Publication 2015-2019

Geoconservation Research Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation…

chert. Detrital grains are well rounded but poorly sorted. In siltstone, and rock salts. Based on data obtained from exploration
some areas, lenses of dark grey shale are found interbedded. of potash deposit and petroleum, it is suggested that this formation
The Phu Phan Formation was deposited in braided streams should not be included in Khorat Group (Sattayarak, 1983, 1985).
and meandering rivers at hot and humid to the semi-arid The Maha Sarakham Formation was formed by deposition in salty
environment (Meesook 2000). Since the Phu Phan Formation lakes and ponds in an arid climate (Meesook, 2000). Pleomorphic
overlies the Early Cretaceous Sao Khua Formation and studies indicated the age of the Maha Sarakham Formation is
underlies the Khok Kruat Formation of the same age, then the Cenomanian (Sattayarak et al. 1991).
age of the Phu Phan Formation should be Early Cretaceous.
However, the palynomorphs confirmed the age of the Phu Phan Materials and Methods
formation that Early Cretaceous age (Racey et al. 1994, 1996). The materials of this research comprised many kinds of a
The Khok Kruat Formation comprises reddish brown, reddish comprehensive literature review about geotourism and related
purple sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and conglomerate. Some to the study area and also the topographic map of the study area
sandstone beds contain pebbles of reddish-brown siltstone, (scale 1:50000), and the geologic map of Ubon Ratchathani
claystone, and some quartz. Calcrete nodules and caliche occur Province (scale 1:1,000,000), were studied for fieldwork
at the top of some mudstones. Gypsum lens and laminated planning. Moreover, the fieldwork is equipped by many
interbeds of sandstone and siltstone also occur. The Khok geologist’s tools for geoheritage investigating such as a geologic
Kruat Formation was deposited in a meandering river system, hammer, compass, field notes, measuring tape, GPS, and camera.
and Paleoclimate changed from semi-arid at the beginning to Then geoheriatge sites were inventoried and mapped based on
arid at the end (Meesook 2000). Red sandstone of the Khok the previous listing from Thailand Geopark and their potential
Kruat Formation at Nam Phung dam, Sakon Nakhon province in the field. The selected geoheritage sites are the famous and
contains the freshwater bivalves Plicatotrigonioides subovalis stunning geologic landforms of Thailand. These sites have their
Kobayashi, Pseudohyaia sp., Nippononaia carinate Kobayashi, identity, representative, well-known as well as also suitable
Niotononaia (Mechongichoncha) subyuadrata Kobayashi, for tourism and learning. The characterization of geoheriatge
Nippononaia (Mechongi-choncha) robusta Kobayashi, sites was carried out by observations and description of the
Plicatounio namphungensis, and Unio sampanoides, dated as geoscientific knowledge and tourism information. Furthermore,
Early to Middle Cretaceous (Sattayarak et al. 1991). a strategic planning technique was used to identify strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for geoconservation and
The Maha Sarakham Formation comprises interbedded claystone, geotourism development in the study area.

Figure 4 Location, general morphology and accessibility of geosites in the upper part of Ubon Ratchathani Province, 15
Thailand

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Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation… Geoconservation Research

Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation The Kaeng Tana National Park is on the Mun River (DNP,
Ubon Ratchathani is located in the easternmost part of Thailand 2015). It was established on 13th of July 1981 and is an
and far from Bangkok approximately 630 kilometers (Fig. 1). International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
The tourists can drive to the eastern flank of this region and Resources (IUCN) Category II (National Park) protected area
pass through many remarkable geological attractions, which (Wikramanayake, 2002). National parks are legal forms of
are located near the Mekong River . The geoheritage sites of both geosite and natural site protection to conserve landscapes
the Pha Chan - Sam Phan Bok Geopark are distributed in three for significant aesthetic value. Within the landscape protected
areas from the south to the north including Kaeng Tana National area, the most impressive rapids such as Kaeng Tana are listed
Park, Pha Taem National Park, and Pha Chan Area (Fig. 4). as nature monuments because they have many natural values
from botany and zoology points of view, so they should be
Kaeng Tana National Park investigated in the future. A difficulty remains in the erosion
The Kaeng Tana Nature Park is the most advertised location and weathering trend of sedimentary rocks that will eventually
in Ubon Ratchathani where water rapids are present. The cause damage to geosites such as Kaeng Tana (Pothole River)
area is located on the eastern flank of the town and covers landform and Don Tana following variable flow rate in the Mun
approximately 80 square kilometers of deciduous forest, River. High volume of water causes turbulent flow, which can
pothole river landform, cascade, and river bank. The lead to the destruction of both geosites.
topography is highland and drained by the Mun and Khong
Rivers. The average elevation is about 200 meters, and Due to the Kaeng Tana National Park is proximity to the Ubon
the highest peak stands at 543 meters. The Kaeng Tana is Ratchathani, it is developed as an outdoor recreation ground.
the largest pothole river landform found in the Mun River. There are many facilities including a suspension bridge, viewing
In the middle of this landform, there is a huge sandstone point, outdoor court, and accommodation. In the northern part
boulder splitting the river into two streams, and a concrete of the area, the Namtok Rak Sai Nature trail follows the cliff
block was built during the French colonial era to identify a by the Mun River, 500 meters from the park headquarters. This
channel for cruising. The Don Tana is the most attractive trail is a route along the cliff for 1 km and through forests that
deposit of sediment into an island located in the middle of consists of various kinds of flora, such as lichens, mosses, and
the Mun River. It is 450 meters wide and 700 meters long ferns. The geosites are easy accessibility. However, there is not
(Fig.5 A). Namtok Rak Sai is cascade in the northern zone of a lot of information available about the geosite description and
the park, while Namtok Tat Ton is a cascade in the southern interpretation of the landforms and the origin of rock formations
part (Fig.5 B). They are on the same Highway 2173. When on site such as geologic panels, geologic museum, and geotrails.
the stream runs over resistant bedrock, erosion occurs slowly The park can be visited through year-round, except during rainy
and is dominated by impacts of water-borne sediment on the season (June-September) because of a massive water volume
rock, while downstream, the erosion occurs more rapidly flood.
as the water flow increases its velocity at the edge of the
waterfall, it may pluck material from the riverbed when the Pha Taem National Park
bed is fractured or otherwise more erodibility. The stream The Pha Taem Nature Park is the best-promoted locality for
sometimes flows over a giant step in the rocks that may be touristic purpose in Ubon Ratchathani where cliffs (Fig.
fault related. 6A) and twin stacks are present (Fig. 6B). Plateaus and hills
dominate the park landscape. There are many factors to form
Figure 5 A) Don Tana middle the Mun River and B) Tad Ton Cascade the cliff such as fault displacement and the resistance of rock.
These sandstone cliffs, form in strongly cemented sandstones,
especially on the sides of deep valleys and around the edges of
the plateau (Fig. 6C). There are many sedimentary structures
such as cross-bedding, honeycomb weathering (Fig. 6D) and
polygonal cracking (Fig. 5E). The surface of the cliff has many
prehistoric rock arts, which are dated back to 3,0004,000-
years ago and discovered by Kijngam (1994) and known in
Pha Taem, Pha Kham, and Pha Mon Noi areas (Fig. 7A-C).
These paintings illustrated the lifestyle of ancient human such
as fishing, rice farming, people, animals and geometric designs
that show the way of life during the prehistoric time and reflect
the ancient lifestyle of the people who lived there.

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Geoconservation Research Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation…

Figure 6 A) Pha Taem Cliff, B) Mushroom rocks, C) Mekong panoramic viewpoint, D)
Honeycomb weathering, and E) polygonal cracking

Figure 7 The prehistoric cliff paintings on the Pha Taem cliff; A) Pha Taem, B) Pha Kham, and
C) Pha Mon Noi

Prehistoric men painted on harder beds of sedimentary rocks There are several examples of mushroom rocks (twin stack/
such as medium-coarse sandstone. There is a good selection pillars) which is the largest mushroom rock in Thailand. The
of geologic materials such a rock board for the creation and twin stacks are formed by in situ weathering and erosion by wind
permanence of these paintings. In contrast, work done on and water in the past. Variable resistance of rock beds causes
soft beds such as shale and siltstone is easily weathered, and a different degree of weathering. In the north of this National
preservation is not optimal. Park, Pha Chana Dai is the easternmost point and therefore

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Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation… Geoconservation Research

the first place in Thailand to be seen the first rays of sunrise php?PTA_CODE=1073). Within the landscape protected
above the Mekong River. At dawn, a sea of mists floats over area, the impressive sediment cliff of Pha Taem also as strict
the riparian side of the Mekong River. The tourists can enjoy protection rules regarding the prehistoric rock paintings, and
nature, flora, mountain, and Mekong River. Dong Na Tham other sites are listed as nature monuments. As these cliffs are
Forest is the most interesting nature site in this park where is the result of the Cenozoic left-lateral, strike-slip
covered by Dipterocarp forest, which consists of Shorea obtusa,
Shorea siamensis and Dipterocarpus obtusifollus as dominant faulting along Mekong River (Bait et al. 1997; Fenton et al.
species (Chuaynkern et al. 2009). The park is a habitat for 1997; Kosuwan et al. 1998), collapse is possible along joints of
Siamese hares, barking deer, civets, palm civets, wild pigs, and N65E direction. Many geotechnical attempts have been made
serow, which migrate from Laos in summer. The specimens of to grout these joints for geoconservation. However, biological
a new frog species, Fejervarya triora, were discovered in the weathering issues cannot be repaired as trees put down roots
park in 2005 (Chuaynkern et al. 2009). On the way from the through joints and cracks in the rock. As the tree grows, the
park headquarters to the Pha Chana Dai, a good dirt road leads roots gradually split the rock apart and can be a threat of this
to many cascades such as Soi Sawan Cascade, Saeng Chan/ geosite. In addition, turbulence in the Mekong River during the
Long Ru Cascade, and Thung Na Mueang Cascade from south rainy season can also erode this area in the park.
to north (Fig. 8). The Soi Sawan Cascade is a large perennial
cascade originating from 2 main creeks before merging with the The Pha Taem National Park is a local nature attraction,
Mekong River. The Thung Na Mueang Cascade is a medium advertised as a site of interest and easy to reach. A graded
cascade flowing straight off a high and cliff to a creek below. field road leads to an undeveloped parking lot and information
The Saeng Chan /Long Ru Cascade is a unique feature as it panels (Fig. 9). Due to its large size and the development of
flows through a mountain tunnel to a pool below. The water geoheritage sites, the outdoor recreation ground is frequently
hits against the tunnel reminding of the moonlight against the visited by 2,625, 205 Thai tourists and 126,478 foreigner
earth surface. tourists in 2016 (Department of Tourism 2016). Facilities
include a small hall, viewing point, outdoor rock geological
Pha Taem National Park is along the Mekong River in Ubon exhibition and accommodation (tent and room). The park can
Ratchathani Province of Isan region, Thailand (DNP, 2015). be visited through year-round, but beware of cold nights in
This park is the famous tourist site of Ubon Ratchathani, so winter and occasional heavy thunderstorms during the rainy
it has many legal structures to ensure site protection and season. In addition, the road to the Dong Na Tham Forest and
sustainability of harmonious cultural landscapes of significant the Pha Chan may be damaged during the rainy season, making
aesthetic values. (http://park.dnp.go.th/visitor/nationparkshow. access temporarily.

Figure 8 A) and B) Soi Sawan Cascade, C) Saeng Chan/ Long Ru Cascade, and D) Thung Na
Mueang Cascade

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Geoconservation Research Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation…

Figure 9 Pha Taem National Park Information

Pha Chan Area Kaeng Chom Dao is similar to Sam Phan Bok and the result of
The Pha Chan Area includes four geosite which are distributed eddies-related erosion form more massive size potholes.
in the northernmost part of the study area. This region is in Pho
Sai District, Ubon Ratchathani and the sites, from south to north The Pha Chan Area is a potential project in the near future
of Pha Chan, consist Sam Phan Bok, Salueng River Beach, and where a geological park can be established by the Department
Kaeng Cham Dao. Pha Chan is made up of the cliffs, which are of Mineral Resources of Thailand (Fig. 10C), in order to
about 4050- meters high above the Mekong River. This cliff is promote and educate the local sediments and sedimentary
the result of fault movement .The Sam Pan Bok (trad3,000 . rocks along the Mekong River, particularly the potholes of
holes) is known as the Grand Canyon of Thailand and has the Sam Phan Bok displaying considerable aesthetic value to the
biggest bedrock exposure in the Mekong River (Fig. 10). Many tourist. As a geopark, headquarters can manage site protection
holes are the result of erosion from eddies, forming potholes and present scientific aspects of the geosite as well as their
in the bedrock. Some potholes are particularly attractive to geologic evolution. Both the turbulent flow of the Mekong
tourists due to their shapes reminding of a heart, a star or a skull River and the weakness of joints can lead to important erosion
(Fig. 10B). Salueng River Beach is an attractive Mekong river and deterioration of this geosite. An assessment of the erosion
bank covered by very fine-grained sediments forming a beach. and weathering trend of the sedimentary rocks can be part of

Figure 10 A) Sam Phan Bok, B) the outstanding pothole, and C) The geoscientific panel in the Pha Chan-Sam Phan Bok
Geopark

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Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation… Geoconservation Research

the conservation plan, especially the potholes that lie in the people. To explore the opportunities, it is necessary to look at
Mekong River. the strengths and discuss whether they are able to open up any
opportunities. Alternatively, looking at the weaknesses, we can
The Pha Chan Area is a local nature attraction, advertised as speculate whether elimination of weaknesses could open up
an interesting site easy to reach by the road (Highway 211). opportunities. In term of threats, considering what obstacles it
However, the area lacks scientific data regarding landform faces or how negative factors could seriously threaten the area.
evolution and rock origin. As these geosites lies near a local This analysis is an effective method, which can be used for
community, accommodation and food are managed by local plan management that takes many factors into consideration.
villagers and present in many places. Pha Chan trail is about 5 The SWOT analysis is used to increase the strengths and
kilometers long with many attractive tourist spots and beautiful opportunities while decreasing the impact of the weaknesses
viewpoints of the two sides of the Mekong. The walking path and threats. All of the study areas are national parks, which is
in the Mekong River at Salueng River Beach takes tourists a major positive point for its potential for research and public
towards smaller geological features in the south. Due to the education, and not only on geological interest but also on
large water volume carried by the Mekong River during the indigenous flora and fauna, objects of archaeological, historical
rainy season (June-September), all geosites are flooded in the and others. In addition, the region possesses a high aesthetic
area cannot be visited. value which makes the area more attractive.

Evaluation Moreover, this work has a comparative study with the Khorat
The SWOT analysis was used to evaluate the study area. In Geopark about their geodiversity and scope. These Geoparks are
addition, it is also a strategic planning technique used to identify located on the same plateau “Khorat Plateau”; Khorat Geopark
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats and can be a is the western edge and Pha Chan - Sam Phan Bok Geopark
useful tool to manage the Pha Chan–Sam Phan Bok geopark is the eastern edge. Based on the rock type, they have some
project. This evaluation was conducted by the qualitative differences of geodiversity that result in their scope. The Pha
assessment method that is listing the data of strengths, Chan- Sam Phan Bok Geopark mostly consists of sandstone and
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of each area (Table 1). is controlled by the Cenozoic faults along the Mekong River;
Strengths and weaknesses are often internal (domestic) factors therefore, it has many geodiversity such as cliff, waterfall,
of an area, while opportunities and threats generally relate to rapid, pothole, and mushroom rock. In the case of the Khorat
external factors. The strengths and weaknesses are considered Geopark, it does not have a big river like the Mekong River,
from both an internal perspective, and from tourists and local but there are many rock types such as sandstone, limestone, and

Table 1. strategic planning technique used to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to the Pha Chan –
Sam Phan Bok geopark project

SWOT Kaeng Tana National Park Pha Taem National Park Pha Chan Area
S: Strengths
- High nature, economic, and - High cultural, historical, nature, - High nature, economic, and
aesthetic values economic, and aesthetic values aesthetic values
- Relatively high geodiversity - Relatively high geodiversity of the - Relatively high geodiversity of
of the study area such as river, study area such as a river, cliff, cascade, the study area such as river, cliff,
cascade, rapid mushroom rocks pothole, rapid
- Good accessibility - Good accessibility excludes Pha Chana - Good accessibility
- Good management and Dai Cliff in rainy season - Good Geologic Panels and
protection from National Park - Good management and protection from Education centre by Department of
National Park Mineral Resources

W: Weaknesses - Lack of promotion of the - Bad accessibility of some sites such as - Poor management and protection
O: Opportunities area Pha Chana Dai Cliff - Difficult to find shop and
restaurants

- Suitable for research and - Suitable for research and educational - Suitable for research and
educational activities activities educational activities
- Need geologic panels to - Need geologic panels to serve visitors
serve visitors

- Cooperation between the local authority, university, community, and department of mineral resources as well as national
park

- Suitable for some recreational activities, such as hiking, rafting, swimming, etc.

