EssentialsofEcology

Essentials of Ecology

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Essentials of Ecology

FIFTH EDITION

G. TYLER MILLER, JR.
SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN

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Essentials of Ecology, 5e © 2009, 2007 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
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Brief Contents

Detailed Contents vii 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions,
Preface for Instructors xv and Population Control 100

Learning Skills 1 6 The Human Population and Its Impact 122
7 Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity 140
HUMANS AND SUSTAINABILITY: 8 Aquatic Biodiversity 162
AN OVERVIEW
SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY
1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes,
and Sustainability 5 9 Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species
Approach 183
SCIENCE, ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES,
AND SUSTAINABILITY 10 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity:
The Ecosystem Approach 214
2 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 28
3 Ecosystems: What Are They 11 Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity 249

and How Do They Work? 50 Supplements S1
4 Biodiversity and Evolution 77
Glossary G1

Index I1

v

About the Cover Photo © JUPITERIMAGES/Comstock Images/Alamy

Scarlet Macaw This strikingly beautiful parrot species lives in the subtropical
forests in Central and South America, including Costa Rica, southern Panama, and
the Amazon Basin in Brazil and Peru. They have a lifespan of 30 to 50 years and
eat mostly seeds and fruits. The squawks and screams of these noisy birds can be
heard for long distances throughout the forests. The scarlet macaws are threatened
by their popularity as pets, which is due to their beautiful plumage and affection-
ate ways with humans. Under an international agreement, it is illegal to remove
them from the wild without special permits. However, a number of these rare par-
rots are illegally captured, smuggled from their native habitats to the United States
and Canada, and sold on the black market for thousands of dollars a piece. During
their trip north many of the smuggled birds die from stress and poor care. An even
worse threat for the scarlet macaw is the clear-cutting and fragmentation of much
of its forest habitat, which is taking place at a rapid and increasing rate. For these
reasons, scarlet macaws and a number of other tropical bird species are threatened
with extinction.

Detailed Contents

Learning Skills 1

HUMANS AND SUSTAINABILITY: 1-2 How Can Environmentally Sustainable Societies
AN OVERVIEW Grow Economically? 10

1 Environmental Problems, 1-3 How Are Our Ecological Footprints Affecting
Their Causes, and Sustainability 5 the Earth? 12

CORE CASE STUDY Living in an Exponential Age 5 CASE STUDY China’s New Affluent Consumers 15
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 6
1-1 What Is an Environmentally Sustainable 1-4 What Is Pollution, and What Can We Do
Society? 6 about It? 16

1-5 Why Do We Have Environmental Problems? 17

CASE STUDY The Environmental Transformation
of Chattanooga, Tennessee 21

INDIVIDUALS MATTER Aldo Leopold’s
Environmental Ethics 22

1-6 What Are Four Scientific Principles
of Sustainability? 23

REVISITING Exponential Growth and
Sustainability 24

SuperStock SCIENCE, ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES,
AND SUSTAINABILITY
Photo 1 The endangered brown pelican was protected in the first
U.S. wildlife refuge in Florida. 2 Science, Matter, Energy,
and Systems 28

CORE CASE STUDY Carrying Out a Controlled
Scientific Experiment 28
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 29
2-1 What is Science? 29
SCIENCE FOCUS Easter Island: Some Revisions
to a Popular Environmental Story 31
SCIENCE FOCUS The Scientific Consensus over
Global Warming 33
SCIENCE FOCUS Statistics and Probability 34
2-2 What Is Matter? 35
2-3 How Can Matter Change? 39

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Hartmut Schwartzbach/Peter Arnold, Inc. 3 Ecosystems: What Are They
and How Do They Work? 50
Photo 2 Homeless people in Calcutta India
CORE CASE STUDY Tropical Rain Forests
2-4 What Is Energy and How Can It Be Are Disappearing 50
Changed? 40
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 51
2-5 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond 3-1 What Is Ecology? 51
to Change? 44
SCIENCE FOCUS The Usefulness of Models 44 SCIENCE FOCUS Have You Thanked the Insects
REVISITING The Hubbard Brook Experimental Today? 54
Forest and Sustainability 47 3-2 What Keeps Us and Other Organisms Alive? 54
3-3 What Are the Major Components of an
Ecosystem? 57
SCIENCE FOCUS Many of the World’s Most
Important Species Are Invisible to Us 61
3-4 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem? 61
3-5 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem? 65
SCIENCE FOCUS Water’s Unique Properties 67
3-6 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems? 72
REVISITING Tropical Rain Forests and
Sustainability 74

4 Biodiversity and Evolution 77

CORE CASE STUDY Why Should We Care
about the American Alligator? 77

KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 78
4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It

Important? 78
4-2 Where Do Species Come From? 80

CASE STUDY How Did Humans Become Such
a Powerful Species? 83
4-3 How Do Geological Processes and Climate
Change Affect Evolution? 84
SCIENCE FOCUS Earth Is Just Right for Life
to Thrive 86

SuperStock

Photo 3 Endangered ring-tailed lemur in Madagascar

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Paul W. Johnson/Biological Photo Service Photo 4 Temperate deciduous forest, winter, Rhode Island (USA) 5-3 What Limits the Growth of Populations? 108
Thomas Kitchin & Victoria Hurst/Tom Stack & Associates SCIENCE FOCUS Why Are Protected Sea Otters
4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Making a Slow Comeback? 110
Activities Affect Biodiversity? 86 CASE STUDY Exploding White-Tailed Deer
SCIENCE FOCUS We Have Developed Two Ways Populations in the United States 114
to Change the Genetic Traits of Populations 88
5-4 How Do Communities and Ecosystems
4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why Is Respond to Changing Environmental
It Important? 89 Conditions? 115
SCIENCE FOCUS Species Richness on Islands 90 SCIENCE FOCUS How Do Species Replace One
Another in Ecological Succession? 118
4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems? 91 REVISITING Southern Sea Otters and
CASE STUDY Cockroaches: Nature’s Ultimate Sustainability 119
Survivors 92
CASE STUDY Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? 93 6 The Human Population
CASE STUDY Why Should We Protect Sharks? 96 and Its Impact 122
REVISITING The American Alligator and
Sustainability 97 CORE CASE STUDY Are There Too Many
of Us? 122
5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 123
and Population Control 100 6-1 How Many People Can the Earth
Support? 123
CORE CASE STUDY Southern Sea Otters: SCIENCE FOCUS How Long Can the Human
Are They Back from the Brink of Population Keep Growing? 124
Extinction? 100 6-2 What Factors Influence the Size of the
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 101 Human Population? 125
5-1 How Do Species Interact? 101 CASE STUDY The U.S. Population Is Growing
SCIENCE FOCUS Why Should We Care About Rapidly 126
Kelp Forests? 104 CASE STUDY The United States: A Nation
5-2 How Can Natural Selection Reduce of Immigrants 129
Competition between Species? 107
Photo 5 Sea star species helps to control mussel populations in
intertidal zone communities in the U.S. Pacific northwest.

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Nanosys Photo 8 Treadle pump used to supply irrigation water in parts of
International Development Enterprises Bangladesh and India

Photo 6 Flexible solar cells manufactured with use of
nanotechnology

6-3 How Does a Population’s Age Structure Francois Suchel/Peter Arnold, Inc. 7 Climate and Terrestrial
Affect Its Growth or Decline? 130 Biodiversity 140

6-4 How Can We Slow Human Population CORE CASE STUDY Blowing in the Wind:
Growth? 133 Connections Between Wind, Climate,
CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth in China: and Biomes 140
The One-Child Policy 135
CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 141
in India 136 7-1 What Factors Influence Climate? 141
REVISITING Population Growth and 7-2 How Does Climate Affect the Nature
Sustainability 137
and Locations of Biomes? 145
Photo 7 Cypress swamp, an inland wetland in U.S. state SCIENCE FOCUS Staying Alive in the Desert 148
of Tennessee 7-3 How Have We Affected the World’s
Terrestrial Ecosystems? 158
REVISITING Winds and Sustainability 159

8 Aquatic Biodiversity 162

CORE CASE STUDY Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? 162

KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 163
8-1 What Is the General Nature of Aquatic

Systems? 163
8-2 Why Are Marine Aquatic Systems

Important? 165
8-3 How Have Human Activities Affected

Marine Ecosystems? 171
CASE STUDY The Chesapeake Bay—An Estuary
in Trouble 172
8-4 Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important? 174
CASE STUDY Dams, Deltas, Wetlands, Hurricanes,
and New Orleans 177

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8-5 How Have Human Activities Affected Freshwater
Ecosystems? 179

CASE STUDY Inland Wetland Losses in the
United States 179

REVISITING Coral Reefs and Sustainability 180

SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY Alison Gannett

9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Alison Gannett Photo 9 Energy efficient straw bale house in Crested Butte,
The Species Approach 183 Colorado (USA) during construction

CORE CASE STUDY The Passenger Pigeon: Photo 10 Completed energy efficient straw bale house in Crested
Gone Forever 183 Butte, Colorado (USA)
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 184
9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Premature SCIENCE FOCUS Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s
Extinction of Species? 184 Ecological Services 218
SCIENCE FOCUS Estimating Extinction Rates CASE STUDY Many Cleared Forests in the United
Is Not Easy 188 States Have Grown Back 223
9-2 Why Should We Care about Preventing 10-2 How Should We Manage and Sustain
Premature Species Extinction? 189 Forests? 227
SCIENCE FOCUS Using DNA to Reduce Illegal SCIENCE FOCUS Certifying Sustainably
Killing of Elephants for Their Ivory 191 Grown Timber 228
SCIENCE FOCUS Why Should We Care CASE STUDY Deforestation and the
about Bats? 192 Fuelwood Crisis 229
9-3 How Do Humans Accelerate Species INDIVIDUALS MATTER Wangari Maathai and Kenya’s
Extinction? 193 Green Belt Movement 230
SCIENCE FOCUS Studying the Effects of Forest 10-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain
Fragmentation on Old-Growth Trees 195 Grasslands? 231
CASE STUDY A Disturbing Message from CASE STUDY Grazing and Urban Development
the Birds 195 in the American West—Cows or Condos? 233
SCIENCE FOCUS Vultures, Wild Dogs, and Rabies:
Some Unexpected Scientific Connections 197
CASE STUDY The Kudzu Vine 198
CASE STUDY Where Have All the Honeybees
Gone? 202
CASE STUDY Polar Bears and Global Warming 203
INDIVIDUALS MATTER Jane Goodall 205
9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from
Extinction Resulting from our Activities? 206
CASE STUDY The U.S. Endangered Species Act 207
SCIENCE FOCUS Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act 209
CASE STUDY Trying to Save the California
Condor 210
REVISITING Passenger Pigeons and Sustainability 211

10 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity:
The Ecosystem Approach 214

CORE CASE STUDY Reintroducing Gray Wolves
to Yellowstone 214
KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 215
10-1 What Are the Major Threats to Forest
Ecosystems? 215

xi

Martin Bond/Peter Arnold, Inc. CASE STUDY A Biodiversity Hotspot
in East Africa 240
Photo 11 Roof garden in Wales, Machynlleth (UK)
SCIENCE FOCUS Ecological Restoration of a Tropical
10-4 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks Dry Forest in Costa Rica 242
and Nature Reserves? 234
CASE STUDY Stresses on U.S. Public Parks 234 CASE STUDY The Blackfoot Challenge—Reconciliation
SCIENCE FOCUS Effects of Reintroducing the Ecology in Action 244
Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park 235
CASE STUDY Costa Rica—A Global Conservation REVISITING Yellowstone Wolves and
Leader 237 Sustainability 245
CASE STUDY Controversy over Wilderness Protection
in the United States 238 11 Sustaining Aquatic
Biodiversity 249
10-5 What Is the Ecosystem Approach to
Sustaining Biodiversity? 239 CORE CASE STUDY A Biological Roller Coaster Ride
in Lake Victoria 249

KEY QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS 250
11-1 What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic

Biodiversity? 250
SCIENCE FOCUS How Carp Have Muddied
Some Waters 253

SCIENCE FOCUS Sustaining Ecosystem Services
by Protecting and Restoring Mangroves 255

CASE STUDY Industrial Fish Harvesting
Methods 256
11-2 How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine
Biodiversity? 257
CASE STUDY Protecting Whales: A Success
Story . . . So Far 257

CASE STUDY Holding Out Hope for Marine
Turtles 259

INDIVIDUALS MATTER Creating an Artificial Coral
Reef in Israel 261
11-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain
Marine Fisheries? 263

Mark Edwards/Peter Arnold, Inc.

Photo 12 Photochemical smog in Mexico City, Mexico

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11-4 How Should We Protect and Sustain Pierre A. Pittet/UN Food and Agriculture Organization
Wetlands? 265

INDIVIDUALS MATTER Restoring a Wetland 266

CASE STUDY Can We Restore the Florida
Everglades? 267

11-5 How Can We Protect and Sustain Freshwater
Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries? 269

CASE STUDY Can the Great Lakes Survive
Repeated Invasions by Alien Species? 269

11-6 What Should Be Our Priorities for Sustaining
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services? 271

REVISITING Lake Victoria and Sustainability 272

SUPPLEMENTS S2 Photo 13 Cow dung is collected and burned as a fuel for cooking
and heating in India.
1 Measurement Units, Precision, and Accuracy
Chapter 2 9 Components and Interactions
in Major Biomes S53
2 Reading Graphs and Maps S4 Chapters 8, 9, 10
All chapters
10 Chapter Projects S59
3 Economic, Population, Hunger, Health, Chapters 3–11
and Waste Production Data and Maps S10
Chapters 1, 6 11 Key Concepts S61
By Chapter
4 Biodiversity, Ecological Footprints,
and Environmental Performance Maps S20 Glossary G1
Chapters 1, 3–10
Index I1
5 Environmental History S31
Chapters 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10

6 Some Basic Chemistry S39
Chapters 1–5

7 Classifying and Naming Species S46
Chapters 3, 4, 8

8 Weather Basics: El Niño, Tornadoes,
and Tropical Cyclones S47
Chapters 4, 7, 11

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PREFACE

For Instructors

What’s New Sustainability Remains as the
Integrating Theme of This Book
In this edition, we build on proven strengths of past
editions with the following major new features: Sustainability, a watchword in the 21st Century for
those concerned about the environment, is the over-
■ New concept-centered approach arching theme of this introductory ecological textbook.
You can see the sustainability emphasis by looking at
■ Quantitative Data Analysis or Ecological Footprint the Brief Contents (p. iii).
Analysis exercise at the end of each chapter and
additional Data Analysis exercises in the Four scientific principles of sustainability play a ma-
Supplements jor role in carrying out this book’s sustainability theme.
These principles are introduced in Chapter 1, depicted
■ New design along with many new pieces of art and in Figure 1-17 (p. 23 and the back cover of the student
photographs edition), and used throughout the book, with each ref-
erence is marked in the margin by . (See Chapter 3,
■ Comprehensive review section at the end of each pp. 59, 60, 65, 74, and 75.)
chapter with review questions that include all
chapter key terms in boldface Core Case Studies and the
Sustainability Theme
This edition also introduces a new coauthor, Scott
Spoolman, who worked as a contributing editor on Each chapter opens with a Core Case Study (see
this and other environmental science textbooks by Tyler Chapter 5, p. 100), which is applied throughout the
Miller for more than 4 years. (See About the Authors, chapter. These connections to the Core Case Study
p. xxiii.) are indicated in the book’s margin by . (See Chap-
ter 5, pp. 102, 103, 104, 108, 110, 111, 119, and 120.)
New Concept-Centered Approach
Each chapter ends with a Revisiting box (see Chap-
Each major chapter section is built around one to three ter 5, p. 119), which connects the Core Case Study
and other material in the chapter to the four scientific
key concepts—a major new feature of this edition. principles of sustainability. Thinking About exer-
cises placed throughout each chapter (see Chapter 7,
These concepts state the most important take-away mes- pp. 144, 145, 146, 148, 152, 157, and 159) challenge
students to make these and other connections for
sages of each chapter. They are listed at the front of each themselves.

chapter (see Chapter 9, p. 184), and each chapter section Five Subthemes Guide the Way
toward Sustainability
begins with a key question and concepts (see Chapter 9,
In the previous edition of this book, we used five major
pp. 189, 193, and 206), which are highlighted and refer- subthemes, which are carried on in this new edition:
natural capital, natural capital degradation, solutions, trade-
enced throughout each chapter. offs, and individuals matter (see diagram on back cover of
student edition).
A logo in the margin links the material in
■ Natural capital. Sustainability focuses on the nat-
each chapter to appropriate key concepts in foregoing ural resources and natural services that support
all life and economies. Examples of diagrams that
chapters (see pp. 101, 145, and 219).

