EssentialsofEcology

Figure 11 The number of hurricanes expected to Number of
occur during a 100-year period in the continental hurricanes
United States (based on historical data from U.S. expected to
Geological Survey) occur during a
100-year period
Data and Map Analysis
More than 60
1. What is the degree of risk where you live or go to
school? 40–60

2. How many states include an area with some risk 20–40
of hurricanes?

Puerto Rico

Hawaii Alaska

S52 SUPPLEMENT 8

Components and Interactions in Major SUPPLEMENT
Biomes (Chapters 8, 9, 10)
9

Red-tailed hawk Figure 1 Some components and interactions in a
temperate desert ecosystem. When these organ-
Gambel's isms die, decomposers break down their organic
quail matter into minerals that plants use. Colored
arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy
among producers, primary consumers (herbivores),
secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores),
and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to
scale. Question: What species might undergo
population growth and what species might suffer a
population decline if the diamondback rattlesnake
were eliminated from this ecosystem?

Yucca Jack Collared Agave
rabbit lizard
Prickly
pear
cactus

Roadrunner Darkling
Diamondback rattlesnake beetle

Bacteria

Fungi

Producer Kangaroo rat Secondary to All producers and
to primary higher-level consumers to
consumer Primary consumer decomposers
to secondary
consumer

SUPPLEMENT 9 S53

Active Figure 2 Some compo- Golden eagle
nents and interactions in a temperate tall-grass
prairie ecosystem in North America. When these Pronghorn antelope
organisms die, decomposers break down their
organic matter into minerals that plants can use. Grasshopper
Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and sparrow
energy among producers, primary consumers
(herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers
(carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not
drawn to scale. See an animation based on this
figure at CengageNOW™. Question: What species
might increase and what species might decrease in
population size if the threatened prairie dog were
eliminated from this ecosystem?

Coyote

Grasshopper

Blue stem Prairie
grass dog

Producer Bacteria
to primary
consumer Fungi Prairie
coneflower

Primary Secondary to All producers and
to secondary higher-level consumers to
consumer consumer decomposers

S54 SUPPLEMENT 9

Long-tailed jaeger Figure 3 Some components and interactions in
Grizzly bear an arctic tundra (cold grassland) ecosystem. When
these organisms die, decomposers break down their
Caribou organic matter into minerals that plants use. Col-
ored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy
among producers, primary consumers (herbivores),
secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores),
and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to
scale. Question: What species might increase and
what species might decrease in population size if the
arctic fox were eliminated from this ecosystem?

Horned lark Snowy owl
Willow ptarmigan Mosquito

Arctic
fox

Dwarf
willow

Bacteria Lemming
Fungi
Mountain
cranberry

Moss campion Primary Secondary to All producers and
to secondary higher-level consumers to
Producer consumer consumer decomposers
to primary
consumer

SUPPLEMENT 9 S55

Figure 4 Some components and interactions in a Broad-winged
temperate deciduous forest ecosystem. When these hawk
organisms die, decomposers break down their or-
ganic matter into minerals that plants use. Colored Hairy
arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy woodpecker
among producers, primary consumers (herbivores),
secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores),
and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to
scale. Question: What species might increase and
what species might decrease in population size if
the broad-winged hawk were eliminated from this
ecosystem?

Gray
squirrel

White oak

White-footed
mouse

White-tailed Metallic
deer wood-boring
beetle and
larvae

Mountain
winterberry

Shagbark hickory

May beetle Racer

Long-tailed All producers and
weasel consumers to
decomposers
Fungi Wood frog

Bacteria Primary Secondary to
to secondary higher-level
Producer consumer consumer
to primary
consumer

S56 SUPPLEMENT 9

Blue jay Great Figure 5 Some components and interactions in an
Balsam fir horned evergreen coniferous (boreal or taiga) forest ecosys-
owl tem. When these organisms die, decomposers break
down their organic matter into minerals that plants
Marten use. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and
energy among producers, primary consumers (her-
bivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carni-
vores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn
to scale. Question: What species might increase
and what species might decrease in population size
if the great horned owl were eliminated from this
ecosystem?

Moose

Wolf White
spruce
Bebb
willow Pine sawyer
beetle and larvae

Snowshoe
hare

Fungi

Starflower Bacteria Bunchberry

Producer Primary Secondary to All producers and
to primary to secondary higher-level consumers to
consumer consumer consumer decomposers

SUPPLEMENT 9 S57

Figure 6 Components and interactions in a coral Gray reef shark
reef ecosystem. When these organisms die, decom-
posers break down their organic matter into miner- Sea nettle
als used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers
of matter and energy among producers, primary Green sea
consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level turtle
consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organ-
isms are not drawn to scale. See the photo of a
coral reef in Figure 8-1, left, p. 162. Question: How
would the species in this ecosystem be affected if
phytoplankton populations suffered a sharp drop?

Blue Fairy basslet
tang

Parrot fish Brittle star Sergeant major

Hard corals Algae Banded coral
shrimp
Phytoplankton
Symbiotic Coney

algae

Zooplankton Blackcap basslet

Sponges

Moray
eel

Bacteria

Producer Primary Secondary to All producers and
to primary to secondary higher-level consumers to
consumer consumer consumer decomposers

S58 SUPPLEMENT 9

Chapter Projects (Chapters 3–11) SUPPLEMENT

10

CHAPTER 3 Ecosystems: What Are They for cutting the world’s population growth rate by half
and How Do They Work? within the next 20 years. Develop a detailed plan that
would achieve this goal, including any differences between
1. Visit a nearby terrestrial ecosystem or aquatic life zone and policies in developing countries and those in developed
try to identify major producers, primary and secondary con- countries. Justify each part of your plan. Try to antici-
sumers, detritus feeders, and decomposers. pate what problems you might face in implementing the
plan, and devise strategies for dealing with these
2. Write a brief scenario describing the major consequences problems.
for us and other species if each of the following biogeo-
chemical cycles were to stop functioning: (a) water; 2. Prepare an age structure diagram for your community. Use
(b) carbon; (c) nitrogen; (d) phosphorus; and (e) sulfur. the diagram to project future population growth and eco-
nomic and social problems.
CHAPTER 4 Biodiversity and Evolution
CHAPTER 7 Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity
1. Visit a nearby terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem and try to
identify a native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, and foun- 1. How has the climate changed in the area where you live
dation species. during the past 50 years? Investigate the beneficial and
harmful effects of these changes. How have these changes
2. Visit a nearby terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem, try to identify benefited or harmed you personally?
a generalist species and a specialist species, and try to esti-
mate the area’s species richness and species evenness. 2. How have human activities over the past 50 years affected
the characteristic vegetation and animal life normally found
3. Use the library or the Internet to learn about the emerging where you live?
field of synthetic biology, which combines biology, genetics,
and engineering. How might synthetic biology get around CHAPTER 8 Aquatic Biodiversity
some of the problems raised by genetic engineering? What
problems does it pose? 1. Develop three guidelines for preserving the earth’s
aquatic biodiversity based on the four scientific
CHAPTER 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, principles of sustainability (see back cover).
and Population Control
2. Visit a nearby lake or reservoir. Would you classify it as
1. Use the library or Internet to find and describe two spe- oligotrophic, mesotrophic, eutrophic, or hypereutrophic?
cies not discussed in this textbook that are engaged in a (a) What are the primary factors contributing to its nutrient
commensalistic interaction, (b) mutualistic interaction, and enrichment? Which of these factors are related to human
(c) parasite–host relationship. activities? Try to determine the specific activities in your
area that may be affecting this body of water.
2. Visit a nearby natural area and try to identify examples of
(a) mutualism and (b) resource partitioning. 3. Developers want to drain a large area of inland wetland in
your community and build a large housing development. List
3. Do some research to identify the parasites likely to be found (a) the main arguments the developers would use to support
in your body. this project and (b) the main arguments ecologists would
use in opposing it. If you were an elected city official, would
4. Choose one wild plant species and one wild animal species you vote for or against this project? Can you come up with a
and use the library or the Internet to help you analyze the compromise plan?
factors that are likely to limit the population of each
species. CHAPTER 9 Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach
5. Visit a nearby land area such as a partially cleared or burned
forest or grassland or an abandoned crop field and record 1. Make a record of your own consumption of all products for
signs of secondary ecological succession. Was the disturbance a single day. Relate your level and types of consumption
that led to this succession natural or caused by humans? to the decline of wildlife species and the increased destruc-
Study the area carefully to see whether you can find patches tion, degradation, and fragmentation of wildlife habitats
that are at different stages of succession because of various in (a) the country where you live and (b) tropical forests.
disturbances. Compare your results with those of your classmates.

CHAPTER 6 The Human Population 2. Identify examples of habitat destruction or degradation in
and Its Impact your community that have had harmful effects on the popu-
lations of various wild plant and animal species. Develop
1. Assume your entire class (or each of a number of groups a management plan for rehabilitating these habitats and
from your class) is charged with coming up with a plan species.

SUPPLEMENT 10 S59

3. Choose a particular animal or plant species that interests 4. Use the library or the Internet to find one example of a
you and use the library or the Internet to find out (a) its successful ecological restoration project not discussed in
numbers and distribution, (b) whether it is threatened this chapter and an example of one that failed. For each
with extinction, (c) the major future threats to its survival, example, describe the strategy used, the ecological principles
(d) actions that are being taken to help sustain this species, involved, and why the project succeeded or failed.
and (e) a type of reconciliation ecology that might be useful
in sustaining this species. CHAPTER 11 Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity

CHAPTER 10 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity: 1. Survey the condition of a nearby wetland, coastal area, river,
The Ecosystem Approach or stream and research its history. Has its condition improved
or deteriorated during the last 10 years? What local, state, or
1. If possible, try to visit (a) a diverse old-growth forest, (b) an national efforts are being used to protect this aquatic system?
area that has been recently clear-cut, and (c) an area that Develop a plan for protecting it.
was clear-cut 5–10 years ago. Compare the biodiversity, soil
erosion, and signs of rapid water runoff in each of these 2. Pick a major seafood species and describe its life cycle,
areas. including its reproductive cycle. Find out if the species has
been overfished, and if so, where in the world it has been
2. For many decades, New Zealand has had a policy of meeting depleted, to what degree, and by what methods. Describe
all its demand for wood and wood products by growing tim- your findings. Write a brief script for telling a friend or rela-
ber on intensively managed tree plantations. Use the library tive why you would or would not recommend choosing that
or Internet to evaluate the effectiveness of this approach and species from a seafood restaurant menu.
its major advantages and disadvantages.
3. Work with your classmates to develop an experiment in
3. Try to find an area near where you live that includes a de- aquatic reconciliation ecology for your campus or local com-
graded ecosystem. Assume you are the conservation biologist munity.
in charge of restoring the ecosystem, and write a five-step
plan for completing the project. Would your plan involve use
of reconciliation ecology? Explain.

S60 SUPPLEMENT 10

Key Concepts (by Chapter) SUPPLEMENT

11

CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, CHAPTER 3 Ecosystems: What Are They
Their Causes, and Sustainability and How Do They Work?

Concept 1-1A Our lives and economies depend on energy Concept 3-1 Ecology is the study of how organisms interact
from the sun (solar capital) and on natural resources and natural with one another and with their physical environment of matter
services (natural capital) provided by the earth. and energy.

Concept 1-1B Living sustainably means living off the earth’s Concept 3-2 Life is sustained by the flow of energy from the
natural income without depleting or degrading the natural capital sun through the biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within the
that supplies it. biosphere, and gravity.

Concept 1-2 Societies can become more environmentally sus- Concept 3-3A Ecosystems contain living (biotic) and nonliving
tainable through economic development dedicated to improving (abiotic) components.
the quality of life for everyone without degrading the earth’s life
support systems. Concept 3-3B Some organisms produce the nutrients they
need, others get their nutrients by consuming other organisms,
Concept 1-3 As our ecological footprints grow, we are depleting and some recycle nutrients back to producers by decomposing
and degrading more of the earth’s natural capital. the wastes and remains of organisms.

Concept 1-4 Preventing pollution is more effective and less Concept 3-4A Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains
costly than cleaning up pollution. and webs.

Concept 1-5A Major causes of environmental problems are Concept 3-4B As energy flows through ecosystems in food
population growth, wasteful and unsustainable resource use, chains and webs, the amount of chemical energy available to
poverty, exclusion of environmental costs of resource use from organisms at each succeeding feeding level decreases.
the market prices of goods and services, and attempts to manage
nature with insufficient knowledge. Concept 3-5 Matter, in the form of nutrients, cycles within and
among ecosystems and the biosphere, and human activities are
Concept 1-5B People with different environmental worldviews altering these chemical cycles.
often disagree about the seriousness of environmental problems
and what we should do about them. Concept 3-6 Scientists use field research, laboratory research,
and mathematical and other models to learn about ecosystems.
Concept 1-6 Nature has sustained itself for billions of years by
using solar energy, biodiversity, population control, and nutrient CHAPTER 4 Biodiversity and Evolution
cycling—lessons from nature that we can apply to our lifestyles
and economies. Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in genes, species, eco-
systems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life
CHAPTER 2 Science, Matter, Energy, on earth.
and Systems
Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution explains how
Concept 2-1 Scientists collect data and develop theories, mod- life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of
els, and laws about how nature works. populations.

Concept 2-2 Matter consists of elements and compounds, which Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes mutate and
are in turn made up of atoms, ions, or molecules. give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities
to survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural
Concept 2-3 When matter undergoes a physical or chemical selection).
change, no atoms are created or destroyed (the law of conserva-
tion of matter). Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats,
Concept 2-4A When energy is converted from one form to wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for
another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or the evolution of new species.
destroyed (first law of thermodynamics).
Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change, the balance
Concept 2-4B Whenever energy is changed from one form to between formation of new species and extinction of existing spe-
another, we end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than cies determines the earth’s biodiversity.
we started with (second law of thermodynamics).
Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease biodiversity by
Concept 2-5A Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of causing the premature extinction of species and by destroying
matter and energy, and their behavior can be affected by feed- or degrading habitats needed for the development of new
back. species.

Concept 2-5B Life, human systems, and the earth’s lifesupport Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component of
systems must conform to the law of conservation of matter and biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of eco-
the two laws of thermodynamics. systems.

SUPPLEMENT 11 S61

Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological role called Concept 8-2 Saltwater ecosystems are irreplaceable reservoirs
its niche.Any given species may play one or more of five impor- of biodiversity and provide major ecological and economic
tant roles—native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, or foundation- services.
roles—in a particular ecosystem.
Concept 8-3 Human activities threaten aquatic biodiversity and
CHAPTER 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, disrupt ecological and economic services provided by saltwater
and Population Control systems.