T: Threats - flooding in the rainy season - physical weathering in systematic joints - flooding in the rainy season

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Geoconservation Research Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation…

volcanic rocks that make it has various fossil excavation and insufficient geologic interpretation to the public. Thai people do
geological sites. Nowadays, the Khorat Geopark is becoming not understand geologic processes and their earth’s evolution,
the UNESCO Global Geopark in the near future. So, the Pha so, all of these areas should have the geologic panel, geologic
Chan - Sam Phan Bok Geopark is also suitable as global rank education center or museum for describing geoscientific
if it has better management and support. In term of quantitative knowledge of each area. This study intends to publicize these
or numerically assessment, the researcher focuses on the values geosite for international geotourism.
of each geoheritage site such as science, education, culture,
history, nature, aesthetically, tourism, and economy. Table 2 Kaeng Tana and Pha Taem National Park described their rock
presents the scores obtained for each site in respect to their and formation in their websites (http://park.dnp.go.th/visitor/
geodiversity and geoheritage values based on six classes of nationparkshow.php?PTA_CODE=1031 and http://park.dnp.
assessment: 0 = none; 1 = very bad; 2 = bad; 3 = fair; 4 = good; go.th/visitor/nationparkshow.php?PTA_CODE=1073), and
and 5 = very good. tourists can obtain this data before travel. Since Pha Chan Area
is not a national park, it was not mentioned in the website.
Discussion and Development for Geotourism However, the visitor can learn about geoscientific knowledge
The selected geosite for this study are the outstanding and well-known inside the geopark office. These sites are considered as
attractions of this region, which represent the various aesthetic attractions rather than geosites, which are interested
sedimentary rocks geoheritage. Many interesting landforms in geoscientific knowledge (Brilha & Reynard 2017). There are
in Thailand are presented as geosites rather poorly, offering an comfortable roads to reach tourist to each attraction, and they

Table 2 assessment of the Pha Chan – Sam Phan Bok geopark, Thailand

Geodiversitya Scopeb Value

Area Geoheritage Rock
Mineral
Fossil
Landform
Landscape
Process
Other Resources
Mineralogical Site
Structural Site
Geomorphological Site
Hydrogeological Site
Petrological Site
Stratigraphic Site
Speleological Site
Science & education
Culture
History
Nature
Aesthetically
Tourism
Economy

Total

Kaeng Tana ✓ - - ✓✓✓ - - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 5 0 3 5 4 5 3 25

Kaeng Tana Rapid

National Mun River - - - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - - 3 4 3 4 5 5 5 29

Park Tat Ton
Waterfall
✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - 4 0 0 4 5 4 0 17

Pha Taem ✓ - - ✓ ✓ - - - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 34
Cliff

Mushroom ✓- - ✓ ✓ - - - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 5 0 0 4 3 3 0 15
Rock Pillar

Pha Taem Soi Sawan ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - 4 0 0 5 5 5 5 24
National Waterfall

Park Saeng Chan/

Long Ru ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - 4 0 0 5 5 4 2 20

Waterfall

Thung Na ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - 4 0 0 5 5 3 2 19
Mueang
Waterfall

Pha Chan ✓ - - ✓✓ - - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 3 3 0 5 4 3 2 20
Cliff

Sam Phan ✓- - ✓ ✓ ✓ - - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 5 3 0 4 5 5 5 27
Bok - ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - ✓ ✓ - 4 4 0 3 3 4 4 22
Pha Chan
Area Salueng ✓ -
River Beach

Kaeng Cham ✓ - - ✓✓✓ - - ✓✓ - ✓✓ - 3 0 0 3 4 3 3 16
Dao Rapid

a Gray 2005, b Brocx and Semeniuk 2007; Predrag and Mirela 2010
Note: 0 = none; 1 = very bad; 2 = bad; 3 = fair; 4 = good; and 5 = very good

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Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation… Geoconservation Research

can walk distances about 50 meters from the nearest parking and potholes took entirely. The geological heritage is the
areas. Geoheritage is presented as an open-air exhibition of rocks significance geodiversity for humanity and can be characterized
and promotes the aesthetic value of the cultural landscapes. either quantitatively or qualitatively (Gray, 2008, 2013; Ruban,
However, an essential geomorphological component is missing 2010; Knight, 2011; Crawford and Black, 2012). The Pha Chan
because Thai people do not understand the geologic process. - Sam Phan Bok Geopark has a various diversity of geology
such as rock, landform, landscape, and water process as well
The highlight of this study is the famous potholes of the as there are water resources, and sand resources in the Mekong
sandstone bed, which are a result of Mekong river erosion that and Mun rivers (Table 2).
only affects these outcrops to the exclusion of all other places
in the region. The Mekong River flows through the Phu Phan As demonstrated above, the geological features of the studied
Formation of the Khorat Group and makes the circular current territory are chiefly of intermediate to low ranks (local or
of water, which carries gravels to wear away a rock surface regional). However, the co-occurrence of diverse features
in Ubon Ratchathani only. The gravels (granule - pebble size) (natural and cultural diversities) by itself increases the overall
eroded the sandstone bed as the potholes. This sandstone rank of these entities (such a situation was discussed by Ruban
consists of quartz-gravel in a medium-coarse sand matrix made (2010)). Rare places of the world can present such a peculiar
of quartz, feldspar, and mica, with clay cementation leading to geomorphological and geological feature as the edge of the
the efficient removal of gravels. This particular lithology could Khorat Plateau and the area nearby them. The Khorat Plateau
explain the absence of such potholes in another part of the river has many types of attraction for developing to geopark such
bed due to the absence of a pebbly sandstone basement. Small as the Khorat Geopark (Fig. 1). As such, the entire geological
streams flowing on this pebbly sandstone bed, may also form heritage of the studied territory, i.e., the Pha Taem National
potholes but the size and number depend on stream current and Park, can be ranked as global such a previous comparative
size. For example, in the Saeng Chan Cascade, the stream hits study with the Khorat Geopark. The Pha Taem National Park
against the hole and flow to the creek below. is the first area to see the sunrise of Thailand and also has the
greatest mushroom rocks and cliff along the Mekong river, the
Tourist will be interested, provided that a story or chart of main river of southeast Asia. In the future, the cooperation of
occurrence and evolution in each these geosites will be provided the Department of Mineral Resources of Thailand and local
and easily understood. All of the potential studied geosites are networks will start to manage this area as Global Geoparks
distributed in the Sao Khua and Phu Phan Formations. The that include many interesting geosites, rigorous rules of geosite
scientific meaning can describe the sedimentary rocks and their protection, and available geological data for tourists.
origin, including the transportation of pebbly sandstone. Both
Sao Khua and Phu Phan Formations are mainly made up of Furthermore, the explanation panel of landform evolution
metamorphic quartz sediments. Racey et al. (1996) initially and rock origin should be there to complete this geopark of
suggested that the bulk of these sediments may have been northeastern Thailand. The aim of this work to educate tourists
derived by stream process from the Kontum Massif, which to understand the geological processes and be aware of the
is at the eastern flank of this area. In addition, some input needed conservation in their geologic monuments. Moreover, it
from the Louangphabang and Truongson Belts and Rao Cao is the new tourism announcement in Thailand, which will have
Massif, which are covered in the area in the north and NE of effects on the economy. In addition, the effective management
the studied area. These provenances are older than 150 million of geotourism can be an advantage for sustainable development
years ago, which is more than the age of both formations and in both the local and national community. However, if the
transported from Laos, according to cross bedding value from government and the headquarter of the park not concentrate
field observations, suggesting that sediment transport directions on this management, can be a threat to geoheritage resources.
are dominantly from the NE, with a minor component from the Promoting people to visit this area without sufficient protective
east (Racey et al., 1996). regulation could eventually mean a destruction of the geosite.
As geotourism is part of a recent announcement of targeting
The three study areas differ by the diversity of geological following the purpose of the twelve National Economic and
heritage features, and the number of features is the highest Social Development Plan (2017-2021) of Thailand by the Thai
in the case of the Pha Taem National Park. According to the government, additional revenue can be obtained and sustainable
characterization and classification results, the common types (Office of the Prime Minister, 2017).
of this research are geomorphological, structural, stratigraphic,
petrological, and hydrological features (Table 2). These include Conclusions
the cliffs mentioned above (“Pha Taem”, “Pha Chana Dai”, The present study underlines the importance of geological
and “Pha Chan”), as well as the river, rapids, cascade, stack, heritage inventory in the northeastern region of Thailand known

22 Volume 2 / Issue 1 / January-June 2019 e-ISSN:2588-7343 p-ISSN: 2645-4661

Geoconservation Research Singtuen: Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation…

as the Khorat Plateau. The diverse geological features of the causeway world heritage site, Northern Ireland. Geoheritage. 4:
Pha Chan - Sam Phan Bok Geopark are an essential part of the 115-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-011-0049-6.
geological heritage. There are 15 geomorphological sites where
have uniqueness, representative, and identity in this geopark, - Department of Tourism (2016, December 31). Tourist
which is the protectorate area of the Kaeng Tana National Park, Statistic. http://61.19.236.136: 8090/dotr/statistic.php?year= 2016
Pha Taem National Park, and Pha Chan Area, accordingly, & tourist_ 0% B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8 %B5 & region =
these geoheritage sites always are conserved and protected by 2 & cluster=. Retrieved October 20, 2018.DMR (2007).
the authority of the national park. Meanwhile, this research
also presents the characteristic of sedimentary weathering and - Geologic map of Ubon Ratchathani Province. Bangkok:
erosion that will cause geosites destruction. Furthermore, it Department of Mineral Resources Thailand.
creates a way for people to understand the geological processes
and to be aware of the conservation challenges of their geologic - DNP (2015, November 16). Department of National Parks
monuments. The eastern edge of Khorat Plateau and the area (DNP) Thailand “Kaeng Tana National Park”. https://web.archive.
nearby have particularly outstanding geosites, which are well org/web/20151117024219/http://www.dnp.go. th/parkreserve/
suited for geotourism development. The aspiring national asp/style1/default.asp?npid=95&lg=2. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
geopark can contribute substantially to both geoconservation
and geotourism for promoting a new type of tourism of Thailand, - DNP. (2015, November 16). Department of National Parks
resulting in economic, social, and geologic developments. (DNP) Thailand “Pha Taem National Park”. https://web.archive.
org/web/20151117033134/http:// www.dnp.go. th/parkreserve/
Acknowledgments asp/style1/default.asp?npid=19&lg=2. Retrieved July 20, 2018.
The fund of this research was supported by the Science
Achievement Scholarship of Thailand (SAST). Dr. Cassian - Fenton C, Charusiri P, Hinthong C, Lumjuan A, Mangkornkarn
Pirard of the College of Science and Engineering, James Cook B (1997). Late Quaternary faulting in northern Thailand. [In
University, Queensland, Australia is thanked for his comments Phisit. Dheeradilok (Ed.), Proceedings of] the International
and reviews on the manuscript for English language clarity. We Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of
also thank Mr. Adiruj Phetpradid and Miss Nontarat Nimsuwan Southeast Asia and the South Pacific (pp. 436-452). Bangkok:
for their kindness in helping of fieldwork. Department of Mineral Resources Thailand.

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R ESEARCH ARTICLE ScienceAsia 45 (2019): 350–360

doi: 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2019.45.350

Petrochemical characteristics of Tak volcanic rocks,
Thailand: Implication for tectonic significance

Burapha Phajuy∗, Vimoltip Singtuen

Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200 Thailand

∗Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Received 3 Jul 2018
Accepted 6 Aug 2019

ABSTRACT: Tak volcanic rocks, found in the southern part of the Chiang Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic belt in northern
Thailand, provide important evidence of the tectonic evolution of the Palaeotethys ocean. Petrographically and
geochemically, the volcanic rocks selected for this study are made up of rhyolite, rhyodacite, andesite porphyry, and
basalt. Based on field investigations, these rocks are also associated with other igneous rocks including granite,
granodiorite, tuff, gabbro, and cumulus gabbro. The chemical data acquired from X-ray fluorescence, inductively
coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry methods suggest
that the studied rocks from the eruption can be separated into eight magmatic groups and four tectonic settings.
The tectonic setting of the southern location of Chiang Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic rocks consists of (1) an active
continental margin (Groups V and VII), (2) a back-arc basin (Group VI), (3) post-collision (Groups II and III), and
(4) continental rifting (Groups I, IV, and VIII).

KEYWORDS: volcanic rocks, tectonic setting, petrochemistry, Tak volcanic rocks

INTRODUCTION

The geology of northern Thailand is very irregular, Fig. 1 Distribution of pre-Cretaceous volcanic rocks in the
diverse, and obscure. Even though tectonic models northern part of Thailand 7.
which may explain the geological history of this
region have been proposed for decades, this idea is (2) the Chiang Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic belt,
still controversial. It is widely accepted that Thai- (3) the Nan-Uttaradit volcanic belt, and (4) the Loei-
land was an amalgamation of at least two ancient Phetchabun-Nakhon Nayok volcanic belt (Fig. 1).
terranes, Shan-Thai and Indochina 1. The Shan- The Sra Kaew-Chanthaburi volcanic belt may be
Thai Terrane, also known as the Sibumasu Terrane,
extends from Sino (China) to Sumatra via west Thai-
land, Burma, and Malaysia. The Indochina and the
Sibumasu Terranes were believed to have originated
on the Gondwana Supercontinent in the Devonian
and the late Early Permian, respectively 2, 3. The
Palaeo-Tethys separated these two cratons during
the Palaeozoic, followed by the Late Triassic-Early
Jurassic convergence 1, 4.

Many researchers have proposed the existence
of a new terrane (Sukhothai terrane or Sukhothai
Arc) between the Sibumasu and Indochina 4–6. They
suggested that the tectonostratigraphy of Sukhothai
Terrane differs from those of the Sibumasu and
Indochina Terranes.

The pre-Cretaceous felsic to mafic volcanic/hy-
pabyssal rocks in the upper part of Thailand may be
separated into four belts 7 from west to east as fol-
lows: (1) the Chiang Rai-Chiang Mai volcanic belt,

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) 351

considered part of the Nan-Uttaradit volcanic belt belt and classified as an extended series of calc-
in the north, separated by the Mae Ping fault 6. alkaline. These granites formed in an age from 213–
256 Ma 9. Volcanic rocks extend from the north to
A number of volcanic rocks in Tak province, the south of the study area. They are texturally
northern Thailand and the periphery are located in classified as crystal and lithic ash tuff to agglomerate
the southern part of the Chiang Khong-Lampang- and volcanic rocks. Petrographically, the rocks are
Tak volcanic belt. These volcanic rocks are tradi- composed of rhyolite, andesite, andesite porphyry,
tionally mapped as part of many ages including the andesitic basalt, rhyolitic tuff, and andesitic tuff.
Permo-Triassic, Late Triassic, and Early Jurassic 8. Some subvolcanic rock/shallow intrusive masses
However, the geochemistry of these rocks has not intruded the Triassic granite rocks and they are
been completely reported. This study focuses on believed to have formed after the upper Triassic-
the volcanic rocks in this area with geochemical and lower Jurassic 9.
petrographic interpretations as well as magmatic
grouping. Furthermore, research certainly has an MATERIALS AND METHODS
impact on the geology, including the tectonic setting
of this volcanic province and the tectonic evolution The method of this study included a field investiga-
of Thailand. tion, a petrographic study, and a chemical analysis
of least-altered rock samples. The tectonic setting
Geological setting of the eruption of these rocks could be interpreted
based on their petrochemistry.
The studied area consists of the provinces of Lam-
pang (Mae Phrik and Thoen districts), Sukhothai Standard thin sections and powders from the
(Thung Saliam and Ban Dan Lan Hoi districts), selected samples, as well as loss on ignition (LOI),
Tak (Ban Tak, Meuang Tak, and Wang Chao dis- trace elements, and major oxides analyses, were
tricts), and Kamphaeng Phet (Phran Kratai dis- prepared and studied at the Department of Geo-
trict). The reported geology of this area is logical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai
based on recent field observations and previous University.
work. According to previous fieldwork 8, there
are 11 rock units of metamorphic and sedimen- A total of 30 representative samples were care-
tary rocks as well as sediments. These in- fully evaluated under a polarizing microscope to
clude: (1) Precambrian metamorphic rocks: or- avoid alteration. These least-altered samples were
thogneiss, paragneiss, amphibolite schist, quartz- prepared by making powder samples from finely
mica schist, quartz-kyanite schist, sillimanite- selected rock chips.
mica schist, quartzite, marble, calc-silicate rock,
migmatite, and pegmatite; (2) Silurian-Devonian Chemical analyses of major oxides (SiO2, TiO2,
metamorphic rocks; (3) Carboniferous sedimentary Al2O3, Fe total as Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O,
and metamorphic rocks; (4) Carboniferous-Permian K2O, and P2O5) and trace elements (Rb, Sr, Zr, Y,
sedimentary rocks; (5) Lower Permian sedimen- Nb, Ni, Cr, V, and Sc) were analysed by a Phillip-
tary rocks; (6) Middle Permian sedimentary rocks; MagixPro PW 2400 Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray
(7) Triassic sedimentary rocks; (8) Middle Triassic Fluorescence spectrometer. The instrumental pa-
sedimentary rocks; (9) Middle-Upper Triassic sed- rameters consisted of a Rhodium tube with a LiF
imentary rocks; (10) Quaternary terrace deposits: 200 crystal (used in an elemental range of K-Ru),
gravel, sand, silt, clay, and laterite; and, (11) Qua- scintillation and flow proportion detectors, and an
ternary fluvial deposits: gravel, sand, silt, and clay X-ray tube operated at 60 kV with a current of up
of channels, river banks, and flood basins. The vol- to 125 mA at a maximum power level of 4 kW.
canic rocks explored in the current research project The net (background corrected) intensities were
have been divided into three igneous rock units as subsequently measured and calculated against cal-
shown on the geological map in Fig. 2. Intrusive ibrations derived from seven international standard
igneous rocks distributed in the study area include reference materials (AGV-2, BCR-2, BHVO-2, BIR-1,
Triassic granite and mainly consist of biotite granitic DNC-1, GSP-2, and W-2). The SUPER Q 3.0 program
rocks with subordinate hornblende granitic rocks was applied using inter-elements matrix corrections.
and a small amount of pegmatite and aplite. These The reporting detection limit was about 0.001%
granitic rocks are grouped in the eastern granite for major oxides and 3 ppm for trace elements.
belt of Thailand 9. A wide range of chemical com- The accuracy and precision of most of the elements
positions have been found in the eastern granite were better than 5%. A major oxides analysis was
conducted from fusion disc samples.

