where it even-
There are several types of vaccines, ranging from tually combines or fuses with the cell’s lysosomes,
monovalent types that contain only one antigen to which contain enzymes for digestion.
combinational vaccines where several antigens are com-
bined into one. Vaccines can be live or attenuated, i.e., vagility Free to move about, ability to move or
a weakened strain, to induce the immune response migrate. A vagile species is one whose distribution can
while bypassing the severe effects of the disease. Com- vary widely from year to year.
mon vaccines include measles, mumps, polio, and oth-
ers. A live-vector vaccine uses a nondisease virus or valence shell Valence electrons are the electrons
bacterium to deliver a foreign substance to develop located in the outermost, highest energy orbits or
immunity. An inactive vaccine contains dead viruses or “shell” of an atom. The “shell” is more of a field
bacteria and cannot cause disease but will trigger a density and indicates the region where the electrons are
response. located. The valence electrons determine the chemical
properties of an element, since it is these valence elec-
There are acellular vaccines that contain only a trons that are gained or lost during a chemical reaction.
partial amount of cellular material; DNA vaccines
that inject genes with coding for a specific antigen van der Waals forces Weak forces, such as seen in
protein; bacterial vaccines that use bacteria; intracel- hydrogen bonding, that contribute to intermolecular
lular vaccines within a cell; and conjugate vaccines bonding.
that are made with polysaccharide (carbohydrate)
antigens bound to proteins to improve the effect of
immunity.

337

338 vascular cambium

vascular cambium A secondary meristem, i.e., a cent) of the native U.S. vascular plants are considered
thin layer of undifferentiated plant cells that divide globally rare.
indefinitely, which gives rise to secondary xylem and
phloem, leading to an increase in stem girth. Tissue Vascular plants first appear in the fossil record dur-
external to the vascular cambium is bark. ing the mid-Silurian period, about 410 million years
ago. Rhyniophyta is the earliest known division of
vascular plants The plant kingdom comprises these plants, represented by several genera. Vascular is
algae, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, and seed from Latin vasculum, meaning a vessel or duct.
vascular plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms). Most
of the familiar flora in the United States such as trees, Nonvascular plants, like mosses and liverworts,
shrubs, herbs, vines, grasses, ferns, and most other have poorly developed fluid transportation systems.
land plants belong to the Tracheophyta, or vascular
plants. vascular system A network of specialized cells; the
vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients from
These plants have systems for transporting water, the roots throughout a plant’s body. In animals, it is a
sugars, and nutrients and are differentiated into stems, specialized network of vessels—arteries, veins, and cap-
leaves, and roots. They have an elaborate system of illaries—for the circulation of fluids throughout the
conducting cells, consisting of xylem, where water and body tissue of an animal.
minerals are transported, and phloem, where carbohy-
drates are transported. This method of rigid internal vascular tissue The collective name given to the
support enables them to stand and grow erect and dis- xylem and phloem, both tissues that carry food, water,
tribute nutrients against gravity. and minerals through the plant for the nourishment of
the cells in vascular plants.
There are about 17,000 species of vascular plants
native to the United States, along with several thousand vas deferens (sperm duct) The excretory duct or
additional native subspecies, varieties, named natural tube that carries sperm from the epididymis, a long
hybrids, and about 5,000 exotic species known outside coiled tube in which spermatozoa are stored, to the
cultivation. More than 4,850 species (about 28 per-

*Plant

L ycopodophyta Sphenophyta Filicinophyta
(clubmosses) (horsetails) (ferns)

Bryophyta Cycadophyta Ginkgophyta Coniferophyta
(cycads)
(ginkgo) (conifers)

gymnosperms

Hepaticae Musci Angiospermophyta
(liverworts) (mosses) (flowering plants)

Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
(e.g. grasses, (e.g. oak, rose,
orchids, lilies) daisies)

*Extinct and mostly extinct groups are excluded

The plant kingdom comprises algae, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, and seed vascular plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms).

vertebrates 339

ejaculatory duct and urethra. The tube connects the aorta. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium and
testes with the urethra and has thick muscles to move the right ventricle and prevents backflow from the ventri-
the sperm down the tract. cle to the atrium. The mitral valve separates the left atri-
um and the left ventricle and prevents backflow from the
See also SPERM. ventricle to the atrium. The aortic valve prevents back-
flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle.
vector A vector can be a bacterium or virus that does
not cause disease in humans. It is often used in geneti- There are four brain ventricles. The right and left
cally engineered vaccines to transport antigen-encoding lateral ventricles lie within the cerebral cortex and con-
genes into the body to initiate an immune response. nect with the very narrow third ventricle by way of
Additionally, a vector can be an organism, usually an openings called interventricular foramina. This third
insect, that transmits an infectious agent to its alternate ventricle lies between the two halves of the thalamus
host. Examples are malaria, where the vector of the and connects to the fourth ventricle via a long, thin
parasite is mosquitoes, and the hosts are humans. tube called the cerebral aqueduct. The fourth ventricle
lies in the hindbrain, under the cerebellum and dorsal
to the pons and medulla.

vegetative reproduction Asexual reproduction in vernalization A required chilling period leading to
plants from vegetative parts (stems, leaves, or roots) or the breaking of dormancy in plants. Flowering can be
from modified stems (bulbs, tubers, rhizomes, and accelerated or induced by exposure to a long period of
stolons). There is no exchange of gametes, and unless near-freezing temperatures.
mutations occur, each new generation of plants is
genetically identical to the parent plant.

vein A thin-walled blood vessel that carries blood to vertebra One of the segments of bone or cartilage
the heart. Smaller veins called venules connect veins to composing the spinal column of vertebrates. In the
capillaries. spinal column of adult humans, there are 33 vertebrae:
seven cervical vertebrae in the neck, 12 thoracic verte-
In plants, they are the vascular bundles in leaves that brae that support the ribs, five lumbar vertebrae in the
consist of xylem and phloem. The veins are large along lower back, and other fused vertebrae forming the
the leaf midvein and petiole and get smaller as they radi- sacrum and the coccyx, beneath the sacrum.
ate out into the leaf, becoming known as veinlets.
vertebral bodies The oval segments of bone on the
See also ARTERY. spine that support most of the axial load of the spine
and consist mostly of the thoracic and lumbar verte-
ventilation Ventilation is the passage of air into and brae. The lumbar part of the spine—consisting of five
out of the respiratory tract. Ventilation exchange (VE) lumbar vertebral bodies that sit on top of the sacrum—
is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and is above the coccyx, the tailbone. The lumbar spine
other gases during the passage of air into and out of supports most of the weight of the body, and its verte-
the respiratory passages. bral bodies are larger than the rest. The thoracic part
of the spine consists of 12 bodies. The thoracic region
ventricle The chamber of the heart that receives blood supports the cervical spine (neck), which has seven
from the atrium (chamber that collects blood returning bodies and supports the head.
from the rest of the body) and contracts and pumps
blood away from the heart. There are two ventricles in vertebrates Chordate animals that have a spinal col-
mammals and birds. The right ventricle pumps deoxy- umn or backbone (with the exception of hagfish and
genated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery; the the rudimentary form of lampreys). The category
left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the

340 vesicle

View of the spine and pelvis of a human skeleton. The spine is a Craniata (hagfish plus all the vertebrates). Another
column of 33 roughly cylindrical bones called vertebrae. Between smaller phylum Hemichordates, the sawblades and
each vertebra is a disc-shaped pad of cartilage. At the top of the acorns, are important in the study of vertebrate evolu-
image, seven cervical vertebrae support the skull. The 12 thoracic tion. Although they contain only a few hundred
vertebrae are below this, and each of these supports an attached species, they seem to share some of the chordate char-
rib (not seen). The lumbar spine is five vertebrae that support the acteristics: brachial openings, or “gill slits,” into the
lower back, and these take most of the strain when lifting. At the pharynx; a rudimentary structure called the stomo-
bottom, the sacrum consists of 5 fused vertebrae that connect to chord that is similar to a notochord; and a dorsal nerve
the pelvic bone. The pelvic bone protects and supports abdominal cord and a smaller ventral nerve cord. However, DNA
organs. (Courtesy © James Stevenson/Photo Researchers, Inc.) studies are showing that hemichordates may be closer
to echinoderms.
includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mam-
mals; a member of the phylum Chordata. There are approximately 50,000 living species of
vertebrates, with slightly fewer total fish vertebrates
Three subphyla exist: Urochordata (sea squirts, lar- (25,988), the oldest group, than all others combined
vaceans), Cephalochordata (amphioxus, lancelets), and (4,500 mammals, 9,100 birds, 7,082 reptiles, 4,880
amphibians). They range in size from 0.1 gram to
100,000 kilograms. The Cephalochordata have the
fewest number of living species with 45, followed by
the Urochordata with 2,000 species, and the Craniata
with 43,000 species.

Vertebrates are chordates with a distinct head and
contain sense organs and a brain. Other characteristics
include a segmented vertebral rod of cartilage/bone, a
closed circulatory system, true coelom, and a bilaterally
symmetrical body.