Concept 5-1 Five types of species interactions—competition, Concept 8-4 Freshwater ecosystems provide major ecological
predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism—affect and economic services and are irreplaceable reservoirs of biodi-
the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosys- versity.
tem.
Concept 8-5 Human activities threaten biodiversity and disrupt
Concept 5-2 Some species develop adaptations that allow them ecological and economic services provided by freshwater lakes,
to reduce or avoid competition with other species for resources. rivers, and wetlands.

Concept 5-3 No population can continue to grow indefinitely CHAPTER 9 Sustaining Biodiversity:
because of limitations on resources and because of competition The Species Approach
among species for those resources.
Concept 9-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in
Concept 5-4 The structure and species composition of commu- many parts of the world, and these threats are increasing.
nities and ecosystems change in response to changing environ-
mental conditions through a process called ecological succession. Concept 9-1B Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times
faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the
CHAPTER 6 The Human Population and earth (the background rate), and by the end of this century, the
Its Impact extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times the background
rate.
Concept 6-1 We do not know how long we can continue
increasing the earth’s carrying capacity for humans without seri- Concept 9-2 We should prevent the premature extinction of
ously degrading the life-support system for humans and many wild species because of the economic and ecological services they
other species. provide and because they have a right to exist regardless of their
usefulness to us.
Concept 6-2A Population size increases because of births and
immigration and decreases through deaths and emigration. Concept 9-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order)
loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, hu-
Concept 6-2B The average number of children born to women man population growth, pollution, climate change, and overex-
in a population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that determines ploitation.
population size.
Concept 9-4A We can use existing environmental laws and
Concept 6-3 The numbers of males and females in young, treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent prema-
middle, and older age groups determine how fast a population ture species extinction and protect overall biodiversity.
grows or declines.
Concept 9-4B We can help to prevent premature species extinc-
Concept 6-4 Experience indicates that the most effective ways tion by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks,
to slow human population growth are to encourage family plan- botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums.
ning, to reduce poverty, and to elevate the status of women.
Concept 9-4C According to the precautionary principle, we
CHAPTER 7 Climate and Terrestrial Biodiversity should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the
environment and to human health, even if some of the
Concept 7-1 An area’s climate is determined mostly by solar cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established,
radiation, the earth’s rotation, global patterns of air and water scientifically.
movement, gases in the atmosphere, and the earth’s surface
features. CHAPTER 10 Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity:
The Ecosystem Approach
Concept 7-2 Differences in average annual precipitation and
temperature lead to the formation of tropical, temperate, and Concept 10-1A Forest ecosystems provide ecological services far
cold deserts, grasslands, and forests, and largely determine their greater in value than the value of raw materials obtained from
locations. forests.

Concept 7-3 In many areas, human activities are impairing Concept 10-1B Unsustainable cutting and burning of forests,
ecological and economic services provided by the earth’s deserts, along with diseases and insects, made worse by global warming,
grasslands, forests, and mountains. are the chief threats to forest ecosystems.

CHAPTER 8 Aquatic Biodiversity Concept 10-1C Tropical deforestation is a potentially cata-
strophic problem because of the vital ecological services at risk,
Concept 8-1A Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover the high rate of tropical deforestation, and its growing contribu-
almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface with oceans dominat- tion to global warming.
ing the planet.
Concept 10-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the eco-
Concept 8-1B The key factors determining biodiversity in nomic value of their ecological services, protecting old-growth
aquatic systems are temperature, dissolved oxygen content, avail- forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and
ability of food, and availability of light and nutrients necessary using sustainable substitute resources.
for photosynthesis.
Concept 10-3 We can sustain the productivity of grasslands by
controlling the number and distribution of grazing livestock and
by restoring degraded grasslands.

S62 SUPPLEMENT 11

Concept 10-4 Sustaining biodiversity will require protecting marine reserves to protect ecosystems, and using community-
much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area as based integrated coastal management.
parks and nature reserves.
Concept 11-3 Sustaining marine fisheries will require im-
Concept 10-5A We can help to sustain biodiversity by identi- proved monitoring of fish populations, cooperative fisher-
fying severely threatened areas and protecting those with high ies management among communities and nations, reduction
plant diversity (biodiversity hotspots) and those where ecosystem of fishing subsidies, and careful consumer choices in seafood
services are being impaired. markets.

Concept 10-5B Sustaining biodiversity will require a global ef- Concept 11-4 To maintain the ecological and economic
fort to rehabilitate and restore damaged ecosystems. services of wetlands, we must maximize preservation of re-
maining wetlands and restoration of degraded and destroyed
Concept 10-5C Humans dominate most of the earth’s land, and wetlands.
preserving biodiversity will require sharing as much of it as pos-
sible with other species. Concept 11-5 Freshwater ecosystems are strongly affected by
human activities on adjacent lands, and protecting these ecosys-
CHAPTER 11 Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity tems must include protection of their watersheds.

Concept 11-1 Aquatic species are threatened by habitat loss, Concept 11-6 Sustaining the world’s biodiversity and eco-
invasive species, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation, system services will require mapping terrestrial and aquatic
all made worse by the growth of the human population. biodiversity, maximizing protection of undeveloped terrestrial
and aquatic areas, and carrying out ecological restoration projects
Concept 11-2 We can help to sustain marine biodiversity by us- worldwide.
ing laws and economic incentives to protect species, setting aside

SUPPLEMENT 11 S63

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Glossary

abiotic Nonliving. Compare biotic. anthropocentric Human-centered. tissues of living or dead organisms into simpler
inorganic nutrient compounds.
acid See acid solution. applied ecology See reconciliation ecology.
barrier islands Long, thin, low offshore
acid deposition The falling of acids and acid- aquatic Pertaining to water. Compare islands of sediment that generally run parallel to
forming compounds from the atmosphere to the terrestrial. the shore along some coasts.
earth’s surface. Acid deposition is commonly
known as acid rain, a term that refers to the wet aquatic life zone Marine and freshwater por- benthos Bottom-dwelling organisms. Com-
deposition of droplets of acids and acid-forming tions of the biosphere. Examples include fresh- pare decomposer, nekton, plankton.
compounds. water life zones (such as lakes and streams) and
ocean or marine life zones (such as estuaries, beta particle Swiftly moving electron emitted
adaptation Any genetically controlled struc- coastlines, coral reefs, and the open ocean). by the nucleus of a radioactive isotope. See also
tural, physiological, or behavioral characteristic alpha particle, gamma ray.
that helps an organism survive and reproduce aquifer Porous, water-saturated layers of
under a given set of environmental conditions. sand, gravel, or bedrock that can yield an eco- biocentric Life-centered. Compare anthropo-
It usually results from a beneficial mutation. nomically significant amount of water. centric.
See biological evolution, differential reproduction,
mutation, natural selection. arid Dry. A desert or other area with an arid biodegradable Capable of being broken down
climate has little precipitation. by decomposers.
adaptive radiation Process in which numer-
ous new species evolve to fill vacant and new artificial selection Process by which humans biodegradable pollutant Material that can
ecological niches in changed environments, select one or more desirable genetic traits in the be broken down into simpler substances (ele-
usually after a mass extinction. Typically, this population of a plant or animal species and then ments and compounds) by bacteria or other de-
process takes millions of years. use selective breeding to produce populations con- composers. Paper and most organic wastes such
taining many individuals with the desired traits. as animal manure are biodegradable but can
adaptive trait See adaptation. Compare genetic engineering, natural selection. take decades to biodegrade in modern landfills.
Compare nondegradable pollutant.
aerobic respiration Complex process that asexual reproduction Reproduction in which
occurs in the cells of most living organisms, a mother cell divides to produce two identical biodiversity Variety of different species (spe-
in which nutrient organic molecules such as daughter cells that are clones of the mother cell. cies diversity), genetic variability among individu-
glucose (C6H12O6) combine with oxygen (O2) This type of reproduction is common in single- als within each species (genetic diversity), variety
to produce carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), celled organisms. Compare sexual reproduction. of ecosystems (ecological diversity), and functions
and energy. Compare photosynthesis. such as energy flow and matter cycling needed
atmosphere Whole mass of air surrounding for the survival of species and biological com-
age structure Percentage of the population the earth. See stratosphere, troposphere. Compare munities (functional diversity).
(or number of people of each sex) at each age biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere.
level in a population. biodiversity hot spots Areas especially rich
atmospheric pressure Force or mass per unit in plant species that are found nowhere else
air pollution One or more chemicals in area of air, caused by the bombardment of a and are in great danger of extinction. These
high enough concentrations in the air to harm surface by the molecules in air. areas suffer serious ecological disruption, mostly
humans, other animals, vegetation, or materials. because of rapid human population growth and
Excess heat is also considered a form of air pol- atom Minute unit made of subatomic particles the resulting pressure on natural resources.
lution. Such chemicals or physical conditions are that is the basic building block of all chemical
called air pollutants. elements and thus all matter; the smallest unit biogeochemical cycle Natural processes that
of an element that can exist and still have the recycle nutrients in various chemical forms from
alien species See nonnative species. unique characteristics of that element. Compare the nonliving environment to living organisms
ion, molecule. and then back to the nonliving environment.
alpha particle Positively charged matter, Examples include the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
consisting of two neutrons and two protons, atomic number Number of protons in the phosphorus, sulfur, and hydrologic cycles.
which is emitted as radioactivity from the nuclei nucleus of an atom. Compare mass number.
of some radioisotopes. See also beta particle, biological community See community.
gamma rays. atomic theory Idea that all elements are
made up of atoms; the most widely accepted biological diversity See biodiversity.
altitude Height above sea level. Compare scientific theory in chemistry.
latitude. biological evolution Change in the genetic
autotroph See producer. makeup of a population of a species in succes-
anaerobic respiration Form of cellular sive generations. If continued long enough, it
respiration in which some decomposers get the background extinction Normal extinc- can lead to the formation of a new species. Note
energy they need through the breakdown of tion of various species as a result of changes in that populations, not individuals, evolve. See
glucose (or other nutrients) in the absence of local environmental conditions. Compare mass also adaptation, differential reproduction, natural
oxygen. Compare aerobic respiration. extinction. selection, theory of evolution.

ancient forest See old-growth forest. bacteria Prokaryotic, one-celled organisms. biological pest control Control of pest popu-
Some transmit diseases. Most act as decom- lations by natural predators, parasites, or dis-
annual Plant that grows, sets seed, and dies in posers and get the nutrients they need by break- ease-causing bacteria and viruses (pathogens).
one growing season. Compare perennial. ing down complex organic compounds in the

GLOSSARY G1

biomass Organic matter produced by plants isotope, which release an enormous amount of coastal wetland Land along a coastline,
and other photosynthetic producers; total dry energy in a short time. extending inland from an estuary that is covered
weight of all living organisms that can be sup- with salt water all or part of the year. Examples
ported at each trophic level in a food chain or chemical One of the millions of different ele- include marshes, bays, lagoons, tidal flats, and
web; dry weight of all organic matter in plants ments and compounds found naturally and mangrove swamps. Compare inland wetland.
and animals in an ecosystem; plant materials synthesized by humans. See compound, element.
and animal wastes used as fuel. coastal zone Warm, nutrient-rich, shallow
chemical change Interaction between part of the ocean that extends from the high-
biome Terrestrial regions inhabited by certain chemicals in which the chemical composition of tide mark on land to the edge of a shelf-like
types of life, especially vegetation. Examples the elements or compounds involved changes. extension of continental land masses known as
include various types of deserts, grasslands, and Compare nuclear change, physical change. the continental shelf. Compare open sea.
forests.
chemical formula Shorthand way to show coevolution Evolution in which two or more
biosphere Zone of the earth where life is the number of atoms (or ions) in the basic species interact and exert selective pressures on
found. It consists of parts of the atmosphere (the structural unit of a compound. Examples include each other that can lead each species to undergo
troposphere), hydrosphere (mostly surface water H2O, NaCl, and C6H12O6. adaptations. See evolution, natural selection.
and groundwater), and lithosphere (mostly soil
and surface rocks and sediments on the bottoms chemical reaction See chemical change. cold front Leading edge of an advancing mass
of oceans and other bodies of water) where of cold air. Compare warm front.
life is found. Compare atmosphere, geosphere, chemosynthesis Process in which certain
hydrosphere. organisms (mostly specialized bacteria) extract commensalism An interaction between
inorganic compounds from their environ- organisms of different species in which one
biotic Living organisms. Compare abiotic. ment and convert them into organic nutrient type of organism benefits and the other type is
compounds without the presence of sunlight. neither helped nor harmed to any great degree.
biotic pollution The effect of invasive species Compare photosynthesis. Compare mutualism.
that can reduce or wipe out populations of many
native species and trigger ecological disruptions. chlorinated hydrocarbon Organic com- commercial extinction Depletion of the
pound made up of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, population of a wild species used as a resource
biotic potential Maximum rate at which the and chlorine. Examples include DDT and PCBs. to a level at which it is no longer profitable to
population of a given species can increase when harvest the species.
there are no limits on its rate of growth. See chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Organic com-
environmental resistance. pounds made up of atoms of carbon, chlorine, and commercial forest See tree plantation.
fluorine. An example is Freon-12 (CCl2F2), which
birth rate See crude birth rate. is used as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air common-property resource Resource that
conditioners and in making plastics such as Styro- is owned jointly by a large group of individuals.
broadleaf deciduous plants Plants such as foam. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer One example is the roughly one-third of the
oak and maple trees that survive drought and when they slowly rise into the stratosphere and land in the United States that is owned jointly
cold by shedding their leaves and becoming their chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules. by all U.S. citizens and held and managed for
dormant. Compare broadleaf evergreen plants, Their use is being phased out. them by the government. Another example is
coniferous evergreen plants. an area of land that belongs to a whole village
chromosome A grouping of genes and as- and that can be used by anyone for grazing cows
broadleaf evergreen plants Plants that sociated proteins in plant and animal cells that or sheep. Compare open access renewable resource
keep most of their broad leaves year-round. An carry certain types of genetic information. See and private property resource. See tragedy of the
example is the trees found in the canopies of genes. commons. Compare open access renewable resource,
tropical rain forests. Compare broadleaf deciduous private property resource.
plants, coniferous evergreen plants. chronic undernutrition Condition suffered
by people who cannot grow or buy enough food community Populations of all species living
calorie Unit of energy; amount of energy to meet their basic energy needs. Most chroni- and interacting in an area at a particular time.
needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of cally undernourished children live in developing
water by 1 C° (unit on Celsius temperature countries and are likely to suffer from mental competition Two or more individual organ-
scale). See also kilocalorie. retardation and stunted growth and to die from isms of a single species (intraspecific competition)
infectious diseases. Compare malnutrition, over- or two or more individuals of different spe-
carbon cycle Cyclic movement of carbon in nutrition. cies (interspecific competition) attempting to use
different chemical forms from the environment the same scarce resources in the same ecosys-
to organisms and then back to the environment. clear-cutting Method of timber harvesting in tem.
which all trees in a forested area are removed
carnivore Animal that feeds on other animals. in a single cutting. Compare selective cutting, strip compound Combination of atoms, or op-
Compare herbivore, omnivore. cutting. positely charged ions, of two or more elements
held together by attractive forces called chemical
carrying capacity (K) Maximum population climate Physical properties of the troposphere bonds. Examples are NaCl, CO2, and C6H12O6.
of a particular species that a given habitat can of an area based on analysis of its weather re- Compare element.
support over a given period. Compare cultural cords over a long period (at least 30 years). The
carrying capacity. two main factors determining an area’s climate concentration Amount of a chemical in a
are its average temperature, with its seasonal particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or
cell Smallest living unit of an organism. Each variations, and the average amount and distri- other medium.
cell is encased in an outer membrane or wall bution of precipitation. Compare weather.
and contains genetic material (DNA) and other condensation nuclei Tiny particles on which
parts to perform its life function. Organisms such climax community See mature community. droplets of water vapor can collect.
as bacteria consist of only one cell, but most
organisms contain many cells. coal Solid, combustible mixture of organic coniferous evergreen plants Cone-bearing
compounds with 30–98% carbon by weight, plants (such as spruces, pines, and firs) that keep
cell theory The idea that all living things are mixed with various amounts of water and small some of their narrow, pointed leaves (needles)
composed of cells; the most widely accepted amounts of sulfur and nitrogen compounds. It all year. Compare broadleaf deciduous plants, broad-
scientific theory in biology. forms in several stages as the remains of plants leaf evergreen plants.
are subjected to heat and pressure over millions
chain reaction Multiple nuclear fissions, tak- of years. coniferous trees Cone-bearing trees, mostly
ing place within a certain mass of a fissionable evergreens, that have needle-shaped or scale-