New Design

The concepts approach is well-served by our new de-
sign, which showcases the concepts, core case studies,
and other new features as well as proven strengths of
this textbook. The new design (see Chapter 1, pp. 5–27),
which enhances visual learning, also incorporates a thor-
oughly updated art program with 134 new or upgraded
diagrams and 44 new photos—amounting to half of the
book’s 337 figures.

xv

illustrate this subtheme are Figures 1-3 (p. 8), Visual Learning
8-4 (p. 165), and 10-4 (p. 217).
This book’s 233 diagrams—90 of them new to this edi-
■ Natural capital degradation. We describe how hu- tion—are designed to present complex ideas in under-
man activities can degrade natural capital. Examples standable ways relating to the real world. (See Figures
of diagrams that illustrate this subtheme are Fig- 3-18, p. 68; 4-2, p. 79; and 7-11, p. 149.) We have also
ures 1-7 (p. 12), 6-A (p. 124), and 10-15 (p. 225). carefully selected 104 photographs—34 of them new to
this edition—to illustrate key ideas. (See Figures 3-4, p. 53;
■ Solutions. Next comes the search for solutions to 4-10, p. 89; and 10-11, p. 222.) We have avoided the com-
natural capital degradation and other environmen- mon practice of including numerous “filler” photographs
tal problems. We present proposed solutions in a that are not very effective or that show the obvious.
balanced manner and challenge students to use
critical thinking to evaluate them. A number of fig- And to enhance visual learning, nearly 53 Cengage-
ures and chapter sections and subsections present NOW animations, many referenced in figures (see Fig-
proven and possible solutions to various environ- ures 8-15, p. 175 and 10-26, p. 241), are available
mental problems. Examples are Section 9-4 (pp. online. CengageNOW provides students with a more
206–211), Figure 10-17 (p. 227), and Figure 10-19 complete learning experience that takes what students
(p. 231). read on the page and places it into a more interactive
environment.
■ Trade-Offs. The search for solutions involves trade-
offs, because any solution requires weighing advan- Major Changes in This Edition:
tages against disadvantages. (See p. 9 and Figure A Closer Look
10-9, p. 220.)
Major changes in this new edition include the following:
■ Individuals Matter. Throughout the book Individu-
als Matter boxes describe what various concerned ■ New co-author (see p. xxiii)
citizens and scientists have done to help us work
toward sustainability. (See pp. 205, 230, and 261.) ■ Concept-centered approach with each chapter
Also, several What Can You Do? boxes describe section built around one to three Key Concepts
how readers can deal with the problems we face. that provide the most important messages of each
Examples are Figures 9-18 (p. 201), 9-24 (p. 210), chapter. Each chapter also links material to related
and 10-29 (p. 245). key concepts from previous chapters. All of the
Key Concepts, listed by chapter, can be found in
Case Studies Supplement 11, page S61.

In addition to the 11 Core Case Studies described above, ■ New design serving the concept-centered approach
31 additional Case Studies (see pp. 93–95, 177–178, and integration of Core Case Studies, with 134 new
and 257–259) appear throughout the book. (See items or upgraded figures and 34 new photographs.
in BOLD type in the Detailed Contents, pp. v–xiv.) The to-
tal of 42 case studies provides an in-depth look at specific ■ Expansion of the sustainability theme built around
environmental problems and their possible solutions. the four scientific principles of sustainability (Fig-
ure 1-17, p. 23 and the back cover of the student
Critical Thinking edition)

The introduction on Learning Skills describes critical ■ Reduced the number of chapters from 12 to 11 by
thinking skills (pp. 2–4). Specific critical thinking exer- rearranging and combining some material to im-
cises are used throughout the book in several ways: prove flow.

■ As 66 Thinking About exercises. This interactive ■ 2 new chapter opening Core Case Studies (pp. 28
approach to learning reinforces textual and graphic and 50)
information and concepts by asking students to
analyze material immediately after it is presented ■ 26 Science Focus boxes that provide greater depth
rather than waiting until the end of the chapter on scientific concepts and on the work of environ-
(see pp. 56, 62, and 87). mental scientists (see pp. 197, 235, and 253).

■ In all Science Focus boxes (see pp. 54, 188, and ■ Connections to The Habitable Planet, a set of 13
195). videos produced by Annenberg Media. Each half-
hour video describes research that two different
■ In the captions of many of the book’s figures (see scientists are doing on a particular environmental
Figures 5-17, p. 117; 7-12, p. 151; and 8-5, p. 166). problem (see pp. 72, 218, and 254).

■ As 10 How Would You Vote? exercises (see pp. 10, ■ Review section at the end of each chapter with com-
114, and 223). prehensive review questions that include all key
terms in boldface. (See pp. 74, 75, and 180.)
■ As end-of-chapter questions (see pp. 120 and 212).
■ A Data Analysis or Ecological Footprint Analysis
exercise at the end of each chapter (see pp. 26, 76,
98–99, and 274) and additional exercises analyzing

xvi

graphs or maps in the book’s Supplements (see Each chapter ends with a Review section containing a
pp. S7, S14, and S27). detailed set of review questions that include all chapter
key terms in boldface (p. 75), followed by a set of Criti-
■ Research Frontier boxes list key areas of cutting- cal Thinking (p. 180) questions to encourage students
edge research, with links to such research provided to think critically and apply what they have learned to
on the website for this book (see pp. 71, 96, and their lives.
172).
Supplements for Students
■ Green Career items in the text list various green
careers with further information found on the web- A multitude of electronic supplements available to stu-
site for this book (see pp. 72, 73, and 244). dents take the learning experience beyond the textbook:

■ Student projects listed by chapter are found in Sup- ■ CengageNOW is an online learning tool that helps
plement 10, pp. S59–S60. Some instructors may students access their unique study needs. Students
find these useful for getting students more deeply take a pre-test and a personalized study plan pro-
involved in key environmental issues. vides them with specific resources for review. A
post-test then identifies content that might require
■ Active Graphing exercises in CengageNOW for many further study. How Do I Prepare tutorials, another
chapters that involve students in the graphing and feature of CengageNOW, walk students through
evaluation of data. basic math, chemistry, and study skills to help
them brush up quickly and be ready to succeed
■ Improved flow and content based on input from in their course.
47 new reviewers (identified by an asterisk in the
List of Reviewers on pp. xx–xxii). ■ WebTutor on WebCT or Blackboard provides quali-
fied adopters of this textbook with access to a full
■ More than 2,000 updates based on information and array of study tools, including flash cards, practice
data published in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008. quizzes, animations, exercises, and web links.

■ Integration of material on the growing ecological ■ Audio Study Tools. Students can download these use-
and economic impacts of China. (See Index cita- ful study aids, which contain valuable information
tions for China.) such as reviews of important concepts, key terms,
questions, clarifications of common misconcep-
■ Many new or expanded topics including expanded tions, and study tips.
treatment of ecological footprints (Figures 1-9,
p. 14, and 1-10, p. 15, and ecological footprint ■ Access to InfoTrac® College Edition for teachers
calculations at the end of a number of chapters); and students using CengageNOW and WebTutor on
additional maps of global economic, population, WebCT or Blackboard. This fully searchable online
hunger, health, and waste production data (Sup- library gives users access to complete environmen-
plement 3, pp. S10–S19); revisiting Easter Island tal articles from several hundred current periodicals
(p. 31); tipping points (p. 46); tropical forest losses and others dating back over 20 years.
(p. 50); hurricanes and New Orleans (pp. 177–178);
tropical forest fragmentation (p. 195); vultures The following materials for this textbook are avail-
and rabies (p. 197); disappearing honeybees able on the companion website at
(pp. 202–203); threatened polar bears (p. 203);
Jane Goodall (p. 205); effects of gray wolves on academic.cengage.com/biology/miller
the Yellowstone ecosystem (p. 235); Blackfoot
reconciliation ecology (pp. 244–245); restoring ■ Chapter Summaries help guide student reading and
mangroves (p. 255); and endangered marine turtles study of each chapter.
(pp. 259–260).
■ Flash Cards and Glossary allow students to test their
In-Text Study Aids mastery of each chapter’s Key Terms.

Each chapter begins with a list of key questions and con- ■ Chapter Tests provide multiple-choice practice quizzes.
cepts showing how the chapter is organized and what
students will be learning. When a new term is intro- ■ Information on a variety of Green Careers.
duced and defined, it is printed in boldface type, and all
such terms are summarized in the glossary at the end ■ Readings list major books and articles consulted in
of the book and highlighted in review questions at the writing each chapter and include suggestions for
end of each chapter. articles, books, and websites that provide additional
information.
Sixty-six Thinking About exercises reinforce learning
by asking students to think critically about the implica- ■ What Can You Do? offers students resources for what
tions of various environmental issues and solutions im- they can do to effect individual change on key en-
mediately after they are discussed in the text. The cap- vironmental issues.
tions of many figures contain questions that involve stu-
dents in thinking about and evaluating their content. ■ Weblinks and Research Frontier Links offer an exten-
sive list of websites with news and research related
to each chapter.

xvii

Other student learning tools include: ■ ABC Videos for Environmental Science. The 45 infor-
mative and short video clips cover current news
■ Essential Study Skills for Science Students by Daniel D. stories on environmental issues from around the
Chiras. This book includes chapters on developing world. These clips are a great way to start a lecture
good study habits, sharpening memory, getting the or spark a discussion. Available on DVD with a
most out of lectures, labs, and reading assignments, workbook, on the PowerLecture, and in Cengage-
improving test-taking abilities, and becoming a NOW with additional internet activities.
critical thinker. Available for students on instructor
request. ■ ExamView. This full-featured program helps you
create and deliver customized tests (both print and
■ Lab Manual. New to this edition, this lab manual online) in minutes, using its complete word pro-
includes both hands-on and data analysis labs to cessing capabilities.
help your students develop a range of skills. Cre-
ate a custom version of this Lab Manual by adding Other Textbook Options
labs you have written or ones from our collection
with Cengage Custom Publishing. An Instructor’s Instructors wanting a book with a different length and
Manual for the labs will be available to adopters. emphasis can use one of our three other books that we
have written for various types of environmental science
■ What Can You Do? This guide presents students with courses: Living in the Environment, 16th edition (674
a variety of ways that they can affect the environ- pages, Brooks/Cole 2009), Environmental Science, 12th
ment, and shows them how to track the effect their edition (430 pages, Brooks/Cole 2008), and Sustaining
actions have on their ecological footprint. Available the Earth: An Integrated Approach, 9th edition (339 pages,
for students on instructor request. Brooks/Cole, 2009).

Supplements for Instructors Help Us Improve This Book

■ PowerLecture. This DVD, available to adopters, Let us know how you think this book can be improved.
allows you to create custom lectures in Microsoft® If you find any errors, bias, or confusing explanations,
PowerPoint using lecture outlines, all of the figures please e-mail us about them at
and photos from the text, bonus photos, and ani-
mations from CengageNOW. PowerPoint’s editing mtg89@hotmail.com
tools allow use of slides from other lectures, modi- spoolman@tds.net
fication or removal of figure labels and leaders,
insertion of your own slides, saving slides as JPEG Most errors can be corrected in subsequent print-
images, and preparation of lectures for use on ings of this edition, as well as in future editions.
the Web.
Acknowledgments
■ Instructor’s Manual. Available to adopters. Updated
and reorganized, the Instructor’s Manual has been We wish to thank the many students and teachers who
thoughtfully revised to make creating your lectures have responded so favorably to the 4 previous editions
even easier. Some of the features new to this edi- of Essentials of Ecology, 15 previous editions of Living in
tion include the integration of the case studies and the Environment, the 12 editions of Environmental Science,
feature boxes into the lecture outline, a new sec- and the 8 editions of Sustaining the Earth, and who have
tion on teaching tips, and a revised video reference corrected errors and offered many helpful suggestions
list with web resources. Also available on Power- for improvement. We are also deeply indebted to the
Lecture. more than 295 reviewers, who pointed out errors and
suggested many important improvements in the vari-
■ Test Bank. Available to Adopters. The test bank ous editions of these four books. We especially want to
contains thousands of questions and answers in thank the reviewers of the latest edition of this book,
a variety of formats. New to this edition are short who are identified by an asterisk in the master list of
essay questions to further challenge your students’ reviewers on pp. xx–xxii.
understanding of the topics. Also available on
PowerLecture. It takes a village to produce a textbook, and the
members of the talented production team, listed on the
■ Transparencies. Featuring all the illustrations from copyright page, have made vital contributions as well.
the chapters, this set contains 250 printed Transpar- Our special thanks go to developmental editor Chris-
encies of key figures, and 250 electronic Masters. topher Delgado, production editors Andy Marinkovich
These electronic Masters will allow you to print, in
color, only those additional figures you need.

xviii

and Nicole Barone, copy editor Andrea Fincke, layout book, and the people who have translated this book into
expert Bonnie Van Slyke, photo researcher Abigail eight languages for use throughout much of the world.
Reip, artist Patrick Lane, media editor Kristina Raz-
mara, assistant editor Lauren Oliveira, editorial assis- We also deeply appreciate having had the opportu-
tant Samantha Arvin, and Brooks/Cole’s hard-working nity to work with Jack Carey, former biology publisher
sales staff. at Brooks/Cole, for 40 years before his recent retirement.
We now are fortunate and excited to be working with
We also thank Ed Wells and the dedicated team who Yolanda Cossio, the biology publisher at Brooks/Cole.
developed the Laboratory Manual to accompany this
G. Tyler Miller, Jr.
Scott Spoolman

Guest Essayists Mountain Institute; Bobbi S. Low, professor of resource
ecology, University of Michigan; Lester W. Milbrath,
Guest essays by the following authors are available former director of the research program in environ-
on CengageNOW: M. Kat Anderson, ethnoecologist ment and society, State University of New York, Buffalo;
with the National Plant Center of the USDA’s Natural Peter Montague, director, Environmental Research
Resource Conservation Center; Lester R. Brown, presi- Foundation; Norman Myers, tropical ecologist and
dent, Earth Policy Institute; Michael Cain, ecologist and consultant in environment and development; David W.
adjunct professor at Bowdoin College; Herman E. Daly, Orr, professor of environmental studies, Oberlin Col-
senior research scholar at the School of Public Affairs, lege; Vandana Shiva, physicist, educator, environmen-
University of Maryland; Garrett Hardin, professor tal consultant; Nancy Wicks, ecopioneer and director
emeritus (now deceased) of human ecology, University of Round Mountain Organics; Donald Worster, envi-
of California, Santa Barbara; Paul G. Hawken, envi- ronmental historian and professor of American history,
ronmental author and business leader; Jane Heinze- University of Kansas.
Fry, environmental educator; Amory B. Lovins,
energy policy consultant and director of research, Rocky

Quantitative Exercise Contributors

Dr. Dean Goodwin and his colleagues, Berry Cobb, excellent contributions to the Data Analysis and Eco-
Deborah Stevens, Jeannette Adkins, Jim Lehner, Judy logical Footprint Analysis exercises.
Treharne, Lonnie Miller, and Tom Mowbray, provided

xix

Cumulative Reviewers (Reviewers of the 5th edition are indicated by an asterisk.)