Vertebrates first appeared on Earth some 500 mil-
lion years ago when continents were fragmented. Then
the continents combined into the supercontinent Pan-
gaea, which included most of the Earth’s crust, some
300 million years ago, fragmenting again 100 million
years ago into Laurasia (the northern continents) and
Gondwanaland (the southern continents). Vertebrates
live in almost every conceivable habitat on earth.

See also INVERTEBRATES.

vesicle A small, membrane-enclosed sac, cyst, or bub-
ble found in the cytosol, the semifluid inside the cell
membrane of eukaryotic cells. Vesicles are used to trans-
port proteins and lipids to various destinations in the
cell, including the sites of glycolysis (the first stage of
energy production by the cell), and fatty acid synthesis.
Vesicles can import particles in a process called endocy-
tosis or export waste in a process called exocytosis.

In botanical terms, a vesicle is a small bladderlike
body in the substance of a vegetable or on the surface
of a leaf. In medical terms, a vesicle is a small and
more-or-less circular elevation of the cuticle, skin

vitalism 341

lesion, or blister containing a clear watery fluid; a cavi- the protein coat that defines a virus; a naked unencap-
ty or sac, especially one filled with fluid. Anatomy sulated strand of RNA. Viroids are known to cause
refers to the umbilical vesicle, while zoology defines a plant diseases. For example, potato spindle tuber viroid
vesicle as a small, convex, hollow prominence on the (PSTV) can cause a destructive disease of potatoes.
surface of a shell or a coral. In geological terms, a vesi-
cle is a small cavity, nearly spherical in form and the virus A small microorganism that contains RNA or
size of a pea or smaller, common in some volcanic DNA and is surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses
rocks and produced by the liberation of watery vapor infect cells and then replicate new viruses after invasion
in the molten mass. using the protein of the infected cells to reproduce.
Viruses can cause many human diseases, including
vessel element Individual, short, wide, or fat cells chicken pox, measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis, and
arranged end to end, forming a system of tubes in the hepatitis, and they are not affected by common drugs
xylem. The cell walls are pitted and contain lignin, such as antibiotics, which are effective against bacteria-
which gives them strength. They function to carry based disease. Instead, vaccines are used to prevent or
water and minerals upward in the stem and root. fight off virus attacks.

See also BACTERIA.

vestigial organ Nonfunctional remains of organs visceral (visceral muscle) Pertaining to the internal
that were previously functional and served a purpose in organs of the body, especially those within the abdomi-
ancestral species, that no longer serve that purpose, but nal cavity such as the digestive tract, bladder, and the
that remain part of the body and may still be function- heart; smooth muscle, as opposed to the two other
al in related species; e.g., the dewclaws of dogs, tails in muscle types, skeletal and cardiac.
human embryos, wisdom teeth in adults, wings of the
ostrich, rudimentary legs in snakes, and whales with visible light The portion of the electromagnetic spec-
hip bones. trum that humans perceive. This excludes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X rays,
vetch (Vicia sativa) An annual forage legume, 40 to and gamma rays. The human eye perceives the visible-
80 cm in height. Chiefly pollinated by bees because it light spectrum as a continuum of colors (red, orange,
produces much nectar. Also, the maximum surface of a yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, along with vari-
lake exposed to prevailing winds. ous combinations and shades of these colors), with the
perceived color depending on the wavelength. The
vicariance The separation of a group of organisms spectrum of visible light ranges in wavelength from
caused by a geographic barrier (e.g., mountain, lake, about 400 nm to about 700 nm. Visible light travels at
sea, etc.), resulting in the original group differentiating the same speed as all other radiation, i.e., at 186,000
into new varieties or species. miles per second, and its wavelength is longer than
ultraviolet light but shorter than X rays. Violet has the
viremia The presence of virus in the bloodstream. shortest wavelength, while red has the longest.
Often associated with malaise, fever, and aching in the
back and extremities. See also ENERGY.

viroid (satellite RNA) Once thought to be a virus, a vitalism Attributed to the teachings of Aristotle, the
viroid is an infectious, pathogenic entity similar to a concept of vitalism, in its many forms, is the belief that
virus but having only one strand of nucleic acid without life forms and natural phenomena cannot be explained
by simple explanations of matter and processes. Vital-
ism posits that there must be another force, perhaps a

342 vitamin

A transmission electron micrograph of smallpox viruses. Smallpox is a serious, highly contagious, and sometimes fatal infectious dis-
ease. There is no specific treatment for smallpox, and the only prevention is vaccination. (Courtesy of Fred Murphy and Sylvia Whitfield,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

soul or spirit, that must be added to the equation that vitamin An essential organic nutrient that is needed
brings us life as we know it. This was one of the central in small amounts by an organism for metabolism and
interests of scientists and scholars during the latter part other processes. Organisms either synthesize them or
of the 19th century, and many spent time investigating obtain them in other ways. Examples of vitamins are
the relationship between human beings and nature by vitamin C and vitamin E, both antioxidants. A vita-
studying the physiology of perception, as opposed to min usually functions as a coenzyme or a component
the mechanistic theory that all living organisms are of a coenzyme and is soluble in either water or organ-
inanimate and mechanical. Most of the biologists of ic solvent. The lack of certain vitamins can lead to
that era believed in the existence of a life force of some disease such as in rickets (vitamin D), tooth decay
kind. It was opposed in the 19th century by meteorolo- (vitamin K), bone softening (vitamin D), or night
gist/scientist Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–94), who blindness (vitamin A). Other vitamins include vitamin
spent many years trying to prove it wrong. B1 (thiamin), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), niacinamide

voltage-gated channel 343

(niacin-vitamin B3), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin viviparous Animals that are viviparous are born live
B12 (cobalamin), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyri- after being nourished by blood from the placenta while
doxal (vitamin B6), phylloquinone (vitamin K), biotin, in the uterus, and do not hatch from eggs.
folic acid, inositol, choline, and PABA (para amino
benzoic acid). Vitamin supplements are a billion dol- voltage-gated channel Ion channels are pores in
lar per year industry. cell membranes that allow the passage of ions in and
out of cells. There are two types, voltage-gated and
vitamin B12 See COBALAMIN. chemically gated channels. The opening and closing of
the voltage-dependent ion channels is regulated by
vitiligo A skin condition of unpigmented spots deter- voltage, the electrical charge or potential difference
mined by a dominant gene that destroys special skin between the inside and outside of the membrane,
cells (melanocytes). These skin cells produce the pig- while chemical stimuli are responsible for opening and
ment melanin in the skin along with tissues (mucus closing the chemically gated channels. Neurons use
membranes) that line the inside of the mouth, nose, gen- these channels to pass sodium and potassium ions
ital and rectal areas, and the retina of the eyes. About through them.
40 to 50 million people worldwide have vitiligo, and in
the United States alone, 2 to 5 million people have it.



W

Wagner-Jauregg, Julius (1857–1940) Austrian Neu- der Psychiatrie (1912) and Lehrbuch der Organothera-
rologist, Psychiatrist Julius Wagner was born on pie (Textbook of organotherapy) with G. Bayer (1914).
March 7, 1857, in Wels, Austria, to Adolf Johann Wag- He published more than 80 papers after he retired in
ner. He attended the Schotten gymnasium in Vienna 1928.
and in 1880 received his medical degree at the Institute
of General and Experimental Pathology, where he Later in life, he devoted himself to research in
stayed for two years. forensic medicine and the legal aspects of insanity, and
he assisted in formulating the law regarding certifica-
In 1889 he was appointed extraordinary professor tion of the insane in Austria. He died on September 27,
at the medical faculty of the University of Graz. Here 1940.
he started his investigations on the connections
between goiter and cretinism, and, based on his Waksman, Selman Abraham (1888–1973) Ameri-
research, the government started selling salt laced with can Biochemist Selman Abraham Waksman was born
iodine in the areas most affected by goiter. From 1893 in Priluka, near Kiev, Russia, on July 22, 1888, to
to 1928 he was professor at the University of Vienna. Jacob Waksman and Fradia London. He received his
early education from private tutors and school training
Wagner’s life work was to cure mental disease by in Odessa in an evening school, also with private
inducing a fever, after observing that mental patients tutors.
improve after surviving certain infections that have
high fevers. In 1917, using malaria inoculation, he was In 1911 he entered Rutgers College, having won a
able to cure syphilis patients of dementia paralytica, or state scholarship the previous spring, and received a
paresis, caused by syphilis, bringing the disease under B.S. in agriculture in 1915. He was appointed research
control. He attributed the success of the procedure to assistant in soil bacteriology at the New Jersey Agricul-
the induced malarial fever, and this discovery earned tural Experiment Station, and continued graduate work
him the Nobel Prize in 1927. This is considered the at Rutgers, obtaining an M.S. in 1916, the year he
first example of “shock therapy.” became a naturalized U.S. citizen. In 1918 he was
appointed a research fellow at the University of Cali-
His main publication was a book titled Verhütung fornia, where he received his Ph.D. in biochemistry the
und Behandlung der progressiven Paralyse durch Impf- same year.
malaria (Prevention and treatment of progressive paral-
ysis by malaria inoculation) in the memorial volume of He was invited back to Rutgers, and by 1930 was a
the Handbuch der experimentellen Therapie (Hand- professor. When the Department of Microbiology was
book of experimental therapy) (1931). His other works organized in 1940, he became professor of microbiology
include Myxödem und Kretinismus in the Handbuch