LOI was analysed by heating a platinum crucible

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352 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

Fig. 2 Geological map of the study area showing the distribution of the rock groups 8.

containing a 1.0 g sample in a furnace at 1000 °C In addition, the groundmass phase of rhyodacite
for 12 h at the Department of Geological Sciences, was mainly composed of quartz-alkali feldspar de-
Chiang Mai University. vitrification with small amounts of quartz, alkali
feldspar and chlorite. Andesitic outcrops were
The 16 least-altered samples were selected for observed in road-cut outcrops and in situ rocks.
their low levels of trace elements (Hf, Th, and Ta) The andesite showed porphyritic and very fine-
and rare earth elements (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, grained textures (Fig. S1(c)). Furthermore, the
Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, and Yb) and were analysed phenocrysts/microphenocrysts were comprised of
using a Sodium Peroxide Fusion combined induc- plagioclase with small amounts of unidentified
tively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy mafic minerals, clinopyroxene, and opaque min-
and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry erals. The phenocrysts/microphenocrysts formed
at the SGS-CSTC Standards Technical Services Co., glomerocrysts and cumulocrysts 11. The ground-
Ltd., China. mass phase was mainly composed of plagioclase,
with small amounts of unidentified mafic minerals,
RESULTS opaque minerals, and apatite.

Petrography Basaltic outcrops were found in a feldspar mine,
at the chill margin of the dike, and presented
The features, alterations, and mineral compositions as in situ rocks outside. They showed a slightly
suggested that the studied rocks could be defined as porphyritic texture, and the phenocrysts/microphe-
rhyolite, rhyodacite, andesite, basalt, gabbro, and nocrysts were largely comprised of plagioclase with
cumulus gabbro. a small amount of unidentified mafic minerals
(Fig. S1(d)). The groundmass phase mainly con-
Rhyolitic and rhyodacite outcrops were found sisted of plagioclase, with small amounts of uniden-
in gullies along road-cuts and as in situ float rocks. tified mafic and opaque minerals. Plagioclase
Their textures were porphyritic to slightly por- and clinopyroxene in the groundmass phase were
phyritic and fine to very fine-grained (Fig. S1(ab)). ophitic/subophitic intergrowth.
The phenocrysts/microphenocrysts were largely
made up of quartz and plagioclase, with small Gabbroic rocks were found in small hills as
amounts of alkali feldspar and opaque minerals 10. in situ float rocks and showed a fine to medium-
The groundmass phase of rhyolite was comprised grained texture (Fig. 3). They were largely com-
of quartz-alkali feldspar intergrowths (granophyric posed of plagioclase and clinopyroxene, with sub-
and spherulitic) with small amounts of quartz, alkali ordinate unidentified mafic and opaque minerals
feldspar, muscovite, and opaque minerals. This (magnetite). Plagioclase and clinopyroxene in the
rhyolite was associated with rhyolitic welded tuff.

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) 353

Fig. 3 The photomicrographs of gabbro (sample num- The studied rock samples were located within the
ber WL29/2-2) showing ophitic/subophitic intergrowth; fields of rhyolite, rhyodacite/dacite, andesite, an-
clinopyroxene (Cpx) (a) ordinary light (b) crossed polars desite/basalt, subalkaline basalt, and alkali basalt
and the photomicrographs of cumulus gabbro (sample in the Zr/TiO2 versus Nb/Y diagram 14 (Fig. 4b).
number WL29/1–2) showing apatite (Apt) inclusion in
clinopyroxene (Cpx) crystals (c) ordinary light (d) crossed The Group I rocks (BTK25/1-1, BTK25/1–2,
polars. and BTK 25/7), Group II rocks (BTK 25/8-1 and
BTK 25/8-3), and Group III rocks (MSL25/1-1)
groundmass phase were ophitic/subophitic inter- were all distributed in the northern part of the
growth. study area. The Group I rocks were made up of
rhyodacite. Group II rocks, composed of basalt,
The cumulus gabbro was equigranular and were in the Mae Phrik area and cut along a Tri-
showed a cumulus texture (Fig. 3). The cumulus assic granitic intrusion. The Group III rocks con-
crystals were mainly made up of plagioclase with sisted of rhyolite. The Group IV rocks (PDNG30/4,
subordinate clinopyroxene and unidentified mafic WL29/1-1, WL29/1–2, WL29/1–3, WL29/2-1, and
minerals and a small amount of apatite. The inter- WPC26/4) were generally located in the central part
cumulus crystals comprised hornblende and opaque of the study area. They included basalt porphyry,
minerals (magnetite). Patches of calcite, chlorite, cumulus gabbro, and andesite porphyry. The Group
epidotes, and clay minerals occasionally replaced V rocks (WL29/2-2, WCH28/4, and WCH28/8-1)
some minerals in these rocks. were distributed in the central and southern parts of
the study area, and included gabbro, andesite, and
Geochemistry and magmatic affinity basalt. Group VI rocks (WL29/3 and WCH26/4),
distributed in the central and southern parts of the
Table S1 shows the analytical results for major study area, were comprised of gabbro and rhyo-
oxides, trace elements, REE, Ta, and Hf analy- lite. The Group VII rocks (WPC26/7, WPC26/10,
sis of the studied volcanic and associated sam- WPC26/11, WPC26/12, WPC27/2, and WPC27/3)
ples. As the representative volcanic and associ- were distributed in the central parts of the study
ated rocks contained different quantities of trace area and were made up of andesite porphyry. Lastly,
elements (shown in REE patterns, multielement the Group VIII rocks (WPC26/3-1, WCH26/2-1,
pattern, and variation diagrams), they could be sep- WCH26/2-2, WCH26/3-1, WCH26/3-2, WCH26/5,
arated into eight magmatic groups (Fig. 2). Petro- and WCH27/5-2) were distributed in the central
graphic analyses showed that the studied rock sam- and southern parts of the study area and composed
ples experienced alteration. The alteration types of rhyolite.
were studied using an alteration index diagram 12, 13
(Fig. 4a). Group I and II rocks were strongly altered Tectonic discrimination
([K+Na+2Ca]/Al < 1), and the others were slightly
altered; however, major oxides in these samples Almost of the rhyolite and rhyodacite studied
were mobile. Accordingly, immobile elements were (Groups I, III, and VIII), except for WPC26/3-1,
selected for the chemical interpretation in this study. are presented in a within-plate granite field 10 in
both Y-Nb (Fig. 5a) 15 and (Y+Nb)-Rb (Fig. 5b) 15.
WPC26/3-1 emerged in the Y-Nb diagram to be
an orogeny granite field 10. Field data potentially
supported and advocated the occurrence of chill
margins of granite intrusives.

The Group II rocks are plotted in the fields of
a volcanic arc and a within-plate basalt in the Ti-Zr
(Fig. 6a) 16 diagrams.

The Group IV rocks mostly emerged in the fields
of a volcanic arc as shown in the following diagrams.
Ti-Zr (Fig. 6) 16, 17 and Zr-Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18. Their
occurrence in within-plate basalt in Zr-Nb-Y and Zr-
Ti-Y is noted in Fig. 7a 18 and Fig. 7b 17 diagrams, re-
spectively. However, the mid-oceanic ridge basalt is
presented in Ti-Zr (Fig. 6) 16, 17 and V-Ti (Fig. 7a) 18
diagrams and the calc-alkalic basalt is shown in Zr-

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354 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

Fig. 4 (a) Molar K/Al versus molar (K+Na+2Ca)/Al 12, 13. The alteration minerals kaolinite, illite and adularia were
plotted on a line of slope 1. Unaltered igneous rocks typically have molar (K+Na+2Ca)/Al values > 1. Potassium
metasomatism leads to decreasing molar (K+Na+2Ca)/Al and increasing molar K/Al values. (b) Plot of Zr/TiO2 against
Nb/Y 14 for the studied volcanic and associated rocks.

Fig. 5 (a) Y versus Nb plots 15 for the studied felsic volcanic rocks, (b) (Y+Nb) versus Rb 15 plots for the studied felsic
volcanic rocks. The fields are as follows. VAG = volcanic arc granite, COLG = collision orogeny granite, WPG =
within-plate granite, and ORG = orogeny granite.

Fig. 6 Ti-Zr discrimination diagram 16, 17 for the studied mafic volcanic and associated rocks. The fields are as follows.
MORB = mid-oceanic ridge basalt, A = island-arc tholeiites, B = MORB+C-A bas+IAT, calc-alkali basalts, and island-arc
tholeiites, C = calc-alkali basalts, and D = mid-oceanic ridge basalt.

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) 355

Fig. 7 The discrimination diagrams for the studied mafic volcanic and associated rocks: (a) Zr-Nb-Y diagram 18, (b) Zr-
Ti-Y diagram 17, and (c) Ti-Zr-Sr diagram 19.

Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17 and Ti-Sr-Zr (Fig. 7c) 19 diagrams. tonic setting were found to be different and specific.
The Group V rocks are primarily presented The Group I rocks were typical examples of

in fields of within-plate basalt as demonstrated mildly calc-alkaline series REE patterns. The chem-
in Ti-Zr (Fig. 6a) 16, Zr-Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18, and Zr- ical compositions of some Group I rocks were very
Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17 diagrams. However, these rocks similar to Miocene intra-plate rhyolites from Jabal
are shown in a calc-alkalic basalt field, as evi- Shama, Saudi Arabia 22, which had been formed
denced in the diagram plots of Ti-Zr (Fig. 6b) 17, within a plate on the rifting stage in the western
Zr-Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17 and Ti-Sr-Zr (Fig. 7c) 19, and portion of the Arabian shield (Fig. 8). This finding
the volcanic arcs in Ti-Zr (Fig. 6a) 16 and Zr-Nb-Y is consistent with results of previous tectonic dis-
(Fig. 7a) 18. There could well be ocean floor in the crimination diagrams associated with within-plate
plot of Ti-Sr-Zr (Fig. 7c) 19 diagram. settings.

Group VI rocks are largely distributed around Chemically, the Group II rocks were typical of
the boundary of mid-oceanic ridge basalt as shown alkaline series REE patterns. The chemical compo-
in the following diagrams. Ti-Zr (Fig. 6a) 16, Zr- sition of representative Group II rocks were com-
Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18, and Zr-Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17. Volcanic parable to the Miocene basaltic dike from Miocene
arcs emerge in the Zr-Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18, Zr-Ti-Y magmatism in Tibet 23, which had been formed post-
(Fig. 7b) 17, and Ti-Sr-Zr (Fig. 7c) 19 diagrams and collision between India and the Eurasia plates in
calc-alkalic basalt is shown in the Zr-Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17 the northern Himalayan orogeny and cross cut into
diagram. granitic rocks (Fig. 8). This analysis does not corre-
spond to results from previous tectonic discrimina-
Group VII rocks, generally located in the fields tion diagrams, which were done outside of the field
of volcanic arc11, appear in the Ti-Zr (Fig. 6a) 16 of post-collision setting. However, a post-collision
and Zr-Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18 diagrams. While these setting is most appropriate for both volcanic arcs
rocks are shown in a calc-alkalic basalt field, as and within-plate settings.
evidenced in the plotting of Ti-Zr (Fig. 6b) 17, Zr-
Ti-Y (Fig. 7b) 17, and Ti-Sr-Zr (Fig. 7c) 19 diagrams, Group III rhyolites were typical examples of
mid-oceanic ridge basalt, and within-plate basalt are calc-alkaline series REE patterns. The chemical
presented in the Zr-Nb-Y (Fig. 7a) 18 diagram. composition of these representative Group III rocks
was very similar to that of the Miocene rhyolite por-
Modern analogue phyry from Miocene magmatism at Yaguila, Tibet 23,
which had been formed post-collision between India
Similarities appeared when comparing rare earth and the Eurasia plates in the northern Himalayan
elements (REE) and immobile trace elements in orogeny (Fig. 8). Although there was not a post-
the studied samples with modern magmatic rocks collision field in the previous discrimination dia-
that clarified when forming in a tectonic setting. grams, this analysis is consistent with a within-plate
The chemical comparisons specifically focused on tectonic setting.
REE-patterns 20 and on N-MORB normalized multi-
element patterns 21. The chemical composition of Furthermore, the Group IV rocks showed typical
igneous rocks, especially rare earth elements and mildly alkaline series of REE patterns. The REE
immobile incompatible elements, within each tec- patterns for the cumulus gabbro had positive Eu

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356 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

Fig. 8 Chondrite-normalized REE patterns 20 and N-MORB normalized multielement patterns 21 for the studied rocks
and their modern analogue (solid triangle); Group I 22, Group II 23, Group III 23, and Group IV 24.

anomalies, and were controlled by cumulative pla- Chemically, the Group VI rocks were typical ex-
gioclases. The chemical compositions of represen- amples of tholeiitic series REE patterns. The chem-
tative Group IV rocks were most comparable with ical compositions of the Group VI rocks were most
Cretaceous basalt from the Karoo volcanic rocks, comparable to the Late Miocene Topaz-bearing rhy-
Mozambique 24, which had been formed within- olite from the Chivinar volcano, NW Argentina 26,
plate in south-eastern Africa (Fig. 8). This fact is which had been formed in an immature back-arc
consistent with results of previous tectonic discrim- setting in the eastern Andes (Fig. 9). This fact does
ination diagrams in within-plate tectonic settings. not agree with the results of previous tectonic dis-
crimination diagrams, which had been not been in
Furthermore, the Group V rocks typically had a back-arc basin setting. However, back-arc settings
alkaline series REE patterns. The chemical compo- are most appropriate for Mid-Oceanic Ridge settings
sitions of representative Group V rocks were similar based on their chemical compositions and rate of
to Quaternary basalt from the Central Volcanic Zone occurrence.
in Southern Peru 25, which had formed an active
continental margin in the central Andes (Fig. 9). The Group VII rocks typically showed mildly
This analysis agrees with the results of previous calc-alkaline series REE patterns 11. The chemical
tectonic discrimination diagrams, and the findings compositions of Group VII rocks were very similar
were based on the calc-alkali magma that occurred to Quaternary aphyric high-K andesite from the
in the volcanic arc setting or on the active continen- Ollagüe volcano region, Chile 27 which had been
tal margin. formed as an active continental margin in the cen-

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) 357

Fig. 9 Chondrite-normalized REE patterns 20 and N-MORB normalized multielement patterns 21 for the studied rocks
and their modern analogue (solid triangle); Group V 25, Group VI 26, Group VII 27, and Group VIII 24.

tral Andes (Fig. 9). This analysis is consistent with from different magmatic affinities, from subalkalic
results from previous tectonic discrimination dia- to alkaline magma series, and had been formed in
grams, and the findings are due to the presence of different tectonic settings 28.
the calc-alkali magma that occurred in volcanic arc
settings or on an active continental margin. The landmass forming Thailand is generally
believed to be the result of the collision between
Chemically, the Group VIII rocks were typical of Shan-Thai and Indochina 1. The major ocean basin
mildly calc-alkaline series REE patterns. The chem- that separated Shan-Thai from Indochina may be
ical compositions of Group VIII rocks were similar represented by the Chiang Rai-Chiang Mai volcanic
to the Miocene within-plate rhyolite from the Ka- belt, the Nan-Uttaradit volcanic belt or the Loei-
roo volcanic rocks, Mozambique 24 which had been Phetchabun-Nakhon Nayok volcanic belt. Many
formed as a within-plate in south-eastern Africa researchers have proposed the existence of a new
(Fig. 9). This fact is in accordance with results of terrane (Sukhothai terrane or Sukhothai Arc) be-
previous tectonic discrimination diagrams for the tween the Sibumasu and Indochina 4, 5. The Chiang
within-plate settings. Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic belt is part of the ig-
neous rocks of this Sukhothai Terrane. A number
DISCUSSION OF TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS of researchers believe that the volcanic rocks in
this belt erupted in a subduction-related environ-
Petrochemically, the volcanic and associated rocks ment or continental arc environment 1, 29. Later
studied could be separated into eight magmatic on, this volcanic belt was reported that formed in
groups, from Group I to Group VIII. They derived