G2 GLOSSARY

like leaves. They produce wood known commer- converted to heating oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, declines in death rates followed by declines in
cially as softwood. Compare deciduous plants. tar, and other materials. birth rates.

consensus science See reliable science. crust Solid outer zone of the earth. It consists density Mass per unit volume.
of oceanic crust and continental crust. Compare
conservation Sensible and careful use of core, mantle. desert Biome in which evaporation exceeds
natural resources by humans. People with this precipitation and the average amount of precipi-
view are called conservationists. cultural carrying capacity The limit on tation is less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) per
population growth that would allow most year. Such areas have little vegetation or have
conservation biology Multidisciplinary sci- people in an area or the world to live in reason- widely spaced, mostly low vegetation. Compare
ence created to deal with the crisis of maintain- able comfort and freedom without impairing the forest, grassland.
ing the genes, species, communities, and ecosys- ability of the planet to sustain future genera-
tems that make up earth’s biological diversity. tions. Compare carrying capacity. desertification Conversion of rangeland,
Its goals are to investigate human impacts on rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to
biodiversity and to develop practical approaches cultural eutrophication Overnourishment of desert-like land, with a drop in agricultural
to preserving biodiversity. aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (mostly productivity of 10% or more. It usually is caused
nitrates and phosphates) because of human by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion,
conservationist Person concerned with using activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and prolonged drought, and climate change.
natural areas and wildlife in ways that sustain discharges from industrial plants and sewage
them for current and future generations of hu- treatment plants. See eutrophication. detritivore Consumer organism that feeds on
mans and other forms of life. detritus, parts of dead organisms, and cast-off
culture Whole of a society’s knowledge, be- fragments and wastes of living organisms. Ex-
constancy Ability of a living system, such as a liefs, technology, and practices. amples include earthworms, termites, and crabs.
population, to maintain a certain size. Compare Compare decomposer.
inertia, resilience. currents Mass movements of surface water
produced by prevailing winds blowing over the detritus Parts of dead organisms and cast-off
consumer Organism that cannot synthe- oceans. fragments and wastes of living organisms.
size the organic nutrients it needs and gets its
organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of dam A structure built across a river to control detritus feeder See detritivore.
producers or of other consumers; generally di- the river’s flow or to create a reservoir. See
vided into primary consumers (herbivores), second- reservoir. developed country Country that is highly
ary consumers (carnivores), tertiary (higher-level ) industrialized and has a high per capita GDP.
consumers, omnivores, and detritivores (decompos- data Factual information collected by scientists. Compare developing country.
ers and detritus feeders). In economics, one who
uses economic goods. Compare producer. DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a chlo- developing country Country that has low to
rinated hydrocarbon that has been widely used moderate industrialization and low to moderate
controlled burning Deliberately set, carefully as an insecticide but is now banned in some per capita GDP. Most are located in Africa, Asia,
controlled surface fires that reduce flammable countries. and Latin America. Compare developed country.
litter and decrease the chances of damaging
crown fires. See ground fire, surface fire. death rate See crude death rate. dieback Sharp reduction in the population of
a species when its numbers exceed the carrying
coral reef Formation produced by mas- deciduous plants Trees, such as oaks and capacity of its habitat. See carrying capacity.
sive colonies containing billions of tiny coral maples, and other plants that survive during dry
animals, called polyps, that secrete a stony seasons or cold seasons by shedding their leaves. differential reproduction Phenomenon in
substance (calcium carbonate) around them- Compare coniferous trees, succulent plants. which individuals with adaptive genetic traits
selves for protection. When the corals die, their produce more living offspring than do individu-
empty outer skeletons form layers and cause decomposer Organism that digests parts als without such traits. See natural selection.
the reef to grow. Coral reefs are found in the of dead organisms and cast-off fragments and
coastal zones of warm tropical and subtropical wastes of living organisms by breaking down the dissolved oxygen (DO) content Amount of
oceans. complex organic molecules in those materials oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in a given volume of
into simpler inorganic compounds and then ab- water at a particular temperature and pressure,
core Inner zone of the earth. It consists of a sorbing the soluble nutrients. Producers return often expressed as a concentration in parts of
solid inner core and a liquid outer core. Com- most of these chemicals to the soil and water for oxygen per million parts of water.
pare crust, mantle. reuse. Decomposers consist of various bacteria
and fungi. Compare consumer, detritivore, producer. disturbance An event that disrupts an
corrective feedback loop See negative feed- ecosystem or community. Examples of natural
back loop. deductive reasoning Use of logic to arrive at disturbances include fires, hurricanes, tornadoes,
a specific conclusion based on a generalization droughts, and floods. Examples of human-caused
crown fire Extremely hot forest fire that or premise. Compare inductive reasoning. disturbances include deforestation, overgrazing,
burns ground vegetation and treetops. Compare and plowing.
controlled burning, ground fire, surface fire. deep ecology worldview Worldview holding
that each form of life has inherent value, that DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Large mol-
crude birth rate Annual number of live the fundamental interdependence and diversity ecules in the cells of organisms that carry genetic
births per 1,000 people in the population of a of life forms helps all life to thrive, that humans information in living organisms.
geographic area at the midpoint of a given year. have no right to reduce this interdependence
Compare crude death rate. and diversity except to satisfy vital needs, and domesticated species Wild species tamed or
that present human interference with the genetically altered by crossbreeding for use by
crude death rate Annual number of deaths nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation humans for food (cattle, sheep, and food crops),
per 1,000 people in the population of a geo- is worsening rapidly. Compare environmental pets (dogs and cats), or enjoyment (animals in
graphic area at the midpoint of a given year. wisdom worldview, frontier worldview, planetary zoos and plants in botanical gardens). Compare
Compare crude birth rate. management worldview, stewardship worldview. wild species.

crude oil Gooey liquid consisting mostly of deforestation Removal of trees from a for- doubling time Time it takes (usually in years)
hydrocarbon compounds and small amounts ested area. for the quantity of something growing exponen-
of compounds containing oxygen, sulfur, and tially to double. It can be calculated by dividing
nitrogen. Extracted from underground accu- demographic transition Hypothesis that the annual percentage growth rate into 70.
mulations, it is sent to oil refineries, where it is countries, as they become industrialized, have
drainage basin See watershed.

GLOSSARY G3

drought Condition in which an area does not ecosystem services Natural services or natu- renewable (on a human time scale) or nonexis-
get enough water because of lower-than-normal ral capital that support life on the earth and are tent (extinct). See also sustainable yield.
precipitation or higher-than-normal tempera- essential to the quality of human life and the
tures that increase evaporation. functioning of the world’s economies. Examples environmental ethics Human beliefs about
are the chemical cycles, natural pest control, and what is right or wrong with how we treat the
ecological diversity The variety of forests, natural purification of air and water. See natural environment.
deserts, grasslands, oceans, streams, lakes, and resources.
other biological communities interacting with environmentalism Social movement dedi-
one another and with their nonliving environ- electromagnetic radiation Forms of kinetic cated to protecting the earth’s life support
ment. See biodiversity. Compare functional diver- energy traveling as electromagnetic waves. systems for us and other species.
sity, genetic diversity, species diversity. Examples include radio waves, TV waves, micro-
waves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultravio- environmentalist Person who is concerned
ecological efficiency Percentage of energy let radiation, X rays, and gamma rays. about the impacts of human activities on the
transferred from one trophic level to another in environment.
a food chain or web. electron (e) Tiny particle moving around out-
side the nucleus of an atom. Each electron has environmental justice Fair treatment and
ecological footprint Amount of biologically one unit of negative charge and almost no mass. meaningful involvement of all people regardless
productive land and water needed to supply Compare neutron, proton. of race, color, sex, national origin, or income
a population with the renewable resources it with respect to the development, implementa-
uses and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from element Chemical, such as hydrogen (H), iron tion, and enforcement of environmental laws,
such resource use. It is a measure of the average (Fe), sodium (Na), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), or regulations, and policies.
environmental impact of populations in different oxygen (O), whose distinctly different atoms
countries and areas. See per capita ecological footprint. serve as the basic building blocks of all matter. environmentally sustainable economic
Two or more elements combine to form the development Development that meets
ecological niche Total way of life or role of a compounds that make up most of the world’s the basic needs of the current generations of
species in an ecosystem. It includes all physical, matter. Compare compound. humans and other species without prevent-
chemical, and biological conditions that a species ing future generations of humans and other
needs to live and reproduce in an ecosystem. elevation Distance above sea level. species from meeting their basic needs. It is
See fundamental niche, realized niche. the economic component of an environmentally
endangered species Wild species with so sustainable society. Compare economic development,
ecological restoration Deliberate alteration few individual survivors that the species could economic growth.
of a degraded habitat or ecosystem to restore as soon become extinct in all or most of its natural
much of its ecological structure and function as range. Compare threatened species. environmentally sustainable society Soci-
possible. ety that meets the current and future needs of
endemic species Species that is found in only its people for basic resources in a just and equi-
ecological succession Process in which com- one area. Such species are especially vulnerable table manner without compromising the ability
munities of plant and animal species in a par- to extinction. of future generations of humans and other spe-
ticular area are replaced over time by a series of cies from meeting their basic needs.
different and often more complex communities. energy Capacity to do work by performing
See primary succession, secondary succession. mechanical, physical, chemical, or electrical environmental movement Citizens orga-
tasks or to cause a heat transfer between two nized to demand that political leaders enact laws
ecologist Biological scientist who studies objects at different temperatures. and develop policies to curtail pollution, clean
relationships between living organisms and their up polluted environments, and protect un-
environment. energy conservation Reducing or eliminat- spoiled areas from environmental degradation.
ing the unnecessary waste of energy.
ecology Biological science that studies the environmental resistance All of the limiting
relationships between living organisms and their energy efficiency Percentage of the total factors that act together to limit the growth of a
environment; study of the structure and func- energy input that does useful work and is not population. See biotic potential, limiting factor.
tions of nature. converted into low-quality, generally useless
heat in an energy conversion system or process. environmental revolution Cultural change
economic development Improvement of See energy quality, net energy. Compare material that includes halting population growth and al-
human living standards by economic growth. efficiency. tering lifestyles, political and economic systems,
Compare economic growth, environmentally sustain- and the way we treat the environment with the
able economic development. energy productivity See energy efficiency. goal of living more sustainably. It requires work-
ing with the rest of nature by learning more
economic growth Increase in the capac- energy quality Ability of a form of energy about how nature sustains itself.
ity to provide people with goods and services; to do useful work. High-temperature heat and
an increase in gross domestic product (GDP). the chemical energy in fossil fuels and nuclear environmental science Interdisciplinary
Compare economic development, environmentally fuels are concentrated high-quality energy. study that uses information and ideas from the
sustainable economic development. See gross domestic Low-quality energy such as low-temperature physical sciences (such as biology, chemistry,
product. heat is dispersed or diluted and cannot do much and geology) with those from the social sciences
useful work. See high-quality energy, low-quality and humanities (such as economics, politics,
economic system Method that a group of energy. and ethics) to learn how nature works, how we
people uses to choose which goods and ser- interact with the environment, and how we can
vices to produce, how to produce them, how enhanced greenhouse effect See global to help deal with environmental problems.
much to produce, and how to distribute them to warming, greenhouse effect.
people. environmental scientist Scientist who uses
environment All external conditions, factors, information from the physical sciences and so-
economy System of production, distribution, matter, and energy, living and nonliving, that cial sciences to understand how the earth works,
and consumption of economic goods. affect any living organism or other specified learn how humans interact with the earth, and
system. develop solutions to environmental problems.
ecosphere See biosphere. See environmental science.
environmental degradation Depletion or
ecosystem One or more communities of dif- destruction of a potentially renewable resource environmental wisdom worldview World-
ferent species interacting with one another and such as soil, grassland, forest, or wildlife that is view holding that humans are part of and totally
with the chemical and physical factors making used faster than it is naturally replenished. If dependent on nature and that nature exists for
up their nonliving environment. such use continues, the resource becomes non-