345

346 Wallace’s line

and head of the department, and nine years later he the hydrogen-transferring enzymes, and early discovery
was appointed director of the Institute of Microbiology. of iron–oxygenase provided details of oxidation and
He retired in 1958. reduction (redux reactions) in the living organisms. For
his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the
Waksman brought medicine from the soil. By respiratory enzymes that enable cells to process oxy-
studying soil-based acintomycetes, he was able to gen, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1931. He was
extract a number of antibiotics such as actinomycin offered a second Nobel Prize in 1944 for his enzyme
(1940), clavacin, streptothricin (1942), streptomycin work, but he was not allowed to accept it, since he was
(1943), grisein (1946), neomycin (1948), fradicin, can- living under the Hitler regime. He later discovered how
dicidin, candidin, and more. His discovery of strepto- the conversion of light energy to chemical energy is
mycin, which was the first effective treatment against activated in photosynthesis. During the 1930s he
tuberculosis, brought him the 1952 Nobel Prize in showed the carcinogenic nature of food additives and
physiology or medicine. cigarette smoke and demonstrated how cancer cells are
destroyed by radiation.
He published more than 400 scientific papers and
has written, alone or with others, 18 books, including Warburg is the author of New Methods of Cell
Principles of Soil Microbiology (1927) and My Life Physiology (1962). He died on August 1, 1970.
with the Microbes (1954), an autobiography. He was a
member of numerous scientific organizations. In 1950 warm-blooded Refers to organisms that main-
he was made commander of the French Légion d’Hon- tain a constant body temperature. Also known as
neur, and in 1952 was voted as one of the most out- HOMEOTHERMIC.
standing 100 people in the world today. He died on
August 16, 1973, in Hyannis, Massachusetts.

Wallace’s line An imaginary line drawn by A. R. water potential Direction of water flow based on
Wallace that passes between the Philippines and the solute concentration and pressure. An example is
Moluccas in the north and between Sulawesi and Bor- osmosis, which is the diffusion of water across a
neo and between Lombok and Bali in the south (the semipermeable barrier, such as a cell membrane, from
Mariana Trench). It separates the Oriental and Aus- high water potential to lower water potential.
tralian biogeographical regions. It marks the limits of
distribution for many major animal groups that appear Also a measure of the moisture stress in plants or
on one side of the line but are absent on the other side. soil, measured in megapascals. A more negative value
indicates greater moisture stress. Soils with no moisture
Warburg, Otto Heinrich (1883–1970) German Bio- stress have a water potential of 0 to –1 mPa. The mea-
chemist Otto Heinrich Warburg was born on October surement of soil water potential involves the use of sen-
8, 1883, in Freiburg, Baden, to physicist Emil Warburg. sors that determine the energy status of the water in
He studied chemistry under Emil Fischer and received soil. The energy state describes the force that holds the
his doctor of chemistry from the University of Berlin in water in the soil. Two methods of measuring soil water
1906, and a doctor of medicine from the University of potential are the heat dissipation method or the electri-
Heidelberg in 1911. cal resistance method.

In 1918 he was appointed professor at the Kaiser water table The level below the earth’s surface at
Wilhelm Institute for Biology, Berlin-Dahlem, and from which the ground becomes saturated with water; usual-
1931 to 1953 he was director of the Kaiser Wilhelm ly mimics the surface contour and is set where hydro-
Institute for Cell Physiology (now Max Planck Insti- static pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
tute) in Berlin.
water vascular system An internally closed network
He specialized in the investigation of metabolism in of watery canals in echinoderms (e.g., starfish, sand
tumors and respiration of cells. He discovered that
flavins and the nicotinamide were the active groups of

Weller, Thomas Huckle 347

dollars, sea urchins) that draws water from the sur- were published in 1920, 1922, and 1929. Wegener
rounding sea and passes it through a perforated plate wrote that around 300 million years ago, the conti-
called the madreporite, which is used for locomotion nents had formed a single mass, called Pangaea (Greek
and food gathering. Extensions of the water vascular for “all the Earth”), which split apart, and its pieces
system are called tube feet, which protrude from the had been moving away from each other ever since.
body, usually ending in suckers, and are used for loco- While he was not the first to suggest that the continents
motion and for holding on to the sea bottom or prey. had once been connected, he was the first to present
the evidence, although he was wrong in thinking that
wavelength The physical distance between points of the continents moved by “plowing” into each other
corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles of a through the ocean floor. His theory was soundly reject-
wave. ed, although a few scientists did agree with his premise.

Wegener, Alfred Lothar (1880–1930) German Geo- In November 1930 he died while returning from a
physicist, Meteorologist, Climatologist Alfred Wegen- rescue expedition that brought food to a party of his
er was born in Berlin on November 1, 1880, the son of colleagues camped in the middle of the Greenland ice
a minister who ran an orphanage. He obtained his doc- cap. His body was not found until May 12, 1931, but
torate in planetary astronomy in 1904 at the University his friends allowed him to rest forever in the area that
of Berlin. In 1905 Wegener took a job at the Royal he loved.
Prussian Aeronautical Observatory near Berlin, study-
ing the upper atmosphere with kites and balloons. The theory of continental drift continued to be
Wegener was an expert balloonist, as proved the fol- controversial for many years, but by the 1950s and
lowing year when he and his brother Kurt set a world 1960s, plate tectonics was all but an accepted fact and
record of 52 consecutive hours in an international bal- taught in schools. Today, we know that both continents
loon contest. and ocean floor float as solid plates on underlying rock
that behaves like a viscous fluid due to being under
In 1911, at the age of 30, Wegener collected his such tremendous heat and pressure. Wegener never
meteorology lectures and published them as a book lived to see his theory proved. Had he lived, most sci-
titled The Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere. It entists believe he would have been the champion of
became a standard in Germany, and Wegener received present-day plate tectonics.
acclaim. He also noticed the close fit between the coast-
lines of Africa and South America. He was formulating Weller, Thomas Huckle (1915– ) American Micro-
his theory of continental drift and began to search for biologist Thomas Huckle Weller was born in Ann
paleontological, climatological, and geological evidence Arbor, Michigan, on June 15, 1915, to Carl Vernon
in support of his theory. Weller, who was in the pathology department of the
medical school at the University of Michigan. He
On January 6, 1912, at a meeting of the Geological attended this university in 1932 and received a B.A. in
Association in Frankfurt, he spoke about his ideas of 1936 and an M.S. in 1937.
“continental displacement” (continental drift), and pre-
sented his theory again days later at a meeting of the In 1936 he attended Harvard Medical School in
Society for the Advancement of Natural Science in Boston and worked in the facilities in the department
Marburg. of comparative medicine and tropical medicine. In
1939 he began research on viruses and tissue culture
In 1914 he was drafted into the German army, was techniques to study infectious disease. He received an
wounded, and served out the war in the army weather- M.D. in 1940 and began training at the Children’s
forecasting service. While recuperating in a military Hospital in Boston. After a stint with the Army Medi-
hospital, he further developed his theory of continental cal Corps during the war, he returned to Boston and
drift, which he published the following year as Die the Children’s Hospital. In 1947 he joined John ENDERS
Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane (The origin of in the organization of the new research division of
continents and oceans). Expanded versions of the book infectious diseases at the Children’s Medical Center. In
1949 he became assistant director of this division and

348 West Nile disease or fever

later became an instructor in the department of com- 1920 and 1921. In 1921 he was appointed professor
parative pathology and tropical medicine and an asso- of pathology and dean of the School of Medicine and
ciate professor in the Harvard Medical School of Public Dentistry at the University of Rochester and became
Health. In July 1954 he was appointed Richard Pear- the founding dean of the university’s School of
son Strong Professor of Tropical Public Health and Medicine (1921–53) and chair of the pathology
head of the department at the Harvard School of Public department.
Health. From 1966 to 1981 he was director of Har-
vard’s Center for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases. Whipple’s main researches were concerned with
anemia and the physiology and pathology of the liver.
He contributed a great deal of research on the In 1908 he began a study of bile pigments that led to
helminthes parasites of humans, particular on the his interest in the body’s manufacture of the oxygen-
nematode Trichirella spiralis and schistosome trema- carrying hemoglobin, an important element in the pro-
todes, which cause schistosomiasis. He isolated the duction of bile pigments. His studies dealt with the
viruses of varicella and herpes zoster, showing that one effect of foods on the regeneration of blood cells and
caused both diseases. In 1955 he also isolated a virus hemoglobin in 1918. Between 1923 and 1925, his
that causes cytomegalic inclusion disease in infants. experiments in artificial anemia were instrumental in
Together with J. F. Enders and F. C. ROBBINS, he was determining that iron is the most potent inorganic fac-
awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in physiology or tor in the formation of red blood cells.
medicine for work in growing polio viruses in cultures
of different tissues. For his work on liver research and treatment of
anemia, he was awarded, together with GEORGE R.
West Nile disease or fever A mosquito-borne dis- MINOT and WILLIAM P. MURPHY, the Nobel Prize in
ease that can cause encephalitis, or inflammation of the physiology or medicine in 1934. Whipple published
brain, and caused by a flavivirus. West Nile fever is a many scientific papers in physiological journals.
disease that has occurred before in Egypt, Asia, Israel,
South Africa, and parts of Europe, but it had never He died on February 2, 1976, in Rochester, New
before been found in the Western Hemisphere until York. His birthplace home on Pleasant Street in Ash-
recently, appearing in America in 1999. In 2003, West land was listed on the National Register in 1978.
Nile virus had killed 223 people in the United States,
and there were 9,122 confirmed human cases of the wild type The normal form, genotype, or phenotype
disease worldwide. Closely related to the St. Louis of an organism found or first seen in nature. It can
encephalitis. refer to the particular whole organism or to a particu-
lar mutation. It is the most frequently encountered
genotype in natural breeding populations.