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358 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

a post-orogenic setting 30, 31. U-Pb zircon dating affinity to an arc pattern like their modern analogue.
was carried out on the Permo-Triassic arc-related The microdiorite was analysed by Qian et al and
volcanic rocks along the western edge of Mae Moh were aged in 241.2 ± 4.6 Ma (early Middle Trias-
Basin 32 and the northern end of this belt 33. The sic) 37; they may be consistent with Group VII rocks.
results revealed that the volcanic rocks had U-Pb
Zircon ages of 240 ± 1 Ma (Middle Triassic) and Tectonically, Group V and Group VII rocks might
232.9 ± 0.4 Ma (Middle Triassic), respectively. On have occurred in an active continental margin in
the other hand, Khositanont et al determined that 241.2 ± 4.6 Ma (early Middle Triassic) (Fig. 11a).
the volcanic rocks in the Lampang and Phrae ar- Contemporaneously, Group VI rocks may have
eas had U-Pb Zircon ages of 247 ± 5–219 ± 3 Ma erupted in a back-arc basin that might have started
and mentioned that they erupted in the early to rifting for a short time after the Middle Triassic and
late Triassic period 34. This finding was consistent before the Late Triassic period 28. Group II and III
with Srichan 35, who reported that Chiang Khong- rocks might have erupted in a post-collision setting
Lampang-Tak volcanic rocks occurred in the Middle- in 223 ± 8 Ma (Late Triassic) (Fig. 11b). Group
Late Triassic (233 ± 5–220 ± 5 Ma) as a result of the I, IV, and VIII rocks might have erupted in conti-
post-collisional activity. Qiang et al reported that nental rifting in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic
volcanic rocks from the Chiang Khong area yielded (Fig. 11c). This episode has been considered as the
a zircon U-Pb age of 229 ± 4 Ma 36, significantly main tectonic event of the Indosinian orogeny stage
younger than the continental-arc and syn-collisional that resulted from the Shan Thai (or Sibumasu) and
volcanic rocks (238–241 Ma) 37. Indochina collision in the Malaysian Peninsular and
Sumatra 38. The Indosinian orogeny is the primary
The northern and central parts of the Chi- cause of block faulting in the Sukhothai foldbelt 39,
ang Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic belt have only and might have made a thin plate in this area with
reported and interpreted a tectonic model, except rifting magmatic activity.
for the southern end that is complex due to a vol-
canic eruption period. For this study, the tectonic CONCLUSIONS
setting of the studied volcanic and associated rocks
in the southern part of Chiang Khong-Lampang- The studied volcanic rocks were located in the
Tak volcanic belt could be separated into an active southern part of the Chiang Khong-Lampang-Tak
continental margin (Groups V and VII), a back arc volcanic belt, which mainly lies in the Sukhothai
(Group VI), post-collision (Groups II and III) and Terrane of Thailand. Petrochemical data show that
continental rifting (Groups I, IV, and VIII). the Tak volcanic rocks consist of rhyolite, rhyo-
dacite, andesite porphyry, and basalt. These rocks
However, missing age dating of the studied are also associated with tuff, gabbro, and cumulus
rocks has not reconstructed a tectonic model. The gabbro. However, as suggested by their features,
analogue comparisons suggested that the stud- alterations, and chemical compositions, some vol-
ied rocks have the same age as the Chiang canic and associated rocks might have occurred
Khong-Lampang-Tak volcanic belt. The Group III in conjunction with Triassic granitic rocks. These
rocks were chemically comparable with microdior- studied rocks can be divided into eight magmatic
ite in the Chiang Khong area 30. Their chondrite- groups, Group I to Group VIII. These groups were
normalized REE patterns showed a relatively flat derived from different magmatic affinities, subalka-
REE pattern from Sm to Yb, and were slightly LREE lic to alkaline magma series, and had been formed
enriched (Fig. 10). This REE patterns were typical in different ages and tectonic settings.
of a calc-alkaline series and showed a post-collision
pattern like their modern analogue. The Group III 1. Group V and Group VII rocks (andesite,
rocks may have the same age as microdiorite and basalt, and gabbro) erupted at an active continental
may have been erupted in the Middle-Late Triassic margin in the early Middle Triassic period. At the
(223 ± 8 Ma) 30. The Group VII rocks are quite same time, Group VI rocks (rhyolite and gabbro)
similar to andesite in chemical composition in the formed in the back-arc basin.
Doi Yao volcanic zone, Chiang Khong area 37. The
chondrite-normalized REE patterns of Group VII 2. Group II and Group III rocks (rhyolite and
rocks and their analogue showed a relatively flat basalt) erupted at post-collision setting in the Late
REE pattern from Sm to Yb, and were slightly LREE Triassic.
enriched (Fig. 10). These REE patterns were typical
of a calc-alkaline series and showed a geochemical 3. Group I, Group IV, and Group VIII rocks (rhy-
odacite, andesite, basalt, and gabbro) erupted at
continental rifting in Late Triassic to Early Jurassic.

Absolute age dating of the volcanic rocks in this

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) 359

Fig. 10 Chondrite-normalized REE patterns 20 of Group III rocks and Group VII rocks and their analogue 30, 37.

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) S1
Appendix A. Supplementary data

Fig. S1 (a) Rhyolite in the Mae Salaem area at grid reference 533 774.0 E 1 922 471.7 N showing porphyritic texture
with quartz (Qtz) and sanidine (Snd) phenocrysts; (b) rhyodacite in the Mae Phrik area at grid reference 516 138.2
E 1 912 653.8 N illustrating plagioclase phenocrysts (Plag); (c) andesite porphyry in the Wang Prachop area at grid
reference 534 800.2 E 1 873 573.5 N showing inclusion of apatite (Apt) and opaque minerals (Opq) in clinopyroxene
(Cpx); (d) basalt in the Mae Phrik area at grid reference 518 005.1 E 1 914 791.8 N showing unidentified mafic minerals
phenocrysts (Maf) and plagioclase (Plag) in a very fine-grained groundmass.

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S2 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

Table S1 Whole-rock analyses for geochemistry of the Table S1: Continued
studied least-altered rocks; Mae Phrik (BTK) and Mae
Salaem (MSL) areas.

Sample BTK25 MSL25 Sample PDNG30 WL29

1–1 1–2* 7* 8–1 8–3 1–1* 4 1–1 1–2 1–3 2–1 2–2

Major oxides (wt%) Major oxides (wt%)

SiO2 74.23 77.01 72.62 60.19 49.86 76.09 SiO2 49.95 48.43 47.28 46.15 48.19 51.85
TiO2 0.23 0.23 0.37 0.92 1.82 0.07 TiO2 1.09 0.36 0.56 1.46 0.43 0.99
Al2 O3 Al2 O3
Fe2 O3 12.47 12.73 12.61 17.13 18.89 12.26 Fe2 O3 18.29 20.05 18.31 16.38 17.43 16.47
MnO 2.48 3.38 MnO 9.89 7.76
0.03 0.02 3.38 4.91 8.28 1.36 0.18 0.14 10.07 12.43 7.48 8.78

MgO 0.45 0.58 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.06 MgO 4.00 5.96 0.17 0.19 0.14 0.15
0.69 6.05 8.32 0.07 7.79 6.54 7.77 7.09
CaO 1.73 0.08 2.11 0.62 1.06 0.35 CaO 6.46 11.64 10.31 12.81 15.01 7.62
4.22 6.42 6.43 3.05 1.15 0.99 1.42 2.71
Na2O 1.79 0.54 0.95 0.04 0.06 4.86 Na2O 4.74 1.86 0.29 0.08 0.11 0.09
K2 O 2.12 2.47 0.07 0.33 0.77 0.01 K2 O 0.12 0.20 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.27
P2 O5 0.04 0.04 P2 O5 0.22 0.07
LOI 3.70 3.32 3.52 3.28 4.89 1.21 LOI 5.67 3.59 3.72 2.89 2.61 3.57
100.62 99.97 100.50 99.38 99.73 99.95 100.60 99.58
Sum 99.28 100.41 Sum 100.60 100.04

Trace elements (ppm) 5.88 109.54 165.16 3.21 Trace elements (ppm) 17.85 9.25 9.48 99.74
Ni 3.23 6.37 73.91 151.58 268.89 23.34 Ni 17.10 15.76 83.70 227.44 72.68 139.82
V 47.52 49.08 35.22 232.41 V 165.80 63.18 12.64
Rb 91.94 114.26 70.91 5.68 BD 55.24 Rb 10.05 10.75 8.45 8.53 8.49
Y 76.05 75.41 BD BD 12.23 Y 29.46 7.84 5.52 6.11 6.02 19.34
Nb BD BD 0.39 39.73 Nb 2.85 0.73 2.06 1.49 0.99
23.02 7 7.07
Hf 4 4 5 54.57 Hf 5 2 1.32 2.12 0.40
Th 2.71 2.21 7.01 46.51 54.52 Th 5.45 0.10 5
Ta 2 1.4 2.4 Ta 1 0.4 184.02 271.72 64.36 6.02
Cr 10.38 3.86 3.03 184.32 1.1 1.36 Cr 24.59 127.50 297.43 336.65 318.26 1.8
Sr 63.08 61.61 92.06 171.82 616.87 107.24 Sr 668.91 366.54 630.38 433.80 636.67 349.21
Ba 909.89 982.09 729.10 498.68 840.02 Ba 550.87 658.91 387.41
Sc 6.53 0.42 9.76 75.42 2.79 Sc 18.55 31.75 30.44 35.58 41.16 538.44
Zr 198.66 191.84 243.35 1.44 331.03 166.12 Zr 152.18 48.45 42.85 48.80 45.27 23.53
198.48 136.29
3.50
326.42

Rare Earth elements (ppm) 20.90 295.00 40.50 Rare Earth elements (ppm) 20.50
La 15.60 39.30 488.00 65.90 La 17.20 3.10 39.90
Ce 32.70 Ce 32.10 5.20
Pr 4.64 5.47 50.18 7.01 Pr 4.39 0.74 5.28
Nd 21.10 23.50 158.00 24.30 Nd 18.70 3.20 21.70
Sm 3.90 Sm 4.50 0.90
Eu 1.17 5.50 18.60 4.00 Eu 1.36 1.10 4.10
Gd 4.20 1.40 1.92 0.49 Gd 4.33 0.66 1.25
Tb 0.77 5.72 3.73 Tb 0.72 0.10 3.87
Dy 5.45 1.12 16.70 0.57 Dy 4.24 0.78 0.65
Ho 1.32 6.60 1.13 3.11 Ho 0.95 0.18 3.35
Er 3.81 1.51 3.92 0.70 Er 2.57 0.49 0.71
Tm 0.73 4.16 0.69 1.90 Tm 0.46 0.10 1.78
Yb 4.10 0.82 2.33 0.39 Yb 2.60 0.60 0.33
Lu 0.77 4.70 0.35 2.50 Lu 0.44 0.09 1.80
0.86 2.40 0.42 0.29
0.53

Selected element ratios Selected element ratios

Ti/Zr 7.07 7.23 9.20 27.79 33.48 2.47 Ti/Zr 42.79 44.46 77.83 179.36 56.85 43.69
623.97 8.62 8.22 13.58 20.80 32.75 45.73 19.28
Zr/Nb Zr/Nb 53.40 66.37
3.43 9.67 3.01 7.76 7.99 7.52 7.05
Zr/Y 2.61 2.54 0.01 8.40 0.22 Zr/Y 5.17 6.18 0.37 0.24 0.16 0.37
2.32 6.17 3.05
Nb/Y 2.44 1.27 1.73 Nb/Y 0.10 0.09 2.47
La/Smcn 1.03 La/Smcn 2.33 2.10
Sm/Ybcn Sm/Ybcn 1.88 1.63

BD = below detection limit; cn = chondrite-
normalized values; * Singtuen and Phajuy 10.

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ScienceAsia 45 (2019) S3

Table S1: Continued Table S1: Continued

Sample WL29 3–1* WPC26 10** 11** Sample WPC26 WPC27 WCH26 3–1*
3 4 7** 12** 2** 3** 2–1* 2–2*

Major oxides (wt%) Major oxides (wt%)

STiiOO22 47.97 80.11 57.69 60.30 57.28 57.47 SiO2 60.17 60.40 61.39 78.22 77.78 77.14
Al2 O3 1.24 0.05 0.87 0.69 0.85 0.86 TiO2 0.75 0.73 0.76 0.05 0.06 0.05
Fe2 O3 Al2 O3
MnO 16.94 12.40 17.51 16.16 16.24 16.43 Fe2 O3 16.29 16.29 16.37 12.36 12.03 12.07
10.44 0.83 MnO 6.52
0.01 6.90 6.27 7.04 7.21 0.11 6.34 5.98 0.32 0.53 0.85
0.16
0.16 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.02
MgO 7.83 0.10 2.24 3.06 3.94 3.97 MgO 2.74 3.01 2.91 0.02 0.02 0.12
3.27 5.99 5.95 5.44 3.73 2.84 0.06 0.06 0.32
CaO 6.24 0.07 3.45 2.36 2.22 2.69 CaO 5.37 2.58 5.50 2.59 1.88 3.26
4.67 2.26 2.67 2.21 3.82 0.64 5.66 6.80 4.37
NK2aO2 O 2.42 2.24 0.32 0.14 0.20 0.20 KNP22aOO2 O5 2.57 0.16 0.17 0.01 0.00 0.00
P2O5 2.46 2.69 2.08 2.19 3.50 3.26 LOI 2.36
LOI 0.23 0.01 99.15 99.53 100.03 99.86 0.17 2.74 3.40 1.05 1.08 1.22
4.31 1.57 2.56 99.92 100.09 100.34 100.26 99.42

Sum 100.23 100.09 Sum 99.60

Trace elements (ppm) Trace elements (ppm) 7.14 8.55 2.60 8.28
Ni 60.85 8.09 5.53 18.53 40.15 39.42 Ni 17.93 11.47 116.84 20.72 21.46 20.64
V 189.04 31.48 134.73 101.06 126.38 126.37 V 112.90 108.44 386.84 466.07 427.34
Rb 75.95 173.23 145.52 76.62 100.94 87.41 Rb 87.43 133.79 32.93 89.10 109.72 130.44
Y 38.77 75.90 74.48 48.00 46.38 44.57 Y 46.25 59.73 43.91 31.64 33.47 45.84
Nb 3.01 6.02 6.57 5.91 6.76 5.73 Nb 5.73 4.87
4.54 78.25 75.81 65.75
Hf 3 3 4 Hf 4
Th 1.47 25.58 6.58 8.25 7.33 6.75 Th 8.04 7.56 8 2.52 2.69 23.27
Ta 1.4 1.5 1.6 Ta 1.4 9.38 104.70 105.95 94.75
Cr 225.07 15.66 9.27 80.78 121.31 118.88 Cr 54.77 59.91 1.5 820.86 877.15 858.51
Sr 257.13 114.35 357.31 337.70 395.40 356.38 Sr 318.69 331.52 48.63
Ba 748.39 1533.07 1071.15 782.09 834.70 789.58 Ba 781.50 1112.28 335.50 1.25 3.54 0.79
Sc 21.99 3.94 11.42 18.28 20.16 15.28 Sc 17.74 14.31 694.35 179.43 182.05 157.06
Zr 102.93 128.09 247.45 172.92 169.32 170.36 Zr 172.34 189.07 10.30
210.26

Rare Earth elements (ppm) 26.30 Rare Earth elements (ppm) 28.70
La 7.50 14.70 54.20 La 24.70 50.20
Ce 19.10 25.80 Ce 46.60
Pr 3.08 3.96 7.33 Pr 6.08 6.92
Nd 14.40 14.70 30.40 Nd 23.90 28.30
Sm 3.30 2.80 Sm 4.20
Eu 1.21 0.86 5.50 Eu 1.31 4.90
Gd 3.31 3.01 2.06 Gd 4.60 1.29
Tb 0.67 0.58 6.09 Tb 0.80 5.34
Dy 3.68 3.78 1.02 Dy 4.36 0.91
Ho 0.80 0.96 6.00 Ho 0.99 4.97
Er 2.16 2.80 1.31 Er 2.27 1.09
Tm 0.39 0.50 3.36 Tm 0.40 2.75
Yb 2.20 3.20 0.63 Yb 2.40 0.50
Lu 0.36 0.53 3.60 Lu 0.44 2.70
0.64 0.51

Selected element ratios Selected element ratios

Ti/Zr 71.99 2.55 20.99 23.86 30.21 30.41 Ti/Zr 26.03 23.06 21.59 1.65 1.92 2.00
37.66 29.26 25.05 29.73
Zr/Nb 34.20 21.28 Zr/Nb 30.08 38.82 46.31 5.67 5.44 3.43
3.32 3.60 3.65 3.82
Zr/Y 2.65 1.69 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.13 Zr/Y 3.73 3.17 4.79 2.01 1.66 1.20
2.91
Nb/Y 0.08 0.08 1.66 Nb/Y 0.12 0.08 0.10 0.36 0.31 0.35
La/Smcn 1.39 3.20 La/Smcn 3.58 3.57
Sm/Ybcn 1.63 0.95 Sm/Ybcn 1.90 1.97