G4 GLOSSARY

all species, not just for us. Our success depends The resulting scientific data or facts must be flows See throughputs.
on learning how the earth sustains itself and verified or confirmed by repeated observations
integrating such environmental wisdom into and measurements, ideally by several different flyway Generally fixed route along which
the ways we think and act. Compare deep ecology investigators. waterfowl migrate from one area to another at
worldview, frontier worldview, planetary management certain seasons of the year.
worldview, stewardship worldview. exponential growth Growth in which some
quantity, such as population size or economic food chain Series of organisms in which each
environmental worldview Set of assump- output, increases at a constant rate per unit of eats or decomposes the preceding one. Compare
tions and beliefs about how people think the time. An example is the growth sequence 2, food web.
world works, what they think their role in the 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and so on, which increases by
world should be, and what they believe is right 100% at each interval. When the increase in food web Complex network of many inter-
and wrong environmental behavior (environ- quantity over time is plotted, this type of growth connected food chains and feeding relationships.
mental ethics). See deep ecology worldview, environ- yields a curve shaped like the letter J. Compare Compare food chain.
mental wisdom worldview, frontier worldview, plan- linear growth.
etary management worldview, stewardship worldview. forest Biome with enough average annual
extinction Complete disappearance of a precipitation to support the growth of tree spe-
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; species from the earth. It happens when a spe- cies and smaller forms of vegetation. Compare
responsible for managing federal efforts to con- cies cannot adapt and successfully reproduce desert, grassland.
trol air and water pollution, radiation and pesti- under new environmental conditions or when
cide hazards, environmental research, hazardous a species evolves into one or more new species. fossil fuel Products of partial or complete
waste, and solid waste disposal. Compare speciation. See also endangered species, decomposition of plants and animals; occurs
mass extinction, threatened species. as crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils as
epiphyte Plant that uses its roots to attach a result of exposure to heat and pressure in he
itself to branches high in trees, especially in extinction rate Percentage or number of earth’s crust over millions of years. See coal,
tropical forests. species that go extinct within a certain time such crude oil, natural gas.
as a year.
erosion Process or group of processes by fossils Skeletons, bones, shells, body parts,
which loose or consolidated earth materials are family planning Providing information, clini- leaves, seeds, or impressions of such items that
dissolved, loosened, or worn away and removed cal services, and contraceptives to help people provide recognizable evidence of organisms that
from one place and deposited in another. See choose the number and spacing of children they lived long ago.
weathering. want to have.
foundation species Species that plays a ma-
estuary Partially enclosed coastal area at the famine Widespread malnutrition and starva- jor role in shaping a community by creating and
mouth of a river where its fresh water, carrying tion in a particular area because of a shortage enhancing a habitat that benefits other species.
fertile silt and runoff from the land, mixes with of food, usually caused by drought, war, flood, Compare indicator species, keystone species, native
salty seawater. earthquake, or other catastrophic events that species, nonnative species.
disrupt food production and distribution.
eukaryotic cell Cell that is surrounded by a free-access resource See open access renewable
membrane and has a distinct nucleus. Compare feedback Any process that increases (positive resource.
prokaryotic cell. feedback) or decreases (negative feedback) a
change to a system. freons See chlorofluorocarbons.
euphotic zone Upper layer of a body of water
through which sunlight can penetrate and sup- feedback loop Occurs when an output of freshwater life zones Aquatic systems where
port photosynthesis. matter, energy, or information is fed back into water with a dissolved salt concentration of less
the system as an input and leads to changes in than 1% by volume accumulates on or flows
eutrophication Physical, chemical, and that system. See positive feedback loop and negative through the surfaces of terrestrial biomes.
biological changes that take place after a feedback loop. Examples include standing (lentic) bodies of
lake, estuary, or slow-flowing stream receives fresh water such as lakes, ponds, and inland
inputs of plant nutrients—mostly nitrates and fermentation See anaerobic respiration. wetlands and flowing (lotic) systems such as
phosphates—from natural erosion and runoff streams and rivers. Compare biome.
from the surrounding land basin. See cultural fertility rate Number of children born to an
eutrophication. average woman in a population during her life- front The boundary between two air masses
time. Compare replacement-level fertility. with different temperatures and densities. See
eutrophic lake Lake with a large or excessive cold front, warm front.
supply of plant nutrients, mostly nitrates first law of thermodynamics In any physi-
and phosphates. Compare mesotrophic lake, cal or chemical change, no detectable amount of frontier science See tentative science.
oligotrophic lake. energy is created or destroyed, but energy can
be changed from one form to another; you can- frontier worldview View held by European
evaporation Conversion of a liquid into a gas. not get more energy out of something than you colonists settling North America in the 1600s
put in; in terms of energy quantity, you cannot that the continent had vast resources and was a
evergreen plants Plants that keep some of get something for nothing. This law does not wilderness to be conquered by settlers clearing
their leaves or needles throughout the year. apply to nuclear changes, in which energy can and planting land.
Examples include cone-bearing trees (conifers) be produced from small amounts of matter. See
such as firs, spruces, pines, redwoods, and second law of thermodynamics. functional diversity Biological and chemical
sequoias. Compare deciduous plants, succulent processes or functions such as energy flow and
plants. fishery Concentration of particular aquatic matter cycling needed for the survival of species
species suitable for commercial harvesting in a and biological communities. See biodiversity, eco-
evolution See biological evolution. given ocean area or inland body of water. logical diversity, genetic diversity, species diversity.

exhaustible resource See nonrenewable fishprint Area of ocean needed to sustain the fundamental niche Full potential range of
resource. consumption of an average person, a nation, or the physical, chemical, and biological factors a
the world. Compare ecological footprint. species can use if it does not face any competi-
exotic species See nonnative species. tion from other species. See ecological niche.
floodplain Flat valley floor next to a stream Compare realized niche.
experiment Procedure a scientist uses channel. For legal purposes, the term often
to study some phenomenon under known applies to any low area that has the potential game species Type of wild animal that people
conditions. Scientists conduct some experi- for flooding, including certain coastal areas. hunt or fish for, for sport and recreation and
ments in the laboratory and others in nature. sometimes for food.

GLOSSARY G5

gamma ray Form of electromagnetic radiation greenhouse effect Natural effect that re- high-quality matter Matter that is concen-
with a high energy content emitted by some leases heat in the atmosphere (troposphere) trated and contains a high concentration of a
radioisotopes. It readily penetrates body tissues. near the earth’s surface. Water vapor, carbon useful resource. Compare low-quality matter.
See also alpha particle, beta particle. dioxide, ozone, and other gases in the lower
atmosphere (troposphere) absorb some of the high-throughput economy Economic sys-
GDP See gross domestic product. infrared radiation (heat) radiated by the earth’s tem in most advanced industrialized countries,
surface. Their molecules vibrate and transform in which ever-increasing economic growth is
gene mutation See mutation. the absorbed energy into longer-wavelength sustained by maximizing the rate at which mat-
infrared radiation (heat) in the troposphere. If ter and energy resources are used, with little
gene pool Sum total of all genes found in the atmospheric concentrations of these green- emphasis on pollution prevention, recycling,
the individuals of the population of a particular house gases increase and other natural processes reuse, reduction of unnecessary waste, and
species. do not remove them, the average temperature other forms of resource conservation. Compare
of the lower atmosphere will increase gradu- low-throughput economy, matter-recycling economy.
generalist species Species with a broad ally. Compare global warming. See also natural
ecological niche. They can live in many different greenhouse effect. high-waste economy See high-throughput
places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide economy.
range of environmental conditions. Examples greenhouse gases Gases in the earth’s lower
include flies, cockroaches, mice, rats, and hu- atmosphere (troposphere) that cause the green- HIPPCO Acronym used by conservation biolo-
mans. Compare specialist species. house effect. Examples include carbon dioxide, gists for the six most important secondary causes
chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, methane, water of premature extinction: Habitat destruction,
genes Coded units of information about specific vapor, and nitrous oxide. degradation, and fragmentation; Invasive (non-
traits that are passed from parents to offspring native) species; Population growth (too many
during reproduction. They consist of segments of gross domestic product (GDP) Annual people consuming too many resources); Pollu-
DNA molecules found in chromosomes. market value of all goods and services produced tion; Climate change; and Overexploitation.
by all firms and organizations, foreign and
genetic adaptation Changes in the genetic domestic, operating within a country. See per host Plant or animal on which a parasite feeds.
makeup of organisms of a species that allow capita GDP.
the species to reproduce and gain a competi- hydrocarbon Organic compound made of hy-
tive advantage under changed environmental gross primary productivity (GPP) Rate at drogen and carbon atoms. The simplest hydro-
conditions. See differential reproduction, evolution, which an ecosystem’s producers capture and carbon is methane (CH4), the major component
mutation, natural selection. store a given amount of chemical energy as of natural gas.
biomass in a given length of time. Compare net
genetically modified organism (GMO) Or- primary productivity. hydrologic cycle Biogeochemical cycle that
ganism whose genetic makeup has been altered collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s
by genetic engineering. ground fire Fire that burns decayed leaves or fixed supply of water from the environment to liv-
peat deep below the ground surface. Compare ing organisms and then back to the environment.
genetic diversity Variability in the genetic crown fire, surface fire.
makeup among individuals within a single spe- hydrosphere Earth’s liquid water (oceans,
cies. See biodiversity. Compare ecological diversity, groundwater Water that sinks into the soil and lakes, other bodies of surface water, and un-
functional diversity, species diversity. is stored in slowly flowing and slowly renewed derground water), frozen water (polar ice caps,
underground reservoirs called aquifers; under- floating ice caps, and ice in soil, known as
genetic engineering Insertion of an alien ground water in the zone of saturation, below the permafrost), and water vapor in the atmosphere.
gene into an organism to give it a beneficial water table. Compare runoff, surface water. See also hydrologic cycle. Compare atmosphere,
genetic trait. Compare artificial selection, natural biosphere, geosphere.
selection. habitat Place or type of place where an organ-
ism or population of organisms lives. Compare hypereutrophic Result of excessive inputs of
geographic isolation Separation of popula- ecological niche. nutrients in a lake. See cultural eutrophication.
tions of a species for long times into different
areas. habitat fragmentation Breakup of a habitat immature community Community at an
into smaller pieces, usually as a result of human early stage of ecological succession. It usually
geosphere Earth’s intensely hot core, thick activities. has a low number of species and ecological
mantle composed mostly of rock, and thin outer niches and cannot capture and use energy and
crust that contains most of the earth’s rock, soil, heat Total kinetic energy of all randomly cycle critical nutrients as efficiently as more
and sediment. Compare atmosphere, biosphere, moving atoms, ions, or molecules within a complex, mature communities. Compare mature
hydrosphere. given substance, excluding the overall motion community.
of the whole object. Heat always flows sponta-
global climate change Broad term referring neously from a warmer sample of matter to a immigrant species See nonnative species.
to changes in any aspects of the earth’s climate, colder sample of matter. This is one way to state
including temperature, precipitation, and storm the second law of thermodynamics. Compare immigration Migration of people into a coun-
activity. Compare weather. temperature. try or area to take up permanent residence.

global warming Warming of the earth’s lower herbivore Plant-eating organism. Examples indicator species Species that serve as early
atmosphere (troposphere) because of increases include deer, sheep, grasshoppers, and zoo- warnings that a community or ecosystem is be-
in the concentrations of one or more green- plankton. Compare carnivore, omnivore. ing degraded. Compare foundation species, keystone
house gases. It can result in climate change that species, native species, nonnative species.
can last for decades to thousands of years. See heterotroph See consumer.
greenhouse effect, greenhouse gases, natural green- inductive reasoning Using specific observa-
house effect. high Air mass with a high pressure. Compare tions and measurements to arrive at a general
low. conclusion or hypothesis. Compare deductive
GMO See genetically modified organism. reasoning.
high-quality energy Energy that is concen-
GPP See gross primary productivity. trated and has great ability to perform useful inertia Ability of a living system, such as a
work. Examples include high-temperature heat grassland or a forest, to survive moderate distur-
grassland Biome found in regions where and the energy in electricity, coal, oil, gasoline, bances. Compare constancy, resilience.
enough annual average precipitation to support sunlight, and nuclei of uranium-235. Compare
the growth of grass and small plants but not low-quality energy. infant mortality rate Number of babies out
enough to support large stands of trees. Com- of every 1,000 born each year who die before
pare desert, forest. their first birthday.

G6 GLOSSARY

infiltration Downward movement of water kinetic energy Energy that matter has low-quality energy Energy that is dispersed
through soil. because of its mass and speed, or velocity. Com- and has little ability to do useful work. An
pare potential energy. example is low-temperature heat. Compare
inherent value See intrinsic value. high-quality energy.
K-selected species Species that produce
inland wetland Land away from the coast, a few, often fairly large offspring but invest a low-quality matter Matter that is dilute or
such as a swamp, marsh, or bog, that is covered great deal of time and energy to ensure that dispersed or contains a low concentration of a
all or part of the time with fresh water. Compare most of those offspring reach reproductive age. useful resource. Compare high-quality matter.
coastal wetland. Compare r-selected species.
low-throughput economy Economy based
inorganic compounds All compounds not K-strategists See K-selected species. on working with nature by recycling and reus-
classified as organic compounds. See organic ing discarded matter, preventing pollution, con-
compounds. lake Large natural body of standing fresh water serving matter and energy resources by reducing
formed when water from precipitation, land unnecessary waste and use, not degrading
input Matter, energy, or information entering runoff, or groundwater flow fills a depression in renewable resources, building things that are
a system. Compare output, throughput. the earth created by glaciation, earth movement, easy to recycle, reuse, and repair, not allowing
volcanic activity, or a giant meteorite. See eutro- population size to exceed the carrying capacity
input pollution control See pollution phic lake, mesotrophic lake, oligotrophic lake. of the environment, and preserving biodiversity.
prevention. Compare high-throughput economy, matter-recycling
land degradation Decrease in the ability of economy.
instrumental value Value of an organism, land to support crops, livestock, or wild species
species, ecosystem, or the earth’s biodiversity in the future as a result of natural or human- low-waste economy See low-throughput
based on its usefulness to humans. Compare induced processes. economy.
intrinsic value.
latitude Distance from the equator. Compare malnutrition Faulty nutrition, caused by
interspecific competition Attempts by altitude. a diet that does not supply an individual with
members of two or more species to use the same enough protein, essential fats, vitamins, miner-
limited resources in an ecosystem. See competi- law of conservation of energy See first law als, and other nutrients needed for good health.
tion, intraspecific competition. of thermodynamics.
mangrove swamps Swamps found on the
intertidal zone The area of shoreline be- law of conservation of matter In any coastlines in warm tropical climates. They are
tween low and high tides. physical or chemical change, matter is neither dominated by mangrove trees, any of about
created nor destroyed but merely changed from 55 species of trees and shrubs that can live partly
intraspecific competition Attempts by two one form to another; in physical and chemi- submerged in the salty environment of coastal
or more organisms of a single species to use the cal changes, existing atoms are rearranged into swamps.
same limited resources in an ecosystem. See com- different spatial patterns (physical changes) or
petition, interspecific competition. different combinations (chemical changes). mantle Zone of the earth’s interior between
its core and its crust. Compare core, crust. See
intrinsic rate of increase (r) Rate at which law of nature See scientific law. geosphere, lithosphere.
a population could grow if it had unlimited
resources. Compare environmental resistance. law of tolerance Existence, abundance, and mass Amount of material in an object.
distribution of a species in an ecosystem are de-
intrinsic value Value of an organism, species, termined by whether the levels of one or more mass extinction Catastrophic, widespread,
ecosystem, or the earth’s biodiversity based on physical or chemical factors fall within the range often global event in which major groups of spe-
its existence, regardless of whether it has any tolerated by the species. See threshold effect. cies are wiped out over a short time compared
usefulness to humans. Compare instrumental with normal (background) extinctions. Compare
value. LDC See developing country. background extinction.