Whipple, George Hoyt (1878–1976) American Wilson’s disease An inherited condition in which
Pathologist George Hoyt Whipple was born on copper fails to be excreted in the bile. Copper accumu-
August 28, 1878, in Ashland, New Hampshire, to Dr. lates progressively in the liver, brain, kidney, and red
Ashley Cooper Whipple and Frances Hoyt. Whipple blood cells. As the amount of copper accumulates,
was educated at Phillips Academy in Andover and hemolytic anemia, chronic liver disease, and a neuro-
received a B.A. at Yale University in 1900. He then logical syndrome develop.
completed course work at Johns Hopkins University
and received his M.D. degree in 1905, when he was See also CHELATION THERAPY.
appointed assistant in pathology at the Johns Hopkins
Medical School. In 1914 he was appointed professor winterbottom’s sign Swelling of the posterior cervi-
of research medicine at the University of California cal lymph nodes at the base of the skull that is symp-
Medical School and was named director of the Hooper tomatic of having African trypanosomiasis (African
Foundation for Medical Research at that university, sleeping sickness). Caused by a parasite and transmit-
serving as dean of the medical school during the years ted by the bite of the tsetse fly. West African trypanoso-

wobble 349

miasis is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei wobble The ability of certain bases at the third posi-
gambiense. East African trypanosomiasis is caused by tion of an anticodon in tRNA to form hydrogen bonds
Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. It is confined mainly in various ways, causing alignment with several possi-
to tropical Africa and is located between 15 degrees ble codons. The third base position within a codon is
north and 20 degrees south latitude. called the wobble position.



X

XANES (X-ray absorption near edge structure) See conserving features such as thick cuticles and sunken
EXTENDED X-RAY ABSORPTION FINE STRUCTURE. stomatal pits.

X chromosome The nuclei of human cells contain XO Sex is determined by genes, called sex-linked
22 autosomes (any chromosome that is not a sex chro- genes. An XO individual has only one chromosome,
mosome) and two sex chromosomes. In females, the and the Y or X is missing. An XO human is viable
sex chromosomes are the two X chromosomes, and in and develops ovaries but fails to produce steroid hor-
males there is one X chromosome and one Y chromo- mones, and so the individual has no puberty and is
some. infertile. Those with Turner’s syndrome are missing
or have a damaged X chromosome, a condition that
xenobiotic A xenobiotic (Greek xenos “foreign” affects about one in every 2,500 females. Certain
bios “life”) is a compound that is foreign to a living organisms, such as caddis, butterflies and moths,
organism. Principal xenobiotics include drugs, carcino- birds, and some fish, have XO sex determination. A
gens, and various compounds that have been intro- male is produced when two X chromosomes are
duced into the environment by artificial means. present, and a female is produced when only one
X chromosome is present. Thus XY produces a
xenodiagnosis A way to test, using laboratory-bred female and XX produces a male in Lepidoptera, the
organisms, the diagnosis of certain parasitic diseases heterogametic sex being the female in this select
(like Trypanosoma cruzi [Chagas’ disease] and group of organisms.
Trichinella spiralis [trichinosis] infection) when it is not
possible to identify the infecting organism. X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES)
See EXTENDED X-RAY ABSORPTION FINE STRUCTURE.

xeric Dry and hot habitat, desertlike. xylem A tissue found in a plant’s vascular bundle
(above the phloem) and in the center of the plant,
xerophytes Plants that grow under arid conditions where secondary growth occurs. Its purpose is to bring
with low levels of soil and water and have water- water and minerals (nutrients) from the roots upward
throughout the plant.

351

352 xylem

There is a primary and secondary xylem. Xylem is

made up of tracheids (long, dead cells that function as

conductors), vessel elements (individual short, wide

cells that make up the vessel, also responsible for water

transport), fibers, and parenchyma cells (act as storage

cells and help in assimilation or wound healing). Both

tracheids and vessels have stiff lignin-containing sec-

ondary cell walls that give them rigidity.

Primary xylem comes from the plants procambium

annular spiral scalariform and contains protoxylem (annular and spiral vessels)

and metaxylem (scalariform, reticulate, and pitted ves-

sels). The secondary xylem comes from the vascular

cambium in plants exhibiting secondary growth, such

as wood.

See also PHLOEM.

reticulate pitted

A tissue found in a plant’s vascular bundle (above the phloem)
and in the center of the plant where secondary growth occurs.

Y

Y chromosome The nuclei of human cells contain 22 mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Haemagogus capri-
autosomes (any chromosome that is not a sex chromo- corni, among others.
some) and two sex chromosomes. In females, the sex
chromosomes are the two X chromosomes, and in males yolk sac An extraembryonic tissue (membranous
there is one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. sac) that is attached to an embryo and contains the
The presence of the Y chromosome leads to a baby boy. nutritive food yolk. In fish larvae, the alevin-stage
embryos swim with the yolk sac attached until it is
yeast Considered to be the oldest “plant” cultivated absorbed. In placental mammals, it is vestigial (con-
by humans. Yeast is a unicellular fungus that belongs to tains no nutrients). The primitive yolk sac divides into
the family Saccharomycetaceae. It lives in the soil, on two parts: one portion becomes the fetal gastrointesti-
plants, and is airborne, and it has been used in the pro- nal tract, while the second portion connects to the fetal
duction of bread, beer, and wine because it drives the body via the vitelline duct and is located in the fluid
process of fermentation. It produces carbon dioxide space outside the amnion, the extraembryonic coelom.
and alcohol when in the presence of sugar. It produces the embryo’s first blood cells and germ cells
that develop into gonads; is the source of the mucous
yellow fever A tropical mosquito-borne viral hep- membrane of almost the entire intestinal tract; and
atitis caused by an arbovirus (yellow fever virus) from deals with the transfer of nutritive fluid to the embryo
the Flaviviridae family. It is transmitted by the from the trophoblast, primary mesenchyme, and
extraembryonic coelom.

353



Z

Z-DNA (zigzag DNA) A region of DNA that is zones of vegetation occurred with both increasing lati-
“flipped” into a left-handed helix. DNA adopts the Z tude and increasing elevation. He named them Arctic-
configuration when purines and pyrimidines alternate Alpine, Hudsonian, Canadian, Transition, Upper
on a single strand. It may be important in regulating Sonoran, and Lower Sonoran.
gene expression in eukaryotes.

zinc finger A DOMAIN, found in certain DNA-binding zoological nomenclature See BINOMIAL.
proteins, comprising a HELIX-loop structure in which a
zinc ion is coordinated to two to four cysteine sulfurs, zooplankton Small floating or weakly swimming
the remaining LIGANDs being histidines. In many pro- invertebrates that are transported by water currents
teins of this type the domain is repeated several times. and eat other plankton. Zooplankton are foraminifera
and radiolarians, tiny crustaceans (Daphnia), as well as
See also COORDINATION. the larval or immature stages of animals like mollusks
(snails and squid), crustaceans (crabs and lobsters),
zoned reserve system An ecosystem preservation fish, jellyfish, and sea cucumbers.
concept where certain lands are preserved and managed
as wild or natural, while areas around it are used and zoospore An asexually produced flagellated, swim-
altered by human activity. Several nations, such as Costa ming spore.
Rica, have adopted this strategy. Municipal zoning in the
United States is another approach where undeveloped zwitterionic compound A neutral compound hav-
lands within a community are zoned for various uses ing electrical charges of opposite sign, delocalized or
such as industrial, residential, and conservation. not, on adjacent or nonadjacent atoms.

zones A series of life zones developed in 1889 by zygodactyl The trait of having two toes pointing
mammalogist Clinton Hart Merriam, who studied the forward and two toes pointing backward, found in
distribution patterns of plants and animal. His developed
the concept of a life zone. He recognized that similar

355

356 zygomorphic

climbing birds (e.g., parrots, woodpeckers). The first
and fourth toes are directed backward, while it is the
second and third that are forward.

zygomorphic Flowers that are bilaterally symmetri-
cal; can be bisected into similar halves in only one
plane, thereby forming mirror images.

zygospore A structure that forms in fungi from the
diploid zygote. It forms sporangia, where meiosis takes
place and forms spores.

zygote When male (sperm) and female (ovum)
gametes combine, they form a zygote that develops into
an embryo. The zygote is a diploid cell created by the
fusion of the mature male and female gametes, each of
which has a haploid set of chromosomes (23 in
human). Upon fusion, the zygote has two copies of
chromosomes, one from each parent. It is the fertilized
egg before it starts to divide and grow.