Barbara J. Abraham, Hampton College; Donald D. Draney, University of Wisconsin - Green Bay; David
Adams, State University of New York at Plattsburgh; DuBose, Shasta College; Dietrich Earnhart, University of
Larry G. Allen, California State University, Northridge; Kansas; *Robert East, Washington & Jefferson College; T.
Susan Allen-Gil, Ithaca College; James R. Anderson, Edmonson, University of Washington; Thomas Eisner,
U.S. Geological Survey; Mark W. Anderson, University Cornell University; Michael Esler, Southern Illinois Uni-
of Maine; Kenneth B. Armitage, University of Kansas; versity; David E. Fairbrothers, Rutgers University; Paul P.
Samuel Arthur, Bowling Green State University; Gary J. Feeny, Cornell University; Richard S. Feldman, Marist
Atchison, Iowa State University; *Thomas W. H. Back- College; *Vicki Fella-Pleier, La Salle University; Nancy
man, Lewis Clark State University; Marvin W. Baker, Jr., Field, Bellevue Community College; Allan Fitzsimmons,
University of Oklahoma; Virgil R. Baker, Arizona State University of Kentucky; Andrew J. Friedland, Dart-
University; *Stephen W. Banks, Louisiana State Univer- mouth College; Kenneth O. Fulgham, Humboldt State
sity in Shreveport; Ian G. Barbour, Carleton College; University; Lowell L. Getz, University of Illinois at
Albert J. Beck, California State University, Chico; Urbana–Champaign; Frederick F. Gilbert, Washington
*Eugene C. Beckham, Northwood University; *Diane B. State University; Jay Glassman, Los Angeles Valley Col-
Beechinor, Northeast Lakeview College; W. Behan, lege; Harold Goetz, North Dakota State University; *Sri-
Northern Arizona University; *David Belt, Johnson kanth Gogineni, Axia College of University of Phoenix;
County Community College; Keith L. Bildstein, Win- Jeffery J. Gordon, Bowling Green State University; Eville
throp College; *Andrea Bixler, Clarke College; Jeff Bland, Gorham, University of Minnesota; Michael Gough,
University of Puget Sound; Roger G. Bland, Central Resources for the Future; Ernest M. Gould, Jr., Harvard
Michigan University; Grady Blount II, Texas A&M Uni- University; Peter Green, Golden West College; Katharine
versity, Corpus Christi; *Lisa K. Bonneau, University of B. Gregg, West Virginia Wesleyan College; Paul K. Grog-
Missouri-Kansas City; Georg Borgstrom, Michigan State ger, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs; L.
University; Arthur C. Borror, University of New Hamp- Guernsey, Indiana State University; Ralph Guzman, Uni-
shire; John H. Bounds, Sam Houston State University; versity of California, Santa Cruz; Raymond Hames, Uni-
Leon F. Bouvier, Population Reference Bureau; Daniel J. versity of Nebraska, Lincoln; *Robert Hamilton IV, Kent
Bovin, Universitè Laval; *Jan Boyle, University of Great State University, Stark Campus; Raymond E. Hampton,
Falls; *James A. Brenneman, University of Evansville; Central Michigan University; Ted L. Hanes, California
Michael F. Brewer, Resources for the Future, Inc.; Mark State University, Fullerton; William S. Hardenbergh,
M. Brinson, East Carolina University; Dale Brown, Uni- Southern Illinois University at Carbondale; John P. Har-
versity of Hartford; Patrick E. Brunelle, Contra Costa ley, Eastern Kentucky University; Neil A. Harriman, Uni-
College; Terrence J. Burgess, Saddleback College North; versity of Wisconsin, Oshkosh; Grant A. Harris, Wash-
David Byman, Pennsylvania State University, Worthing- ington State University; Harry S. Hass, San Jose City
ton–Scranton; Michael L. Cain, Bowdoin College, Lyn- College; Arthur N. Haupt, Population Reference Bureau;
ton K. Caldwell, Indiana University; Faith Thompson Denis A. Hayes, environmental consultant; Stephen
Campbell, Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.; Heard, University of Iowa; Gene Heinze-Fry, Department
*John S. Campbell, Northwest College; Ray Canterbery, of Utilities, Commonwealth of Massachusetts; Jane
Florida State University; Ted J. Case, University of San Heinze-Fry, environmental educator; John G. Hewston,
Diego; Ann Causey, Auburn University; Richard A. Cel- Humboldt State University; David L. Hicks, Whitworth
larius, Evergreen State University; William U. Chandler, College; Kenneth M. Hinkel, University of Cincinnati;
Worldwatch Institute; F. Christman, University of North Eric Hirst, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Doug Hix,
Carolina, Chapel Hill; Lu Anne Clark, Lansing Commu- University of Hartford; S. Holling, University of British
nity College; Preston Cloud, University of California, Columbia; Sue Holt, Cabrillo College; Donald Holtgrieve,
Santa Barbara; Bernard C. Cohen, University of Pitts- California State University, Hayward; *Michelle Homan,
burgh; Richard A. Cooley, University of California, Santa Gannon University; Michael H. Horn, California State
Cruz; Dennis J. Corrigan; George Cox, San Diego State University, Fullerton; Mark A. Hornberger, Bloomsberg
University; John D. Cunningham, Keene State College; University; Marilyn Houck, Pennsylvania State Univer-
Herman E. Daly, University of Maryland; Raymond F. sity; Richard D. Houk, Winthrop College; Robert J. Hug-
Dasmann, University of California, Santa Cruz; Kingsley gett, College of William and Mary; Donald Huisingh,
Davis, Hoover Institution; Edward E. DeMartini, Univer- North Carolina State University; *Catherine Hurlbut,
sity of California, Santa Barbara; *James Demastes, Uni- Florida Community College at Jacksonville; Marlene K.
versity of Northern Iowa; Charles E. DePoe, Northeast Hutt, IBM; David R. Inglis, University of Massachusetts;
Louisiana University; Thomas R. Detwyler, University of Robert Janiskee, University of South Carolina; Hugo H.
Wisconsin; *Bruce DeVantier, Southern Illinois Univer- John, University of Connecticut; Brian A. Johnson, Uni-
sity Carbondale; Peter H. Diage, University of California, versity of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg; David I. Johnson,
Riverside; *Stephanie Dockstader, Monroe Community Michigan State University; Mark Jonasson, Crafton Hills
College; Lon D. Drake, University of Iowa; *Michael College; *Zoghlul Kabir, Rutgers/New Brunswick; Agnes

xx

Kadar, Nassau Community College; Thomas L. Keefe, Southeastern Louisiana University; *Dave Perault,
Eastern Kentucky University; *David Kelley, University Lynchburg College; Rodney Peterson, Colorado State
of St. Thomas; William E. Kelso, Louisiana State Univer- University; Julie Phillips, De Anza College; John Pichtel,
sity; Nathan Keyfitz, Harvard University; David Kidd, Ball State University; William S. Pierce, Case Western
University of New Mexico; Pamela S. Kimbrough; Jesse Reserve University; David Pimentel, Cornell University;
Klingebiel, Kent School; Edward J. Kormondy, Univer- Peter Pizor, Northwest Community College; Mark D.
sity of Hawaii–Hilo/West Oahu College; John V. Krutilla, Plunkett, Bellevue Community College; Grace L. Powell,
Resources for the Future, Inc.; Judith Kunofsky, Sierra University of Akron; James H. Price, Oklahoma College;
Club; E. Kurtz; Theodore Kury, State University of New Marian E. Reeve, Merritt College; Carl H. Reidel, Uni-
York at Buffalo; Steve Ladochy, University of Winnipeg; versity of Vermont; Charles C. Reith, Tulane University;
*Troy A. Ladine, East Texas Baptist University; *Anna J. Roger Revelle, California State University, San Diego; L.
Lang, Weber State University; Mark B. Lapping, Kansas Reynolds, University of Central Arkansas; Ronald R.
State University; *Michael L. Larsen, Campbell Univer- Rhein, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Charles
sity; *Linda Lee, University of Connecticut; Tom Leege, Rhyne, Jackson State University; Robert A. Richardson,
Idaho Department of Fish and Game; *Maureen Leupold, University of Wisconsin; Benjamin F. Richason III, St.
Genesee Community College; William S. Lindsay, Mon- Cloud State University; Jennifer Rivers, Northeastern
terey Peninsula College; E. S. Lindstrom, Pennsylvania University; Ronald Robberecht, University of Idaho; Wil-
State University; M. Lippiman, New York University liam Van B. Robertson, School of Medicine, Stanford
Medical Center; Valerie A. Liston, University of Minne- University; C. Lee Rockett, Bowling Green State Univer-
sota; Dennis Livingston, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; sity; Terry D. Roelofs, Humboldt State University; *Dan-
James P. Lodge, air pollution consultant; Raymond C. iel Ropek, Columbia George Community College; Chris-
Loehr, University of Texas at Austin; Ruth Logan, Santa topher Rose, California Polytechnic State University;
Monica City College; Robert D. Loring, DePauw Univer- Richard G. Rose, West Valley College; Stephen T. Ross,
sity; Paul F. Love, Angelo State University; Thomas Lov- University of Southern Mississippi; Robert E. Roth, Ohio
ering, University of California, Santa Barbara; Amory B. State University; *Dorna Sakurai, Santa Monica College;
Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute; Hunter Lovins, Rocky Arthur N. Samel, Bowling Green State University; *Sha-
Mountain Institute; Gene A. Lucas, Drake University; mili Sandiford, College of DuPage; Floyd Sanford, Coe
Claudia Luke; David Lynn; Timothy F. Lyon, Ball State College; David Satterthwaite, I.E.E.D., London; Stephen
University; Stephen Malcolm, Western Michigan Uni- W. Sawyer, University of Maryland; Arnold Schecter,
versity; Melvin G. Marcus, Arizona State University; State University of New York;Frank Schiavo, San Jose
Gordon E. Matzke, Oregon State University; Parker State University; William H. Schlesinger, Ecological Soci-
Mauldin, Rockefeller Foundation; Marie McClune, The ety of America; Stephen H. Schneider, National Center
Agnes Irwin School (Rosemont, Pennsylvania); Theo- for Atmospheric Research; Clarence A. Schoenfeld, Uni-
dore R. McDowell, California State University; Vincent versity of Wisconsin, Madison; *Madeline Schreiber, Vir-
E. McKelvey, U.S. Geological Survey; Robert T. McMas- ginia Polytechnic Institute; Henry A. Schroeder, Dart-
ter, Smith College; John G. Merriam, Bowling Green mouth Medical School; Lauren A. Schroeder,
State University; A. Steven Messenger, Northern Illinois Youngstown State University; Norman B. Schwartz, Uni-
University; John Meyers, Middlesex Community Col- versity of Delaware; George Sessions, Sierra College;
lege; Raymond W. Miller, Utah State University; Arthur David J. Severn, Clement Associates; *Don Sheets, Gard-
B. Millman, University of Massachusetts, Boston; *Sheila ner-Webb University; Paul Shepard, Pitzer College and
Miracle, Southeast Kentucky Community & Technical Claremont Graduate School; Michael P. Shields, South-
College; Fred Montague, University of Utah; Rolf Mon- ern Illinois University at Carbondale; Kenneth Shiovitz;
teen, California Polytechnic State University; *Debbie F. Siewert, Ball State University; E. K. Silbergold, Envi-
Moore, Troy University Dothan Campus; *Michael K. ronmental Defense Fund; Joseph L. Simon, University of
Moore, Mercer University; Ralph Morris, Brock Univer- South Florida; William E. Sloey, University of Wisconsin,
sity, St. Catherine’s, Ontario, Canada; Angela Morrow, Oshkosh; Robert L. Smith, West Virginia University; Val
Auburn University; William W. Murdoch, University of Smith, University of Kansas; Howard M. Smolkin, U.S.
California, Santa Barbara; Norman Myers, environmen- Environmental Protection Agency; Patricia M. Sparks,
tal consultant; Brian C. Myres, Cypress College; A. Neale, Glassboro State College; John E. Stanley, University of
Illinois State University; Duane Nellis, Kansas State Uni- Virginia; Mel Stanley, California State Polytechnic Uni-
versity; Jan Newhouse, University of Hawaii, Manoa; versity, Pomona; *Richard Stevens, Monroe Community
Jim Norwine, Texas A&M University, Kingsville; John E. College; Norman R. Stewart, University of Wisconsin,
Oliver, Indiana State University; *Mark Olsen, University Milwaukee; Frank E. Studnicka, University of Wiscon-
of Notre Dame; Carol Page, copyeditor; Eric Pallant, sin, Platteville; Chris Tarp, Contra Costa College; Roger
Allegheny College; *Bill Paletski, Penn State University; E. Thibault, Bowling Green State University; William L.
Charles F. Park, Stanford University; Richard J. Peder- Thomas, California State University, Hayward; Shari Tur-
sen, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; ney, copyeditor; John D. Usis, Youngstown State Univer-
David Pelliam, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. sity; Tinco E. A. van Hylckama, Texas Tech University;
Department of Interior; *Murray Paton Pendarvis, Robert R. Van Kirk, Humboldt State University; Donald

xxi

E. Van Meter, Ball State University; *Rick Van Schoik, John C. Williams, College of San Mateo; Ray Williams,
San Diego State University; Gary Varner, Texas A&M Rio Hondo College; Roberta Williams, University of
University; John D. Vitek, Oklahoma State University; Nevada, Las Vegas; Samuel J. Williamson, New York
Harry A. Wagner, Victoria College; Lee B. Waian, Saddle- University; *Dwina Willis, Freed-Hardeman University;
back College; Warren C. Walker, Stephen F. Austin State Ted L. Willrich, Oregon State University; James Winsor,
University; Thomas D. Warner, South Dakota State Uni- Pennsylvania State University; Fred Witzig, University of
versity; Kenneth E. F. Watt, University of California, Minnesota at Duluth; *Martha Wolfe, Elizabethtown
Davis; Alvin M. Weinberg, Institute of Energy Analysis, Community and Technical College; George M. Wood-
Oak Ridge Associated Universities; Brian Weiss; Margery well, Woods Hole Research Center; *Todd Yetter, Univer-
Weitkamp, James Monroe High School (Granada Hills, sity of the Cumberlands; Robert Yoerg, Belmont Hills
California); Anthony Weston, State University of New Hospital; Hideo Yonenaka, San Francisco State Univer-
York at Stony Brook; Raymond White, San Francisco sity; *Brenda Young, Daemen College; *Anita Zvodsk,
City College; Douglas Wickum, University of Wisconsin, Barry University; Malcolm J. Zwolinski, University of
Stout; Charles G. Wilber, Colorado State University; Arizona.
Nancy Lee Wilkinson, San Francisco State University;

xxii

About the Authors

G. Tyler Miller, Jr. He describes his hopes for the future as follows:

G. Tyler Miller, Jr., has written 58 textbooks for intro- If I had to pick a time to be alive, it would be the next 75
ductory courses in environmental science, basic ecol- years. Why? First, there is overwhelming scientific evi-
ogy, energy, and environmental chemistry. Since 1975, dence that we are in the process of seriously degrading our
Miller’s books have been the most widely used text- own life support system. In other words, we are living
books for environmental science in the United States unsustainably. Second, within your lifetime we have the
and throughout the world. They have been used by al- opportunity to learn how to live more sustainably by
most 3 million students and have been translated into working with the rest of nature, as described in this book.
eight languages.
I am fortunate to have three smart, talented, and won-
Miller has a Ph.D. from the University of Virginia derful sons—Greg, David, and Bill. I am especially privi-
and has received two honorary doctorate degrees for his leged to have Kathleen as my wife, best friend, and
contributions to environmental education. He taught research associate. It is inspiring to have a brilliant, beau-
college for 20 years and developed an innovative in- tiful (inside and out), and strong woman who cares deeply
terdisciplinary undergraduate science program before about nature as a lifemate. She is my hero. I dedicate this
deciding to write environmental science textbooks full book to her and to the earth.
time since 1975. Currently, he is the President of Earth
Education and Research, devoted to improving envi-
ronmental education.