* Singtuen and Phajuy 10; **Singtuen and Phajuy 11. * Singtuen and Phajuy 10; **Singtuen and Phajuy 11.

www.scienceasia.org

S4 ScienceAsia 45 (2019)

Table S1: Continued

Sample WCH26 WCH27 WCH28
4 8–1
3–2* 4* 5* 5–2*

Major oxides (wt%) 78.07 78.33 72.79
0.05 0.13 0.31
SiO2 76.94 62.52 53.47
TiO2 0.05 11.98 12.47 13.66 0.78 1.56
Al2O3 0.72 1.03 2.06
Fe2O3 13.09 0.01 0.01 0.03 16.53 17.93
MnO 0.72 0.10 0.20 0.35 5.35 8.67
0.02 0.26 0.04 0.16 0.12 0.17
3.52 0.11 3.77 1.83 4.12
MgO 0.08 4.01 6.09 4.84 4.35 2.33
0.01 0.01 0.05 3.72 4.41
CaO 0.12 1.07 2.09 1.46 1.92 1.46
0.23 0.57
Na2O 3.15 99.78 100.54 99.49 1.92 4.78
K2O 4.68
P2O5 0.00 12.93 6.61 6.08 99.26 99.46
LOI 1.08 19.98 31.08 63.56
273.65 405.14 183.24
Sum 99.94 95.04 106.75 83.16
27.45 20.52 17.46
Trace elements (ppm) 72.93 2.81 85.39
Ni 0.85 5 5 130.25 268.35
V 19.54 79.27 5.88 30.10
Rb 341.08 91.47 80.67 77.89
Y 110.87 1.4 959.61 2.8 44.95 42.96
Nb 30.94 4.06 1.33 14.00
Hf 91.12 2.41 116.31 6.73
Th 77.76 766.07 385.39 929.93 4 2
Ta 0.66 2.27 17.50
Cr 0.41 188.89 1.97 371.44 12.00
Sr 78.56 18.78 1.3 0.6
Ba 761.54 17.20 38.50 194.16
Sc 2.50 27.50 3.61 71.30 13.00 178.88
Zr 174.24 0.19 396.66 576.52
5.69 9.05 850.67
24.60 33.80 6.45
14.87 228.59
6.50 5.00 211.32
0.27 1.22
Rare Earth elements (ppm) 6.24 5.32 29.80 40.80
La 1.22 0.98 55.90 69.90
Ce 6.77 5.54 10.78
Pr 1.40 1.21 6.86 43.90
Nd 3.49 3.37 27.00
Sm 0.69 0.62 6.90
Eu 4.00 3.60 5.60 2.33
Gd 0.62 0.63 1.62 6.91
Tb 4.60 0.94
Dy 1.57 5.02 0.83 5.35
Ho 6.88 21.27 4.21 1.06
Er 1.99 0.89 2.77
Tm 0.29 4.47 2.35 0.47
Yb 1.61 0.21 0.44 2.50
Lu 1.76 4.69 2.60 0.42
1.50 0.42

Selected element ratios

Ti/Zr 1.77 21.99 40.81
31.40 16.33
Zr/Nb 5.63
4.70 5.32
Zr/Y 1.57 0.15 0.33
3.24 3.60
Nb/Y 0.28 2.33 2.99

La/Smcn

Sm/Ybcn

* Singtuen and Phajuy 10.

www.scienceasia.org

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-019-00410-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Evaluation and Geopark Perspective of the Geoheritage Resources
in Chiang Mai Area, Northern Thailand

Vimoltip Singtuen1,2 & Elżbieta Gałka2 & Burapha Phajuy3 & Krit Won-In1

Received: 6 December 2018 / Accepted: 20 September 2019 / Published online: 23 October 2019
# The European Association for Conservation of the Geological Heritage 2019

Abstract
Chiang Mai is located in the northern part of Thailand and is known as the most famous Thai Lanna cultural area.
Based on its inventory, characterization, classification, and assessment, Chiang Mai has many outstanding landforms
such as mountains, gorges, and waterfalls, as well as cliffs, river, and hot springs. There is also an old quarry, which
could be suitably developed to geosites as well as geopark. This area can be divided into seven main geosites based
on their location, identity, rock type, morphology, and geologic phenomena, including Doi Suthep Mountain, Ob
Khan Gorge, Muang On Cave, San Kamphaeng Hot Springs, Mae Kampong Waterfall, Grand Canyon Chiang Mai,
and Mae Ping River. There is significant geodiversity in the region, which has evolved since the Pre-Cambrian (>
550 million years ago) to Quaternary (recent) periods. The national park always protects and preserves the biodi-
versity in the area, which includes many species of both flora and fauna, especially in the Mae Sa-Kog Ma Huai
Khok Ma Biosphere Reserve. Prepared by scientists as well as the local guides, there are many basic geology and
botany training courses for both students and general people. Furthermore, Thai Lanna and the hill tribe people in
Chiang Mai have a culture and historical identity that is exhibited by temples and archaeological sites such as Doi
Suthep Temple, Wiang Kum Kam Historic Site, and the Great Wall of Chiang Mai. The main goal of geotourism
research is to evaluate the potential of geotourism and georesources in the context of geopark establishment.
Understanding by the local people concerning the value and origin of their geologic monuments as well as the
geopark concept is also significant. In addition, there are local as well as national advantages, especially for
sustainable development.

Keywords Evaluation . Geopark . Geoheritage . Geodiversity . Chiang Mai . Thailand

Vimoltip Singtuen is a Fellow of the UNESCO/POLAND Co-Sponsored Introduction
Fellowships Programme in Engineering cycle 2018A. Project 35:
Geotourism, geology ID 2018A 35AGH PL. Geotourism or geological tourism is referred to as a form of
nature-based tourism and is focused primarily on the geology
* Vimoltip Singtuen and landscape (Gray 2011; Newsome and Dowling 2010;
[email protected] Newsome et al. 2012; Hose 1995, 2000). According to Gray
(2008, 2013), geodiversity is the basis of a geosite and con-
1 Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart sists of many varieties of georesources/geological elements
University, 50 Phahon Yothin Rd., Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, such as rocks, minerals, fossils, landforms, landscapes, pro-
Thailand cesses, soils, and other georesources (Fig. 1). Geoheritage is
defined as the geosites/geological sites outstanding and repre-
2 Department of General Geology and Geotourism, Faculty of sentative in the area, which has uniqueness. Moreover, they
Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, AGH should have significant geodiversity values including scientif-
University of Science and Technology, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, ic, educational, aesthetic, recreational, cultural, and others
30-059 Kraków, Poland (Gray 2004, 2005, 2008; ProGEO 2011; GSA 2012;
Thomas 2006). Because of the value of geoheritage resources,
3 Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai
University, 239 Huay Kaew Rd, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand

1956 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Fig. 1 The interrelationships
between all geological concepts
used in this study

they are essential for society and should be conserved for Biosphere Reserve. A simplified presentation of the interrela-
subsequent generations. tionships between all geological concepts used in this study is
shown in Fig. 1.
This work is an initial step for geotourism support in
Thailand, which will affect the economy and earth sciences General Geology of Chiang Mai Area
(Singtuen and Won-In 2017, 2018a). Thailand has many stun-
ning geomorphology sites, as well as geologic phenomena Chiang Mai is located in the largest Cenozoic basin in
such as sandstone and volcanic landforms in the east Northern Thailand, which lies in a geologic complex. Both
(Singtuen and Won-In 2018b, 2018c), coastal landforms in Mesozoic (221–210 Ma) events, including subduction, accre-
the south, and complex geological settings of mountain ranges tion, and collision, and late Cenozoic (21–16 Ma) basin de-
in the north. Thus, it is suitable for establishing a geopark in velopment exist. As a result, the Chiang Mai basin is com-
this significant area. It also has many fossils for conservation, prised of many kinds of rocks and complicated geologic struc-
comprised of dinosaur and ancient elephant bones, blinded tures (Upton et al. 1997; Morley 2007; Macdonald et al. 2010;
trilobite, and fauna and flora in the ancient sea, as well as Gardiner et al. 2016). The area is located between Doi
the longest petrified wood in southeastern Asia (Won-In and Inthanon and Doi Suthep in the west area, which was truncat-
Singtuen 2018). These schemes reflect a global need for better ed by the Chiang Mai Low Angle Normal Fault (CMLANF)
understanding of the surrounding environment as well as the in the Eocene–Oligocene period and Doi Khun Tan Batholith
need to make visitors more aware of geoconservation and the to the east (Morley 2009a, 2009b; Macdonald et al. 2010).
protection of geoheritage (Fig. 1). Moreover, the government This basin consists of Ordovician limestone and other sedi-
of Thailand and the Department of Mineral Resources of mentary rocks, Silurian-Devonian metamorphic and sedimen-
Thailand are supporting and creating the policy to establish a tary rocks, Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, Permian lime-
geopark in Thailand. The Satun UNESCO Global Geopark stone, Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks, and Triassic granitic
was certified by UNESCO in 2018 as the first global geopark rocks and migmatites (Fig. 2).
in Thailand. The Khorat Geopark is being evaluated using this
process for the second global geopark in the country. Chiang Pre-Cambrian metamorphic rocks are comprised of
Mai is situated in the Cenozoic rift basin, an area in the north- orthogneisses, paragneisses, mica schists, calc-silicates, and
ern part of Thailand between two mountain ranges, namely pegmatites (e.g. Baum et al. 1981), which may hold the key
Suthep-Pui to the west and Khun Tan to the east (Morley to better understanding the magnitude and direction of this
2009a). Moreover, Chiang Mai is a famous area in Thailand extension. Previous study suggested that the voluminous S-
which has long fascinated both Thai and foreigner tourists type granitic rocks, many from the Triassic age, intruded the
with its culture, nature, and history. The area has the potential gneisses (Beckinsale et al. 1979; Beckinsale 1981; Hutchison
to establish a geopark and may be suitable for a global geopark 1983). Paleozoic sedimentary and low-grade
like the previous listing due to its many spectacular landforms, metasedimentary rocks, mainly continental shelf limestones
interesting geosites, geodiversity, stunning culture, and out- and phyllitic shales, structurally overlie the crystalline
standing history as well as Mae Sa-Kog Ma Huai Khok Ma

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1957

Fig. 2 Geologic map and
locations of geoheritage resources
in the Chiang Mai area (geologic
data modified from DMR 2007)

complex. These rocks were likely metamorphosed, deformed, classification and assessment, such as the temperature of
and intruded by granitoid during the Permo-Triassic collision hot springs, pH of soil developed from granite-weathered
of the Shan Thai terrane with the Indosinian Craton (Bunopas rocks, soil layer on the abandoned quarry, and gravel in the
1992). river. After the characterization method, the researchers in-
tegrated the data for each area and created catalogues for
Potential Geoheritage Resources assessing and classifying the geodiversity and geoheritage
at the Department of General Geology and Geotourism,
The studied area is comprised of many kinds of rocks and AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków,
fantastic landforms including mountains, waterfalls, cliffs, Poland. The assessment of this research consists of qualita-
caves, gorges, canyons, hot springs, and rivers. There are tive and quantitative methods, which have significance for
many prominent outcrops which could be suitably devel- geotourism interpretation. According to the inventory and
oped into geosites. These can be divided into seven field observations, the Chiang Mai area has geoheritage
geoheritage resources based on their rock type, morpholo- sites such as Doi Suthep Mountain, Ob Khan Gorge,
gy, and geologic phenomena. The inventory method was Muang On Cave, San Kamphaeng Hot Springs, Mae
the first step used in this research for making the point of Kum Pong Waterfall, Grand Canyon Chiang Mai, and
interesting sites on both topographic and geologic maps Mae Ping River (Table 1). These resources have significant
based on literature reviews. Subsequently, the researchers value for the travel industry and geologic education. In
carried out field observations in Chiang Mai Province in addition, they can be classified by their geodiversity and
the northern part of Thailand in order to collect geologic scope, such as mineralogical site, petrological site, structur-
data and information about tourism, management, and the al site, stratigraphic site, geomorphological site, speleologi-
interconnection of each area as well as describe their char- cal site, and hydrogeological site (Gray 2005; Brocx and
acteristics. Moreover, the researchers cooperated with the Semeniuk 2007; Đurović and Đurović 2010). There are
Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai many courses organized by the Geological Sciences
University, to test the specific data for the next effective Department of Chiang Mai University to educate and train
junior geologists as well as local people so they can better

1958 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Table 1 Locations of geoheritage sites in the Chiang Mai area of Northern Thailand

Geoheritage sites Location Features

Doi Suthep Mountain 18° 48′ 25.1″ N 98° 54′ 59.0″ E Forest, Hmong village, mountain, cliff, waterfall, people lifestyle, elephant camp
Ob Khan Gorge 18° 43′ 09.7″ N 98° 49′ 31.9″ E Forest, gorge
Muang On Cave 18° 47′ 12.9″ N 99° 14′ 17.0″ E Limestone cave, bat cave, mountain peak
San Kamphaeng Hot Springs 18° 48′ 58.2″ N 99° 14′ 14.5″ E Hot spring, forest
Mae Kampong Waterfall 18° 51′ 54.5″ N 99° 21′ 21.5″ E Waterfall, forest, people lifestyle
Grand Canyon Chiang Mai 18° 41′ 46.2″ N 98° 53′ 31.4″ E Sediment canyon, old quarry
Mae Ping River 18° 47′ 08.8″ N 99° 00′ 17.0″ E River, people lifestyle

understand geologic processes. The city of Chiang Mai has 1. Doi Suthep Mountain
many linked roads for comfortable communication that can
easily lead tourists to geoheritage resources (Fig. 3). The Doi Suthep Mountain is situated in the Suthep-Pui National
characteristics of each geoheritage site can be described in Park approximately 5 km from the city centre on a northwest-
terms of location, accessibility, attractions, geodiversity, ern flank covering 265 km2. It covers the areas of Mae Rim,
biodiversity, and provisions for tourism.

Fig. 3 Tourist map of the Chiang Mai area

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1959

Hang Dong, and Mueang Chiang Mai Districts. Doi Pui Doi Suthep Temple. Some buildings of the palace were
Mountain is the highest peak in the park at a height of roughly adapted as guesthouses for state visitors from abroad.
1685 m a.s.l. This park is part of the Thanon Thong Chai This area has a good view over Chiang Mai intended
Range, with most of its bedrock being granite and migmatite for bird and butterfly watching.
(Fig. 2). The S-type granitic rocks are of Triassic age, which Yod Doi Pui campsite is located to the north of Bhubing
intruded the Pre-Cambrian gneisses (Beckinsale et al. 1979; Palace. There are necessary facilities, restaurants, and a
Beckinsale 1981; Hutchison 1983). It also presents the Pre- visitor centre. The visitor centre has tents and mountain
Cambrian calc-silicate lens (e.g. Baum et al. 1981), as well as bikes available for rent. This area has many types of trees
evidence of normal fault existence from the Eocene to and flowers, especially Prunus cerasoides (Fig. 4c). In
Oligocene period (Morley 2009a, 2009b; Macdonald et al. autumn and winter, flowers are hermaphroditic and pink-
2010). ish white.
Huey Kaew Waterfall is a small waterfall located at the
There are many attractions in this park, which include Wat foothill of the park near the park entrance (Fig. 4d). There
Phra That Doi Suthep Temple, Bhubing Palace, Huey Kaew are many butterflies around the waterfall and nearly 500
Waterfall, Mon Tha Than Waterfall, Pha Lad Waterfall, Pha m of trail that ends up at the main road to the northwest.
Ngoeb Cliff, and Yod Doi Pui campsite. The highlight of the Moreover, there are many fascinating geosites up to the
park is Wat Phra That Doi Suthep Temple, which was built hill such as Pha Lad Waterfall, Pha Ngoeb Cliff, and Mon
near the peak of Doi Suthep and small waterfalls, viewpoints, Tha Than Waterfall; the latter is nine-tiered (Fig. 4e–g).
and nature at 1055 m a.s.l. Furthermore, it is the mind centre of Mae Sa Waterfall is the greatest waterfall in the park,
the Chiang Mai people and has historical and cultural values located at Mae Rim District (Fig. 5a). There are more
for Thai Lanna civilization (Fig. 4a). The aspects of the temple than ten steps in the waterfall. It also provides facilities
are drawn from both Buddhism and Hinduism. A model of the for tourists such as a visitor information centre, car parks,
Emerald Buddha and a statue of the Hindu God Ganesha can restaurants, accommodations, and souvenir shops.
be found inside the temple. Hill tribe people settled down on Tourists can enjoy nature and many activities such as
the Doi Pui peaks, including Hmong, Long Neck, and White swimming, trekking, picnic, and camping. Moreover,
Karen (Fig. 4b). They also conserve their culture and society, there is an interesting site for learning near this area;
which are the main attractions of this park and hold social tourists can observe the show and ride Thai elephants at
meaning. In addition, there are many interesting sites in the Mae Sa Elephant Camp as well as learn to produce ele-
park as follows: phant poopoo paper in this area (Fig. 5b).
Suthep-Pui National Park covers evergreen forests on
Bhubing Palace is the royal winter residence, which was higher altitudes above 1000 m and deciduous forests in
built to accommodate the Royal Family during their visits the lower parts. There are some mixed deciduous-
to Northern Thailand in 1961. The official name of this evergreen forests which occur in gullies and along
palace is Phra Tamnak Phu Phing. It is located in the streams. This park contains many types of trees such as
western flank, approximately 4 km from Wat Phra That