invasive species See nonnative species. less developed country (LDC) See developing mass number Sum of the number of neu-
country. trons (n) and the number of protons (p) in the
invertebrates Animals that have no back- nucleus of an atom. It gives the approximate
bones. Compare vertebrates. life expectancy Average number of years a mass of that atom. Compare atomic number.
newborn infant can be expected to live.
ion Atom or group of atoms with one or more material efficiency Total amount of material
positive (ϩ) or negative (Ϫ) electrical charges. limiting factor Single factor that limits the needed to produce each unit of goods or ser-
Examples are Naϩ and ClϪ. Compare atom, growth, abundance, or distribution of the popu- vices. Also called resource productivity. Compare
molecule. lation of a species in an ecosystem. See limiting energy efficiency.
factor principle.
isotopes Two or more forms of a chemical matter Anything that has mass (the amount
element that have the same number of limiting factor principle Too much or too of material in an object) and takes up space. On
protons but different mass numbers because little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent the earth, where gravity is present, we weigh an
they have different numbers of neutrons in growth of a population of a species in an ecosys- object to determine its mass.
their nuclei. tem, even if all other factors are at or near the
optimal range of tolerance for the species. matter quality Measure of how useful a
J-shaped curve Curve with a shape similar matter resource is, based on its availability and
to that of the letter J; can represent prolonged linear growth Growth in which a quantity concentration. See high-quality matter, low-quality
exponential growth. See exponential growth. increases by some fixed amount during each matter.
unit of time. An example is growth that in-
junk science See unreliable science. creases by 2 units in the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, matter-recycling-and-reuse economy
and so on. Compare exponential growth. Economy that emphasizes recycling the
keystone species Species that play roles af- maximum amount of all resources that can
fecting many other organisms in an ecosystem. logistic growth Pattern in which exponential be recycled and reused. The goal is to allow
Compare foundation species, indicator species, native population growth occurs when the popula- economic growth to continue without depleting
species, nonnative species. tion is small, and population growth decreases matter resources and without producing exces-
steadily with time as the population approaches sive pollution and environmental degradation.
kilocalorie (kcal) Unit of energy equal to the carrying capacity. See S-shaped curve. Compare high-throughput economy, low-throughput
1,000 calories. See calorie. economy.
low Air mass with a low pressure. Compare
kilowatt (kW) Unit of electrical power equal high.
to 1,000 watts. See watt.

GLOSSARY G7

mature community Fairly stable, self- natural law See scientific law. nonpoint sources Broad and diffuse areas,
sustaining community in an advanced stage of rather than points, from which pollutants enter
ecological succession; usually has a diverse array natural radioactive decay Nuclear change in bodies of surface water or air. Examples include
of species and ecological niches; captures and which unstable nuclei of atoms spontaneously runoff of chemicals and sediments from crop-
uses energy and cycles critical chemicals more shoot out particles (usually alpha or beta par- land, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban
efficiently than simpler, immature communities. ticles) or energy (gamma rays) at a fixed rate. streets, parking lots, lawns, and golf courses.
Compare immature community. Compare point source.
natural rate of extinction See background
maximum sustainable yield See sustainable extinction. nonrenewable resource Resource that exists
yield. in a fixed amount (stock) in the earth’s crust
natural resources Materials such as air, and has the potential for renewal by geological,
MDC See developed country. water, and soil and energy in nature that are es- physical, and chemical processes taking place
sential or useful to humans. See natural capital. over hundreds of millions to billions of years.
mesotrophic lake Lake with a moderate Examples include copper, aluminum, coal, and
supply of plant nutrients. Compare eutrophic lake, natural selection Process by which a oil. We classify these resources as exhaustible
oligotrophic lake. particular beneficial gene (or set of genes) is because we are extracting and using them at a
reproduced in succeeding generations more than much faster rate than they are formed. Compare
metabolism Ability of a living cell or organ- other genes. The result of natural selection is a renewable resource.
ism to capture and transform matter and energy population that contains a greater proportion
from its environment to supply its needs for of organisms better adapted to certain environ- NPP See net primary productivity.
survival, growth, and reproduction. mental conditions. See adaptation, biological evolu-
tion, differential reproduction, mutation. nuclear change Process in which nuclei of cer-
microorganisms Organisms such as bacteria tain isotopes spontaneously change, or are forced
that are so small that it takes a microscope to see natural services Processes of nature, such as to change, into one or more different isotopes.
them. purification of air and water and pest control, The three principal types of nuclear change are
which support life and human economies. See natural radioactivity, nuclear fission, and nuclear
migration Movement of people into and out natural capital. fusion. Compare chemical change, physical change.
of specific geographic areas. Compare emigration
and immigration. negative feedback loop Feedback loop that nuclear energy Energy released when atomic
causes a system to change in the opposite direc- nuclei undergo a nuclear reaction such as the
mineral resource Concentration of naturally tion from which is it moving. Compare positive spontaneous emission of radioactivity, nuclear
occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material in or feedback loop. fission, or nuclear fusion.
on the earth’s crust in a form and amount such
that extracting and converting it into useful ma- nekton Strongly swimming organisms found nuclear fission Nuclear change in which the
terials or items is currently or potentially profit- in aquatic systems. Compare benthos, plankton. nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass num-
able. Mineral resources are classified as metallic bers (such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239)
(such as iron and tin ores) or nonmetallic (such as net energy Total amount of useful energy are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by
fossil fuels, sand, and salt). available from an energy resource or energy a neutron. This process releases more neutrons
system over its lifetime, minus the amount of and a large amount of energy. Compare nuclear
model Approximate representation or simula- energy used (the first energy law), automatically fusion.
tion of a system being studied. wasted (the second energy law), and unnecessarily
wasted in finding, processing, concentrating, and nuclear fusion Nuclear change in which two
molecule Combination of two or more atoms transporting it to users. nuclei of isotopes of elements with a low mass
of the same chemical element (such as O2) or dif- number (such as hydrogen-2 and hydrogen-3)
ferent chemical elements (such as H2O) held net primary productivity (NPP) Rate at are forced together at extremely high tempera-
together by chemical bonds. Compare atom, ion. which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net tures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus
useful chemical energy; equal to the difference (such as helium-4). This process releases a large
more developed country (MDC) See devel- between the rate at which the plants in an eco- amount of energy. Compare nuclear fission.
oped country. system produce useful chemical energy (gross
primary productivity) and the rate at which nucleus Extremely tiny center of an atom,
mutation Random change in DNA mol- they use some of that energy through cellu- making up most of the atom’s mass. It contains
ecules making up genes that can alter anatomy, lar respiration. Compare gross primary productivity. one or more positively charged protons and
physiology, or behavior in offspring. See mutagen. one or more neutrons with no electrical charge
neutron (n) Elementary particle in the nuclei (except for a hydrogen-1 atom, which has one
mutualism Type of species interaction in of all atoms (except hydrogen-1). It has a rela- proton and no neutrons in its nucleus).
which both participating species generally ben- tive mass of 1 and no electric charge. Compare
efit. Compare commensalism. electron, proton. nutrient Any chemical element or compound
an organism must take in to live, grow, or
native species Species that normally live niche See ecological niche. reproduce.
and thrive in a particular ecosystem. Compare
foundation species, indicator species, keystone species, nitrogen cycle Cyclic movement of nitrogen in nutrient cycle See biogeochemical cycle.
nonnative species. different chemical forms from the environment
to organisms and then back to the environment. nutrient cycling The circulation of chemicals
natural capital Natural resources and natural necessary for life, from the environment (mostly
services that keep us and other species alive and nitrogen fixation Conversion of atmospheric from soil and water) through organisms and
support our economies. See natural resources, nitrogen gas into forms useful to plants by light- back to the environment
natural services. ning, bacteria, and cyanobacteria; it is part of the
nitrogen cycle. oil See crude oil.
natural greenhouse effect Heat buildup
in the troposphere caused by the presence of nondegradable pollutant Material that old-growth forest Virgin and old, second-
certain gases, called greenhouse gases. Without is not broken down by natural processes. growth forests containing trees that are often
this effect, the earth would be nearly as cold as Examples include the toxic elements lead and hundreds—sometimes thousands—of years old.
Mars, and life as we know it could not exist. See mercury. Compare biodegradable pollutant. Examples include forests of Douglas fir, western
global warming. hemlock, giant sequoia, and coastal redwoods
nonnative species Species that migrate into in the western United States. Compare second-
natural income Renewable resources such an ecosystem or are deliberately or accidentally growth forest, tree plantation.
as plants, animals, and soil provided by natural introduced into an ecosystem by humans. Com-
capital. pare native species.

G8 GLOSSARY

oligotrophic lake Lake with a low supply of the results of their experiments, and the reason- pioneer community First integrated set of
plant nutrients. Compare eutrophic lake, mesotro- ing behind their hypotheses for other scientists plants, animals, and decomposers found in an
phic lake. working in the same field (their peers) to exam- area undergoing primary ecological succession.
ine and criticize. See immature community, mature community.
omnivore Animal that can use both plants
and other animals as food sources. Examples per capita ecological footprint Amount of pioneer species First hardy species—often
include pigs, rats, cockroaches, and humans. biologically productive land and water needed microbes, mosses, and lichens—that begin colo-
Compare carnivore, herbivore. to supply each person or population with the nizing a site as the first stage of ecological suc-
renewable resources they use and to absorb or cession. See ecological succession, pioneer community.
open access renewable resource Renew- dispose of the wastes from such resource use. It
able resource owned by no one and available for measures the average environmental impact of planetary management worldview World-
use by anyone at little or no charge. Examples individuals or populations in different countries view holding that humans are separate from
include clean air, underground water supplies, and areas. Compare ecological footprint. nature, that nature exists mainly to meet our
the open ocean and its fish, and the ozone layer. needs and increasing wants, and that we can
Compare common property resource, private property per capita GDP Annual gross domestic prod- use our ingenuity and technology to man-
resource. uct (GDP) of a country divided by its total popu- age the earth’s life-support systems, mostly for
lation at midyear. It gives the average slice of the our benefit. It assumes that economic growth
open sea Part of an ocean that lies beyond the economic pie per person. Used to be called per is unlimited. Compare deep ecology worldview,
continental shelf. Compare coastal zone. capita gross national product (GNP). See gross environmental wisdom worldview, stewardship
domestic product. worldview.
organic compounds Compounds containing
carbon atoms combined with each other and per capita GDP PPP (Purchasing Power plankton Small plant organisms (phytoplank-
with atoms of one or more other elements such Parity) Measure of the amount of goods and ton) and animal organisms (zooplankton) that
as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phospho- services that a country’s average citizen could float in aquatic ecosystems.
rus, chlorine, and fluorine. All other compounds buy in the United States.
are called inorganic compounds. point source Single identifiable source that
perennial Plant that can live for more than discharges pollutants into the environment. Ex-
organism Any form of life. 2 years. Compare annual. amples include the smokestack of a power plant
or an industrial plant, drainpipe of a meatpack-
output Matter, energy, or information leaving permafrost Perennially frozen layer of the ing plant, chimney of a house, or exhaust pipe
a system. Compare input, throughput. soil that forms when the water there freezes. of an automobile. Compare nonpoint source.
It is found in arctic tundra.
output pollution control See pollution cleanup. pollutant Particular chemical or form of
perpetual resource Essentially inexhaust- energy that can adversely affect the health,
overfishing Harvesting so many fish of a spe- ible resource on a human time scale because survival, or activities of humans or other living
cies, especially immature individuals, that not it is renewed continuously. Solar energy is an organisms. See pollution.
enough breeding stock is left to replenish the example. Compare nonrenewable resource, renew-
species and it becomes unprofitable to harvest able resource. pollution Undesirable change in the physi-
them. cal, chemical, or biological characteristics of air,
persistence (1) the ability of a living system, water, soil, or food that can adversely affect the
overgrazing Destruction of vegetation when such as a grassland or a forest, to survive moder- health, survival, or activities of humans or other
too many grazing animals feed too long and ate disturbances (2) the tendency for a pollutant living organisms.
exceed the carrying capacity of a rangeland or to stay in the air, water, soil, or body. Compare
pasture area. constancy, resilience. pollution cleanup Device or process that re-
moves or reduces the level of a pollutant after it
ozone (O3) Colorless and highly reactive gas pest Unwanted organism that directly or indi- has been produced or has entered the environ-
and a major component of photochemical smog. rectly interferes with human activities. ment. Examples include automobile emission
Also found in the ozone layer in the strato- control devices and sewage treatment plants.
sphere. See photochemical smog. petroleum See crude oil. Compare pollution prevention.

ozone layer Layer of gaseous ozone (O3) in phosphorus cycle Cyclic movement of pollution prevention Device, process, or
the stratosphere that protects life on earth by phosphorus in different chemical forms from the strategy used to prevent a potential pollutant
filtering out most harmful ultraviolet radiation environment to organisms and then back to the from forming or entering the environment or to
from the sun. environment. sharply reduce the amount entering the envi-
ronment. Compare pollution cleanup.
paradigm shift Shift in thinking that occurs photosynthesis Complex process that takes
when the majority of scientists in a field or place in cells of green plants. Radiant energy population Group of individual organisms of
related fields agree that a new explanation or from the sun is used to combine carbon dioxide the same species living in a particular area.
theory is better than the old one (CO2) and water (H2O) to produce oxygen (O2),
carbohydrates (such as glucose, C6H12O6), and population change Increase or decrease in
parasite Consumer organism that lives on or other nutrient molecules. Compare aerobic respi- the size of a population. It is equal to (Births ϩ
in, and feeds on, a living plant or animal, known ration, chemosynthesis. Immigration) Ϫ (Deaths ϩ Emigration).
as the host, over an extended period. The
parasite draws nourishment from and gradually physical change Process that alters one population density Number of organisms in
weakens its host; it may or may not kill the host. or more physical properties of an element or a particular population found in a specified area
See parasitism. a compound without changing its chemical or volume.
composition. Examples include changing the
parasitism Interaction between species in size and shape of a sample of matter (crushing population dispersion General pattern in
which one organism, called the parasite, preys ice and cutting aluminum foil) and changing which the members of a population are arranged
on another organism, called the host, by living a sample of matter from one physical state to throughout its habitat.
on or in the host. See host, parasite. another (boiling and freezing water). Compare
chemical change, nuclear change. population distribution Variation of popula-
pathogen Living organism that can cause tion density over a particular geographic area or
disease in another organism. Examples include phytoplankton Small, drifting plants, mostly volume. For example, a country has a high popu-
bacteria, viruses, and parasites. algae and bacteria, found in aquatic ecosystems. lation density in its urban areas and a much lower
Compare plankton, zooplankton. population density in rural areas.
peer review Process of scientists reporting
details of the methods and models they used,