Scott E. Spoolman Spoolman has the following to say about his col-

Scott Spoolman is a writer and textbook editor with laboration with Tyler Miller:
over 25 years of experience in educational publishing.
He has worked with Tyler Miller since 2003 as a con- I am honored to be joining with Tyler Miller as a coauthor
tributing editor on earlier editions of Essentials of Ecol- to continue the Miller tradition of thorough, clear, and
ogy, Living in the Environment, Environmental Science, and engaging writing about the vast and complex field of envi-
Sustaining the Earth. ronmental science. This is the greatest and most rewarding
challenge I have ever faced. I share Tyler Miller’s passion
Spoolman holds a master’s degree in science journal- for ensuring that these textbooks and their multimedia
ism from the University of Minnesota. He has authored supplements will be valuable tools for students and
numerous articles in the fields of science, environmen- instructors. To that end, we strive to introduce this interdis-
tal engineering, politics, and business. He worked as an ciplinary field in ways that will be informative and sober-
acquisitions editor on a series of college forestry text- ing, but also tantalizing and motivational.
books. He has also worked as a consulting editor in the
development of over 70 college and high school text- If the flip side of any problem is indeed an opportunity,
books in fields of the natural and social sciences. then this truly is one of the most exciting times in history for
students to start an environmental career. Environmental
In his free time, he enjoys exploring the forests and problems are numerous, serious, and daunting, but their
waters of his native Wisconsin along with his family— possible solutions generate exciting new career opportunities.
his wife, environmental educator Gail Martinelli, and We place high priorities on inspiring students with these
his children, Will and Katie. possibilities, challenging them to maintain a scientific focus,
pointing them toward rewarding and fulfilling careers, and
in doing so, working to help sustain life on earth.

xxiii

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Learning Skills

Students who can begin early in their lives to think of things as connected,
even if they revise their views every year, have begun the life of learning.

MARK VAN DOREN

Why Is It Important to Study Set up a study routine in a distraction-free environment.
Environmental Science? Develop a written daily study schedule and stick to it.
Study in a quiet, well-lighted space. Work while sitting at
Welcome to environmental science—an interdisciplin- a desk or table—not lying down on a couch or bed. Take
ary study of how the earth works, how we interact with breaks every hour or so. During each break, take several
the earth, and how we can deal with the environmental deep breaths and move around; this will help you to stay
problems we face. Because environmental issues affect ev- more alert and focused.
ery part of your life, the concepts, information, and issues
discussed in this book and the course you are taking will be Avoid procrastination—putting work off until another
useful to you now and throughout your life. time. Do not fall behind on your reading and other assign-
ments. Set aside a particular time for studying each day and
Understandably, we are biased, but we strongly believe make it a part of your daily routine.
that environmental science is the single most important course in
your education. What could be more important than learning Do not eat dessert first. Otherwise, you may never get to the
how the earth works, how we are affecting its life support main meal (studying). When you have accomplished your
system, and how we can reduce our environmental impact? study goals, reward yourself with dessert (play or leisure).

We live in an incredibly challenging era. We are becom- Make hills out of mountains. It is psychologically difficult
ing increasingly aware that during this century we need to to climb a mountain, which is what reading an entire book,
make a new cultural transition in which we learn how to reading a chapter in a book, writing a paper, or cramming
live more sustainably by sharply reducing the degradation to study for a test can feel like. Instead, break these large
of our life-support system. We hope this book will inspire tasks (mountains) down into a series of small tasks (hills).
you to become involved in this change in the way we view Each day, read a few pages of a book or chapter, write a
and treat the earth, which sustains us and our economies few paragraphs of a paper, and review what you have stud-
and all other living things. ied and learned. As American automobile designer and
builder Henry Ford put it, “Nothing is particularly hard if
You Can Improve Your Study you divide it into small jobs.”
and Learning Skills
Look at the big picture first. Get an overview of an assigned
Maximizing your ability to learn should be one of your reading in this book by looking at the Key Questions and
most important lifetime educational goals. It involves con- Concepts box at the beginning of each chapter. It lists key
tinually trying to improve your study and learning skills. Here questions explored in the chapter sections and the corre-
are some suggestions for doing so: sponding key concepts, which are the critical lessons to be
learned in the chapter. Use this list as a chapter roadmap.
Develop a passion for learning. As the famous physicist and When you finish a chapter you can also use it to review.
philosopher Albert Einstein put it, “I have no special talent.
I am only passionately curious.” Ask and answer questions as you read. For example, “What
is the main point of a particular subsection or paragraph?”
Get organized. Becoming more efficient at studying gives Relate your own questions to the key questions and key
you more time for other interests. concepts being addressed in each major chapter section. In
this way, you can flesh out a chapter outline to help you
Make daily to-do lists in writing. Put items in order of im- understand the chapter material. You may even want to do
portance, focus on the most important tasks, and assign a such an outline in writing.
time to work on these items. Because life is full of uncer-
tainties, you might be lucky to accomplish half of the items Focus on key terms. Use the glossary in this textbook to
on your daily list. Shift your schedule as needed to accom- look up the meanings of terms or words you do not under-
plish the most important items. stand. This book shows all key terms in boldface type and
lesser, but still important, terms in italicized type. The review

questions at the end of each chapter also include the Then work on the harder ones. Use the process of elim-
chapter’s key terms in boldface. Flash cards for testing ination to narrow down the choices for multiple-choice
your mastery of key terms for each chapter are avail- questions. Paring them down to two choices gives you
able on the website for this book, or you can make your a 50% chance of guessing the right answer. For essay
own by putting a term on one side of an index card questions, organize your thoughts before you start writ-
or piece of paper and its meaning on the other side. ing. If you have no idea what a question means, make
an educated guess. You might get some partial credit
Interact with what you read. We suggest that you and avoid getting a zero. Another strategy for getting
mark key sentences and paragraphs with a highlighter some credit is to show your knowledge and reasoning
or pen. Consider putting an asterisk in the margin next by writing something like this: “If this question means
to material you think is important and double aster- so and so, then my answer is ________.”
isks next to material you think is especially important.
Write comments in the margins, such as beautiful, con- Develop an optimistic but realistic outlook. Try to be a
fusing, misleading, or wrong. You might fold down the “glass is half-full” rather than a “glass is half-empty”
top corners of pages on which you highlighted passages person. Pessimism, fear, anxiety, and excessive wor-
and the top and bottom corners of especially important rying (especially over things you cannot control) are
pages. This way, you can flip through a chapter or book destructive and lead to inaction. Try to keep your en-
and quickly review the key ideas. ergizing feelings of realistic optimism slightly ahead of
any immobilizing feelings of pessimism. Then you will
Review to reinforce learning. Before each class session, always be moving forward.
review the material you learned in the previous session
and read the assigned material. Take time to enjoy life. Every day, take time to laugh
and enjoy nature, beauty, and friendship. You can do
Become a good note taker. Do not try to take down ev- this without falling behind in your work and living un-
erything your instructor says. Instead, write down main der a cloud of guilt and anxiety if you become an effec-
points and key facts using your own shorthand system. tive and efficient learner.
Review, fill in, and organize your notes as soon as pos-
sible after each class. You Can Improve Your Critical
Thinking Skills: Becoming
Write out answers to questions to focus and reinforce a Good Baloney Detector
learning. Answer the critical thinking questions found
in Thinking About boxes throughout chapters, in many Critical thinking involves developing skills to analyze
figure captions, and at the end of each chapter. These information and ideas, judge their validity, and make
questions are designed to inspire you to think critically decisions. Critical thinking helps you to distinguish be-
about key ideas and connect them to other ideas and tween facts and opinions, evaluate evidence and argu-
to your own life. Also answer the review questions ments, take and defend informed positions on issues,
found at the end of each chapter. The website for each integrate information, see relationships, and apply your
chapter has an additional detailed list of review ques- knowledge to dealing with new and different problems
tions. Writing out your answers to the critical thinking and to your own lifestyle choices. Here are some basic
and review questions can reinforce your learning. Save skills for learning how to think more critically.
your answers for review and preparation for tests.
Question everything and everybody. Be skeptical, as
Use the buddy system. Study with a friend or become any good scientist is. Do not believe everything you
a member of a study group to compare notes, review hear and read, including the content of this textbook,
material, and prepare for tests. Explaining something to without evaluating the information you receive. Seek
someone else is a great way to focus your thoughts and other sources and opinions. As Albert Einstein put it,
reinforce your learning. Attend any review sessions of- “The important thing is not to stop questioning.”
fered by instructors or teaching assistants.
Identify and evaluate your personal biases and beliefs.
Learn your instructor’s test style. Does your instructor Each of us has biases and beliefs taught to us by our
emphasize multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, true-or- parents, teachers, friends, role models, and experience.
false, factual, or essay questions? How much of the test What are your basic beliefs, values, and biases? Where
will come from the textbook and how much from lec- did they come from? What assumptions are they
ture material? Adapt your learning and studying meth- based on? How sure are you that your beliefs, values,
ods to your instructor’s style. It may not exactly match and assumptions are right and why? According to the
your own, but the reality is that your instructor is in American psychologist and philosopher William James,
charge. “A great many people think they are thinking when
they are merely rearranging their prejudices.”
Become a good test taker. Avoid cramming. Eat well
and get plenty of sleep before a test. Arrive on time or Be open-minded and flexible. Be open to considering
early. Calm yourself and increase your oxygen intake different points of view. Suspend judgment until you
by taking several deep breaths. (Do this also about ev-
ery 10–15 minutes while taking the test.) Look over
the test and answer the questions you know well first.

2 LEARNING SKILLS

gather more evidence, and be capable of changing your cannot establish absolute proof or certainty. However,
mind. Recognize that there may be a number of use- the widely accepted results of reliable science have a
ful and acceptable solutions to a problem and that very high degree of certainty.
few issues are black or white. There are trade-offs in-
volved in dealing with any environmental issue, as you Do the arguments used involve logical fallacies or de-
will learn in this book. One way to evaluate divergent bating tricks? Here are six of many examples. First, at-
views is to try to take the viewpoints of other people. tack the presenter of an argument rather than the argu-
How do they see the world? What are their basic as- ment itself. Second, appeal to emotion rather than facts
sumptions and beliefs? Are their positions logically and logic. Third, claim that if one piece of evidence or
consistent with their assumptions and beliefs? one conclusion is false, then all other related pieces of
evidence and conclusions are false. Fourth, say that a
Be humble about what you know. Some people are so conclusion is false because it has not been scientifically
confident in what they know that they stop thinking proven. (Scientists never prove anything absolutely,
and questioning. To paraphrase American writer Mark but they can often establish high degrees of certainty,
Twain, “It’s not what we don’t know that’s so bad. It’s as discussed on pp. 33–34.) Fifth, inject irrelevant or
what we know is true, but just ain’t so, that hurts us.” misleading information to divert attention from impor-
tant points. Sixth, present only either/or alternatives
Evaluate how the information related to an issue was when there may be a number of options.
obtained. Are the statements you heard or read based
on firsthand knowledge and research or on hearsay? Do not believe everything you read on the Internet. The
Are unnamed sources used? Is the information based Internet is a wonderful and easily accessible source of
on reproducible and widely accepted scientific studies information, providing alternative explanations and
(reliable science, p. 33) or on preliminary scientific results opinions on almost any subject or issue—much of it not
that may be valid but need further testing (tentative or available in the mainstream media and scholarly arti-
frontier science, p. 33)? Is the information based on a few cles. Web logs, or blogs, have become a major source of
isolated stories or experiences (anecdotal information) information, even more important than standard news
or on carefully controlled studies with the results re- media for some people. However, because the Internet
viewed by experts in the field involved (peer review)? Is is so open, anyone can post anything they want to a
it based on unsubstantiated and dubious scientific in- blog or other website with no editorial control or re-
formation or beliefs (unreliable science, p. 34)? view by experts. As a result, evaluating information on
the Internet is one of the best ways to put into practice
Question the evidence and conclusions presented. What the principles of critical thinking discussed here. Use
are the conclusions or claims? What evidence is pre- and enjoy the Internet, but think critically and proceed
sented to support them? Does the evidence support with caution.
them? Is there a need to gather more evidence to test
the conclusions? Are there other, more reasonable Develop principles or rules for evaluating evidence.
conclusions? Develop a written list of principles to serve as guide-
lines for evaluating evidence and claims. Continu-
Try to uncover differences in basic beliefs and assump- ally evaluate and modify this list on the basis of your
tions. On the surface most arguments or disagreements experience.
involve differences in opinions about the validity or
meaning of certain facts or conclusions. Scratch a lit- Become a seeker of wisdom, not a vessel of information.
tle deeper and you will find that most disagreements Many people believe that the main goal of education
are usually based on different (and often hidden) ba- is to learn as much as you can by gathering more and
sic assumptions concerning how we look at and inter- more information. We believe that the primary goal
pret the world around us. Uncovering these basic dif- is to learn how to sift through mountains of facts and
ferences can allow the parties involved to understand ideas to find the few nuggets of wisdom that are the most
where each is “coming from” and to agree to disagree useful for understanding the world and for making de-
about their basic assumptions, beliefs, or principles. cisions. This book is full of facts and numbers, but they
are useful only to the extent that they lead to an un-
Try to identify and assess any motives on the part of derstanding of key ideas, scientific laws, theories, con-
those presenting evidence and drawing conclusions. cepts, and connections. The major goals of the study
What is their expertise in this area? Do they have any of environmental science are to find out how nature
unstated assumptions, beliefs, biases, or values? Do works and sustains itself (environmental wisdom) and to
they have a personal agenda? Can they benefit finan- use principles of environmental wisdom to help make hu-
cially or politically from acceptance of their evidence man societies and economies more sustainable, more
and conclusions? Would investigators with different just, and more beneficial and enjoyable for all. As writer
basic assumptions or beliefs take the same data and Sandra Carey put it, “Never mistake knowledge for wis-
come to different conclusions? dom. One helps you make a living; the other helps you
make a life.” Or as American writer Walker Percy sug-
Expect and tolerate uncertainty. Recognize that science gested “some individuals with a high intelligence but
is an ever-changing adventure that provides only a de- lacking wisdom can get all A’s and flunk life.”
gree of certainty. Scientists can disprove things but they

ACADEMIC.CENGAGE.COM/BIOLOGY/MILLER 3

To help you practice critical thinking, we have sup- right side of your brain to work on the problem in a less
plied questions throughout this book—at the end of controlled and more creative manner.
each chapter, and throughout each chapter in brief
boxes labeled Thinking About and in the captions of This Book Presents a Positive
many figures. There are no right or wrong answers to and Realistic Environmental Vision
many of these questions. A good way to improve your of the Future
critical thinking skills is to compare your answers with
those of your classmates and to discuss how you ar- There are always trade-offs involved in making and
rived at your answers. implementing environmental decisions. Our challenge
is to give a fair and balanced presentation of different
Know Your Own Learning Style viewpoints, advantages and disadvantages of various
technologies and proposed solutions to environmental
People have different ways of learning and it can be problems, and good and bad news about environmen-
helpful to know your own learning style. Visual learn- tal problems without injecting personal bias.
ers learn best from reading and viewing illustrations
and diagrams. They can benefit from using flash cards Studying a subject as important as environmental
(available on the website for this book) to memorize key science and ending up with no conclusions, opinions,
terms and ideas. This is a highly visual book with many and beliefs means that both teacher and student have
carefully selected photographs and diagrams designed failed. However, any conclusions one does reach must
to illustrate important ideas, concepts, and processes. result from a process of thinking critically to evaluate
different ideas and understand the trade-offs involved.
Auditory learners learn best by listening and dis- Our goal is to present a positive vision of our environ-
cussing. They might benefit from reading aloud while mental future based on realistic optimism.
studying and using a tape recorder in lectures for study
and review. Logical learners learn best by using concepts Help Us Improve This Book
and logic to uncover and understand a subject rather
than relying mostly on memory. Researching and writing a book that covers and con-
nects ideas in a wide variety of disciplines is a challeng-
Part of what determines your learning style is how ing and exciting task. Almost every day, we learn about
your brain works. According to the split-brain hypoth- some new connection in nature.
esis, the left hemisphere of your brain is good at logic,
analysis, and evaluation, and the right half of the brain In a book this complex, there are bound to be some
is good at visualizing, synthesizing, and creating. Our errors—some typographical mistakes that slip through
goal is to provide material that stimulates both sides of and some statements that you might question, based on
your brain. your knowledge and research. We invite you to contact
us and point out any bias, correct any errors you find,
The study and critical thinking skills encouraged in and suggest ways to improve this book. Please e-mail
this book and in most courses largely involve the left your suggestions to Tyler Miller at mtg@hotmail.com
brain. However, you can improve these skills by giv- or Scott Spoolman at spoolman@tds.net.
ing your left brain a break and letting your creative
side loose. You can do this by brainstorming ideas with Now start your journey into this fascinating and im-
classmates with the rule that no left-brain criticism is portant study of how the earth works and how we can
allowed until the session is over. leave the planet in a condition at least as good as what
we found. Have fun.
When you are trying to solve a problem, rest, medi-
tate, take a walk, exercise, or do something to shut
down your controlling left-brain activity, and allow the

Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you.