Fig. 4 Doi Suthep Mountain. a Wat Phra That Doi Suthep Temple. b Viewpoint of Yod Doi Pui campsite. c Prunus cerasoides at Yod Doi Pui campsite.
d Huey Kaew Waterfall. e Pha Lad Waterfall. f Pha Ngoeb Cliff. g Mon Tha Than Waterfall

1960 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

oak, dipterocarp, and trees of the Magnolia family. pegmatites (Fig. 6b) that are Pre-Cambrian age (e.g. Baum
Moreover, there are nearly 2000 species of ferns and et al. 1981). In Nam Mae Khan, many varieties of gravel have
flowering plants, nearly 300 species of birds, and a num- been found including gneisses, granites, pegmatites, phyllites,
ber of mammal species. In addition, it was certified as the sandstones, and quartz. Tourists can walk and follow the na-
Mae Sa-Kog Ma Huai Khok Ma Biosphere Reserve of ture trails, which are located along the streams and gorges, to
Thailand, making it the most densely populated mountain enjoy panoramic views. In addition, the tourists can swim in
area of Thailand (Rerkasem and Rerkasem 1995). Doi the gorge and camp overnight in the park. Many local restau-
Suthep Mountain is managed by a body having legal rants serve food and drinks to tourists.
existence recognized under the national park and legisla-
tion of Thailand. In this area, there is effective manage- 3. Muang On Cave
ment and development to support the local people to de-
velop agriculture for their living and conserve the balance Muang On Cave is situated in the eastern part of Chiang
of biological diversity as well as the environment. This Mai about 30 km from San Kamphaeng District. From the car
natural park contains many nature trails for surveying and park, tourists can climb up a steep stairway about 180 steps
adventuring by both scientists and tourists. The authori- from the entrance to the cave. It consists of many types of
ties of the National Park always offer information and limestone features and fossils such as facelinids, bivalves,
guides (Fig. 5c). This area has the potential for geo- crinoids, brachiopods, foraminiferas, gastropods, and ostra-
education in terms of the igneous and metamorphic field cods (Kaewmanee 2013). The Muang On Caves are filled
as well as the tectonic settings of the Chiang Mai Basin. with beautiful stalactites, stalagmites, and columns (Fig.
On the other hand, this park also comprises sedimentary 7a, b). There is also a winding pathway along the cavern floor.
rocks such as limestone, shale, chert, and sandstone in the Tourists can see the little shrines that have been erected over
Doi Kham area that is located in the southern flank of the the decades along the pathway. It is full of towering caverns
national park. There are many courses offered to teach and fluorescent lights artfully placed around to enhance the
and train students and local people about this area (Fig. look and feel of the natural rock formations (Fig. 7c). This
5d). cave also has a large seated Buddha statue sitting up on a ledge
amidst stalactites. In addition, there is a huge stalagmite ap-
2. Ob Khan Gorge proximately 9 m high. Outside, tourist can go through up to
the top of the mountain for making merit with temple and
Ob Khan Gorge covers the areas of Pha Samoeng National Buddha images. These limestones are associated with an
Conserved Forest under the national legislation and is located east-dipping accretionary complex, thrust under the Sukothai
in the western flanks of the city centre. The geographical fea- volcanic arc during the Late Triassic (Barber et al. 2011). This
tures of this area mostly consist of high mountains and gorges. area contains a complex assortment of basalt pillow lavas,
The BYod Khun Tien^ is the highest mountaintop in the na- dykes, porphyritic amygdaloidal basalt, and crystal lithic tuffs,
tional park at an altitude of 1550 m a.s.l. This area has many which are included in the Carboniferous–Permian (?) Dan Lan
beautiful attractions and a variety of noteworthy plants and Hoi (or Mae Tha) Group (Barr et al. 1990; Barr and Charusiri
wild animals. This is a source area for major rivers and gullies 2011). There are early Changsingian radiolarian fossils
flowing into the Ping River, including Nan River, Lan River, contained in chert bedding as Follicucullus sp., Albaillella
Tien River, Win Gully, Mae Toa Gully, Mae Kamin Gully, and sp., Pseudoalbaillella sp., and Copiellintra sp.
Lah Luang Gully. This area has the potential to be an example (Pinmuangthong 2012; Petcharat 2013), so it is suitable for
for describing metamorphic rocks and fluvial processes for junior geologists to do geologic mapping (Fig. 7d). Moreover,
geologists and local people (Fig. 6a). The outcrops are mostly tourists can climb to the top of the mountain with the climbing
stressed gneisses, though they are partly gneisses and club located behind the cave. There is a local point selling

Fig. 5 Doi Suthep Mountain. a Mae Sa Waterfall. b Mae Sa Elephant Camp. c Natural trail in the national park. d Geo-education training

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1961

Fig. 6 Ob Khan Gorge. a The characteristics of the gorge. b Metamorphic textures

food and souvenirs near this area. Local people manage res- distributed in two streams with small amounts of sinter,
taurants and accommodations for their livelihood. sulphur, and small crystals of FeS2 in the muds that are
associated with branches of the Huai Pong fault, a high-
4. San Kamphaeng Hot Spring angle, reverse fault (Nathan 1976; Barr et al. 1979;
JICA 1984). The association of the fluoride anomaly
Sankampang Hot Springs is situated about 36 km at the San Kamphaeng Hot Springs is related to the
from the Chiang Mai city centre. This area is located enhanced permeability along the faults with relatively
in scenic forest surroundings. The spectacular hills (Fig. recent movement (Ratanasthien and Ramingwong 1982;
8a) are Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks such as rhyolites, Wood and Singharajwarapan 2014). The highest temper-
andesites, welded tuffs, and volcanic breccias (DMR ature in the hot springs is 100–133 °C, while flow rates
2007). The San Kamphaeng geothermal system is a ma- are greater than 10 l/s (Ramingwong et al. 1982; Lara
jor hydrothermal system near the Chiang Mai basin and Owens, written communication, 2012). The park has a
is located within parallel faults in Paleozoic rocks beautiful landscape and a lush green park with a vast
(Wood and Singharajwarapan 2014). There are more range of flowers. Moreover, there are many facilities in
than 20 hot springs situated over a distance of 1 km this area such as a camping area, swimming pool, res-
along a small stream (Ramingwong et al. 1978) which taurant, mineral water bathing rooms, and various other
are suitable to be used for electrical power generation amenities. Tourists can enjoy popular activities at
potential with the Thailand geothermal systems Sankampang hot springs, including soaking their legs
(Ramingwong et al. 2000). These hot springs are and feet in the hot spring water, boiling an egg in the
water at the source, having a picnic in the beautiful

Fig. 7 Limestone features at Muang On Cave. a Stalactites. b Columns. c Fluorescent lights in the cave. d Geologic mapping course

1962 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Fig. 8 San Kamphaeng Hot Springs. a Interesting hydrothermal site. b Egg boiling in the water at the source. c Foot spa area

garden, swimming in the mineral pools, or taking a hot granitic weathered rocks can produce high potential soil that is
bath. Spa options such as a foot massage are also avail- suitable to plant the local coffee and tea (Fig. 9d, e). The local
able (Fig. 8b, c). people preserve their culture and lifestyle to promote their
village to tourism organizations. There are many souvenir
5. Mae Kampong Waterfall shops, local restaurants, homestays, and local guides engaged
in describing everything in the village to tourists (Fig. 9f).

Mae Kampong Waterfall is situated in the northeastern 6. Grand Canyon Chiang Mai
flank, 10 km from the Sankampang Hot Springs. This area
is a part of the eastern marginal belt of plutons of the Grand Canyon Chiang Mai is a water and amusement park
Northern Thailand Granite Province or Khuntan Batholith that that was built in an abandoned quarry (Fig. 10a). This area
is the late Triassic to early Jurassic S-type granitic rocks built the Neogene high terrace deposits of Chiang Mai Basin
(Yokart et al. 2003). The batholith mostly consists of coarse- underlain by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (limestones, sand-
grained, porphyritic to megacrystic biotite–muscovite granite stones, and shales) that consist of gravel beds alternating with
and is associated with coarse- to medium-grained muscovite sandy and silty layers with thick and hard laterite capping
and muscovite–tourmaline granite (Yokart et al. 2003). It is a (Baum et al. 1981; Margane and Tatong 1999). It is located
small waterfall originated from the natural stream in Mae 20 km outside of Chiang Mai city. The quarry had been empty
Kampong Village and made up of seven separate tiers. The for many years and was naturally filled with water coming
waterfall is especially impressive in the rainy season (Fig. 9a). from rains. Microparticles of calcium carbonate in limestones
Moreover, Mae Kampong Village also has the ancient are dissolved and, when coupled with light reflection which is
Buddhist temple (Fig. 9b) and the culture of the hill tribe resultant of the spectral wave, cause a bright blue colour in the
people that settled down in this granitic valley (Fig. 9c). The

Fig. 9 Mae Kampong Waterfall. a Mae Kampong Waterfall. b Buddhist Temple. c Mountain and valley. d Coffee tree. e Local tea. f Local guide

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1963

Fig. 10 Grand Canyon Chiang Mai. a Amusement park. b Sedimentary layers of the ancient quarry

water (Fig. 10b). It has the potential to describe the soil profile Wood and Ziegler 2007). The valley bottoms are mostly built
and old mine development for educating geology students. of clayey silts with greyed soils in the paddy areas (Wood and
Therefore, this area became a popular swimming spot because Ziegler 2007). Chiang Mai people always live linked with this
of the natural beauty of the canyon. The canyon walls are very river through their agriculture, fisheries, pottery, and river
steep and it is dangerous to jump into the water. Thus, it offers sand manufacturers, which have become the primary occupa-
an inflatable obstacle course, slides, a small zip line, and tions in the region. Mae Ping River has many species of aquat-
wakeboarding to tourists. A restaurant and a coffee shop are ic plants and animals suitable for carrying out scientific re-
also in the waterpark. Moreover, tourists can rent towels, gog- search. There are many facilities along the river such as the
gles, kayaks, and inflatable water toys. Mae Ping River Cruise, local restaurant, and accommodation.
Tourists can take a boat to view the lifestyle of the local people
7. Mae Ping River (Fig. 11a). Moreover, they can swim and sail in the river.
During the Loy Krathong Festival in November, this area is
Mae Ping River originates at the Daen Lao Range in the centre presenting the culture of Thai people. A ceremony
Chiang Dao District, Chiang Mai Province. It flows south- is organized in order to thank the river for usefulness and also
ward from Chiang Mai to join with the Nan River at apologize for trespasses against the river (Fig. 11b). The stu-
Nakhon Sawan, together forming the Chao Phraya River. dents of Chiang Mai University always study and conduct
This river flows in a single alluvial channel of low sinuosity research of Mae Ping River in terms of its evolution, sedi-
(Leopold and Wolman 1957) and is underlain by older ments, and water contamination as well as the humanity as-
Paleozoic gneissic granites, Paleozoic sedimentary and volca- pect related to the river (Fig. 11c).
nic rocks, Mesozoic granitic rocks, and Tertiary sediments
(Hess and Koch 1979; Rhodes et al. 2005). The Chiang Mai Evaluation of Geoheritage
lowlands are situated under Mae Ping’s alluvial fan, terrace,
and floodplain deposits, which consist of fruit orchards, paddy The qualitative method is used to determine the values of
rice fields, and urban areas and villages (Margane and Tatong geoheritage sites by the primary assessment, listed and de-
1999). In addition, the upland areas (older terrace and fans) of scribed in terms of science and education (the geological re-
Mae Ping River have deep weathering profiles of saprolite and cords and Earth’s evolution, suitable to train and educate pro-
red-yellow argillic soil horizons (Margane and Tatong 1999; fessional geoscientists, university students, schools, and the

Fig. 11 Mae Ping River. a The boat for transportation. b The Loy Krathong Festival. c Research area for sedimentologists

1964 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

general public), culture (associated with beliefs of local peo- (fossils), stratigraphic (sedimentary sequences), structural
ple), history (associated with historical and archaeological (folds, faults, and others), hydrogeological (water), or pedo-
values), nature (botany and zoology as well as national park), logical (soils) heritage as sub-types of geoheritage (Brocx and
aesthetics (features which are beautiful or unusual), tourism Semeniuk 2007; Đurović and Đurović 2010).
(suitable for various nature recreational activities, accommo-
dation, and transportation) and economic values (the financial Geotourism Development
value of the resources), and so on (Gray 2004; Gray 2005;
GSA 2012; Nazaruddin 2015; Santos et al. 2016; Brilha 2016; The city of Chiang Mai is one of the most famous cities in
Brilha and Reynard 2017; Nemeth et al. 2017; Moufti and Thailand because there are numerous attractions (highest
Nemeth 2017), as listed in Table 2. On the other hand, mountains in Thailand, mountain ranges, gorges, cliffs, caves,
Table 3 presents the values of geoheritage sites assessed by a hot springs, rivers, winter gardens of Thailand, etc.) and tour-
quantitative method (0 = none; 1 = very poor; 2 = poor; 3 = ism information. There is an international airport and many
fair; 4 = good; and 5 = very good), which uses a valuing public transportation options such as trains, buses, cars, vans,
assessment and statistics calculation (Fig. 12). This research motorbikes, and boats so tourist can get around easily.
also focuses on international values, as required for geoparks. According to information put out by the Chiang Mai
Based on the literature review, this study area has many Provincial Statistical Office, 9,623,958 tourists visited in
geoheritage sites of international value, especially Doi 2016, comprising 2,902,139 foreigners and 6,721,819 Thai
Suthep Mountain, San Kamphaeng Hot Spring, and Mae people (www.chiangmai.nso.go.th). Moreover, the tourism
Ping River (Fig. 12). Moreover, Table 3 shows the scores industry in the area made an income of roughly 90,137.28
obtained for each geoheritage site and their classifications. million baht or 2,729,036,902.74 USD in 2016. The twelfth
Gray (2005) classified the geodiversity of geoheritage as land- National Economic and Social Development Plan (2017–
form, rock, mineral, fossil, structure, sedimentary sequences, 2021) of Thailand elaborated by the Office of the Prime
and other resources. Furthermore, geoheritage was also clas- Minister of Thai government suggests that natural and
sified by scientific values as geomorphological (landforms),
petrological (rocks), mineralogical (minerals), paleontological

Table 2 Qualitative assessment of geoheritage sites in the Chiang Mai area of Northern Thailand

Geoheritage sites Values

Science and Culture and history Nature Aesthetically Tourism and economy
education

Doi Suthep Mountain, cliffs, Temple, Buddha Forest and wild animals Hiking, camping, Tourist guides, local restaurants and
Mountain waterfall accommodations, national park
images, Bhubing (Mae Sa-Kog Ma swimming, accommodations, public utilities,
Ob Khan Gorge souvenir shops
Palace, historical Biosphere Reserve), viewpoints,
Muang On Cave
site, hill tribe village elephant camp natural trails
San Kamphaeng
Hot Springs Gorge, mountain Thai pottery, historical Forest, wild animals Hiking, camping, Local restaurants, national park
site
Mae Kampong swimming, accommodations, public utility
Waterfall
viewpoints,
Grand Canyon
Chiang Mai natural trails

Mae Ping River Limestone cave Temple, Buddha Forest, bats Climbing, Local guides, local restaurants,
images
viewpoints, accommodations

natural trails

Hot spring Local food and Garden Massage, hot springs Tourist guides, local restaurants,

products, umbrella spa, boiled eggs, accommodations, public utilities,

handicraft natural trails souvenir shops

Waterfall, cliff, Temple, Buddha Forest, local tea and Hiking, camping, Local guides, restaurants,
mountain
images, historical coffee fields swimming, accommodations, souvenir shops

site, hill tribe village viewpoints,

natural trails

Sediment canyon, Old quarry Garden Swimming, water Coffee shops, local restaurants,
abandoned
quarry slides, splash pads, water and amusement parks

water

playgrounds,

viewpoints

River People lifestyle Aquatic plants and Swimming, sailing Mae Ping River cruise, local
animals
restaurants, accommodations

Table 3 Assessment of geotouristic values for geoheritage sites in the Chiang Mai area of Northern Thailand Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Geoheritage sites Doi Suthep Mountain

Yod Doi Pui Doi Suthep Huey Kaew Pha Lad Pha Ngoeb Mon Tha Than Mae Sa Doi Kham
campsite Mountain Waterfall Waterfall Cliff Waterfall Waterfall
Lst, Ch, Sh,
Rock Ng, SC, Gr ✓ SS
✓
Geodiversitya Rock ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ - ✓
✓✓ ✓ ✓
Mineral - ✓✓✓ -- ✓ ✓
✓✓ - ✓
Fossil - - - - ✓✓ - ✓
-- ✓ -
Landform ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ -- ✓ BSh
✓✓ ✓ ✓
Landscape ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓
✓✓ ✓ ✓
Process - - - - ✓
✓✓ - ✓
Other resources - S- - ✓✓ - ✓
Mineralogical site - -- 5 ✓
Scopeb ✓✓✓ -- ✓
55 5 5
Structural site ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3
00 5 5
Geomorphological ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 00 5 5
55 5 5
site 35 5 5
34 5 5
Hydrogeological site - - ✓ ✓ 03 4.8 5
55 3
Petrological site ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2.6 3.4 4.8