GLOSSARY G9

population dynamics Major abiotic and teria) to manufacture the organic compounds reforestation Renewal of trees and other
biotic factors that tend to increase or decrease it needs as nutrients from simple inorganic types of vegetation on land where trees have
the population size and affect the age and sex compounds obtained from its environment. been removed; can be done naturally by seeds
composition of a species. Compare consumer, decomposer. from nearby trees or artificially by planting seeds
or seedlings.
population size Number of individuals mak- prokaryotic cell Cell containing no distinct
ing up a population’s gene pool. nucleus or organelles. Compare eukaryotic cell. reliable science Concepts and ideas that are
widely accepted by experts in a particular field
positive feedback loop Feedback loop that proton (p) Positively charged particle in the of the natural or social sciences. Compare tenta-
causes a system to change further in the same nuclei of all atoms. Each proton has a relative tive science, unreliable science.
direction. Compare negative feedback loop. mass of 1 and a single positive charge. Compare
electron, neutron. renewable resource Resource that can be
potential energy Energy stored in an object replenished rapidly (hours to several decades)
because of its position or the position of its parts. pyramid of energy flow Diagram represent- through natural processes as long as it is not
Compare kinetic energy. ing the flow of energy through each trophic used up faster than it is replaced. Examples
level in a food chain or food web. With each include trees in forests, grasses in grasslands,
poverty Inability to meet basic needs for food, energy transfer, only a small part (typically wild animals, fresh surface water in lakes and
clothing, and shelter. 10%) of the usable energy entering one trophic streams, most groundwater, fresh air, and fertile
level is transferred to the organisms at the next soil. If such a resource is used faster than it is
prairie See grassland. trophic level. replenished, it can be depleted and converted
into a nonrenewable resource. Compare nonre-
precautionary principle When there is sig- radioactive decay Change of a radioisotope newable resource and perpetual resource. See also
nificant scientific uncertainty about potentially to a different isotope by the emission of radio- environmental degradation.
serious harm from chemicals or technologies, activity.
decision makers should act to prevent harm replacement-level fertility Average number
to humans and the environment. See pollution radioactive isotope See radioisotope. of children a couple must bear to replace them-
prevention. selves. The average for a country or the world
radioactivity Nuclear change in which un- usually is slightly higher than two children per
precipitation Water in the form of rain, sleet, stable nuclei of atoms spontaneously shoot out couple (2.1 in the United States and 2.5 in some
hail, and snow that falls from the atmosphere “chunks” of mass, energy, or both at a fixed rate. developing countries) mostly because some
onto land and bodies of water. The three principal types of radioactivity are children die before reaching their reproductive
gamma rays and fast-moving alpha particles and years. See also total fertility rate.
predation Interaction in which an organism beta particles.
of one species (the predator) captures and feeds reproduction Production of offspring by one
on parts or all of an organism of another species radioisotope Isotope of an atom that sponta- or more parents.
(the prey). neously emits one or more types of radioactivity
(alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays). reproductive isolation Long-term geo-
predator Organism that captures and feeds graphic separation of members of a particular
on parts or all of an organism of another species rain shadow effect Low precipitation on sexually reproducing species.
(the prey). the leeward side of a mountain when prevail-
ing winds flow up and over a high mountain or reproductive potential See biotic potential.
predator–prey relationship Relationship range of high mountains, creating semiarid and
that has evolved between two organisms, in arid conditions on the leeward side of a high resilience Ability of a living system to be
which one organism has become the prey for mountain range. restored through secondary succession after a
the other, the latter called the predator. See moderate disturbance.
predator, prey. rangeland Land that supplies forage or veg-
etation (grasses, grass-like plants, and shrubs) resource Anything obtained from the envi-
prey Organism that is captured and serves as for grazing and browsing animals and is not ronment to meet human needs and wants. It
a source of food for an organism of another spe- intensively managed. Compare feedlot, pasture. can also be applied to other species.
cies (the predator).
range of tolerance Range of chemical and resource partitioning Process of dividing up
primary consumer Organism that feeds on physical conditions that must be maintained for resources in an ecosystem so that species with sim-
all or part of plants (herbivore) or on other pro- populations of a particular species to stay alive ilar needs (overlapping ecological niches) use the
ducers. Compare detritivore, omnivore, secondary and grow, develop, and function normally. See same scarce resources at different times, in differ-
consumer. law of tolerance. ent ways, or in different places. See ecological niche,
fundamental niche, realized niche.
primary productivity See gross primary pro- rare species Species that has naturally small
ductivity, net primary productivity. numbers of individuals (often because of limited resource productivity See material efficiency.
geographic ranges or low population densities)
primary succession Ecological succession in or that has been locally depleted by human respiration See aerobic respiration.
a bare area that has never been occupied by a activities.
community of organisms. See ecological succession. restoration ecology Research and scientific
Compare secondary succession. realized niche Parts of the fundamental niche study devoted to restoring, repairing, and recon-
of a species that are actually used by that spe- structing damaged ecosystems.
principles of sustainability Principles by cies. See ecological niche, fundamental niche.
which nature has sustained itself for billions of reuse Using a product over and over again in
years by relying on solar energy, biodiversity, reconciliation ecology Science of invent- the same form. An example is collecting, wash-
population regulation, and nutrient recycling. ing, establishing, and maintaining habitats to ing, and refilling glass beverage bottles. Compare
conserve species diversity in places where people recycling.
private property resource Land, mineral, live, work, or play.
or other resource owned by individuals or by riparian zones Thin strips and patches of
a firm. Compare common property resource, open ac- recycling Collecting and reprocessing a re- vegetation that surround streams. They are very
cess renewable resource. source so that it can be made into new prod- important habitats and resources for wildlife.
ucts. An example is collecting aluminum cans,
probability Mathematical statement about melting them down, and using the aluminum r-selected species Species that reproduce
how likely it is that something will happen. to make new cans or other aluminum products. early in their life span and produce large num-
Compare reuse. bers of usually small and short-lived offspring in
producer Organism that uses solar energy a short period. Compare K-selected species.
(green plants) or chemical energy (some bac-

G10 GLOSSARY

r-strategists See r-selected species. to lower-quality, more dispersed, less useful species equilibrium model See theory of
energy—usually low-temperature heat that island biogeography.
rule of 70 Doubling time (in years) ϭ flows into the environment; you cannot break
70/(percentage growth rate). See doubling time, even in terms of energy quality. See first law of species evenness Relative abundance of indi-
exponential growth. thermodynamics. viduals within each of the species in a commu-
nity. See species diversity. Compare species richness.
salinity Amount of various salts dissolved in a selective cutting Cutting of intermediate-
given volume of water. aged, mature, or diseased trees in an uneven- species richness Number of different species
aged forest stand, either singly or in small contained in a community. See species diversity.
salinization Accumulation of salts in soil that groups. This encourages the growth of younger Compare species evenness.
can eventually make the soil unable to support trees and maintains an uneven-aged stand.
plant growth. Compare clear-cutting, strip cutting. S-shaped curve Leveling off of an expo-
nential, J-shaped curve when a rapidly grow-
scavenger Organism that feeds on dead or- sexual reproduction Reproduction in organ- ing population reaches or exceeds the carrying
ganisms that were killed by other organisms or isms that produce offspring by combining sex capacity of its environment and ceases to grow.
died naturally. Examples include vultures, flies, cells or gametes (such as ovum and sperm) from
and crows. Compare detritivore. both parents. It produces offspring that have statistics Mathematical tools used to collect,
combinations of traits from their parents. Com- organize, and interpret numerical data.
science Attempts to discover order in nature pare asexual reproduction.
and use that knowledge to make predictions stewardship worldview Worldview holding
about what is likely to happen in nature. See social capital Result of getting people with that we can manage the earth for our benefit
reliable science, scientific data, scientific hypothesis, sci- different views and values to talk and listen to but that we have an ethical responsibility to be
entific law, scientific methods, scientific model, scientific one another, find common ground based on caring and responsible managers, or stewards,
theory, tentative science, unreliable science. understanding and trust, and work together to of the earth. It calls for encouraging environ-
solve environmental and other problems. mentally beneficial forms of economic growth
scientific data Facts obtained by making ob- and discouraging environmentally harmful
servations and measurements. Compare scientific soil Complex mixture of inorganic minerals forms. Compare deep ecology worldview, environ-
hypothesis, scientific law, scientific methods, scientific (clay, silt, pebbles, and sand), decaying organic mental wisdom worldview, planetary management
model, scientific theory. matter, water, air, and living organisms. worldview.

scientific hypothesis An educated guess that solar capital Solar energy that warms the stratosphere Second layer of the atmosphere,
attempts to explain a scientific law or certain sci- planet and supports photosynthesis, the process extending about 17–48 kilometers (11–30 miles)
entific observations. Compare scientific data, scientific that plants use to provide food for themselves above the earth’s surface. It contains small
law, scientific methods, scientific model, scientific theory. and for us and other animals. This direct input amounts of gaseous ozone (O3), which filters
of solar energy also produces indirect forms of out about 95% of the incoming harmful ultra-
scientific law Description of what scientists renewable solar energy such as wind and flow- violet radiation emitted by the sun. Compare
find happening in nature repeatedly in the same ing water. Compare natural capital. troposphere.
way, without known exception. See first law of
thermodynamics, law of conservation of matter, second solar energy Direct radiant energy from the stream Flowing body of surface water.
law of thermodynamics. Compare scientific data, sun and a number of indirect forms of energy Examples are creeks and rivers.
scientific hypothesis, scientific methods, scientific model, produced by the direct input of such radiant
scientific theory. energy. Principal indirect forms of solar energy subatomic particles Extremely small par-
include wind, falling and flowing water (hydro- ticles—electrons, protons, and neutrons—that
scientific methods The ways scientists gather power), and biomass (solar energy converted make up the internal structure of atoms.
data and formulate and test scientific hypothe- into chemical energy stored in the chemical
ses, models, theories, and laws. See scientific data, bonds of organic compounds in trees and other succession See ecological succession, primary suc-
scientific hypothesis, scientific law, scientific model, plants)—none of which would exist without cession, secondary succession.
scientific theory. direct solar energy.
succulent plants Plants, such as desert cacti,
scientific model A simulation of complex sound science See reliable science. that survive in dry climates by having no leaves,
processes and systems. Many are mathematical thus reducing the loss of scarce water. They
models that are run and tested using computers. specialist species Species with a narrow eco- store water and use sunlight to produce the
logical niche. They may be able to live in only food they need in the thick, fleshy tissue of their
scientific theory A well-tested and widely one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range green stems and branches. Compare deciduous
accepted scientific hypothesis. Compare scientific of climatic and other environmental conditions, plants, evergreen plants.
data, scientific hypothesis, scientific law, scientific meth- or use only one type or a few types of food.
ods, scientific model. Compare generalist species. sulfur cycle Cyclic movement of sulfur in
various chemical forms from the environment to
secondary consumer Organism that feeds speciation Formation of two species from one organisms and then back to the environment.
only on primary consumers. Compare detritivore, species because of divergent natural selection in
omnivore, primary consumer. response to changes in environmental condi- sulfur dioxide (SO2) Colorless gas with an
tions; usually takes thousands of years. Compare irritating odor. About one-third of the SO2 in
secondary succession Ecological succession extinction. the atmosphere comes from natural sources as
in an area in which natural vegetation has been part of the sulfur cycle. The other two-thirds
removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom species Group of similar organisms, and for come from human sources, mostly combustion
sediment has not been destroyed. See ecological sexually reproducing organisms, they are a set of sulfur-containing coal in electric power and
succession. Compare primary succession. of individuals that can mate and produce fertile industrial plants and from oil refining and smelt-
offspring. Every organism is a member of a ing of sulfide ores.
second-growth forest Stands of trees result- certain species.
ing from secondary ecological succession. Com- surface fire Forest fire that burns only under-
pare old-growth forest, tree farm. species diversity Number of different species growth and leaf litter on the forest floor. Com-
(species richness) combined with the relative pare crown fire, ground fire. See controlled burning.
second law of energy See second law of ther- abundance of individuals within each of those
modynamics. species (species evenness) in a given area. See surface water Precipitation that does not in-
biodiversity, species evenness, species richness. Com- filtrate the ground or return to the atmosphere
second law of thermodynamics In any pare ecological diversity, genetic diversity. by evaporation or transpiration. See runoff.
conversion of heat energy to useful work, some Compare groundwater.
of the initial energy input is always degraded

GLOSSARY G11

survivorship curve Graph showing the grate to the island and the rate at which species belong to the first trophic level, and all herbi-
number of survivors in different age groups for a become extinct, or cease to exist, on the island. vores belong to the second trophic level in a
particular species. See species richness. food chain or a food web.