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

4 LEARNING SKILLS

Environmental Problems,

1Their Causes, and Sustainability

Living in an Exponential Age CORE CASE STUDY

Two ancient kings enjoyed playing chess. The winner claimed a ability of the planet to support us and other forms of life and our

prize from the loser. After one match, the winning king asked economies. But there are some disturbing warning signs. Biolo-

the losing king to pay him by placing one grain of wheat on the gists estimate that, by the end of this century, our exponentially

first square of the chessboard, two grains on the second square, increasing population and resource consumption could cause the

four on the third, and so on, with the number doubling on each irreversible loss of one-third to one-half of the world’s known dif-

square until all 64 squares were filled. ferent types of plants and animals.

The losing king, thinking he was getting off easy, agreed There is also growing evidence and concern that continued

with delight. It was the biggest mistake he ever made. He bank- exponential growth in human activities such as burning fossil

rupted his kingdom because the number of grains of wheat he fuels (carbon-based fuels such as coal, natural gas, and gasoline)

had promised was probably more than all the wheat that has and clearing forests will change the earth’s climate during this

ever been harvested! century. This could ruin some areas for farming, shift water sup-

This fictional story illustrates the concept of exponential plies, eliminate many of the earth’s unique forms of life, and

growth, by which a quantity increases at a fixed percentage per disrupt economies in various parts of the world.

unit of time, such as 2% per year. Exponential growth is decep- Great news: We have solutions to these problems that

tive. It starts off slowly, but after only a few doublings, it grows we could implement within a few decades, as you will learn in

to enormous numbers because each doubling is more than the this book.

total of all earlier growth.

Here is another example. Fold a piece of pa-

per in half to double its thickness. If you could

continue doubling the thickness of the paper 13

42 times, the stack would reach from the earth to 12
the moon—386,400 kilometers (240,000 miles) 11
away. If you could double it 50 times, the folded 10
paper would almost reach the sun—149 million

kilometers (93 million miles) away! 9 Billions of people

Because of exponential growth in the hu- ?8
man population (Figure 1-1), in 2008 there were 7
6.7 billion people on the planet. Collectively, these

people consume vast amounts of food, water, raw 6

materials, and energy and in the process produce Industrial revolution 5
huge amounts of pollution and wastes. Unless 4
death rates rise sharply, there will probably be 3
9.3 billion of us by 2050 and perhaps as many as 2
10 billion by the end of this century.

The exponential rate of global population Black Death—the Plague 1

growth has declined since 1963. Even so, each day 0

we add an average of 225,000 more people to the 2–5 million 8000 6000 4000 2000 2000 2100

earth’s population. This is roughly equivalent to years Time B. C. A. D.
adding a new U.S. city of Los Angeles, California,

every 2 months, a new France every 9 months, and Hunting and Agricultural revolution Industrial

a new United States—the world’s third most popu- gathering revolution

lous country—about every 4 years. Figure 1-1 Exponential growth: the J-shaped curve of past exponential world population
No one knows how many people the earth can growth, with projections to 2100 showing possible population stabilization with the J-shaped
curve of growth changing to an S-shaped curve. (This figure is not to scale.) (Data from the
support, and at what level of resource consump-

tion or affluence, without seriously degrading the World Bank and United Nations; photo L. Yong/UNEP/Peter Arnold, Inc)

Key Questions and Concepts* 1-5 Why do we have environmental problems?

1-1 What is an environmentally sustainable society? C O N C E P T 1 - 5 A Major causes of environmental problems are
population growth, wasteful and unsustainable resource use,
C O N C E P T 1 - 1 A Our lives and economies depend on energy poverty, exclusion of environmental costs of resource use from
from the sun (solar capital ) and on natural resources and natural the market prices of goods and services, and attempts to manage
services (natural capital ) provided by the earth. nature with insufficient knowledge.
C O N C E P T 1 - 1 B Living sustainably means living off the earth’s C O N C E P T 1 - 5 B People with different environmental worldviews
natural income without depleting or degrading the natural capital often disagree about the seriousness of environmental problems
that supplies it. and what we should do about them.

1-2 How can environmentally sustainable societies 1-6 What are four scientific principles
grow economically? of sustainability?

C O N C E P T 1 - 2 Societies can become more environmentally C O N C E P T 1 - 6 Nature has sustained itself for billions of years by
sustainable through economic development dedicated to improving using solar energy, biodiversity, population control, and nutrient
the quality of life for everyone without degrading the earth’s life cycling—lessons from nature that we can apply to our lifestyles and
support systems. economies.

1-3 How are our ecological footprints affecting *This is a concept-centered book, with each major chapter section built around one
the earth? to three key concepts derived from the natural or social sciences. Key questions and
concepts are summarized at the beginning of each chapter. You can use this list as a
C O N C E P T 1 - 3 As our ecological footprints grow, we are preview and as a review of the key ideas in each chapter.
depleting and degrading more of the earth’s natural capital. Note: Supplements 2 (p. S4), 3 (p. S10), 4 (p. S20), 5 (p. S31), and 6 (p. S39) can be
used with this chapter.
1-4 What is pollution, and what can we do about it?

C O N C E P T 1 - 4 Preventing pollution is more effective and less
costly than cleaning up pollution.

▲▲ Alone in space, alone in its life-supporting systems,
powered by inconceivable energies,

mediating them to us through the most delicate adjustments,
wayward, unlikely, unpredictable, but nourishing, enlivening, and enriching

in the largest degree—is this not a precious home for all of us?
Is it not worth our love?

BARBARA WARD AND RENÉ DUBOS

1-1 What Is an Environmentally Sustainable Society?

CONCEPT 1-1A Our lives and economies depend on energy from the sun (solar
capital ) and on natural resources and natural services (natural capital ) provided by
the earth.
CONCEPT 1-1B Living sustainably means living off the earth’s natural income
without depleting or degrading the natural capital that supplies it.

Environmental Science Is a Study Despite our many scientific and technological ad-
of Connections in Nature vances, we are utterly dependent on the environment
for air, water, food, shelter, energy, and everything else
The environment is everything around us. It includes we need to stay alive and healthy. As a result, we are
all of the living and the nonliving things with which part of, and not apart from, the rest of nature.
we interact. And it includes a complex web of relation-
ships that connect us with one another and with the This textbook is an introduction to environmen-
world we live in. tal science, an interdisciplinary study of how humans
interact with the environment of living and nonliving

6 Links: refers to the Core Case Study. refers to the book’s sustainability theme. indicates links to key concepts in earlier chapters.

Table 1-1

Major Fields of Study Related to Environmental Science

Major Fields Subfields
Biology: study of living things (organisms) Ecology: study of how organisms interact with one
another and with their nonliving environment
Botany: study of plants
Zoology: study of animals

Chemistry: study of chemicals and their interactions Biochemistry: study of the chemistry of living things

Earth science: study of the planet as a whole and its Climatology: study of the earth’s atmosphere and
nonliving systems climate

Geology: study of the earth’s origin, history, surface, and
interior processes

Hydrology: study of the earth’s water resources

Paleontology: study of fossils and ancient life

Social sciences: studies of human society Anthropology: study of human cultures

Demography: study of the characteristics of human
populations

Geography: study of the relationships between human
populations and the earth’s surface features

Economics: study of the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services

Political Science: study of the principles, processes, and
structure of government and political institutions

Humanities: study of the aspects of the human condition History: study of information and ideas about humanity’s

not covered by the physical and social sciences past

Ethics: study of moral values and concepts concerning
right and wrong human behavior and responsibilities

Philosophy: study of knowledge and wisdom about the
nature of reality, values, and human conduct

things. It integrates information and ideas from the Ethics Biology
natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and geology, Philosophy
the social sciences, such as geography, economics, politi-
cal science, and demography (the study of populations), Political Ecology
and the humanities, including philosophy and ethics science
(Table 1-1 and Figure 1-2). The goals of environmental
science are to learn how nature works, how the environ- Economics Chemistry
ment affects us, how we affect the environment, and how to
deal with environmental problems and live more sustainably. Demography Physics Figure 1-2
Environmental
A key subfield of environmental science is ecol- Anthropology Geology science is an
ogy, the biological science that studies how organ- Geography interdisciplinary
isms, or living things, interact with their environment study of
and with each other. Every organism is a member of connections
a certain species: a group of organisms with distinc- between the
tive traits and, for sexually reproducing organisms, can earth’s life-
mate and produce fertile offspring. For example, all support system
humans are members of a species that biologists have and human
named Homo sapiens sapiens. A major focus of ecology activities.
is the study of ecosystems. An ecosystem is a set of

CONCEPTS 1-1A AND 1-1B 7

NATURAL
C A P I TA L

Solar
capital

Air Renewable
Air purification energy
Climate control
UV protection (sun, wind,
(ozone layer) water flows)

Water Life
Water purification (biodiversity)
Waste treatment
Population
control

Pest
control

Nonrenewable Soil Land
minerals Soil renewal
Food production
(iron, sand) Nonrenewable
energy Nutrient
Natural gas recycling
Oil (fossil fuels)
Coal seam

Natural resources
Natural services

Figure 1-3 Key natural resources (blue) and natural services (orange) that support and sustain the earth’s
life and economies (Concept 1-1A).

organisms interacting with one another and with their Sustainability Is the Central Theme
environment of nonliving matter and energy within a of This Book
defined area or volume.
Sustainability is the ability of the earth’s various nat-
We should not confuse environmental science and ural systems and human cultural systems and econo-
ecology with environmentalism, a social movement mies to survive and adapt to changing environmental
dedicated to protecting the earth’s life-support systems conditions indefinitely. It is the central theme of this
for us and all other forms of life. Environmentalism is book, and its components provide the subthemes of
practiced more in the political and ethical arenas than this book.
in the realm of science.

8 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

A critical component of sustainability is natural Organic
capital—the natural resources and natural services that matter in
keep us and other forms of life alive and support our animals
economies (Figure 1-3). Natural resources are mate-
rials and energy in nature that are essential or useful to Dead
humans. These resources are often classified as renewable organic
(such as air, water, soil, plants, and wind) or nonrenew- matter
able (such as copper, oil, and coal). Natural services are
functions of nature, such as purification of air and water, Organic
which support life and human economies. Ecosystems matter in
provide us with these essential services at no cost.
plants
One vital natural service is nutrient cycling, the
circulation of chemicals necessary for life, from the en- Decomposition
vironment (mostly from soil and water) through or-
ganisms and back to the environment (Figure 1-4). For Inorganic
example, topsoil, the upper layer of the earth’s crust, matter in soil
provides the nutrients that support the plants, animals,
and microorganisms that live on land; when they die Figure 1-4 Nutrient cycling: an important natural service that recycles chemicals
and decay, they resupply the soil with these nutrients. needed by organisms from the environment (mostly from soil and water) through
Without this service, life as we know it could not exist. organisms and back to the environment.

Natural capital is supported by solar capital: en- already been cleared or degraded, in exchange for pre-
ergy from the sun (Figure 1-3). Take away solar energy, serving the natural forest.
and all natural capital would collapse. Solar energy
warms the planet and supports photosynthesis—a com- Any shift toward environmental sustainability
plex chemical process that plants use to provide food should be based on scientific concepts and results that
for themselves and for us and most other animals. This are widely accepted by experts in a particular field, as
direct input of solar energy also produces indirect forms discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. In making such a
of renewable solar energy such as wind, flowing water, shift, individuals matter—another subtheme of this book.
and biofuels made from plants and plant residues. Thus, Some people are good at thinking of new ideas and in-
our lives and economies depend on energy from the sun venting innovative technologies or solutions. Others
(solar capital ) and natural resources and natural services are good at putting political pressure on government
(natural capital ) provided by the earth (Concept 1-1A). officials and business leaders, acting either alone or in
groups to implement those solutions. In any case, a shift
A second component of sustainability—and another toward sustainability for a society ultimately depends on
sub-theme of this text—is to recognize that many hu- the actions of individuals within that society.
man activities can degrade natural capital by using nor-
mally renewable resources faster than nature can renew Environmentally Sustainable
them. For example, in parts of the world, we are clear- Societies Protect Natural Capital
ing mature forests much faster than nature can replen- and Live Off Its Income
ish them. We are also harvesting many species of ocean
fish faster than they can replenish themselves. The ultimate goal is an environmentally sustain-
able society—one that meets the current and future
This leads us to a third component of sustainability. basic resource needs of its people in a just and equita-
Environmental scientists search for solutions to problems ble manner without compromising the ability of future
such as the degradation of natural capital. However, generations to meet their basic needs.
their work is limited to finding the scientific solutions,
while the political solutions are left to political pro- Imagine you win $1 million in a lottery. If you in-
cesses. For example, scientific solutions might be to stop vest this money and earn 10% interest per year, you
chopping down biologically diverse, mature forests, and will have a sustainable income of $100,000 a year that
to harvest fish no faster than they can replenish them- you can live off of indefinitely, while allowing interest
selves. But implementing such solutions could require to accumulate on what is left after each withdrawal,
government laws and regulations. without depleting your capital. However, if you spend

The search for solutions often involves conflicts. CONCEPTS 1-1A AND 1-1B
When scientists argue for protecting a diverse natural
forest to help prevent the premature extinction of vari-
ous life forms, for example, the timber company that
had planned to harvest trees in that forest might pro-
test. Dealing with such conflicts often involves making
trade-offs, or compromises—a fourth component of sus-
tainability. In the case of the timber company, it might
be persuaded to plant a tree farm in an area that had

9

$200,000 per year, even while allowing interest to ac- According to this 4-year study by 1,360 experts from
cumulate, your capital of $1 million will be gone early 95 countries, human activities are degrading or over-
in the seventh year. Even if you spend only $110,000 using about 62% of the earth’s natural services (Fig-
per year and still allow the interest to accumulate, you ure 1-3). In its summary statement, the report warned
will be bankrupt early in the eighteenth year. that “human activity is putting such a strain on the nat-
ural functions of Earth that the ability of the planet’s
The lesson here is an old one: Protect your capital and ecosystems to sustain future generations can no longer
live off the income it provides. Deplete or waste your capi- be taken for granted.” The good news is that the report
tal, and you will move from a sustainable to an unsus- suggests we have the knowledge and tools to conserve
tainable lifestyle. the planet’s natural capital, and it describes common-
sense strategies for doing this.
The same lesson applies to our use of the earth’s
natural capital—the global trust fund that nature pro- RESEARCH FRONTIER*
vides for us. Living sustainably means living off natural A crash program to gain better and more comprehensive
income, the renewable resources such as plants, ani- information about the health of the world’s life-support sys-
mals, and soil provided by natural capital. This means tems. See academic.cengage.com/biology/miller.
preserving the earth’s natural capital, which supplies
this income, while providing the human population ✓HOW WOULD YOU VOTE?** ■
with adequate and equitable access to this natural in-
come for the foreseeable future (Concept 1-1B). Do you believe that the society you live in is on an
unsustainable path? Cast your vote online at academic
The bad news is that, according to a growing body of .cengage.com/biology/miller.
scientific evidence, we are living unsustainably by wast-
ing, depleting, and degrading the earth’s natural capital *Environmental science is a developing field with many exciting research
at an exponentially accelerating rate (Core Case frontiers that are identified throughout this book.
Study).* In 2005, the United Nations (U.N.) **To cast your vote, go the website for this book and then to the appropriate
released its Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. chapter (in this case, Chapter 1). In most cases, you will be able to compare
how you voted with others using this book.
*The opening Core Case Study is used as a theme to connect and integrate
much of the material in each chapter. The logo indicates these connections

▲1-2 How Can Environmentally Sustainable Societies
Grow Economically?