Viola cordata, an example of a zygomorphic flower from Virginia.
(Courtesy of Tim McCabe)

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APPENDIX II

BIOLOGY-RELATED WEBSITES classifications of animals and plants, and locate other
general biology material.
A SAMPLE OF INTERNET SITES CONTAINING
A WEALTH OF BIOLOGICAL DATA Botanical Society of American Online Images.
Available on-line. URL:
Ask a Biologist. Available on-line. URL: http://images.botany.org/. Accessed May 20, 2003.
http://ls.la.asu.edu/askabiologist/index.html. Accessed A collection of approximately 800 images available for
May 20, 2003. instructional use in 14 collections of images: plant
Anyone is welcome to use Ask a Biologist, intended geography, plant morphology, phloem development,
primarily for an audience of grades K–12, and for xylem development, floral ontogeny, lichens, economic
teachers as a resource. Arizona State University faculty botany, carnivorous plants, organography, pollen, pale-
and staff maintain the site. Experiments and reading obotany, plant defense mechanisms, plant anatomy,
materials are also included. and cellular communication channels.

Biointeractive. Available on-line. URL: Ecology www Pages. Available on-line. URL:
http://www.biointeractive.org/. Accessed May 20, http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~brach/Ecology-
2003. WWW.html. Accessed May 20, 2003.
A site from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute that An alphabetical listing of Websites that focuses on the
features virtual labs, animations, Web-based video, and field of ecology.
other interactive features relating to biology.
Internet Directory of Botany. Available on-line. URL:
Biology On-line. Available on-line. URL: http://www.botany.net/IDB/. Accessed May 20, 2003.
http://biology-online.org/. Accessed May 20, 2003 A database of subject areas relating to botany. You can
Many on-line tutorials on various biology-related sub- find listings of arboreta, software, universities, courses,
jects, as well as many other links to biology and envi- plant checklists, downloadable database sets, and just
ronment Websites. about everything you can think of that relates to
botany. You can search alphabetically or by categories.
Biology Website References for Students and Teachers. Contains hundreds of listings.
Available on-line. URL:
http://www.hoflink.com/~house/genbkgd.html. Library of Biological Resources via the Internet. Avail-
Accessed May 20, 2003. able on-line. URL:
Find out where you can find a career in biology, order http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/biologic.html. Accessed
biological equipment or specimens, find biological May 20, 2003.

363

364 Appendix II

A great source for biological collections and databases U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Threatened and
accessible via the Web. Toxicology and risk assessment, Endangered Animals and Plants. Available on-line.
biotechnology, and biological journals are also listed. URL:
http://endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html. Accessed May
National Human Genome Research Institute. Available 20, 2003.
on-line. URL: This Federal Website lists the laws governing endan-
http://www.genome.gov/. Accessed May 20, 2003. gered and threatened species in the United States and
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international contains listings of all species that are listed or pro-
research effort to determine the DNA sequence of the posed for listing in the United States. It also contains
entire human genome. You can find many resources world-related species information and a wealth of
here on the progress of this endeavor, including fact information on a species level.
sheets, educational curricula, and teaching modules.

APPENDIX III

BIOLOGY SOFTWARE AND ANIMATIONS SOURCES On-line game demonstrating Pavlov’s famous dog
experiments.
Biocatalog of Software
CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/biocat/biocat.html http://www.nobel.se/medicine/educational/2001/index.
The Biocatalog is a software directory of general interest html
in molecular biology and genetics. Includes domains in: On-line game that demonstrates the different phases in
the cell cycle.
DNA
Proteins BLOOD TYPING
Alignments http://www.nobel.se/medicine/educational/landsteiner/
Genomes index.html
Genetic On-line game that demonstrates various blood types
Mapping and transfusion.
Molecular evolution
Molecular graphics THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN
Databases http://www.nobel.se/medicine/educational/penicillin/
Servers index.html
Miscellaneous On-line game that lets you discover penicillin like Sir
Fleming.
Biology-Related Simulations
MICROSCOPES
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM http://www.nobel.se/physics/educational/
http://www.nobel.se/medicine/educational/ecg/index.html microscopes/1.html
On-line game that demonstrates how an electrocardio- On-line game that teaches how various types of micro-
gram works. scopes work.

PAVLOV’S DOG
http://www.nobel.se/medicine/educational/pavlov/index.
html

365

366 Appendix III

THE BIOCHEMISTRY LAB IU-BIO-ARCHIVE
http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/educational/vbl/index.html http://iubio.bio.indiana.edu/
On-line site that lets you perform 12 biochemistry This is an Internet archive of biology data and soft-
experiments. ware, established in 1989, to promote public access to
freely available information, primarily in the field of
EBI molecular biology. There are hundreds of free and
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ shareware programs available for downloading for
or ftp://ftp.ebi.ac.uk/pub/software/ almost all computer platforms from PC to Mac.
The European Bioinformatics Institute, home to EMBL
databank and others, and a home to a large molecular MOLECULAR BIOLOGY SOFTWARE
biology software archive. http://www.yk.rim.or.jp/~aisoai/soft.html
A Website that links to many other sites that contain
EXPASY MOLECULAR BIOLOGY SERVER biology software. Direct downloads of features pro-
http://ca.expasy.org/ grams from modeling to RNA analysis are available
The ExPASy (Expert Protein Analysis System) pro- directly from this site as well.
teomics server of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics
(SIB) is dedicated to the analysis of protein sequences NATIONAL CENTER FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY INFORMATION
and structures. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Established in 1988 as a national resource for molecu-
GENAMICS SOFTWARESEEK lar biology information, NCBI creates public databas-
http://genamics.com/software/ es, conducts research in computational biology,
Genamics SoftwareSeek is a repository and database of develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and
freely distributable and commercial tools for use in disseminates biomedical information. A great deal of
molecular biology and biochemistry. Windows, MS- software available for downloading.
DOS, Mac, Unix, and Linux platforms. The database
presently contains more than 1,200 entries.

APPENDIX IV

NOBEL LAUREATES RELATING TO BIOLOGY 1912 Victor Grignard
“for the discovery of the so-called Grig-
Chemistry Laureates nard reagent, which in recent years has
greatly advanced the progress of organ-
1901 Jacobus Henricus van ’t Hoff ic chemistry”
“in recognition of the extraordinary
services he has rendered by the discov- 1913 Alfred Werner
ery of the laws of chemical dynamics “in recognition of his work on the linkage
and osmotic pressure in solutions” of atoms in molecules by which he has
thrown new light on earlier investigations
1902 Hermann Emil Fischer and opened up new fields of research
“in recognition of the extraordinary ser- especially in inorganic chemistry”
vices he has rendered by his work on 1915
sugar and purine syntheses” Richard Martin Willstätter
“for his researches on plant pigments,
1903 Svante August Arrhenius 1918 especially chlorophyll”
1907 “in recognition of the extraordinary ser- 1921
vices he has rendered to the advance- Fritz Haber
ment of chemistry by his electrolytic “for the synthesis of ammonia from its
theory of dissociation” elements”

Eduard Buchner Frederick Soddy
“for his biochemical researches and his “for his contributions to our knowledge
discovery of cell-free fermentation” of the chemistry of radioactive sub-
stances, and his investigations into the
1912 Paul Sabatier origin and nature of isotopes”
“for his method of hydrogenating
organic compounds in the presence 1923 Fritz Pregl
of finely disintegrated metals whereby 1925 “for his invention of the method of
the progress of organic chemistry micro-analysis of organic substances”
has been greatly advanced in recent
years” Richard Adolf Zsigmondy
“for his demonstration of the hetero-

367

368 Appendix IV

geneous nature of colloid solutions and 1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen
for the methods he used, which have “for his research and inventions in agri-
since become fundamental in modern cultural and nutrition chemistry, especial-
colloid chemistry” ly for his fodder preservation method”

1927 Heinrich Otto Wieland 1946 John Howard Northrop, Wendell
1928 “for his investigations of the constitu- Meredith Stanley
tion of the bile acids and related sub- “for his research and inventions in agri-
1929 stances” cultural and nutrition chemistry, espe-
1930 cially for his fodder preservation
1932 Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus 1946 method”
1937 “for the services rendered through his 1947
1937 research into the constitution of the “for their preparation of enzymes and
sterols and their connection with the virus proteins in a pure form”
1938 vitamins”
1939 James Batcheller Sumner
1939 Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August “for their preparation of enzymes and
Simon von Euler-Chelpin virus proteins in a pure form”
“for their investigations on the fermenta-
tion of sugar and fermentative enzymes” Sir Robert Robinson
“for his investigations on plant products
Hans Fischer 1948 of biological importance, especially the
“for his researches into the constitution alkaloids”
of haemin and chlorophyll and especial-
ly for his synthesis of haemin” Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius
“for his research on electrophoresis and
Irving Langmuir adsorption analysis, especially for his
“for his discoveries and investigations in discoveries concerning the complex
surface chemistry” nature of the serum proteins”