sustainability Ability of earth’s various third and higher-level consumers Carni- troposphere Innermost layer of the atmo-
systems, including human cultural systems and vores such as tigers and wolves that feed on the sphere. It contains about 75% of the mass of
economies, to survive and adapt to changing flesh of carnivores. earth’s air and extends about 17 kilometers
environmental conditions indefinitely. (11 miles) above sea level. Compare stratosphere.
threatened species Wild species that is still
sustainable development See environmen- abundant in its natural range but is likely to unreliable science Scientific results or hy-
tally sustainable economic development. become endangered because of a decline in potheses presented as reliable science but not
numbers. Compare endangered species. having undergone the rigors of the peer review
sustainable living Taking no more poten- process. Compare reliable science, tentative
tially renewable resources from the natural threshold effect Harmful or fatal effect of a science.
world than can be replenished naturally and not small change in environmental conditions that
overloading the capacity of the environment to exceeds the limit of tolerance of an organism or upwelling Movement of nutrient-rich bottom
cleanse and renew itself by natural processes. population of a species. See law of tolerance. water to the ocean’s surface. It can occur far
from shore but usually takes place along cer-
sustainable society Society that manages throughput Rate of flow of matter, energy, or tain steep coastal areas where the surface layer
its economy and population size without doing information through a system. Compare input, of ocean water is pushed away from shore and
irreparable environmental harm by overloading output. replaced by cold, nutrient-rich bottom water.
the planet’s ability to absorb environmental in-
sults, replenish its resources, and sustain human throwaway society See high-throughput utilitarian value See instrumental value.
and other forms of life over a specified period, economy.
usually hundreds to thousands of years. During warm front Boundary between an advancing
this period, the society satisfies the needs of its tipping point Threshold level at which an warm air mass and the cooler one it is replacing.
people without depleting natural resources and environmental problem causes a fundamental Because warm air is less dense than cool air, an
thereby jeopardizing the prospects of current and irreversible shift in the behavior of a system. advancing warm front rises over a mass of cool
and future generations of humans and other air. Compare cold front.
species. tolerance limits Minimum and maximum
limits for physical conditions (such as tempera- water cycle See hydrologic cycle.
sustainable yield (sustained yield) Highest ture) and concentrations of chemical substances
rate at which a potentially renewable resource beyond which no members of a particular spe- watershed Land area that delivers water,
can be used indefinitely without reducing cies can survive. See law of tolerance. sediment, and dissolved substances via small
its available supply. See also environmental streams to a major stream (river).
degradation. total fertility rate (TFR) Estimate of the
average number of children who will be born weather Short-term changes in the tempera-
synergistic interaction Interaction of two or alive to a woman during her lifetime if she ture, barometric pressure, humidity, precipita-
more factors or processes so that the combined passes through all her childbearing years (ages tion, sunshine, cloud cover, wind direction
effect is greater than the sum of their separate 15–44) conforming to age-specific fertility rates and speed, and other conditions in the tro-
effects. of a given year. More simply, it is an estimate of posphere at a given place and time. Compare
the average number of children that women in climate.
system Set of components that function and a given population will have during their child-
interact in some regular and theoretically pre- bearing years. wetland Land that is covered all or part of the
dictable manner. time with salt water or fresh water, excluding
tragedy of the commons Depletion or deg- streams, lakes, and the open ocean. See coastal
temperature Measure of the average speed radation of a potentially renewable resource to wetland, inland wetland.
of motion of the atoms, ions, or molecules in which people have free and unmanaged access.
a substance or combination of substances at a An example is the depletion of commercially de- wilderness Area where the earth and its
given moment. Compare heat. sirable fish species in the open ocean beyond ar- ecosystems have not been seriously disturbed by
eas controlled by coastal countries. See common- humans and where humans are only temporary
tentative science Preliminary scientific data, property resource, open access renewable resource. visitors.
hypotheses, and models that have not been
widely tested and accepted. Compare reliable trait Characteristic passed on from parents to wildlife All free, undomesticated species.
science, unreliable science. offspring during reproduction in an animal or Sometimes the term is used to describe animals
plant. only.
terrestrial Pertaining to land. Compare
aquatic. transpiration Process in which water is wildlife resources Wildlife species that
absorbed by the root systems of plants, moves have actual or potential economic value to
tertiary (higher-level) consumers Animals up through the plants, passes through pores people.
that feed on animal-eating animals. They feed (stomata) in their leaves or other parts, and
at high trophic levels in food chains and webs. evaporates into the atmosphere as water vapor. wild species Species found in the natural
Examples include hawks, lions, bass, and sharks. environment. Compare domesticated species.
Compare detritivore, primary consumer, secondary tree farm See tree plantation.
consumer. worldview How people think the world
tree plantation Site planted with one or works and what they think their role in the
theory of evolution Widely accepted scientif- only a few tree species in an even-aged stand. world should be. See environmental wisdom world-
ic idea that all life forms developed from earlier When the stand matures it is usually harvested view, planetary management worldview, stewardship
life forms. It is the way most biologists explain by clear-cutting and then replanted. These farms worldview.
how life has changed over the past 3.6–3.8 bil- normally raise rapidly growing tree species for
lion years and why it is so diverse today. fuelwood, timber, or pulpwood. Compare old- zooplankton Animal plankton; small floating
growth forest, second-growth forest. herbivores that feed on plant plankton (phyto-
theory of island biogeography Widely ac- plankton). Compare phytoplankton.
cepted scientific theory holding that the number trophic level All organisms that are the same
of different species (species richness) found on number of energy transfers away from the origi-
an island is determined by the interactions of nal source of energy (for example, sunlight) that
two factors: the rate at which new species immi- enters an ecosystem. For example, all producers

G12 GLOSSARY

Index

Note: Page numbers in boldface refer to boldface Atomic number, 36 Biophobia, 192
terms in the text. Page numbers followed by Atomic theory, 35 Biosphere, 52f, 53, 55
italicized f, t, or b indicate figures, tables, Atoms, 35–36, 36f, 52f
and boxes. Audubon, John James, 183 nutrients cycle in, 65
Autotrophs, 58 water cycles through, 65–67
Abiotic, 57, 57f Biosphere reserves, 237, 237f
Abyssal zone, 170 Baby boom (U.S.), 127, 131–32, 132f Biotic, 57, 57f
Acid deposition, 69, 71 Baby bust, 132 Biotic potential of species, 109
Acidic solution, 37 Background extinction, 87–88, 185 Birds, decline of species, 195–97
Acidity, 37 Bacon, Sir Francis, 119 Birth dearth, 132
Acid rain, 69 Bacteria Birth rate, 126
Adaptation, 82 factors affecting, 128
Adaptive trait, 82 natural selection and, 82, 83f Blackfoot Challenge, 245
Advocates for Animals, 205b nitrogen fixing and, 68–69 Blackfoot River Valley and reconciliation
Aerobic respiration, 59, 67 Balance of nature, 118
Aesthetic value, 190, 191f Baleen whales, 257, 258f ecology, 244–45
Affluence Barrier beaches, 168–69, 170f Black rhinoceros (mutualism), 106f
Barrier islands, 168 Bluefin tuna, 255
in China, 15 Baseline data, 73, 74 Blue whales, 258
environmental effects of, 19 Basic solution, 37 Boom-and-bust population cycles, 113
Age-structure diagram, 130, 131f, 132f Bathyal zone, 170 Boreal forests, 155
Age structure of populations, 109, 130–33 Bats, ecological roles of, 192b Bormann, F. Herbert, 28
Agricultural revolution, 16 Bats and moths (coevolution), 105f Botanical gardens, 209
AIDS and population decline, 132–33 Baum, Julia, 96 Bottom-up population regulation, 113, 114f
Air circulation, 141, 142f, 143–44 Beavers, 96 Brazil, and tropical forests, 224–27
Air plants, 106, 106f Bees Broadleaf deciduous trees, 155
Alien species, 92 colony collapse disorder, 202–3 Broadleaf evergreen plants, 153
Alligator, American, 77, 77f, 97 nonnative, 93 Brown, Lester R., 15, 137
Alpine tundra, 152 Benthic zone, 174, 175f Brown tree snake, 110–11
American bald eagle, 202 Benthos, 164 Buffer zone concept, 236–37, 237f
Amino acids, 38 Bequest value, 190 Burmese python snake, 200
Ammonification, 69 Bias and scientists, 35 Bush, George W., 261
Amphibians, vanishing, 93–95, 94f Biocultural restoration, 242b Bush meat, 205–6, 206f
Anaerobic respiration, 59 Biodegradable pollutants, 16 Bycatch, 255
Animal farms, 209 Biodiversity, 23, 23f, 78–80
Applied ecology, 244 aquatic, 162–80, 250–72 California condor, 210
Aquariums, 209–10 coral reefs and, 170 Callender, Jim, 266b
Aquatic biodiversity, 162–80 climate and, 141–59 Camouflage, 102
Aquatic life zones, 56, 163 components of, 79, 79f Captive breeding, 209–10
organisms in, 164–65 ecosystem approach to preserving, 239–45 Carbon cycle, 67–68, 68f
types of, 163–64 extinction and, 87–89, 183–211 Carnivores, 59
Aquatic systems, priorities for sustaining, 271–72 Carrying capacity (K) in populations, 110,
general nature of, 163–65 speciation and, 86
importance of, 165–70 species diversity and, 89–91 111, 112f
invasive species in, 252, 252f, 253b, 269–70 wilderness and, 238 Case study. See also Core case study
sustaining biodiversity of, 250–72 Biodiversity-friendly development, 239
threats to, 250–57 Biodiversity hotspots, 239, 240, 241f biodiversity hotspot in East Africa, 240
Aquifers, 65 Biogeochemical cycles, 65 Blackfoot River Valley, 244–45
Arboreta, 209 Biological capacity, 14 California condor, 210
Arctic tundra, 150, 151f, 152, 178 Biological community, 53 Chattanooga, Tennessee, and environmental
Argentina fire ant, 199–200, 200f Biological diversity. See biodiversity
Army cutworm moths and grizzly bears, 102 Biological evolution, 80 transformation, 21–22, 21f
Artificial coral reef, 261b Biological extinction, 185, 255 Chesapeake Bay, 172–73, 173f
Artificial selection, 88b Biomass, 62 China’s new affluent consumers, 15–16
Asian carp, 270 Biomes, 55, 55f, 145 China’s one-child policy, 135–36
Asian swamp eel, 252 air circulation, ocean currents, and, 144f cockroaches, 92
Asteroid collisions with earth, 85 climate’s effect on, 145–57 Costa Rica and conservation, 237–38
Atmosphere, 54 major types of, 146f decline of bird species, 195–97
ocean and, 143, 144f wind, climate, and, 140 Endangered Species Act, U.S., 207–8
Atomic charge, 36 Biophilia, 192 Everglades restoration, 267–68
forest regrowth in U.S., 223
fuelwood and deforestation, 229
grazing, urban development in American

West, 233

INDEX I1

Case study (cont’d) Collins Pine, 228b Culture, 16
Great Lakes and invasive species, 269–70 Colonizing species, 115 Currents (ocean), 143, 143f, 144f
honeybees disappearing, 202–3 Colony collapse disorder, 202–3 Curtis Prairie, 243, 243f
human species and evolution, 83 Columbia River, 270 Cyclic population fluctuations, 113
industrial fish harvesting, 256–57 Comanagement of fisheries, 264
inland wetlands losses in United States, 179 Commensalism, 101, 106, 106f Dams, New Orleans and flood control,
kudzu vine, 198 Commercial extinction, 254 177–78
marine turtles, 259–60 Commercial fishing methods, 256–57, 256f
New Orleans and flood control, 177–78 Common property rights, 13 Darwin, Charles, 78, 80, 101
polar bears and global warming, 203 Community (biological), 52f, 53 Data, 30
sharks, protection of, 96–97 DDT, 201, 201f
slowing population growth in India, 136–37 ecosystems, environmental changes, and, Death rate, 126
United States and immigration, 129–30 115–19
U.S. national parks, stresses on, 234–35 AIDS and, 132–33
vanishing amphibians, 93–95 Community-based conservation, 244 factors affecting, 128–29
whales, 257–59 Competition Debt-for-nature swaps, 230–31
white-tailed deer populations, 114–15 Decomposers, 59, 60f, 61, 164
wilderness protection in U.S., 238–39 reduction by natural selection, 107–8 Deductive reasoning, 32
Competitive exclusion principle, 102 Deforestation, 193, 222–23, 222f, 223f
Catastrophic events Complex carbohydrates, 38 fuelwood and, 229
evolution and, 85 Compounds, 35 of tropical forests, 223–27, 224f, 225f, 226f
extinction and, 88–89 Deltas, 177–78
important to environmental science, 37t Demographic bottleneck, 113
Cells (atmospheric), 141, 144, 144f inorganic, 38 Demographic transition, 133, 134f
Cells (biological), 38, 38f, 51, 52f organic, 38 Demographic trap, 69
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan Denitrification, 69
eukaryotic, 51, 52f Density-dependent population controls, 113
prokaryotic, 51, 52f (CERP), 268 Density independent, 113
Cell theory, 51 Conduction, 41 Deposit feeders, 170
Chain reaction, 40 Conference on Population and Development Desert(s), 148
Chaparral, 152–53, 152f types of, 148, 149f
Chattanooga, Tennessee, 21–22, 21f (U.N.), 134–35 Detritivores, 59, 60f
China Coniferous evergreen trees, 156 Detritus, 59
affluence and consumers, 15–16, 19 Conservation, 12 Detritus feeders, 59, 61
air pollutants from, 140 Conservation concessions, 231 Developed countries, 10–11, 11f
giant panda, 92 Conservation International, 239 Developing countries, 11, 11f
one-child policy and, 135–36 Consumers, in ecosystems, 59 deforestation and, 222
per capita ecological footprint, 14, 122, 136 Consumption, and species extinctions, 201 population growth and, 133–34
population and resource use per person, 122f Continental shelf, 166 Dieback (crash), 111, 112f
replacement-level fertility and, 135 Controlled scientific experiment, 28, 28f Differential reproduction, 82
Chemical bonds, 37 Control group, 28 Discontinuity, 46
Chemical change in matter, 40 Control site, 28 Dissolved oxygen content, 58
Chemical composition, 39 Convection, 42 DMS, 71
Chemical formula, 37 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 207 DNA, 38, 38f, 88b
Chemical reaction, 40 Convention on International Trade in using to protect elephants, 191b
Chemical warfare by species, 102 Dominican Republic, whale watching
Chemosynthesis, 59 Endangered Species (CITES), 206–7, 257
Chesapeake Bay, 172–73, 173f Coral bleaching, 162 in, 259
Chromosomes, 38, 38f Coral reefs, 162, 170, 171f, 180, 250 Drainage basin, 176
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 38 Drift-net fishing, 257
Clear-cutting, 219, 219f, 220f artificial, 261b Dubos, René, 6
Climate, 141 Core case study Dunes, 169, 170f
biomes, wind, and, 140
biodiversity and, 141–59 American alligator’s ecological role, 77, 97 Early (pioneer) successional species, 116
effect on biomes, 145–57 controlled scientific experiment, 28, 47 Earth
Climate change, 5. See also Global warming coral reefs, 162, 180
evolution and, 84–85, 85f, 86b disappearing tropical rain forests, 50, 74 biomes of, 146f
extinction of toad, frog species and, 87 exponential growth, 5, 24 climate zones of, 142f
forests and, 222, 222f, 230b gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park, conditions for life and, 86b
as threat to aquatic systems, 254 life-support system of, 54–55
vanishing amphibians and, 95 214, 245 population and resource consumption, 123
Climate zones of earth, 142f Nile perch in Lake Victoria, 249, 253, 272 surface of and effect on climate, 144–45, 145f
Climax community, 118 passenger pigeon, 183, 211 Earthquakes, 84
Clownfish (mutualism), 106f population of earth and resource East Africa
Clumping, population dispersion and, 108, 109f biodiversity hotspot, 240
Cockroaches, 92, 92f consumption, 122, 137 Nile perch in Lake Victoria, 249
Coastal coniferous forests, 156 southern sea otters, 100, 119 Easter Island, 31b
Coastal wetlands, 166 wind, climate, and biomes, 140, 159 Ecological deficit, 14
Coastal zone, 165 Costanza, Robert, 218 Ecological efficiency, 62
Coevolution, 104, 105f Costa Rica, 87 Ecological extinction, 185
Cold deserts, 148, 149f conservation and, 237–38, 238f Ecological footprint, 14–16
Cold forests, 153, 154f, 155–56 leatherback turtle nesting areas in, 260 cultural changes and, 16
Cold grasslands, 150–152, 151f, 152f tropical dry forest restoration, 242b Ecological footprint analysis, 26, 76, 139,
Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, 180
Crabtree, Robert, 235b 247, 274
Crown fires, 220–21, 220f
Crude birth rate, 126
Crude death rate, 126
Crust, earth’s, 55
Cultural carrying capacity, 125
Cultural eutrophication, 175