CONCEPT 1-2 Societies can become more environmentally sustainable through
economic development dedicated to improving the quality of life for everyone
without degrading the earth’s life support systems.

There Is a Wide Economic Gap first country are said to have more purchasing power
than consumers in the second country have. To help
between Rich and Poor Countries compare countries, economists use a tool called pur-
chasing power parity (PPP ). By combining per capita GDP
Economic growth is an increase in a nation’s output and PPP, for any given country, they arrive at a per
of goods and services. It is usually measured by the capita GDP PPP—a measure of the amount of goods
percentage of change in a country’s gross domestic and services that a country’s average citizen could buy
product (GDP): the annual market value of all goods in the United States.
and services produced by all firms and organizations,
foreign and domestic, operating within a country. While economic growth provides people with more
Changes in a country’s economic growth per person goods and services, economic development has the
are measured by per capita GDP: the GDP divided by goal of using economic growth to improve living stan-
the total population at midyear. dards. The United Nations classifies the world’s coun-
tries as economically developed or developing based
The value of any country’s currency changes when primarily on their degree of industrialization and their
it is used in other countries. Because of such differ- per capita GDP PPP. The developed countries (with
ences, a basic unit of currency in one country can buy 1.2 billion people) include the United States, Canada,
more of a particular thing than the basic unit of cur- Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and most countries of
rency of another country can buy. Consumers in the

10 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

Europe. Most are highly industrialized and have a high Sean Sprague/Peter Arnold, Inc.
per capita GDP PPP.

All other nations (with 5.5 billion people) are classi-
fied as developing countries, most of them in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America. Some are middle-income, mod-
erately developed countries such as China, India, Brazil,
Turkey, Thailand, and Mexico. Others are low-income,
least developed countries where per capita GDP PPP is
steadily declining. These 49 countries with 11% of the
world’s population include Angola, Congo, Belarus,
Nigeria, Nicaragua, and Jordan. Figure 2 on p. S10 in
Supplement 3 is a map of high-, upper middle-, lower
middle-, and low-income countries.

Figure 1-5 compares some key characteristics of de-
veloped and developing countries. About 97% of the
projected increase in the world’s population between
2008 and 2050 is expected to take place in develop-
ing countries, which are least equipped to handle such
large population increases.

We live in a world of haves and have-nots. Despite
a 40-fold increase in economic growth since 1900, more
than half of the people in the world live in extreme poverty
and try to survive on a daily income of less than $2. And one
of every six people, classified as desperately poor, struggle to
survive on less than $1 a day. (All dollar figures are in U.S.
dollars.) (Figure 1-6)

Percentage of 18% Figure 1-6 Extreme poverty: boy searching for items to sell in an open dump in
World's: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Many children of poor families who live in makeshift shanty-
towns in or near such dumps often scavenge all day for food and other items to help
Population their families survive. This means that they cannot go to school.

82% Some economists call for continuing conventional
economic growth, which has helped to increase food
Population 0.12% supplies, allowed people to live longer, and stimulated
growth 1.46% mass production of an array of useful goods and ser-
vices for many people. They also see such growth as a
Life 77 years cure for poverty, maintaining that some of the result-
expectancy 67 years ing increase in wealth trickles down to countries and
people near the bottom of the economic ladder.
Wealth and 85%
income Other economists call for us to put much greater em-
15% phasis on environmentally sustainable economic
development. This involves using political and eco-
Resource 88% nomic systems to discourage environmentally harmful
use and unsustainable forms of economic growth that de-
12% grade natural capital, and to encourage environmentally
beneficial and sustainable forms of economic develop-
Pollution 75% ment that help sustain natural capital (Concept 1-2).
and waste
25% THINKING ABOUT
Economic Growth and Sustainability
Developed countries Developing countries
Is exponential economic growth incompatible with
Figure 1-5 Global outlook: comparison of developed and de- environmental sustainability? What are three types
veloping countries, 2008. (Data from the United Nations and the of goods whose exponential growth would promote
World Bank) environmental sustainability?

CONCEPT 1-2 11

▲1-3 How Are Our Ecological Footprints Affecting
the Earth?

CONCEPT 1-3 As our ecological footprints grow, we are depleting and degrading
more of the earth’s natural capital.

Some Resources Are Renewable On a human time scale, a renewable resource
can be replenished fairly quickly (from hours to hun-
From a human standpoint, a resource is anything ob- dreds of years) through natural processes as long as it is
tained from the environment to meet our needs and not used up faster than it is renewed. Examples include
wants. Conservation is the management of natural forests, grasslands, fisheries, freshwater, fresh air, and
resources with the goal of minimizing resource waste fertile soil.
and sustaining resource supplies for current and future
generations. The highest rate at which a renewable resource can
be used indefinitely without reducing its available sup-
Some resources, such as solar energy, fresh air, ply is called its sustainable yield. When we exceed
wind, fresh surface water, fertile soil, and wild edible a renewable resource’s natural replacement rate, the
plants, are directly available for use. Other resources available supply begins to shrink, a process known as
such as petroleum, iron, water found underground, and environmental degradation, as shown in Figure 1-7.
cultivated crops, are not directly available. They become
useful to us only with some effort and technological We Can Overexploit Commonly
ingenuity. For example, petroleum was a mysterious Shared Renewable Resources:
fluid until we learned how to find, extract, and convert The Tragedy of the Commons
(refine) it into gasoline, heating oil, and other products
that could be sold. There are three types of property or resource rights.
One is private property where individuals or firms own
Solar energy is called a perpetual resource be-
cause it is renewed continuously and is expected to last
at least 6 billion years as the sun completes its life cycle.

NATURAL CAPITAL
DEGRADATION

Degradation of Normally Renewable Natural Resources

Global Shrinking
warming forests

Air pollution Decreased
wildlife
Soil erosion habitats

Species
extinction

Figure 1-7 Aquifer Water
Degradation of depletion pollution
normally renew-
able natural Declining ocean
resources and fisheries
services in parts
of the world,
mostly as a
result of rising
population and
resource use per
person.

12 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

the rights to land, minerals, or other resources. An- Some Resources Are Not Renewable
other is common property where the rights to certain
resources are held by large groups of individuals. For Nonrenewable resources exist in a fixed quantity, or
example, roughly one-third of the land in the United stock, in the earth’s crust. On a time scale of millions to
States is owned jointly by all U.S. citizens and held and billions of years, geological processes can renew such
managed for them by the government. Another exam- resources. But on the much shorter human time scale
ple is land that belongs to a whole village and can be of hundreds to thousands of years, these resources can
used by anyone for activities such as grazing cows or be depleted much faster than they are formed. Such
sheep. exhaustible resources include energy resources (such as
coal and oil), metallic mineral resources (such as copper
A third category consists of open access renewable re- and aluminum), and nonmetallic mineral resources (such
sources, owned by no one and available for use by any- as salt and sand).
one at little or no charge. Examples of such shared
renewable resources include clean air, underground As such resources are depleted, human ingenu-
water supplies, and the open ocean and its fish. ity can often find substitutes. For example, during this
century, a mix of renewable energy resources such
Many common property and open access renew- as wind, the sun, flowing water, and the heat in the
able resources have been degraded. In 1968, biologist earth’s interior could reduce our dependence on non-
Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) called such degradation renewable fossil fuels such as oil and coal. Also, various
the tragedy of the commons. It occurs because each user types of plastics and composite materials can replace
of a shared common resource or open-access resource certain metals. But sometimes there is no acceptable or
reasons, “If I do not use this resource, someone else affordable substitute.
will. The little bit that I use or pollute is not enough to
matter, and anyway, it’s a renewable resource.” Some nonrenewable resources, such as copper and
aluminum, can be recycled or reused to extend sup-
When the number of users is small, this logic plies. Reuse is using a resource over and over in the
works. Eventually, however, the cumulative effect of same form. For example, glass bottles can be collected,
many people trying to exploit a shared resource can washed, and refilled many times (Figure 1-8). Recy-
exhaust or ruin it. Then no one can benefit from it. cling involves collecting waste materials and process-
Such resource degradation results from the push to ing them into new materials. For example, discarded
satisfy the short-term needs and wants of a growing aluminum cans can be crushed and melted to make new
number of people. It threatens our ability to ensure the
long-term economic and environmental sustainability Image not available due to copyright restrictions
of open-access resources such as clean air or an open-
ocean fishery.

One solution is to use shared resources at rates well
below their estimated sustainable yields by reducing use
of the resources, regulating access to the resources, or
doing both. For example, the most common approach
is for governments to establish laws and regulations
limiting the annual harvests of various types of ocean
fish that are being harvested at unsustainable levels in
their coastal waters. Another approach is for nations
to enter into agreements that regulate access to open-
access renewable resources such as the fish in the open
ocean.

Another solution is to convert open-access resources to
private ownership. The reasoning is that if you own some-
thing, you are more likely to protect your investment.
That sounds good, but this approach is not practical for
global open-access resources—such as the atmosphere,
the open ocean, and most wildlife species—that cannot
be divided up and converted to private property.

THINKING ABOUT
Degradation of Commonly Shared Resources

How is the degradation of shared renewable re-
sources related to exponential growth (Core Case
Study) of the world’s population and economies? What are
three examples of how most of us contribute to this environ-
mental degradation?

CONCEPT 1-3 13

aluminum cans or other aluminum products. But en- Both photos by Peter Menzel Our Ecological Footprints
ergy resources such as oil and coal cannot be recycled.
Once burned, their energy is no longer available to us. Are Growing

Recycling nonrenewable metallic resources takes Many people in developing countries struggle to sur-
much less energy, water, and other resources and pro- vive. Their individual use of resources and the result-
duces much less pollution and environmental degrada- ing environmental impact is low and is devoted mostly
tion than exploiting virgin metallic resources. Reusing to meeting their basic needs (Figure 1-9, top). By con-
such resources takes even less energy and other re- trast, many individuals in more affluent nations con-
sources and produces less pollution and environmental sume large amounts of resources way beyond their
degradation than recycling does. basic needs (Figure 1-9, bottom).

Figure 1-9 Consumption of natural resources. The top photo shows a family of five Supplying people with resources and dealing with
subsistence farmers with all their possessions. They live in the village of Shingkhey, the resulting wastes and pollution can have a large en-
Bhutan, in the Himalaya Mountains, which are sandwiched between China and India vironmental impact. We can think of it as an ecologi-
in South Asia. The bottom photo shows a typical U.S. family of four living in Pearland, cal footprint—the amount of biologically productive
Texas, with their possessions . land and water needed to supply the people in a par-
ticular country or area with resources and to absorb
and recycle the wastes and pollution produced by such
resource use. The per capita ecological footprint is
the average ecological footprint of an individual in a
given country or area.

If a country’s, or the world’s, total ecological foot-
print is larger than its biological capacity to replenish its
renewable resources and absorb the resulting waste
products and pollution, it is said to have an ecological
deficit. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the Global
Footprint Network estimated that in 2003 (the latest
data available) humanity’s global ecological footprint
exceeded the earth’s biological capacity by about 25%
(Figure 1-10, right). That figure was about 88% in the
world’s high-income countries, with the United States
having the world’s largest total ecological footprint. If
the current exponential growth in the use of renew-
able resources continues, the Global Footprint Network
estimates that by 2050 humanity will be trying to use
twice as many renewable resources as the planet can
supply (Figure 1-10, bottom) (Concept 1-3). See Fig-
ure 3 on p. S24 and Figure 5 on pp. S27 in Supple-
ment 4 for maps of the human ecological footprints
for the world and the United States, and Figure 4 on
p. S26 for a map of countries that are ecological debtors
and those that are ecological creditors.

The per capita ecological footprint is an estimate
of how much of the earth’s renewable resources an
individual consumes. After the oil-rich United Arab
Emirates, the United States has the world’s second larg-
est per capita ecological footprint. In 2003 (the latest
data available), its per capita ecological footprint was
about 4.5 times the average global footprint per person,
6 times larger than China’s per capita footprint, and
12 times the average per capita footprint in the world’s
low-income countries.

According to William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel,
the developers of the ecological footprint concept,
it would take the land area of about five more planet
earths for the rest of the world to reach current U.S.
levels of consumption with existing technology. Put
another way, if everyone consumed as much as the
average American does today, the earth’s natural capi-
tal could support only about 1.3 billion people—not

14 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

Total Ecological Footprint (million hectares) Per Capita Ecological Footprint
and Share of Global Ecological Capacity (%) (hectares per person)

United States 2,810 (25%) United States 9.7

European Union 2,160 (19%) European Union 4.7

China 2,050 (18%) China 1.6

India 780 (7%) India 0.8

Japan 540 (5%) Japan 4.8

2.0

Projected footprint

Number of Earths 1.5
Earth's
ecological
capacity

1.0

Ecological
0.5 footprint

0 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
1961

Year

Figure 1-10 Natural capital use and degradation: total and per capita ecological footprints of selected coun-
tries (top). In 2003, humanity’s total or global ecological footprint was about 25% higher than the earth’s ecologi-
cal capacity (bottom) and is projected to be twice the planet’s ecological capacity by 2050. Question: If we are
living beyond the earth’s biological capacity, why do you think the human population and per capita resource con-
sumption are still growing exponentially? (Data from Worldwide Fund for Nature, Global Footprint Network)

today’s 6.7 billion. In other words, we are living unsus- living in today’s developing nations will reach 1.2 bil-
tainably by depleting and degrading some of the earth’s lion—about four times the current U.S. population.
irreplaceable natural capital and the natural renewable
income it provides as our ecological footprints grow China is now the world’s leading consumer of
and spread across the earth’s surface (Concept 1-3). For wheat, rice, meat, coal, fertilizers, steel, and cement,
more on this subject, see the Guest Essay by Michael and it is the second largest consumer of oil after the
Cain at CengageNOW™. See the Case Study that fol- United States. China leads the world in consumption
lows about the growing ecological footprint of China. of goods such as television sets, cell phones, refrigera-
tors, and soon, personal computers. On the other hand,
THINKING ABOUT after 20 years of industrialization, two-thirds of the
Your Ecological Footprint world’s most polluted cities are in China; this pollution
Estimate your own ecological footprint by visiting the website threatens the health of urban dwellers. By 2020, China
www.myfootprint.org/. What are three things you could is projected to be the world’s largest producer and con-
do to reduce your ecological footprint? sumer of cars and to have the world’s leading economy
in terms of GDP PPP.
■ CASE STUDY
Suppose that China’s economy continues growing
China’s New Affluent Consumers exponentially at a rapid rate and its projected popula-
tion size reaches 1.5 billion by 2033. Then China will
More than a billion super-affluent consumers in devel- need two-thirds of the world’s current grain harvest,
oped countries are putting immense pressure on the twice the world’s current paper consumption, and
earth’s natural capital. Another billion consumers are more than the current global production of oil.
attaining middle-class, affluent lifestyles in rapidly de-
veloping countries such as China, India, Brazil, South According to environmental policy expert Lester R.
Korea, and Mexico. The 700 million middle-class con- Brown:
sumers in China and India number more than twice
the size of the entire U.S. population, and the number The western economic model—the fossil fuel–based,
is growing rapidly. In 2006, the World Bank projected automobile-centered, throwaway economy—is not going
that by 2030 the number of middle-class consumers to work for China. Nor will it work for India, which by
2033 is projected to have a population even larger than
China’s, or for the other 3 billion people in developing
countries who are also dreaming the “American dream.”