Stratigraphic site - - - -

Speleological site - - - -

Value Science and 5 5 5 5

education

Culture 5 5 5 5

History 5 5 5 5

Nature 5 5 5 4

Aesthetics 5 5 5 4

Tourism 5 5 5 5

Economy 5 5 5 4

International 5 5 5 5

Average 5 5 5 4.6

Geoheritage Ob Khan Gorge Muang On Cave San Kamphaeng Hot Mae Kum Pong Mae Kum Pong Grand Canyon Chiang Mae Ping
sites Mountain Mai River
Springs Waterfall

Ob Khan Yod Khun Tien Muang On Muang On
Gorge Mountains
Cave Mountain

Rock Ng, Sc Lst, Ch, Sh, SS, Bs Gr, Rh Gr Qc Qa
✓✓
Geodiversitya ✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ - -
✓✓
✓ - ✓✓ ✓ ✓- - -
✓ ✓✓
- ✓ ✓- - -- - -
-
✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓ ✓✓ - ✓ 1965

- ✓ -- ✓✓

Table 3 (continued) 1966 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Geoheritage Ob Khan Gorge Muang On Cave San Kamphaeng Hot Mae Kum Pong Mae Kum Pong Grand Canyon Chiang Mae Ping
sites Mountain Mai River
Springs Waterfall

Ob Khan Yod Khun Tien Muang On Muang On
Gorge Mountains
Cave Mountain

Scopeb - - P- H -S S W
Value ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓- - -
✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓- ✓ ✓- ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓✓ ✓ ✓
- - ✓✓ - -- ✓ -
- - ✓✓ - -- - -
5 5 55 5 55 5 5
5 0 55 5 55 0 5
5 5 55 2 35 1 5
5 5 55 4 55 1 4
5 5 55 5 55 5 5
4 2 54 5 55 4 4
4 0 54 5 55 5 5
1 0 24 5 02 0 5
4.3 2.8 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.1 4.6 2.6 4.8

a Gray 2005; b Brocx and Semeniuk 2007; Đurović and Đurović 2010
Ng gneiss, CS calc-silicate, Gr granite, Sc schist, Lst limestone, Ch chert, Sh shale, SS sandstone, Bs basaltic flow, Rh rhyolite, Qc quaternary colluvium, Qa quaternary alluvium, BSh black shale, P
phosphate deposit, H hydrothermal deposit, S soil and laterite deposit, W water resources

0 = none; 1 = very poor; 2 = poor; 3 = fair; 4 = good; and 5 = very good

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1967

Fig. 12 Quantitative assessment
of geoheritage resources in the
Chiang Mai area

geological tourism can boost the economies of the local establish a geopark. In addition, Chiang Mai has many inter-
communities through sustainable development. esting historical and archaeological sites such as the Great
Wall of Chiang Mai, Doi Suthep Temple, and especially
The geoheritage resources in Chiang Mai Province, Wiang Kum Kam.
Thailand, have been well known by geologists and researchers
from all over the world since 1979 (e.g. Beckinsale et al. 1979; Wiang Kum Kam is the most famous historical site in
Beckinsale 1981; Baum et al. 1981; Hutchison 1983). The Chiang Mai in terms of tourism, history, and archaeology, as
geological records and Earth’s evolution of Chiang Mai are well as geology (Fig. 14a). It is located in Saraphi District
publicized to university students, schools, local people, and approximately 7 km to the south of Chiang Mai city. There
the general public. There are many geologic training courses are many sites in this area such as thirty-four temple ruins,
each year organized by professional geologists from the which were excavated from the early 1980s to 2002
Department of Geological Sciences at Chiang Mai (Harbottle-Johnson 2002). The majority of these ruins lie on
University as well as the Natural Field Camps by co- the western side of the proposed paleochannel that is old nat-
operators of Doi Suthep Nature Study Centre, Chiang Mai ural levee of the Ping River (Ng et al. 2014). According to
University, and Suthep-Pui National Park (Fig. 13). This area many researchers’ descriptions, this city of the Lanna king-
has significant science and education potential in both geolog- dom was buried under flood sediments several centuries ago
ical and natural resources (plants and animals), meaning it is (Velechovsky et al. 1987; Wood et al. 2004; Hinz et al. 2010).
suitable to promote geotourism development and also Based on the excavated floodplain sediments (Fig. 14b), they

Fig. 13 Natural Field Camp offered by co-operators of Doi Suthep Nature Study Centre, Chiang Mai University, and Suthep-Pui National Park

1968 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

Fig. 14 Archaeological sites. a Ancient Thai Lanna Stupa. b Evidence of the ancient Chiang Mai city under sedimentary flow

argue that this ancient city was abandoned after a large flood (Fig. 15c). Within the floodplain area such as Muang Kung
because Lanna settlements should be close enough to a river Pottery Village in Hang Dong District, visitors can learn about
for water use and transport (Nid 1989; Ongsakul 2005; the pottery handicrafts that are produced by using the mate-
Boomgaard 2006). rials available in the area near the Mae Ping River (Fig. 15d).
The shops sell many types of earthenware such as pots, dishes,
In terms of cultural value in the Chiang Mai area, each vase, and other articles made of baked clay as local traditional
community has its own cultural identity. Thai Lanna people craft (Fig. 15e). In addition, the centre of Chiang Mai always
conserve their culture and lifestyle as linked with Buddhism, has the night street markets for selling Thai products and
the river, and nature. For example, people create a Thai Lanna handmade/handicraft from local people (Fig. 15f); Daily
Stupa and decorate it with a handmade flag in the temple near Chiang Mai Night Bazaar, Sunday Walking Street at Tha
their home in the New Year and Loy Krathong festival (Fig. Pae Gate, and Wualai Saturday Walking Street.
15a). There are many Thai umbrella handicraft shops and
learning centres in San Kamphaeng District for preserving Discussion for Geopark Concept in Thailand
and sharing their culture (Fig. 15b). Visitors can learn about
the materials and methods used in their umbrella handicraft Geotouristic activity is the newest tourism trend in Thailand,
and also buy souvenirs in the shops. In the highlands, there are though it has been practiced for a long period of time in other
many communities of hill tribe people such as Hmong, Long countries such as Australia, Poland, Italy, France, and
Neck, and White Karen, so visitors can learn about their cul-
ture, language, dress, and lifestyle, which have been protected

Fig. 15 Cultural perspective. a Thai Lanna Stupa creation. b Thai umbrella handicraft. c Long Neck hill tribe with Thai silk handicraft. d Pottery
handicraft. e Pottery shop. f Night street market

Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972 1969

Germany (Newsome and Dowling 2017). There is a lack of lifestyle as well as historical and cultural tourism develop-
research, principles, and scientific concepts about geotourism ment. Moreover, one of the most important things about the
and geopark development in Thailand, so management is geopark is tourism that focuses on the impression and fasci-
quite difficult. Geoparks in Thailand are managed by the head nation of visitors and tourists, especially good accommoda-
of geoparks and geologists from the Department of Mineral tions, restaurants, and professional guides. This tourism sec-
Resources, who are trained in events or conferences about tion should also develop tourism research and tourism strategy
geoparks. Some cases are very successful such as the Satun in both national and international aspects. The last section is
UNESCO Global Geopark. However, the Pha Chan-Sam 10% nature, though the least percentage value does not mean
Phan Bok Geopark that was established before Satun the least value. In Thailand, this part of the nature section has
Geopark was not successful due to there being only the been under the supervision of the national park, which has
Department of Mineral Resources of Thailand who wanted more than 120 sites. There are two points of botany (plants)
to establish the geopark. Thus, it is impossible to succeed and zoology (animals) that are managed by the nature section.
without other important participant sections. Anyway, it is Each national park also has specific and rare plants and wild-
better if Thailand has basic knowledge about the geopark con- life, so the authorities of the park strictly care for all the re-
cept as publications, books, and courses for educating people sources creating a good ecosystem and supporting ecotourism.
to understand the scheme. At the least, people will react to this
concept with easy numerical information. The concept of the geopark is improving the local economy
through geotourism, education, and conservation activities
This research describes the concept and participants of the based on two steps of geotourism development: (1) increasing
geopark in Thailand, which is the best and the first basic the benefits for local people and their socio-economic contri-
knowledge of geopark in this region. In addition, it also illus- bution and (2) cultural activities, both should be developed to
trates the percentages of important points in each organization assist the strengthening of the positive attitude toward
of all 100% of the participant in geopark (Fig. 16). This model geotourism (Farsani et al. 2014; Shahhoseini et al. 2017).
can be divided into five sections; 30% geology, 25% local According to the goals of geopark, it leads to community
authority, 20% social and humanity, 15% tourism, and 10% prosperity for the local economy and the preservation of nat-
nature. The important point of the geology section consists of ural resources, so geopark authorities should be taken from the
geoscientific knowledge, research (especially international local authorities or professionals, who can share positive pol-
publication in the area), geo-education, geotourism, geo-as- icies and also stimulate the local people to participate in ac-
sessment, and geoconservation. Furthermore, the local author- tivities. Establishing geoparks can engage locals in geopark
ity has four important points including (1) public transporta- conservation activities in the form of voluntary work, supple-
tion and other infrastructures for facilitating local people and mentary income, and seasonal and second jobs through em-
visitors, (2) scientific panels in each geosite, (3) souvenir de- ployment as park guards, park guides, and site surveillance
velopment for boosting the economy, and (4) local people (Farsani et al. 2014). It also supports local food, products, and
management for creating duties and mutual understanding. hostels. These activities represent a relation between the con-
In addition, society and humanity also have significance for servation of geoparks and tourism promotion, as well as the
the geopark in the aspect of history, art, culture, and local communities and facilities which will be developed for

Fig. 16 The geopark concept and connection model

1970 Geoheritage (2019) 11:1955–1972

visitors convenience. Moreover, geopark establishment is one developed by the national park service, professional geolo-
model of sustainable development which can reduce the neg- gists, local authorities, and local people. There are many train-
ative environmental impact of tourism on both natural and ing courses in both geology and nature. However, there is a
geoheritage resources (Fig. 1). lack of geotourism initiative to establish the Chiang Mai area
as a geopark. According to the inventory, description, and
On the other hand, a geopark may intrude on the private classification results, the common types of geoheritage in the
lives of local people, which is the main disadvantage. In case Chiang Mai area are landform/landscape features (geomor-
of the Chiang Mai area, it will not get this disadvantage be- phological sites) such as a river, waterfall, cascades, limestone
cause the area is already a well-known destination for tourists hills, and caves (speleological sites). It also has interesting
and local people, who always make contact and transactions fossil features (paleontological site), sedimentary sequence
with visitors. Thus, they have positive attitudes toward them. (stratigraphic site), soil (pedological site), and distinctive
rocks (petrological sites). Other features include the hot
Nowadays, Chiang Mai is managed by the local authorities springs (hydrogeological site), phosphate and sand deposits
and people like a social entrepreneur, which organizes and (mineralogical site), and important structural features (struc-
manages a business venture along with any of its risks in order tural sites). The Chiang Mai area has significant international,
to generate social, environmental, and economic profits. This scientific, and educational values as well as culture, history,
social entrepreneurship and geo-education comprise one of nature, aesthetics, tourism, and economic meaning. It is one of
the most important strategies in geoparks and is a strength of the most famous cities in Thailand. Moreover, assessment and
the Chiang Mai area. However, it lacks a geo-education centre evaluation suggest that this area has significant potential for
to provide information about the sites and information panels supporting geopark establishment and geotourism manage-
about geology. The local authorities should have strategies to ment. This scheme has many benefits for the local people;
resolve this issue for increasing the potential of the area, which they can better understand and manage their georesources
will make it more suitable to submit a proposal to the govern- for better livelihoods and an enhanced environment, which
ment of Thailand for establishing this area as a geopark. is the concept of sustainable development.

Chiang Mai is similar to the first UNESCO Global Acknowledgments The authors would like to thanks the authorities of the
Geopark of Thailand. Both areas have a high potential of National Park and local people in Chiang Mai Province for their oblig-
geology, nature, culture, and local authority’s management. ingness. Thanks to Ms. Pimpawee Sittipan, Ms. Ratchadakorn
However, Chiang Mai is more famous and easier to reach Chumkhiao, and Mr. Jakratorn Kaewpradit for their help in field obser-
for the tourist than Satun. If the government of Thailand stim- vation. The UNESCO/POLAND Co-Sponsored Fellowships Programme
ulates the local authorities to establish Chiang Mai Geopark, in Engineering cycle 2018A supported the fund for research practicing in
there will be many advantages for communities and local peo- the Department of General Geology and Geotourism at Faculty of
ple like in Satun Geopark. After establishing Satun UNESCO Geology, Geophysics and Environment Protection, AGH University of
Global Geopark, communities got new opportunities such as Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland. Furthermore, thanks to the
extra income, job creation, infrastructures, and new local Department of Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University, for
products related to geology and natural resources supporting experiences and data in geo-education of the first and third
(Singhwachiraworakul et al. 2017). The Petra Islands authors.
National Park in Satun is the same as the Suthep-Pui
National Park in Chiang Mai that has the new model of mu- References
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Proceedings Vimoltip Singtuen, Ph.D.

Publication in Thai

1.Phajuy, B. & Singtuen, M. (2015) Cenozoic Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Part of Thailand, Faculty of Sciences CMU News
(in Thai), V. 21, 1-3.

2.Phajuy, B. & Singtuen, M. (2016) Rock Soil Minerals, Vegetable and Geologic Hazards in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park,
Guidebook for Excursion of the 2nd Doi Suthep Symposium (in Thai), 15-16 August, 5-10.

  Publication in English

1.Singtuen, V. & Won-in, K. (2018) Geodiversity and Geoconservation of the Chaiyaphum Region in Thailand for Sustainable
Geotourism Planning. Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites. 22(2), 548–560. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.22223-310
(SCOPUS)

2.Singtuen, V. & Won-in, K. (2018) Preliminary Geotourism Study in Ancient Khmer Civilization Area, Buriram Province,
Northeastern Thailand. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication. 8, 1538-1544.
https://doi.org/10.7456/1080sse/206

3.Won-in, K., & Singtuen, V. (2018) Geoheritage Conservation for Sustainable Geotourism in Petrified Wood Forest Park, Tak
Province, Thailand. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication. 8, 1532-1537.
https://doi.org/10.7456/1080sse/205

4.Singtuen, V., & Won-In, K. (2018). Geological Perspective for Geotourism Development in Uthai Thani Province, Thailand.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 9(5), 1003-1010. https://doi.org/10.14505//jemt.9.5(29).12
(SCOPUS)

5.Singtuen, V. & Won-in, K. (2018) Geoheritage Sites and Geoconservation at Pha Chan - Sam Phan Bok Geopark, Ubon
Ratchathani Province, Thailand. Journal of Geoconservation Research, 2(1), 12-25.
https://doi.org/10.30486/GCR.2019.664490

6.Phajuy, B. & Singtuen, V. (2019) Petrochemical Characteristics of Tak Volcanic Rocks, Thailand: Implication for Tectonic
Significance. Science Asia, 45(4), 350-360. https://doi.org/10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2019.45.350 (ISI 0.452)

7.Singtuen, V., Gałka, E., Phajuy, B., Won-in, K. (2019) Evaluation and Geopark Perspective of the Geoheritage Resources in
Chiang Mai Area, Northern Thailand. Geoheritage 11. 1955–1972. doi:10.1007/s12371-019-00410-0 (ISI 2.597)

 
ORAL PRESENTATION

1.Singtuen, M. & Phajuy, B. (2015) Petrogenesis of Mafic Dikes in the Ban Chun Area, Tambon Chun, Chun District, Phayao
Province, Full Paper Proceeding in Geoindo, 23-24 November, 59.

2.Phajuy, B. & Singtuen, M. (2016) Lithology Petrography and Geochemistry of Limestone for Lime Industry Ban Pong, Hang
Dong District, Chiang Mai Province, Abstract Proceeding in 2nd Doi Suthep Symposium, 15-16 August, 11.

3.Singtuen, M. & Won-in, K. (2017) Geotourism and Sustainable Development Perspectives of the Khao Phra Wihan National
Park on the Southern Edge of the Khorat Plateau, Thailand, Full Paper Proceeding in Description 8th International
Conference on Environment, Agriculture, Biology and Natural Sciences, 25 December, 35-41.

4.Singtuen, V. & Won-in, K. (2018) An Assessment of the Potential Island for Geotourism Value in Ko Kham Undersea Park,
Chonburi, Gulf of Thailand, Full Paper Proceeding in “Regional Geoheritage Conference 2018”, 3 April, 11-18.

 
POSTER PRESENTATION

1.Singtuen, M. & Phajuy, B. (2015) Geological Map of Ban Cham Khi Mod, Tambon Sribuaban, Mueang Lamphun District,
Lamphun Province, Abstract Proceeding in 10th the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, 19
June, 38.