Paul Karrer 1950 Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder
“for his investigations on carotenoids, “for their discovery and development of
flavins, and vitamins A and B2” the diene synthesis”

Walter Norman Haworth 1952 Archer John Porter Martin, Richard
“for his investigations on carbohydrates Laurence Millington Synge
and vitamin C” “for their invention of partition chro-
matography”
“for his investigations on carotenoids,
Hermann Staudinger
flavins and vitamins A and B2” 1953 “for his discoveries in the field of
macromolecular chemistry”
Richard Kuhn 1954
“for his work on carotenoids and Linus Carl Pauling
vitamins” “for his research into the nature of the
chemical bond and its application to the
Leopold Ruzicka elucidation of the structure of complex
“for his work on polymethylenes and substances”
higher terpenes”
Vincent Du Vigneaud
Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt 1955 “for his work on biochemically impor-
“for his work on sex hormones”

1957 tant sulfur compounds, especially for 1971 Appendix IV 369
1958 the first synthesis of a polypeptide 1972
1960 hormone” Gerhard Herzberg
1972 “for his contributions to the knowledge
1961 Lord (Alexander R.) Todd 1972 of electronic structure and geometry of
1962 “for his work on nucleotides and 1973 molecules, particularly free radicals”
1963 nucleotide co-enzymes” 1974
1964 1975 Stanford Moore, William H. Stein
1965 Frederick Sanger 1975 “for their contribution to the under-
1969 “for his work on the structure of pro- 1978 standing of the connection between
teins, especially that of insulin” 1979 chemical structure and catalytic activity
1970 of the active centre of the ribonuclease
Willard Frank Libby molecule”
“for his method to use carbon-14 for
age determination in archaeology, geol- Stanford Moore
ogy, geophysics, and other branches of “for his contributions to the knowledge
science” of electronic structure and geometry of
molecules, particularly free radicals”
Melvin Calvin
“for his research on the carbon dioxide Christian B. Anfinsen
assimilation in plants” “for his work on ribonuclease, especial-
ly concerning the connection between
Max Ferdinand Perutz, John Cowdery the amino acid sequence and the biolog-
Kendrew ically active conformation”
“for their studies of the structures of
globular proteins” Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson
“for their pioneering work, performed
Karl Ziegler, Giulio Natta independently, on the chemistry of the
“for their discoveries in the field of organometallic, so-called sandwich
the chemistry and technology of high compounds”
polymers”
Paul J. Flory
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin “for his fundamental achievements,
“for her determinations by X-ray tech- both theoretical and experimental, in
niques of the structures of important the physical chemistry of the macro-
biochemical substances” molecules”

Robert Burns Woodward Vladimir Prelog
“for his outstanding achievements in the “for his research into the stereochemistry
art of organic synthesis” of organic molecules and reactions”

Derek H. R. Barton, Odd Hassel John Warcup Cornforth
“for their contributions to the “for his work on the stereochemistry of
development of the concept of enzyme-catalyzed reactions”
conformation and its application in
chemistry” Peter D. Mitchell
“for his contribution to the understand-
Luis F. Leloir ing of biological energy transfer through
“for his discovery of sugar nucleotides the formulation of the chemiosmotic
and their role in the biosynthesis of car- theory”
bohydrates”
Herbert C. Brown, Georg Wittig
“for their development of the use of

370 Appendix IV

boron- and phosphorus-containing com- 1992 Rudolph A. Marcus
pounds, respectively, into important “for his contributions to the theory of
reagents in organic synthesis” electron transfer reactions in chemical
systems”
1980 Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger 1993
1980 “for their contributions concerning the Michael Smith
1982 determination of base sequences in “for contributions to the developments
1986 nucleic acids” of methods within DNA-based chem-
1987 istry”
1988 Paul Berg
1989 “for his fundamental studies of the “for his fundamental contributions to
1990 biochemistry of nucleic acids, with the establishment of oligonucleotide-
1991 particular regard to recombinant- based, site-directed mutagenesis and
DNA” its development for protein studies”

Aaron Klug 1993 Kary B. Mullis
“for his development of crystallographic “for contributions to the develop-
electron microscopy and his structural ments of methods within DNA-based
elucidation of biologically important chemistry”
nuclei acid-protein complexes”
“for his invention of the polymerase
Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee, 1994 chain reaction (PCR) method”
John C. Polanyi
“for their contributions concerning the George A. Olah
dynamics of chemical elementary pro- “for his contribution to carbocation
cesses” chemistry”

Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, 1995 Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, F.
Charles J. Pedersen Sherwood Rowland
“for their development and use of “for their work in atmospheric chem-
molecules with structure-specific inter- istry, particularly concerning the forma-
actions of high selectivity” tion and decomposition of ozone”

Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, 1997 Jens C. Skou
Hartmut Michel 1997 “for the first discovery of an ion-trans-
“for the determination of the three- porting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase”
dimensional structure of a photosyn-
thetic reaction centre” Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker
“for their elucidation of the enzymatic
Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech mechanism underlying the synthesis of
“for their discovery of catalytic proper- adenosine triphosphate (ATP)”
ties of RNA”
Kurt Wüthrich
Elias James Corey 2002 “for his development of nuclear
“for his development of the theory and magnetic resonance spectroscopy for
methodology of organic synthesis” determining the three-dimensional
structure of biological macromolecules
Richard R. Ernst 2002 in solution”
“for his contributions to the develop-
ment of the methodology of high resolu- John B. Fenn, Koichi Tanaka
tion nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) “for the development of methods for
spectroscopy”

identification and structure analyses of 1907 Appendix IV 371
biological macromolecules”
Alphonse Laveran
“for their development of soft desorp- 1908 “in recognition of his work on the role
tion ionization methods for mass played by protozoa in causing diseases”
spectrometric analyses of biological
macromolecules” Ilya Mechnikov, Paul Ehrlich
“in recognition of their work on
2003 Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon 1909 immunity”
“for discoveries concerning channels in
cell membranes” Theodor Kocher
“for his work on the physiology, pathol-
Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1910 ogy and surgery of the thyroid gland”

1901 Emil von Behring 1911 Albrecht Kossel
“for his work on serum therapy, espe- 1912 “in recognition of the contributions to
cially its application against diphtheria, 1913 our knowledge of cell chemistry made
by which he has opened a new road in through his work on proteins, including
the domain of medical science and the nucleic substances”
thereby placed in the hands of the
physician a victorious weapon against Allvar Gullstrand
illness and deaths” “for his work on the dioptrics of the
eye”
1902 Ronald Ross
“for his work on malaria, by which he Alexis Carrel
has shown how it enters the organism “in recognition of his work on vascular
and thereby has laid the foundation for suture and the transplantation of blood
successful research on this disease and vessels and organs”
methods of combating it”
Charles Richet
1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen “in recognition of his work on anaphy-
“in recognition of his contribution to laxis”
the treatment of diseases, especially 1914
lupus vulgaris, with concentrated 1919 Robert Bárány
light radiation, whereby he has “for his work on the physiology and
opened a new avenue for medical pathology of the vestibular apparatus”
science”
Jules Bordet
1904 Ivan Pavlov 1920 “for his discoveries relating to immunity”
“in recognition of his work on the 1922
physiology of digestion, through which August Krogh
knowledge on vital aspects of the “for his discovery of the capillary motor
subject has been transformed and regulating mechanism”
enlarged”
Archibald V. Hill, Otto Meyerhof
1905 Robert Koch “for his discovery relating to the pro-
“for his investigations and discoveries in duction of heat in the muscle”
relation to tuberculosis” 1923
Frederick G. Banting, John Macleod
1906 Camillo Golgi, Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1924 “for the discovery of insulin”
“in recognition of their work on the
structure of the nervous system” Willem Einthoven
“for his discovery of the mechanism of
the electrocardiogram”

372 Appendix IV

1926 Johannes Fibiger the biological combustion processes,
1927 “for his discovery of the Spiroptera with special reference to vitamin C and
1928 carcinoma” the catalysis of fumaric acid”
1929
Julius Wagner-Jauregg 1938 Corneille Heymans
1930 “for his discovery of the therapeutic “for the discovery of the role played by
1931 value of malaria inoculation in the the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the
1932 treatment of dementia paralytica” regulation of respiration”
1933
1934 Charles Nicolle 1939 Gerhard Domagk
1935 “for his work on typhus” “for the discovery of the antibacterial
1936 effects of prontosil”
1937 Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick 1943
Hopkins Edward A. Doisy
“for his discovery of the antineuritic “for his discovery of the chemical
vitamin” nature of vitamin K”

“for his discovery of the growth- 1943 Henrik Dam
stimulating vitamins” “for his discovery of vitamin K”