CONCEPT 1-3 15

For more details on the growing ecological footprint Since then, three major cultural changes have oc-
of China, see the Guest Essay by Norman Myers for this curred. First was the agricultural revolution, which began
chapter at CengageNOW. 10,000–12,000 years ago when humans learned how to
grow and breed plants and animals for food, clothing,
THINKING ABOUT and other purposes. Second was the industrial–medical
China and Sustainability revolution, beginning about 275 years ago when people
What are three things China could do to shift toward invented machines for the large-scale production of
more sustainable consumption? What are three goods in factories. This involved learning how to get
things the United States, Japan, and the European Union energy from fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and how
could do to shift toward more sustainable consumption? to grow large quantities of food in an efficient manner.
Finally, the information–globalization revolution began
Cultural Changes Have Increased about 50 years ago, when we developed new technolo-
Our Ecological Footprints gies for gaining rapid access to much more information
and resources on a global scale.
Culture is the whole of a society’s knowledge, beliefs,
technology, and practices, and human cultural changes Each of these cultural changes gave us more energy
have had profound effects on the earth. and new technologies with which to alter and control
more of the planet to meet our basic needs and increas-
Evidence of organisms from the past and studies of ing wants. They also allowed expansion of the human
ancient cultures suggest that the current form of our population, mostly because of increased food supplies
species, Homo sapiens sapiens, has walked the earth for and longer life spans. In addition, they each resulted
perhaps 90,000–195,000 years—less than an eye-blink in greater resource use, pollution, and environmental
in the 3.56 billion years of life on the earth. Until about degradation as our ecological footprints expanded (Fig-
12,000 years ago, we were mostly hunter–gatherers who ure 1-10) and allowed us to dominate the planet.
obtained food by hunting wild animals or scavenging
their remains and gathering wild plants. Early hunter– Many environmental scientists and other analysts
gathers lived in small groups and moved as needed to call for us to bring about a new environmental, or sus-
find enough food for survival. tainability, revolution during this century. It would
involve learning how to reduce our ecological footprints
and live more sustainability.

For more background and details on environmental
history, see Supplement 5 (p. S31).

▲1-4 What Is Pollution and What Can We Do about It?

CONCEPT 1-4 Preventing pollution is more effective and less costly than cleaning
up pollution.

Pollution Comes from a Number pesticides from farmlands, lawns, gardens, and golf
courses into streams and lakes. It is much easier and
of Sources cheaper to identify and control or prevent pollution
from point sources than from widely dispersed non-
Pollution is any in the environment that is harmful point sources.
to the health, survival, or activities of humans or other
organisms. Pollutants can enter the environment natu- There are two main types of pollutants. Biodegrad-
rally, such as from volcanic eruptions, or through hu- able pollutants are harmful materials that can be bro-
man activities, such as burning coal and gasoline and ken down by natural processes. Examples are human
discharging chemicals into rivers and the ocean. sewage and newspapers. Nondegradable pollutants
are harmful materials that natural processes cannot
The pollutants we produce come from two types of break down. Examples are toxic chemical elements
sources. Point sources are single, identifiable sources. such as lead, mercury, and arsenic (see Supplement 6,
Examples are the smokestack of a coal-burning power p. S39, for an introduction to basic chemistry).
or industrial plant (Figure 1-11), the drainpipe of
a factory, and the exhaust pipe of an automobile. Pollutants can have three types of unwanted effects.
Nonpoint sources are dispersed and often diffi- First, they can disrupt or degrade life-support systems
cult to identify. Examples are pesticides blown from for humans and other species. Second, they can damage
the land into the air and the runoff of fertilizers and wildlife, human health, and property. Third, they can

16 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

create nuisances such as noise and unpleasant smells,
tastes, and sights.

We Can Clean Up Pollution Ray Pfortner/Peter Arnold, Inc.

or Prevent It Figure 1-11 Point-source air pollution from a pulp mill in New York State (USA).

Consider the smoke produced by a steel mill. We can on the land (perhaps causing water pollution through
try to deal with this problem by asking two entirely dif- runoff or seepage into groundwater), or buried (perhaps
ferent questions. One question is “how can we clean up causing soil and groundwater pollution).
the smoke?” The other is “how can we avoid producing
the smoke in the first place?” Third, once pollutants become dispersed into the en-
vironment at harmful levels, it usually costs too much
The answers to these questions involve two dif- or is impossible to reduce them to acceptable levels.
ferent ways of dealing with pollution. One is pollu-
tion cleanup, or output pollution control, which Pollution prevention (front-of-the-pipe) and pol-
involves cleaning up or diluting pollutants after they lution cleanup (end-of-the-pipe) solutions are both
have been produced. The other is pollution preven- needed. But environmental scientists, some econo-
tion, or input pollution control, which reduces or mists, and some major companies urge us to put more
eliminates the production of pollutants. emphasis on prevention because it works better and in
the long run is cheaper than cleanup (Concept 1-4).
Environmental scientists have identified three prob-
lems with relying primarily on pollution cleanup. First,
it is only a temporary bandage as long as population
and consumption levels grow without corresponding
improvements in pollution control technology. For ex-
ample, adding catalytic converters to car exhaust sys-
tems has reduced some forms of air pollution. At the
same time, increases in the number of cars and the to-
tal distance each car travels have reduced the effective-
ness of this cleanup approach.

Second, cleanup often removes a pollutant from one
part of the environment only to cause pollution in an-
other. For example, we can collect garbage, but the gar-
bage is then burned (perhaps causing air pollution and
leaving toxic ash that must be put somewhere), dumped

▲▲1-5 Why Do We Have Environmental Problems?

CONCEPT 1-5A Major causes of environmental problems are population growth,
wasteful and unsustainable resource use, poverty, exclusion of environmental
costs of resource use from the market prices of goods and services, and attempts to
manage nature with insufficient knowledge.
CONCEPT 1-5B People with different environmental worldviews often disagree
about the seriousness of environmental problems and what we should do about
them.

Experts Have Identified Five Basic ing. In addition, the lower atmosphere is warming, gla-
Causes of Environmental Problems ciers are melting, sea levels are rising, and storms are
becoming more destructive. And in many areas, water
As we run more and more of the earth’s natural re- tables are falling, rivers are running dry, fisheries are
sources through the global economy, in many parts of collapsing, coral reefs are disappearing, and various
the world, forests are shrinking, deserts are expanding, species are becoming extinct.
soils are eroding, and agricultural lands are deteriorat-
According to a number of environmental and
social scientists, the major causes of these and other

CONCEPTS 1-5A AND 1-5B 17

Causes of Environmental Problems

Population Unsustainable Poverty Excluding Trying to manage nature
growth resource use environmental costs without knowing enough
from market prices about it

Figure 1-12 Environmental and social scientists have identified five basic causes of the environmental problems we
face (Concept 1-5A). Question: What are three ways in which your lifestyle contributes to these causes?

environmental problems are population growth, (Figure 1-14). The resulting weakened condition can
wasteful and unsustainable resource use, poverty, increase the chances of death from normally nonfatal
failure to include the harmful environmental costs of illnesses, such as diarrhea and measles. A second prob-
goods and services in their market prices, and insuffi- lem is limited access to adequate sanitation facilities and
cient knowledge of how nature works (Figure 1-12 and clean drinking water. More than 2.6 billion people (38%
Concept 1-5A). of the world’s population) have no decent bathroom fa-
cilities. They are forced to use fields, backyards, ditches,
We have discussed the exponential growth of the and streams. As a result, more than 1 billion people—
human population (Core Case Study), and here one of every seven—get water for drinking, washing,
we will examine other major causes of envi- and cooking from sources polluted by human and ani-
ronmental problems in more detail. mal feces. A third problem is severe respiratory disease
and premature death from inhaling indoor air pollut-
Poverty Has Harmful ants produced by burning wood or coal in open fires or
Environmental and Health Effects in poorly vented stoves for heat and cooking.

Poverty occurs when people are unable to meet their According to the World Health Organization, these
basic needs for adequate food, water, shelter, health, factors cause premature death for at least 7 million
and education. Poverty has a number of harmful en- people each year. This amounts to about 19,200 premature
vironmental and health effects (Figure 1-13). The daily deaths per day, equivalent to 96 fully loaded 200-passenger
lives of half of the world’s people, who are trying to airliners crashing every day with no survivors! Two-thirds
live on the equivalent of less than $2 a day, are focused of those dying are children younger than age 5. The
on getting enough food, water, and cooking and heat- news media rarely cover this ongoing human tragedy.
ing fuel to survive. Desperate for short-term survival,
some of these people deplete and degrade forests, soil, Lack of Number of people
grasslands, fisheries, and wildlife, at an ever-increasing access to (% of world's population)
rate. They do not have the luxury of worrying about
long-term environmental quality or sustainability. Adequate 2.6 billion (38%)
sanitation facilities
Poverty affects population growth. To many poor
people, having more children is a matter of survival. Enough fuel for 2 billion (29%)
Their children help them gather fuel (mostly wood and heating and cooking
animal dung), haul drinking water, and tend crops and
livestock. Their children also help to care for them in Electricity 2 billion (29%)
their old age (which is their 40s or 50s in the poorest
countries) because they do not have social security, Clean drinking 1.1 billion (16%)
health care, and retirement funds. water

While poverty can increase some types of environ- Adequate 1.1 billion (16%)
mental degradation, the reverse is also true. Pollution health care
and environmental degradation have a severe impact
on the poor and can increase poverty. Consequently, Adequate 1 billion (15%)
many of the world’s desperately poor people die pre- housing
maturely from several preventable health problems.
Enough food 0.86 billion (13%)
One such problem is malnutrition from a lack of for good health
protein and other nutrients needed for good health
Figure 1-13 Some harmful results of poverty. Question: Which
two of these effects do you think are the most harmful? Why? (Data
from United Nations, World Bank, and World Health Organization)

18 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

Tom Koene/Peter Arnold, Inc. While the United States has far fewer people than
India, the average American consumes about 30 times
Figure 1-14 Global Outlook: in developing countries, one of every as much as the average citizen of India and 100 times
three children under age 5, such as this child in Lunda, Angola, as much as the average person in the world’s poorest
suffers from severe malnutrition caused by a lack of calories and countries. As a result, the average environmental im-
protein. According to the World Health Organization, each day at pact, or ecological footprint per person, in the United
least 13,700 children under age 5 die prematurely from malnutrition States is much larger than the average impact per per-
and infectious diseases, most from drinking contaminated water son in developing countries (Figure 1-10, top).
and being weakened by malnutrition.
On the other hand, affluence can lead people to be-
The great news is that we have the means to solve the come more concerned about environmental quality.
environmental, health, and social problems resulting It also provides money for developing technologies to
from poverty within 20–30 years if we can find the po- reduce pollution, environmental degradation, and re-
litical and ethical will to act. source waste.

Affluence Has Harmful and In the United States and most other affluent coun-
Beneficial Environmental Effects tries, the air is cleaner, drinking water is purer, and
most rivers and lakes are cleaner than they were in the
The harmful environmental effects of poverty are 1970s. In addition, the food supply is more abundant
serious, but those of affluence are much worse (Fig- and safer, the incidence of life-threatening infectious
ure 1-10, top). The lifestyles of many affluent con- diseases has been greatly reduced, lifespans are longer,
sumers in developed countries and in rapidly develop- and some endangered species are being rescued from
ing countries such as India and China (p. 15) are built premature extinction.
upon high levels of consumption and unnecessary
waste of resources. Such affluence is based mostly on Affluence financed these improvements in envi-
the assumption—fueled by mass advertising—that buy- ronmental quality, based on greatly increased scientific
ing more and more things will bring happiness. research and technological advances. And education
spurred citizens insist that businesses and elected offi-
This type of affluence has an enormous harmful cials improve environmental quality. Affluence and ed-
environmental impact. It takes about 27 tractor-trailer ucation have also helped to reduce population growth
loads of resources per year to support one American, in most developed countries. However, a downside to
or 7.9 billion truckloads per year to support the entire wealth is that it allows the affluent to obtain the re-
U.S. population. Stretched end-to-end, each year these sources they need from almost anywhere in the world
trucks would reach beyond the sun! without seeing the harmful environmental impacts of
their high-consumption life styles.

THINKING ABOUT
The Poor, the Affluent, and Exponentially
Increasing Population Growth

Some see rapid population growth of the poor
in developing countries as the primary cause of our en-
vironmental problems. Others say that the much higher
resource use per person in developed countries is a more
important factor. Which factor do you think is more impor-
tant? Why?

Prices Do Not Include
the Value of Natural Capital

When companies use resources to create goods and
services for consumers, they are generally not required
to pay the environmental costs of such resource use.
For example, fishing companies pay the costs of catch-
ing fish but do not pay for the depletion of fish stocks.
Timber companies pay for clear-cutting forests but not
for the resulting environmental degradation and loss of
wildlife habitat. The primary goal of these companies
is to maximize their profits, so they do not voluntarily
pay these harmful environmental costs or even try to
assess them, unless required to do so by government
laws or regulations.