2.Singtuen, M. & Phajuy, B. (2016) Geochemistry and Tectonic Significance of Andesitic Rocks in Tak Province, Thailand, Full
Paper Proceeding in 52nd CCOP Annual Session “Geoscience for the Society”, 1 November, 65-74.

3.Singtuen, M. & Phajuy, B. (2017) Petrography and Geochemistry of Felsic Extrusive Rocks in Southern Part of the Chiang
Khong – Lampang –Tak Volcanic Belt, Thailand, Full Paper Proceeding in 6th International Graduate Research Conference,
9-10 February, 27-32.

4.Singtuen, V., Gałka, E., Won-in, K., And Phajuy, B. (2019) The Potential of Post-mining Management as a Sustainable
Geopark in Thailand- A Case Study From the Muskauer Faltenbogen/ Łuk Mużakowa Unesco Global Geopark, Central
Europe. Abstract Proceeding in International Conference On Biodiversity, 22-24 May, 376.

M.S. in Geology, Chinag Mai University
Ph.D. in Earth Science and Technology, Kasetsart University
Non-Degree

Publication 2015-2019

GM-17 23-24 November 2015, Khon Kaen, Thailand
5th GEOINDO 2015

Petrogenesis of Mafic Dikes in the Ban Chun area,
Tambon Chun, Chun District, Phayao Province

Mukda Singtuen 1 and Burapha Phajuy2*
1 Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University,

Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand, [email protected]

2 Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University,
Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand, [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The mafic dikes in the Ban Chun area, Tambon Chun, Chun District, Phayao Province occur as dike and belong to
Chiang Khong – Lampang - Tak Volcanic belt that is Permo – Triassic to Jurassic range age. This project studied for
petrography 19 samples and 10 least – altered samples geochemistry. Based on field observation and undermicroscopic

mineral composition, the samples can be classified into 3 groups: (1) gabbroic dikes (2) basalts and (3) porphyritic basalts.

The studied rocks are made up mainly of plagioclase with subordinate clinopyroxene and unidentified mafic mineral with
small amount of opaque minerals and show ophitic/subophitic texture of core (gabbro) and very fine-grained and
amygdaloidal texture of chill margin (basalt-porphyritic basalt).and graded to fine grain crystals near chilled margin . Most
plagioclase altered to sericite. The unidentified mafic minerals totally altered to chlorite and partly altered to serpentine and

tremolite - actinolite. The small amount of opaque minerals partly altered to titanite/ leucoxene. These rocks were replaced
by chlorite and calcite veins and refilled in pores by chlorite, calcite and quartz. Geochemically these shallow intrusive
igneous rocks are andesite/ basalt and tholeiitic series affinities correspond to low ratio of Nb/Y compared to Zr/TiO2. The
geochemistry suggests that the studied mafic dikes have erupted in continental within – plate setting.

Keywords: Mafic dikes, Chiang Khong – Lampang - Tak Volcanic belt, Permo – Triassic to Jurassic, andesite/ basalt,
continental within– plate setting

1. INTRODUCTION field work, petrography 19 samples and 10 least – altered
samples geochemistry.
The pre - Cretaceous felsic to mafic volcanic/hypabyssal
rocks in Thailand may be separated into four belts (Fig. 2. LOCATION
1) from west to east as Chiang Rai - Chiang Mai volcanic
belt, Chiang Khong - Tak volcanic belt, volcanic rocks The study area belong topographic map scale 1:50,000
in Nan - Uttaradit volcanic belt, and Loei - Phetchabun – including 5047III Ban Tham sheet and 5047IV Amphoe
Nakhon Nayok volcanic belt. The Chiang Rai - Chiang Chun, Pha Yao Province. The study area covers an area
Mai volcanic belt forms a broad zone from the western of 40 square kilometers that located in latitude between
part of Chiang Rai Province through the eastern part of 19 degree 14’ 21.10’’ N and 19 degree 18’ 41.08’’ N and
Chiang Mai Province to Li District, Lamphun Province. in longitude between 100 degree 7’ 19.32’’ N and 100
The Chiang Khong - Tak volcanic belt is in the east of degree 10’ 10.69’’ N or located in UTM grid; latitude
the Chiang Rai - Chiang Mai volcanic belt, extending 2127000 to 2137000 and longitude 617000 to 624000
from Chiang Khong District (Chiang Rai Province) to that is in the Ban Chun area, Tambon Chun, Chun
Tak Province via Lampang and Phrae Provinces. The District, Phayao Province.
Nan - Uttaradit volcanic belt is located between the
Chiang Khong - Tak volcanic belt and Loei - Phetchabun 3. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
- Nakhon Nayok volcanic belt, extending from Nan to
Uttaradit Provinces. The Loei - Phetchabun - Nakhon In the report of field geology course, Department of
Nayok volcanic belt runs in NNE - SSW direction from Geological Sciences, Chiang Mai University (Saijam et
Loei through Phetchabun to Nakhon Nayok Provinces. al., 2014), the rocks in the study area can be divided into
10 rock units (Fig. 2). Unit A (Permo-Triassic) is the
The studied rocks are the part of the Chiang Khong - Tak oldest and made up of felsic volcanic rocks and
volcanic belt which is Permo – Triassic to Jurassic range associated tuffs. Unit B (Triassic-Jurassic) comprises
age (Srichan et al., 2012). This volcanic belt is made up limestone and overly on unit A by unconformable contact
main by lava flow with subordinate dike (Phajuy B., and is overlain by unit C by unconformable contact. Unit
2001). These rocks derived from tholeiitic magma series C-H (Jurassic) are conformable sequent of red bed clastic
and have erupted in Continental Volcanic Arcs sedimentary rocks. Those are made up subarkose,
felsparthic arenite, lithic arenite and siltstone. Unit I
(Panjasawatwong et al. 2003). This project studied for (Jurassic ?) is the youngest basement and composed of
mafic igneous rocks, intruded in to unit D-H sequent.
Corresponding author: [email protected] The Quaternary covers in this area are constituent by
gravel, sand, silt and clay. Attitude of bedding in this
Copyright is held by the author/owner(s) area is NW-SE and dipping E, interpreted to be a west
GEOINDO 2015, November 23-24, 2015 fold limb of approximate N-S fold.

GM-17 23-24 November 2015, Khon Kaen, Thailand
5th GEOINDO 2015

1
2

3
5

6

4

13

34

5

56

5

Fig.1 Distribution of pre-Cretaceous mafic volcanic rocks in Thailand (modified from Jungyusuk and Khositanont,
1992; Kosuwan, 2004; Panjasawatwong, et al., 2006; Phaejuy, 2008 and Boonsoong, et al., 2011). The Mae Ping Fault
Zone and the Mae Sariang Fault Zone are taken from Morley (2002) and Hisada, et al., (2004) respectively.

GM-17 23-24 November 2015, Khon Kaen, Thailand
5th GEOINDO 2015
The gabbroic rocks are made up mainly of plagioclase
Q (50-60 modal %) with subordinate clinopyroxene (19-
28.5 modal %) and unidentified mafic mineral (8-19
H modal %). A small amount of opaque minerals (3-11
modal %) is present in these studied rock
DE F G samples. Chlorite veins have been detected in some
samples. The plagioclase is subhedral to eubhedral
AB C (grain sizes vary from 0.25-2.5 mm across) and
moderately replaced by sericite and calcite. The
Sediments of Quaternary clinopyroxene is colorless and has anhedral to subhedral
outlines (grain sizes vary from 0.5-4 mm across). It is
Reddish siltstone of Jurassic commonly ophitic/ subophitic with plagioclase
Reddish sandstone of Jurassic laths. The unidentified mafic minerals is subhedarl to
Reddish siltstone interbedded with reddish sandstone of euhedral (grain sizes vary from 0.25-1.75 mm across)
Jurassic and completely replaced by serpentine/chlorite and a
Reddish siltstone of Jurassic small amount of tremolite-actinolite series. The opaque
minerals are anhedral to subhedral grain sizes vary from
Reddish fine sandstone of Jurassic (0.25-2.25 mm across) and partly replaced by
Reddish medium sandstone of Jurassic titanite/leucoxene.

Greyish massive limestone of Triassic-Jurassic 4.2 BASALTS
Gabbro dike of Jurassic
Basaltic sample was collected only 1 sample (BCH12).
Felsic volcanic rock and tuff of Permo-Triassic It has a greenish gray color with yellowish brown
weathering surfaces. This basaltic sample is non-
Fig.2 Geologic map of Ban Chun area, Tambon Chun, magnetic and slightly reacts with cold diluted
Chun District, Phayao Province (modified from hydrochloric acid.
Saijam et al, 2014) Locations of sampling
The studied basalt is made up mostly of felted
4. PETROGRAPHY plagioclase laths and small amounts of unidentified mafic
mineral (totally replaced serpentine/chlorite and
Fieldwork was conducted in the study area, then tremolite-actinolite) and opaue minerals. Amygdale
petrographic study for 19 least-altered samples were chlorite-calcite and veins can be observed in this rock.
carried out by using transmitted light microscope via thin The plagioclase is very fine - fine grained and subhedral
section. The studied rock samples can be divided into 3 with grain sizes vary from 0.01- 1.13 mm across. The
groups: (1) Gabbroic dike (2) basalts and (3) porphyritic unidentified mafic mineral and opaque minerals are
basalts (Fig. 3). All these samples may have been intergranular to the plagioclase laths. Oophitic/
formed as dike, which is different in texture, coarser subophitic intergrowths of plagioclase laths and
grain (gabbros) to finer grain (basalts and porphyritic unidentified mafic mineral are present in a small amount.
basalts) from inner to margin. These mafic igneous rocks
were classified by mineral composition (modal %) 4.3 PORPHYRITIC BASALTS
following Streckinson (1973, 1976, and 1978).
Porphyritic basalts (8 samples) comprise BCH10,
4.1 GABBROIC DIKES BCH11, BCH13, BCH14, BCH15, BCH16 BCH17 and
BCH18. These basalts have a greenish gray color with
There are 10 collected samples that show a shallow yellowish brown weathering surfaces. They maybe
intrusive feature (BCH1, BCH3, BCH4, BCH5, BCH6, contain 2 phases phenocrysts (dark and white minerals)
BCH7, BCH8, BCH9, BCH19, and BCH20). They are with sizes up to 2.5 mm across. They are non-magnetic
greenish gray with yellowish brown weathering surfaces and some reacts with cold diluted hydrochloric acid,
and have a medium grained texture (grain sizes up to 3 exclude BCH10 and BCH13.
mm across). Most of them is non-magnetic, except 2
samples (BCH19 and BCH20) show a magnetic The phenocrysts/ microphenocrysts (approximately 10
character. Some reacts with cold diluted hydrochloric modal %) in these basalt is made up of unidentified mafic
acid, including BCH1, BCH3, BCH4 and BCH20. mineral (BCH15, BCH16, BCH17 and BCH18) or
unidentified mafic mineral and plagioclase (BCH10 and
BCH11) or plagioclase (BCH13 and BCH14). They are
embedded in a very fine-grained groundmass, which is
made up largely of felted plagioclase laths with
subordinate clinopyroxene and unidentified mafic
mineral and a small amount of opaque mineral. Some
shows a slightly trachytic groundmass. Amygdaloidal
texture with chlorite, calcite and quartz amygdales can be
observed in the sample number BCH14. These
porphyritic basalts show veins of chlorite and calcite in a
small amount.

The unidentified mafic mineral phenocrysts/
microphenocrysts is subhedral (grain sizes vary from
0.25 - 2.5 mm across) and completely replaced by

GM-17 1B 23-24 November 2015, Khon Kaen, Thailand
5th GEOINDO 2015
Plg 1C
1A
Plg
2A
Cpx Cpx

2B 2C

Plg Plg

Cpx Cpx

3A 3B 3C

Cal Cal
Plg Plg

Chlor Chlor

Fig.3 The studied rocks from field observation and undermicroscopic; (1) Gabbro dikes (2) Basalt (3) Porphyritic
Basalt (A) Outcrop (Person in the picture high 165 centimeters and the geologic hammer long 32.5 centimeters) (B)
undermicroscopic by ordinary light (C) undermicroscopic by crossed polars (plagioclase (Plg), clinopyroxene (Cpx),
chlorite (Chlor), Calcite (Cal))

serpentine/ chlorite and tremolite-actinolite. The The chemical compositions of least-altered samples for
plagioclase phenocrysts/microphenocrysts is anhedral to major oxides, loss on ignition and trace elements are
subhedral (grain sizes vary from 0.25-2.5 mm across) and shown in Table 1. The studied sample contain major
moderately replaced by sericite and calcite. The oxides in the range of 44.72-48.32 wt% SiO2, 0.94-2.76
clinopyroxene and unidentified mafic mineral and opaque wt% TiO2, 16.09-19.93 wt% Al2O3, 9.13-16.19 wt% FeO
minerals are intergranular to plagioclase laths. total, 0.14-0.24 wt% MnO, 2.8-9.27 wt% CaO, 4.79-8.61
Ophitic/subophitic texture is commonly present in these wt% MgO, 0.05-1.02 wt% K2O, 2.74-4.6 wt% Na2O and
porphyritic basalts. 0.1-0.45 wt% P2O5. The loss on ignition is present in the
range of 2.7-8.4 wt%. The trace elements constitution of
5. GEOCHEMISTRY these rocks are distributed in the rage of 91-268.62 ppm
Ba, 7.52-34.06 ppm Rb, 424.30-1041.81 ppm Sr, 20.53-
The ratio of immobile elements in igneous rocks are 34.93 ppm Y, 85.14-214.16 ppm Zr, 2.31-7.01 ppm Nb,
magmatic representative and important for classification of 75.65-243.48 ppm Ni, 38.34-420.92 ppm Cr, 146.46-
igneous rocks and interpretation for tectonic setting of 406.47 ppm V, 8.33-37.66 ppm Sc and 0.30-1.92 ppm Th.
formation. 19 collected samples were carefully selected,
under petrographic study to avoid highly alteration and Variation diagrams for major oxides and trace elements,
secondary deposit, for whole-rock chemical analysis. 10 plot against zirconium are shown in Figure 4 and
samples were selected and made a powder sample to 5. Zirconium is a classic immobile incompatible element,
analyze for loss on ignition (LOI), major oxides and so it is representative for fractionation parameter. The
selected trace elements. Loss on ignition was done by variation diagrams show discontinues variation, studied
heating amount of sample 12 hours in furnace at 1000 °c samples can be separate into 2 groups; low zirconium
and determines the loss weight. Major oxides and trace group (BCH5, BCH6, BCH7, BCH8, BCH9, BCH11,
elements were done by Automated Phillips PW 1480 X- BCH13 and BCH16) and high zirconium group (BCH10
Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRF) with a Phillips and BCH19). However, the gab maybe cause by sample
MagixPro PW 2400 Wavelength Dispersive Sequential X- collecting. Major oxides variation diagrams show positive
ray Spectrometer, installed at the Department of trends for TiO2, FeO, MnO, Na2Oand P2O5, negative
Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai trends for MgO, CaO and K2O and flat trends for SiO2 and
University, Thailand. Al2O3. However, CaO plotting show a broad trend affected
by calcite replacement in the sample. Trace elements

GM-17 23-24 November 2015, Khon Kaen, Thailand
5th GEOINDO 2015

Table 1 Whole-rock analyses of selected samples from the study area. LOI: loss on ignition. Oxides are given in wt.%,
trace elements in ppm.

SAMPLE NO. BCH5 BCH6 BCH7 BCH8 BCH9 BCH10 BCH11 BCH13 BCH16 BCH19

Major oxide (wt %)

SiO2 47.87 44.72 47.57 47.30 45.30 45.09 48.32 46.84 45.87 45.64
TiO2
Al2O3 1.37 1.07 1.03 0.94 0.95 2.65 1.10 1.02 1.17 2.76
FeO*
16.88 17.64 16.84 19.13 18.63 19.34 17.47 16.09 19.93 16.29

10.82 10.48 9.83 9.13 10.19 16.10 11.69 11.72 12.24 16.19

MnO 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.20 0.24

CaO 8.71 6.78 9.07 8.68 8.67 2.83 5.59 6.55 2.96 4.68

MgO 4.79 6.74 7.38 6.65 7.41 7.51 8.08 8.36 8.61 6.27

K2O 0.63 1.02 0.49 0.70 0.63 0.29 0.13 0.05 0.24 0.10

Na2O 3.44 2.85 3.03 3.02 2.74 3.82 3.62 3.92 4.33 4.60
P2O5
LOI 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.45 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.45

5.19 8.40 4.50 4.20 5.24 3.70 3.72 5.20 4.34 2.79

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 102.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Trace elements (ppm)

Ba 83.75 268.62 160.74 203.49 208.19 - 100.20 101.21 58.91 -

Rb 18.04 34.06 14.89 20.89 19.52 12.33 8.96 7.64 12.56 7.52

Sr 476.55 460.93 446.24 830.66 457.57 601.60 627.50 975.84 424.30 1041.81

Y 25.05 25.20 20.53 20.98 21.43 34.93 22.39 20.82 24.08 30.64