Karl Landsteiner 1944 Joseph Erlanger, Herbert S. Gasser
“for his discovery of human blood “for their discoveries relating to the
groups” highly differentiated functions of single
nerve fibers”
Otto Warburg 1945
“for his discovery of the nature and Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst B. Chain,
mode of action of the respiratory Sir Howard Florey
enzyme” “for the discovery of penicillin and its
curative effect in various infectious dis-
Sir Charles Sherrington, Edgar Adrian 1946 eases”
“for their discoveries regarding the
functions of neurons” Hermann J. Muller
“for the discovery of the production
Thomas H. Morgan 1947 of mutations by means of X-ray irradi-
“for his discoveries concerning the role 1947 ation”
played by the chromosome in heredity” 1948
Bernardo Houssay
George H. Whipple, George R. Minot, “for his discovery of the part played by
William P. Murphy the hormone of the anterior pituitary
“for their discoveries concerning liver lobe in the metabolism of sugar”
therapy in cases of anemia”
Carl Cori, Gerty Cori
Hans Spemann “for their discovery of the course of the
“for his discovery of the organizer effect catalytic conversion of glycogen”
in embryonic development”
Paul Müller
Sir Henry Dale, Otto Loewi “for his discovery of the high efficiency
“for their discoveries relating to chemi- of DDT as a contact poison against sev-
cal transmission of nerve impulses” eral arthropods”

Albert Szent-Györgyi 1949 Egas Moniz
“for his discovery of the therapeutic
“for his discoveries in connection with

1949 value of leucotomy in certain psy- 1958 Appendix IV 373
choses” 1958
1950 1959 certain body substances, and especially
Walter Hess 1960 their action on the vascular system and
1951 “for his discovery of the functional 1961 the skeletal muscles”
1952 organization of the interbrain as a coor- 1962
1953 dinator of the activities of the internal Joshua Lederberg
1953 organs” 1963 “for his discoveries concerning genetic
1954 recombination and the organization of
Edward C. Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein, 1964 the genetic material of bacteria”
1955 Philip S. Hench 1965
1956 “for their discoveries relating to the George Beadle, Edward Tatum
hormones of the adrenal cortex, their “for their discovery that genes act by
1957 structure and biological effects” regulating definite chemical events”

Max Theiler Severo Ochoa, Arthur Kornberg
“for his discoveries concerning yellow “for their discovery of the mechanisms
fever and how to combat it” in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic
acid and deoxyribonucleic acid”
Selman A. Waksman
“for his discovery of streptomycin, Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Peter
the first antibiotic effective against Medawar
tuberculosis” “for discovery of acquired immunologi-
cal tolerance”
Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann
“for his discovery of co-enzyme A and Georg von Békésy
its importance for intermediary “for his discoveries of the physical
metabolism” mechanism of stimulation within the
cochlea”
Hans Krebs
“for his discovery of the citric acid cycle” Francis Crick, James Watson, Maurice
Wilkins
John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller, “for their discoveries concerning the
Frederick C. Robbins molecular structure of nucleic acids and
“for their discovery of the ability of its significance for information transfer
poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures in living material”
of various types of tissue”
Sir John Eccles, Alan L. Hodgkin,
Hugo Theorell Andrew F. Huxley
“for his discoveries concerning the “for their discoveries concerning the
nature and mode of action of oxidation ionic mechanisms involved in excitation
enzymes” and inhibition in the peripheral and cen-
tral portions of the nerve cell mem-
André F. Cournand, Werner Forssmann, brane”
Dickinson W. Richards
“for their discoveries concerning heart Konrad Bloch, Feodor Lynen
catheterization and pathological changes “for their discoveries concerning the
in the circulatory system” mechanism and regulation of the choles-
terol and fatty acid metabolism”
Daniel Bovet
“for his discoveries relating to synthetic François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques
compounds that inhibit the action of Monod
“for their discoveries concerning genetic
control of enzyme and virus synthesis”

374 Appendix IV

1966 Peyton Rous, Charles B. Huggins 1976 interaction between tumor viruses and
1967 “for his discovery of tumor-inducing 1977 the genetic material of the cell”
1968 viruses” 1977
1969 1978 Baruch S. Blumberg, D. Carleton Gajdusek
1970 Ragnar Granit, Haldan K. Hartline, “for their discoveries concerning new
George Wald 1979 mechanisms for the origin and dissemi-
1971 “for their discoveries concerning the 1980 nation of infectious diseases”
1972 primary physiological and chemical
1973 visual processes in the eye” 1981 Rosalyn Yalow
1974 1981 “for the development of radioim-
1975 Robert W. Holley, H. Gobind Khorana, 1982 munoassays of peptide hormones”
Marshall W. Nirenberg
“for their interpretation of the genetic 1983 Roger Guillemin, Andrew V. Schally
code and its function in protein “for their discoveries concerning the pep-
synthesis” tide hormone production of the brain”

Max Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey, Sal- Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Hamil-
vador E. Luria ton O. Smith
“for their discoveries concerning the “for the discovery of restriction
replication mechanism and the genetic enzymes and their application to prob-
structure of viruses” lems of molecular genetics”

Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, Julius Allan M. Cormack, Godfrey N.
Axelrod Hounsfield
“for their discoveries concerning the “for the development of computer
humoral transmittors in the nerve termi- assisted tomography”
nals and the mechanism for their stor-
age, release and inactivation” Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset, George
D. Snell
Earl W. Sutherland Jr. “for their discoveries concerning geneti-
“for his discoveries concerning the cally determined structures on the cell
mechanisms of the action of hormones” surface that regulate immunological
reactions”
Gerald M. Edelman, Rodney R. Porter
“for their discoveries concerning the David H. Hubel, Torsten N. Wiesel
chemical structure of antibodies” “for their discoveries concerning infor-
mation processing in the visual system”
Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Niko-
laas Tinbergen Roger W. Sperry
“for their discoveries concerning organi- “for his discoveries concerning the func-
zation and elicitation of individual and tional specialization of the cerebral
social behavior patterns” hemispheres”

Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuels-
George E. Palade son, John R. Vane
“for their discoveries concerning the “for their discoveries concerning
structural and functional organization prostaglandins and related biologically
of the cell” active substances”

David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco, Barbara McClintock
Howard M. Temin “for her discovery of mobile genetic
“for their discoveries concerning the elements”

1984 Niels K. Jerne, Georges J. F. Köhler, 1995 Appendix IV 375
César Milstein 1996
1985 “for theories concerning the specificity Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-
1986 in development and control of the Volhard, Eric F. Wieschaus
1987 immune system and the discovery of the “for their discoveries concerning the
1988 principle for production of monoclonal genetic control of early embryonic
1989 antibodies” development”
1990
1991 Michael S. Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein 1997 Peter C. Doherty, Rolf M. Zinkernagel
1992 “for their discoveries concerning the “for their discoveries concerning the
1993 regulation of cholesterol metabolism” specificity of the cell mediated immune
1994 defense”
Stanley Cohen, Rita Levi-Montalcini
“for their discoveries of growth factors” Stanley B. Prusiner
“for his discovery of Prions—a new bio-
Susumu Tonegawa 1998 logical principle of infection”
“for his discovery of the genetic princi-
ple for generation of antibody diversity” Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro,
Ferid Murad
Sir James W. Black, Gertrude B. Elion, 1999 “for their discoveries concerning nitric
George H. Hitchings oxide as a signaling molecule in the car-
“for their discoveries of important prin- diovascular system”
ciples for drug treatment”
Günter Blobel
J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus 2000 “for the discovery that proteins have
“for their discovery of the cellular ori- intrinsic signals that govern their trans-
gin of retroviral oncogenes” port and localization in the cell”

Joseph E. Murray, E. Donnall Thomas 2001 Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard,
“for their discoveries concerning organ Eric R. Kandel
and cell transplantation in the treatment “for their discoveries concerning signal
of human disease” transduction in the nervous system”

Erwin Neher, Bert Sakmann 2002 Leland H. Hartwell, Tim Hunt, Sir Paul
“for their discoveries concerning the Nurse
function of single ion channels in cells” “for their discoveries of key regulators
of the cell cycle”
Edmond H. Fischer, Edwin G. Krebs
“for their discoveries concerning Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz,
reversible protein phosphorylation as a John E. Sulston
biological regulatory mechanism” “for their discoveries concerning ‘genet-
ic regulation of organ development and
Richard J. Roberts, Phillip A. Sharp 2003 programmed cell death’”
“for their discoveries of split genes”
Paul C. Lauterbur, Sir Peter Mansfield
“for their discoveries concerning mag-
netic resonance imaging”

Alfred G. Gilman, Martin Rodbell
“for their discovery of G-proteins and
the role of these proteins in signal trans-
duction in cells”



APPENDIX V

Periodic Table of the Elements

12

H 1 atomic number He

1.008 H symbol 4.003

34 1.008 atomic weight 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne

6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3

55 56 57–71* 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)

87 88 89–103‡ 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Numbers in parentheses are
atomic mass numbers of radioactive isotopes.
(223) (226) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (271)

*lanthanide 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
series
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0

‡actinide 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
series
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)