CONCEPTS 1-5A AND 1-5B 19

As a result, the prices of goods and services do not People with widely differing environmental world-
include their harmful environmental costs. Thus, con- views can take the same data, be logically consistent,
sumers are generally not aware of them and have no and arrive at quite different conclusions because they
effective way to evaluate the resulting harmful effects start with different assumptions and moral, ethical, or
on the earth’s life-support systems and on their own religious beliefs (Concept 1-5B). Environmental world-
health. views are discussed in detail in Chapter 25, but here is
a brief introduction.
Another problem is that governments give com-
panies tax breaks and payments called subsidies to assist The planetary management worldview holds
them in using resources to run their businesses. This that we are separate from nature, that nature exists
helps to create jobs and stimulate economies, but it mainly to meet our needs and increasing wants, and
can also result in degradation of natural capital, again that we can use our ingenuity and technology to man-
because the value of the natural capital is not included age the earth’s life-support systems, mostly for our
in the market prices of goods and services. We ex- benefit, indefinitely.
plore this problem and some possible solutions in later
chapters. The stewardship worldview holds that we can
and should manage the earth for our benefit, but that
People Have Different Views we have an ethical responsibility to be caring and re-
about Environmental Problems sponsible managers, or stewards, of the earth. It says we
and Their Solutions should encourage environmentally beneficial forms of
economic growth and development and discourage en-
Differing views about the seriousness of our environ- vironmentally harmful forms.
mental problems and what we should do about them
arise mostly out of differing environmental world- The environmental wisdom worldview holds
views. Your environmental worldview is a set of that we are part of, and totally dependent on, nature
assumptions and values reflecting how you think the and that nature exists for all species, not just for us.
world works and what you think your role in the world It also calls for encouraging earth-sustaining forms of
should be. This involves environmental ethics, which economic growth and development and discouraging
are our beliefs about what is right and wrong with how earth-degrading forms. According to this view, our suc-
we treat the environment. Here are some important cess depends on learning how life on earth sustains it-
ethical questions relating to the environment: self and integrating such environmental wisdom into the
ways we think and act.
• Why should we care about the environment?
Many of the ideas for the stewardship and environ-
• Are we the most important beings on the planet mental wisdom worldviews are derived from the writ-
or are we just one of the earth’s millions of differ- ings of Aldo Leopold (Individuals Matter, p. 22).
ent forms of life?
We Can Learn to Make Informed
• Do we have an obligation to see that our activi- Environmental Decisions
ties do not cause the premature extinction of
other species? Should we try to protect all species The first step for dealing with an environmental prob-
or only some? How do we decide which species to lem is to carry out scientific research on the nature of
protect? the problem and to evaluate possible solutions to the
problem. Once this is done, other factors involving the
• Do we have an ethical obligation to pass on to social sciences and the humanities (Table 1-1) must be
future generations the extraordinary natural used to evaluate each proposed solution. This involves
world in a condition at least as good as what we considering various human values. What are its projected
inherited? short-term and long-term beneficial and harmful envi-
ronmental, economic, and health effects? How much
• Should every person be entitled to equal protec- will it cost? Is it ethical? Figure 1-15 shows the major
tion from environmental hazards regardless of race, steps involved in making an environmental decision.
gender, age, national origin, income, social class, or
any other factor? We Can Work Together to Solve
Environmental Problems
THINKING ABOUT
Our Responsibilities Making the shift to more sustainable societies and
How would you answer each of the questions above? Com- economies involves building what sociologists call so-
pare your answers with those of your classmates. Record your cial capital. This involves getting people with different
answers and, at the end of this course, return to these ques- views and values to talk and listen to one another, find
tions to see if your answers have changed. common ground based on understanding and trust,
and work together to solve environmental and other

20 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

problems. This means nurturing openness, communi- portant theme of this book. They can also try to agree
cation, cooperation, and hope and discouraging close- on shared visions of the future and work together to
mindedness, polarization, confrontation, and fear. develop strategies for implementing such visions be-
ginning at the local level, as citizens of Chattanooga,
Solutions to environmental problems are not black Tennessee (USA), have done.
and white, but rather all shades of gray because pro-
ponents of all sides of these issues have some legitimate ■ CASE STUDY
and useful insights. In addition, any proposed solution
has short- and long-term advantages and disadvantages The Environmental Transformation
that must be evaluated (Figure 1-15). This means that of Chattanooga, Tennessee
citizens who strive to build social capital also search for
trade-off solutions to environmental problems—an im- Local officials, business leaders, and citizens have
worked together to transform Chattanooga, Tennessee
Identify an environmental problem (USA), from a highly polluted city to one of the most
sustainable and livable cities in the United States (Fig-
Gather scientific information ure 1-16).

Propose one or more solutions During the 1960s, U.S. government officials rated
Chattanooga as having the dirtiest air in the United
Project the short- and long-term States. Its air was so polluted by smoke from its coke
environmental and economic advantages ovens and steel mills that people sometimes had to
turn on their vehicle headlights in the middle of the
and disadvantages of each solution day. The Tennessee River, flowing through the city’s
industrial center, bubbled with toxic waste. People and
Decide on and implement a solution industries fled the downtown area and left a waste-
land of abandoned and polluting factories, boarded-up
Evaluate the consequences buildings, high unemployment, and crime.

Revise decision as needed In 1984, the city decided to get serious about im-
proving its environmental quality. Civic leaders started
Figure 1-15 Steps involved in making an environmental decision. a Vision 2000 process with a 20-week series of commu-
nity meetings in which more than 1,700 citizens from
all walks of life gathered to build a consensus about
what the city could be at the turn of the century. Citi-
zens identified the city’s main problems, set goals, and
brainstormed thousands of ideas for solutions.

Chattanooga Area Convention and Visitors Bureau Figure 1-16
Since 1984,
citizens have
worked together
to make the city
of Chattanooga,
Tennessee, one
of the most
sustainable and
best places to
live in the United
States.

CONCEPTS 1-5A AND 1-5B 21

INDIVIDUALS MATTER

A Aldo Leopold’s Environmental Ethics Courtesy of the University of Wisconsin—Madison Archives Figure 1-A Individuals Matter:
ccording to Aldo Leopold (Fig- Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) was a
ure 1-A), the role of the human forester, writer, and conservationist.
species should be to protect nature, not con- His book A Sand County Almanac
(published after his death) is con-
quer it. sidered an environmental classic that
inspired the modern environmental
In 1933, Leopold became a professor at and conservation movement.

the University of Wisconsin and in 1935, land-community to plain member and
citizen of it.
he was one of the founders of the U.S. • We abuse land because we regard it as a
commodity belonging to us. When we see
Wilderness Society. Through his writings and land as a community to which we belong,
we may begin to use it with love and
teachings, he became one of the leaders of respect.
• Anything is right when it tends to pre-
the conservation and environmental move- serve the integrity, stability, and beauty
of the biotic community. It is wrong when
ments of the 20th century. In doing this, he it tends otherwise.

laid important groundwork for the field of

environmental ethics.

Leopold’s weekends of planting, hik-

ing, and observing nature at his farm in

Wisconsin provided material for his most a member of a community of inter-
famous book, A Sand County Almanac, pub- dependent parts.
lished after his death in 1949. Since then,
more than 2 million copies of this environ- • To keep every cog and wheel is the
mental classic have been sold. first precaution of intelligent
tinkering.
The following quotations from his writings

reflect Leopold’s land ethic, and they form • That land is a community is the basic

the basis for many of the beliefs of the mod- concept of ecology, but that land is to

ern stewardship and environmental wisdom be loved and respected is an extension

worldviews: of ethics.

• All ethics so far evolved rest upon a • The land ethic changes the role of
single premise: that the individual is Homo sapiens from conqueror of the

By 1995, Chattanooga had met most of its original emission industries where employees can live near their
goals. The city had encouraged zero-emission industries workplaces. Most of these goals have been implemented.
to locate there and replaced its diesel buses with a fleet
of quiet, zero-emission electric buses, made by a new lo- Chattanooga’s environmental success story, enacted
cal firm. by people working together to produce a more livable
and sustainable city, is a shining example of what other
The city also launched an innovative recycling pro- cities can do by building their social capital.
gram after environmentally concerned citizens blocked
construction of a garbage incinerator that would have Individuals Matter
emitted harmful air pollutants. These efforts paid off.
Since 1989, the levels of the seven major air pollutants Chattanooga’s story shows that a key to finding solu-
in Chattanooga have been lower than those required tions to environmental problems is to recognize that
by federal standards. most social change results from individual actions and
individuals acting together (using social capital ) to bring
Another project involved renovating much of the about change through bottom-up grassroots action. In
city’s low-income housing and building new low-income other words, individuals matter—another important
rental units. Chattanooga also built the nation’s largest theme of this book. Here are two pieces of good news.
freshwater aquarium, which became the centerpiece First, research by social scientists suggests that it takes
for downtown renewal. The city developed a riverfront only 5–10% of the population of a community, a coun-
park along both banks of the Tennessee River running try, or the world to bring about major social change.
through downtown. The park draws more than 1 mil- Second, such research also shows that significant social
lion visitors per year. As property values and living change can occur much more quickly than most people
conditions have improved, people and businesses have think.
moved back downtown.
Anthropologist Margaret Mead summarized our
In 1993, the community began the process again potential for social change: “Never doubt that a small
in Revision 2000. Goals included transforming an aban- group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the
doned and blighted area in South Chattanooga into a world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.”
mixed community of residences, retail stores, and zero-

22 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

▲1-6 What Are Four Scientific Principles
of Sustainability?

CONCEPT 1-6 Nature has sustained itself for billions of years by using solar
energy, biodiversity, population control, and nutrient cycling—lessons from nature
that we can apply to our lifestyles and economies.

Studying Nature Reveals make the transition to more sustainable societies by
Four Scientific Principles applying these lessons from nature to our lifestyles and
of Sustainability economies, as summarized below and in Figure 1-17
(Concept 1-6).
How can we live more sustainably? According to envi-
ronmental scientists, we should study how life on the • Reliance on Solar Energy: the sun (solar capital)
earth has survived and adapted to major changes in en- warms the planet and supports photosynthesis
vironmental conditions for billions of years. We could used by plants to provide food for themselves and
for us and most other animals.

Reliance on Biodiversity
Solar Energy

Nutrient Cycling Population Control

Figure 1-17 Four scientific principles of sustainability: These four interconnected principles of sustainability
are derived from learning how nature has sustained a variety of life forms on the earth for about 3.56 billion years.
The top left oval shows sunlight stimulating the production of vegetation in the arctic tundra during its brief sum-
mer (solar energy) and the top right oval shows some of the diversity of species found there during the summer
(biodiversity). The bottom right oval shows arctic gray wolves stalking a caribou during the long cold winter ( popu-
lation control ). The bottom left oval shows arctic gray wolves feeding on their kill. This, plus huge numbers of tiny
decomposers that convert dead matter to soil nutrients, recycle all materials needed to support the plant growth
shown in the top left and right ovals (nutrient cycling).

CONCEPT 1-6 23

Current Emphasis Sustainability Emphasis countless ways for life to adapt to changing environ-
mental conditions throughout the earth’s history.
Pollution cleanup Pollution prevention
• Population Control: competition for limited resources
Waste disposal Waste prevention among different species places a limit on how much
(bury or burn) their populations can grow.

Protecting species Protecting habitat • Nutrient Cycling: natural processes recycle chemicals
that plants and animals need to stay alive and re-
Environmental Environmental restoration produce (Figure 1-4). There is little or no waste in
degradation natural systems.

Increasing resource use Less resource waste Using the four scientific principles of sustain-
ability to guide our lifestyles and economies
Population growth Population stabilization could help us bring about an environmental or sustain-
ability revolution during your lifetime (see the Guest Es-
Depleting and degrading Protecting natural capital say by Lester R. Brown at CengageNOW). Figure 1-18
natural capital lists some of the shifts involved in bringing about this
new cultural change by learning how to live more
Figure 1-18 Solutions: some shifts involved in bringing about the sustainably.
environmental or sustainability revolution. Question: Which three
of these shifts do you think are most important? Why? Scientific evidence indicates that we have perhaps
50 years and no more than 100 years to make such
• Biodiversity (short for biological diversity): the as- crucial cultural changes. If this is correct, sometime
tounding variety of different organisms, the genes during this century we could come to a critical fork in
they contain, the ecosystems in which they exist, the road, at which point we will choose a path toward
and the natural services they provide have yielded sustainability or continue on our current unsustainable
course. Everything you do, or do not do, will play a
role in our collective choice of which path we will take.
One of the goals of this book is to provide a realistic en-
vironmental vision of the future that, instead of immo-
bilizing you with fear, gloom, and doom, will energize
you by inspiring realistic hope.

REVISITING Exponential Growth and Sustainability

We face an array of serious environmental problems. This book Exponential growth is a double-edged sword. It can cause
is about solutions to these problems. Making the transition environmental harm. But we can also use it positively to amplify
to more sustainable societies and economies challenges us to beneficial changes in our lifestyles and economies by applying the
devise ways to slow down the harmful effects of exponential four scientific principles of sustainability. Through our indi-
growth (Core Case Study) and to use the same power of ex- vidual and collective actions or inactions, we choose which side of
ponential growth to implement more sustainable lifestyles and that sword to use.
economies.
We are rapidly altering the planet that is our only home. If
The key is to apply the four scientific principles of sus- we make the right choices during this century, we can create an
tainability (Figure 1-17 and Concept 1-6) to the design of our extraordinary and sustainable future on our planetary home. If we
economic and social systems and to our individual lifestyles. We get it wrong, we face irreversible ecological disruption that could
can use such information to help slow human population growth, set humanity back for centuries and wipe out as many as half of
sharply reduce poverty, curb the unsustainable forms of resource the world’s species.
use that are eating away at the earth’s natural capital, build social
capital, and create a better world for ourselves, our children, and You have the good fortune to be a member of the 21st cen-
future generations. tury transition generation, which will decide what path humanity
takes. What a challenging and exciting time to be alive!

What’s the use of a house
if you don’t have a decent planet to put it on?

HENRY DAVID THOREAU

24 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability

REVIEW Why has each change led to more environmental degra-
dation? What is the environmental or sustainability
1. Review the Key Questions and Concepts for this chapter revolution?
on p. 6. What is exponential growth? Why is living in
an exponential age a cause for concern for everyone liv- 6. Define pollution. Distinguish between point sources
ing on the planet? and nonpoint sources of pollution. Distinguish between
biodegradable pollutants and nondegradable pollut-
2. Define environment. Distinguish among environmen- ants and give an example of each. Distinguish between
tal science, ecology, and environmentalism. Distin- pollution cleanup and pollution prevention and give
guish between an organism and a species. What is an an example of each. Describe three problems with solu-
ecosystem? What is sustainability? Explain the terms tions that rely mostly on pollution cleanup.
natural capital, natural resources, natural services,
solar capital, and natural capital degradation. What 7. Identify five basic causes of the environmental problems
is nutrient cycling and why is it important? Describe the that we face today. What is poverty? In what ways do
ultimate goal of an environmentally sustainable soci- poverty and affluence affect the environment? Explain
ety. What is natural income? the problems we face by not including the harmful envi-
ronmental costs in the prices of goods and services.
3. What is the difference between economic growth and
economic development? Distinguish among gross 8. What is an environmental worldview? What is envi-
domestic product (GDP), per capita GDP, and per ronmental ethics? Distinguish among the planetary
capita GDP PPP. Distinguish between developed management, stewardship, and environmental wis-
countries and developing countries and describe their dom worldviews. Describe Aldo Leopold’s environmen-
key characteristics. What is environmentally sustain- tal ethics. What major steps are involved in making an
able economic development? environmental decision? What is social capital?

4. What is a resource? What is conservation? Distinguish 9. Discuss the lessons we can learn from the environmental
among a renewable resource, nonrenewable re- transformation of Chattanooga, Tennessee (USA). Explain
source, and perpetual resource and give an example of why individuals matter in dealing with the environmental
each. What is sustainable yield? Define and give three problems we face.
examples of environmental degradation. What is the
tragedy of the commons? Distinguish between recycling 10. What are four scientific principles of sustainability?
and reuse and give an example of each. What is an eco- Explain how exponential growth (Core
logical footprint? What is a per capita ecological Case Study) affects them.
footprint? Compare the total and per capita ecological
footprints of the United States and China. Note: Key Terms are in bold type.

5. What is culture? Describe three major cultural changes
that have occurred since humans arrived on the earth.

CRITICAL THINKING 4. Suppose the world’s population stopped growing today.
What environmental problems might this help solve? What
1. List three ways in which you could apply Concepts 1-5A environmental problems would remain? What economic
and 1-6 to making your lifestyle more environmentally problems might population stabilization make worse?
sustainable.
5. When you read that at least 19,200 people die prema-
2. Describe two environmentally beneficial forms of expo- turely each day (13 per minute) from preventable mal-
nential growth (Core Case Study). nutrition and infectious disease, do you (a) doubt that it
is true, (b) not want to think about it, (c) feel hopeless,
3. Explain why you agree or disagree with the fol- (d) feel sad, (e) feel guilty, or (f) want to do something
lowing propositions: about this problem?
a. Stabilizing population is not desirable because, without
more consumers, economic growth would stop. 6. What do you think when you read that (a) the aver-
b. The world will never run out of resources because we age American consumes 30 times more resources than
can use technology to find substitutes and to help us
reduce resource waste.

ACADEMIC.CENGAGE.COM/BIOLOGY/MILLER 25