377

378 Appendix V

The Chemical Elements a.n. element symbol a.n. element symbol a.n. element symbol a.n.
element symbol
89 einsteinium Es 99
actinium Ac 13 erbium Er 68 mendelevium Md 101 samarium Sm 62
aluminum Al 95 europium Eu 63 mercury Hg
americium Am 51 fermium Fm 100 molybdenum Mo 80 scandium Sc 21
antimony Sb 18 fluorine F 9 neodymium Nd
argon Ar 33 francium Fr 87 neon Ne 42 seaborgium Sg 106
arsenic As 85 gadolinium Gd 64 neptunium Np
astatine At 56 gallium Ga 31 nickel Ni 60 selenium Se 34
barium Ba 97 germanium Ge 32 niobium Nb
berkelium Bk 4 gold Au 79 nitrogen N 10 silicon Si 14
beryllium Be 83 hafnium Hf 72 nobelium No
bismuth Bi 107 hassium Hs 108 osmium Os 93 silver Ag 47
bohrium Bh 5 helium He 2 oxygen O
boron B 35 holmium Ho 67 palladium Pd 28 sodium Na 11
bromine Br 48 hydrogen H 1 phosphorus P
cadmium Cd 20 indium In 49 platinum Pt 41 strontium Sr 38
calcium Ca 98 iodine I 53 plutonium Pu
californium Cf 6 iridium Ir 77 polonium Po 7 sulfur S 16
carbon C 58 iron Fe 26 potassium K
cerium Ce 55 krypton Kr 36 praseodymium Pr 102 tantalum Ta 73
cesium Cs 17 lanthanum La 57 promethium Pm
chlorine Cl 24 lawrencium Lr 103 protactinium Pa 76 technetium Tc 43
chromium Cr 27 lead Pb 82 radium Ra
cobalt Co 29 lithium Li 3 radon Rn 8 tellurium Te 52
copper Cu 96 lutetium Lu 71 rhenium Re
curium Cm 110 magnesium Mg 12 rhodium Rh 46 terbium Tb 65
darmstadtium Ds 105 manganese Mn 25 rubidium Rb
dubnium Db 66 meitnerium Mt 109 ruthenium Ru 15 thallium Tl 81
dysprosium Dy rutherfordium Rf
78 thorium Th 90

94 thulium Tm 69

84 tin Sn 50

19 titanium Ti 22

59 tungsten W 74

61 uranium U 92

91 vanadium V 23

88 xenon Xe 54

86 ytterbium Yb 70

75 yttrium Y 39

45 zinc Zn 30

37 zirconium Zr 40

44
104 a.n. = atomic number

APPENDIX VI

BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Oxygen cycle Oxygen plays a vital part in the respiration
of animals and plants.

1 Oxygen in air
2 Oxygen breathed in by animals
3 Carbon dioxide (a carbon-oxygen compound) breathed

out by living things as waste
4 Carbon dioxide absorbed by plants and used in photo-

synthesis to make carbohydrate foods
5 Surplus oxygen released into the air by plants as waste

Carbon cycle Plant material is a valuable source of
carbon. Oxidizing carbon compounds provide energy for
animals and plants.

1 Carbon dioxide (a carbon oxygen compound) in air
2 Carbon dioxide absorbed by plants for making food
3 Plants eaten by animals
4 Carbon dioxide waste breathed out by animals and

plants
5 Dead organisms broken down by bacteria
6 These give off carbon dioxide waste
7 Remains of long-dead plants and microscopic

organisms forming hydrocarbon fossil fuels: coal, oil,
and gas
8 Carbon dioxide released back into the air by burning
fossil fuels

Nitrogen cycle As an ingredient in proteins and nucleic
acids, nitrogen is vital to all living things.

1 Nitrogen in air
2 Atmospheric nitrogen trapped by some plants’ roots
3 Nitrogen used by plants for making proteins
4 Plant proteins eaten by animals
5 Proteins in dead organisms and body wastes converted

to ammonia by bacteria and fungi
6 Ammonia converted to nitrate by other bacteria
7 Nitrate taken up by plant roots

(continues)

379

380 Appendix VI

BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES

(continued)

Sulfur cycle Sulfur is in two of the 20 amino acids which
are used by the body to make proteins.

1 Sulfates (sulfur–oxygen compounds) absorbed by plant
roots

2 The oxygen in the sulfate is replaced by hydrogen in a
plant process that produces certain amino acids

3 Plants eaten by animals
4 Sulfur-containing amino acids of dead plants and

animals broken down to hydrogen sulfide (which gives
o ff a rotten egg odor) by decomposer microorganisms
5 Sulfur extracted from sulfides by bacteria
6 Other bacteria combine sulfur with oxygen, producing
sulfates

Phosphorus cycle Phosphorus is a vital ingredient of
proteins, nucleic acids, and some other compounds
found in living things.

1 Phosphates (compounds of phosphorus, hydrogen, and
oxygen) absorbed by plant roots

2 Phosphates used by plants in making organic phos-
phorus compounds

3 Plants eaten by animals
4 Compounds in dead plants and animals broken down

to phosphates by microorganisms

Krebs cycle The Krebs or citric acid cycle is the second
stage of aerobic respiration in which living things
produce energy from foods. It requires oxygen; enzymes
(proteins that promote but are not used up in chemical
changes) create successive compounds, thus transforming
pyruvate to carbon dioxide and water and releasing
energy.

1 Acetic acid combines with...
2 Oxaloacetic acid to form...
3 Citric acid. Later changes produce...
4 Aconitic acid
5 Isocitric acid
6 Ketoglutaric acid
7 Succinic acid, carbon dioxide, and energy-rich ATP

(adenosine triphosphate)
8 Fumaric acid
9 Malic acid

APPENDIX VII

The “Tree of Life”

381



INDEX

Note: Page numbers in boldface indicate main entries; page numbers in italic indicate illustrations.

A acquired abnormalities 67 adrenal cortex 5, 289 alga (algae) 8–10, 10,
aaRSs (aminoacyl-tRNA acquired immunodeficiency adrenal glands 5 204–205
adrenaline (epinephrine) 56,
synthetases) 15 syndrome (AIDS) 7, 7–8 alimentary canal (complete
ABA (abscisic acid) 1 acrosome 3 117, 129 digestive tract) 77, 78
abiogenesis (autogenesis Acta Eruditorum 124 adrenocorticotropic hormone
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic alkali/alkaline substances See
model) 31 (ACTH) 148, 160–161, base
ABO blood groups 1, 46 hormone) 148, 160–161, 186, 268
abomasum 300 186, 268 adrenodoxin 5 alkylphosphocholine 266
abortion 1 actin 3–4 Adrian, Edgar Douglas 5 allantois 10
abscisic acid (ABA) 1 actin filament (microfilament) Aedes aegypti 227, 353 allele 10, 10, 287, 288
absolute refractory period 220 aerobic 6 Allen’s Rule 10
actinomorphic 3, 4, 4 aestivation (estivation) 16, allergic contact dermatitis
289 actinostele 314 119, 325, 326
absorption-elution method action potential 4, 93 aetiology (etiology) 119 285–286
Actiopterygii 256 affinity 6 allergic rhinitis 285
46 active center 4 agarose gel electrophoresis 46 allergies 77–79, 89, 224, 271
absorption spectrum 1 active site 4 age structure 6
abyssal zone 1–2 active transport 4 Agnatha 6 See also anaphylaxis
abzyme 56 ACT UP (AIDS Coalition to agonist 6 allochronic speciation 11
abzyme (catalytic antibodies) Unleash Power) 7–8 agonistic behavior 6–7 allometric growth 11
adaptation 2 Agre, Peter 25 allometry 11
56 adaptive radiation 4, 5 Agrobacterium tumefaciens allopatric speciation 11–12
Academia del Cimento 124 Addicott, Frederick 1 326 allopolyploid 12
Acari (ticks and mites) 182, address-message concept 4 AIDS (acquired allosteric binding sites 12
adenohypophysis 268 immunodeficiency allosteric effector 12
222, 297, 326 adenosine 5'-triphosphate 4 syndrome) 7, 7–8 allosteric enzymes 12
acclimatization 2 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ailanthus silk moth (Samia allosteric regulation 12
accommodation 2 30 cynthia) 201, 228 allosteric sites 12
acetylcholine (ACh) 2, 89, adenovirus 143 air bladder (swim bladder) allozyme 12
adenylyl cyclase 5 318 alopecia 213
244 ADH (antidiuretic hormone, Albany Institute of History alpha female 100
acetyl CoA 2 vasopressin) 22, 243 and Art 234–235 alpha helix 12–13
ACh (acetylcholine) 2, 89, ADHD (attention deficit albumin 8 alpha male 100
hyperactivity disorder) 169 aldehydes 8 alpine conditions 147
244 Adhémar, Joseph A. 85 aldose 226 alternation of generations 13
achiral 64 adoptive pleiotropy 270 aldosterone 8 altruistic behavior 13,
acid 2, 267
acidity constant 2 287–288
acid-labile sulfide 2 alveolus (alveoli) 13
acid precipitation 2–3 ambidentate 13
acoelomate 3
aconitase 3

383


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