I2 INDEX

Ecological niche, 91, 93f, 101–2 consumption, 42 Facilitation, 118
Ecological restoration, 242, 242b content, 42 Failing states, 229
Ecological services ecosystem and, 61–65 Family planning, 134
efficiency, 43 Feedback, in systems, 44
estimating value of, 218b forms of, 40–42 Feedback loops, in systems, 44–46
of rivers, 270f productivity, 43
Ecological succession, 115, 118b quality, 42, 43, 56 negative (corrective), 45–46, 45f
Ecological value, 191 Energy flow and ecosystems, 60–61, 62 positive, 45, 45f
Ecologists, 72 Energy resources, 13 Feeding level, 58
Ecology, 7, 51, 52 Environment, 6 Fermentation, 59
Economic development, 10 Environmentalism, 8 Fertility rate, 126
Economic growth, 10–11, 14, 24 Environmental decisions, making, 20–21 factors affecting, 128
Economic incentives, to sustain aquatic steps in, 21f Field research, 72
Environmental degradation, 12, 12f Filter feeders, 170
biodiversity, 259 Environmental ethics, 20, 22b Fires in forests, 220–21, 220f, 227–28
Eco-philanthropists, 236 Environmentally sustainable economic First law of thermodynamics, 42, 56, 60
Ecosystem(s), 7–8, 52f, 53 Fish, consumer choices of, 265
development, 11 Fisheries
alligator and, 77, 79 Environmentally sustainable society, 9–11 managing and sustaining, 263–65
carbon cycle and, 67–68 protecting and sustaining, 269–71
communities, change, and, 115–19 and economic growth, 10–11 Fishery populations, 263
energy and, 61–65 Environmental problems Fish exclosure, 253b
energy flow, nutrient cycling and, 60–61 Fish Forever eco-label, 265
food chains, food webs and, 61–62 causes of, 17–21, 18f Fishing, 254–57
forest, threats to, 215–27 and viewpoints of people, 20 regulating harvests, 263–65, 265f
four-point approach to protect, 239 solving, 20–21 Fishprint of Nations 2006, 254
freshwater, 174–79 Environmental refugees, 129 Fitness, in biology, 84
human effects on freshwater, 179 Environmental resistance, 110 Floodplains, 178
human effects on marine, 171–73 Environmental revolution, 16, 24f Floodplain zone (surface water), 176, 177
human effects on terrestrial, 158–59 Environmental science, 6–8 Flowing (lotic) freshwater life zones, 174
limiting factors, 58 fields of study related to, 7t Flows (throughputs), in systems, 44
living and nonliving components, 57–58 goals of, 7 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO),
major components of, 57–60, 60f as interdisciplinary study, 7f
matter and, 65–72 Environmental wisdom worldview, 20 U.N., 222
nitrogen cycle and, 68–70 Environmental worldview, 20 Food chain, 61, 62f
nutrient cycle and, 65 Epiphytes (commensalism), 106, 106f Food web, 61, 63f
phosphorus cycle and, 70 Estuaries, 166, 167f Forage, 231
producers and consumers, 58–59 Ethics Forest fire management, 227–28
production of plant matter and, 64–65 genetic engineering and, 88b Forest fragmentation and old-growth trees, 195b
roles of species in, 91–97 protection of species and, 191–92, 192b Forest management, 227–31
scientific study of, 72–74 Eukaryotic cells, 51, 52f Forest regrowth, 223
species-rich, 90–91 Euphotic zone, 170 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 228b
sulfur cycle and, 70–72 Eutrophic lake, 175, 175f Forest systems, 153
usable energy in food web or chain and, Evaporation, 65
Everglades National Park, 267 cutting of trees in, 219–220
62–64 Everglades restoration, 267–68, 268f economic and ecological services of, 217, 217f
water cycles and, 65–67 Evergreen coniferous forests, 154f, 155–56 management of, 227–31
Ecosystem approach to preserving biodiversity, Evolution threats to, 215–27
biological, 80 types of, 153–56, 154f
239–45, 261 catastrophic events and, 85 value of ecological services of, 217f, 218b
Ecosystem diversity, 79 climate change and, 84–85, 85f, 86b Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada, 267f
Ecosystem services geological processes and, 84, 85f Fossil fuels, 67
myths about, 84 Fossil record, 81, 82f
natural, 240 Evolutionary divergence, 108 Fossils, 81, 82f
priorities for sustaining, 271–72 Exclusive economic zones, 260 Foundation species, 92, 95–96
EcoTimber, 231 Existence value, 190, 191 Founder effect, 113
Eddington, Arthur S., 47 Exotic species, 92 Freshwater life zones, 56, 163–64
Edge habitat, 114 Experiments, 30 human effects on, 179
Egg pulling, 209 controlled, 28 importance of, 174–79
Einstein, Albert, 32 Experimental group, 28 protection of, 271
Eisley, Loren, 163 Experimental site, 28 types of, 174
Electromagnetic radiation, 42 Exponential growth, 5, 110 Frontier science, 33
Electron probability cloud, 36, 36f and fossil fuels use, 5 Fuelwood and deforestation, 229
Electrons (e), 36, 36f of human population, 5f, 123 Functional diversity, 79
Elements, 35 Extinction, 87
important to environmental science, 36t biodiversity and, 87–89 Gender imbalance in China, 136
Elephants, protecting using DNA, 191b mass, 88–89, 183, 185 Gene banks, 208–9
Eliat, Israel, 261b passenger pigeon, 183, 211 Genes, 38, 38f
Emergency action strategy, 239 preventing, reasons for, 189–92 Gene splicing, 88b
Emigration, 129 southern sea otters and, 100 Generalist species, 91, 91f
Endangered species, 186, 187f, 189f of species and human role, 184–89, 193–206 Genetic diversity, 53, 53f, 79
Endangered Species Act, U.S., 188, 207–8, 209b, Extinction rate, 185–86, 186f, 188b
Extreme poverty, 11, 11f small populations and, 113
214, 244, 257 Genetic drift, 113
Endemic species, 87, 193, 240
Energy, 40–43

changes, 42–43

INDEX I3

Genetic engineering, 88b Groundwater, 65 India, slowing population growth in, 136–37
Genetic information, 38, 190 Guanacaste National Park, 242b Indicator species, 92, 93
Genetic makeup of population, changes in, 81–82 Gut inhabitant mutualism, 106 Individuals matter, 9, 22
Genetic resistance, 82, 83f
Genetic traits, changing, 88b Habitat, 53 Aldo Leopold, 22b
Genetic variability, 82 destruction, degradation, and fragmentation, Jane Goodall, 205b
Geographic information system (GIS) software, 193–96 Jim Callender, 266b
Reuven Yosef, 261b
72–73, 73f Habitat conservation plan (HCP), 207 Wangari Maathai, 230b
Geographic isolation, 86, 87f Habitat islands, 90b, 193 Individual transfer rights (ITRs), 264
Geological processes and evolution, 84, 85f Habitat corridors, 237 Inductive reasoning, 32
Geosphere, 55 Haiti, and fuelwood crisis, 229 Industrial fish harvesting, 256–57, 256f
Geothermal energy, 59 Halpern, Benjamin S., 252 Industrial–medical revolution, 16
Glaciers, 65 Halweil, Brian, 272 Inertia, 119
Global air circulation, 142f Harden, Garrett, 13 Infant mortality rate, 128, 129
Global Amphibian Assessment, 94 Harvesting of trees, 219f Information–globalization revolution, 16
Global Earth Observatory System of Systems Hawken, Paul, 123 Inhibition, 118
Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 Inland wetlands, 178–79
(GEOSS), 73 losses in United States, 179
Global Footprint Network, 14 (U.S.), 228 Inorganic compounds, 38
Global ocean, 163 Heat, 41–42 Input pollution control (pollution
Global Treaty on Migratory Species, 257 Heinz Foundation, 74
Global warming, 57, 68, 144. See also Climate Herbivores, 59 prevention), 17
Heritable genetic trait, 82 Inputs, in systems, 44
change Heterotrophs, 59 Insects, importance of, 54b
burning of tropical forests and, 226–27 Higher-level consumers, 59 Instrumental value (of species), 189–91
environmental refugees and, 129 High-quality energy, 42, 56 Integrated coastal management, 173, 262–63
extinction of toad, frog species and, 87 High-quality matter, 39, 39f Interactions among species, 101–7
forests and, 222, 222f High seas, 260
Louisiana coast and, 178, 178f HIPPCO, 193, 251, 252, 254, 269 types, 101
permafrost and, 150, 152 Hoegh-Guldberg, O., 172 commensalism, 106
polar bears and, 203 Home Depot, 231 competition, 101–2
scientific consensus on, 33b Honeybees disappearing, 202–3 mutualism, 106
as threat to kelp forests, 104b Honeycreepers, resource sharing and, 108, 108f parasitism, 105
Golden Gate Park, 244 Horwich, Robert, 244 predation, 102–104
Golden toad, 87, 87f Hotspots, 207 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Gombe National Park, 205b Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 28, 28f,
Goodall, Jane, 204, 205b (IPCC), 33b
Grasslands, 150 37f, 47 International Convention for the Regulation of
management of, 231–33 Human population
types of, 150–152, 151f Whaling, 258
Gravity, 56 factors affecting size of, 125–130 International Convention on Biological
Gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park, growth of, 5, 5f, 124b
growth projections, 125f Diversity, 257
reintroducing, 214, 235b, 245 impact of, 122–37 International Fund for Animal Welfare, 204
Graying of America, 132 slowing growth, 133–37 International treaties, to protect wild species,
Grazing and urban development in American Human species
competing for resources, 102 206–7, 257
West, 233 effects on freshwater ecosystems, 179 International Union for the Conservation of
Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 262f effects on marine ecosystems, 171–73
Great Lakes and invasive species, 269–70, 269f effects on terrestrial ecosystems, 158–59 Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 186,
Green Belt Movement: Sharing the Approach and the mass extinction and, 183 260, 262
natural selection and, 83 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 258
Experience (Maathai), 230b population controls and, 114 Interspecific competition, 101
Green Belt program in Kenya, 230b role in extinction of species, 184–89, 193–206 Intertidal zone, 168–69, 169f, 170f
Green careers Hunt, Terry L., 31 Intrinsic rate of increase (r) in populations, 109
Hunter-gatherers, 16 Intrinsic value, 191
bioprospector, 190 Hurricane Katrina, 177–78 Introduced species, 197–201
ecologist, 72 Hurricanes Invasive species, 92, 197–201
ecosystem modeler, 73 New Orleans and flood control, 177–78 controlling, 201, 201f
ecotourism guide, 190 Hutchinson, G. Evelyn, 51 in aquatic systems, 252, 252f, 253b, 269–70
fishery management, 271 Hydrocarbons, 38 in forests, 221–22, 221f
GIS analyst, 73 Hydrogen bonds, 67b Ionic compounds, 36
limnology, 271 Hydrologic cycle, 65, 66f Ions, 36–37, 37f
paleontologist, 81 Hydrosphere, 55 important to environmental science, 37t
reconciliation ecology specialist, 244 Hydrothermal vents, 59 Irregular population changes, 113
remote sensing analyst, 73 Hypereutrophic (lake), 176 Irruptive population cycles, 113
rooftop garden designer, 244 Hypothesis, scientific, 30 Island biogeography, theory of, 90b, 188b, 194
sustainable forestry, 227 vs. theory, 32 Islands, species richness on, 90b
wetlands restoration expert, 266 Isotopes, 36
wildlife biology, 271 Immigration, 129 radioactive, 40
Greenhouse effect, 144 United States and, 129–30, 129f unstable, 40
Greenhouse gases, 33b, 54, 57, 144 Inbreeding, 113 Israel, artificial reef in, 261b
warming of lower atmosphere and, 144 IUCN-World Conservation Union, 96
Grizzly bears and army cutworm moths, 102 Incandescent lightbulb, 43 Ivory trade, 191b
Gross national product (GDP), 10
Gross primary productivity (GPP), 64 Jane Goodall Institute, 205b
Janzen, Daniel, 242b

I4 INDEX

Kelp forests, 104b Marine aquatic systems. See also Aquatic Natural capital, 8f, 9
Kenaf, 229, 229f systems aquatic zones, 164f
Kenya, and Green Belt program, 230b biodiversity and, 78–80, 79f, 80
Keystone species, 92, 95–96, 100 human effects on, 171–73 biomes of earth, 146f
Killing of wild species, 204–5 importance of, 165–70 carbon cycle, 68f
Kinetic energy, 40–42 Marine fisheries, managing and sustaining, causes of species depletion and extinction,
Kingdoms, 80, 81f 193f
Kiribati, 261 263–65 cells, 52f
Kudzu vine, 198, 200f Marine life zones, 56, 163 climate zones, 142f
K-selected species, 112, 112f Marine protected areas (MNAs), 260–61 cod fishery, 254f
Marine sanctuaries, 260–62 components of ecosystem, 60f
Laboratory research, 73 Marine snow, 170 deforestation, 223f, 225f, 226f
Lakes, 174–76 Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), 265 degradation, 9, 12f, 15f, 50f, 124f, 152f, 158f,
Marine turtles, 259–60 172f, 189f, 193f, 194f, 218f, 223f, 225f, 226f,
protecting and sustaining, 269–71 Marshes, 178 234f, 249f, 251f, 254f
Lake Victoria Mass extinction, 88–89, 183, 185 endangered and threatened species, 187f, 189f
Matter, 35 extinct species, 185f
Nile perch and, 249, 253, 272 forests and road-building, 218f
water hyacinth and, 252f changes in, 39–40 freshwater systems, 174
wetlands and, 265 concentration, 39 gray wolves in Yellowstone, 214, 245
Lake Wingra, 253b consumption, 40 hydrologic cycle, 66f
Land ethic (Leopold), 22b creation and destruction, 40 insects, 54b
Land trust groups, 236 ecosystem and, 65–72 life and vertical zones of ocean, 166f
Large marine systems, 263 life and, 38 marine ecosystems, 165f
Late successional plant species, 117 levels of organization, 52f nature’s pharmacy, 190f
Lathrup, Richard, 253b physical states, 39 Nile perch in Lake Victoria, 249f
Laurance, Bill, 195b structure of, 35–37 ocean bottom, 251f
Law of conservation of energy, 42 Matter quality, 39 off-road vehicle damage, 234f
Law of conservation of matter, 40, 60 Maximum sustained yield (MSY), 263 old-growth forests, 216f
Law of nature, 32 McKibben, Bill, 223 orangutans, 189f
Law of the Sea Treaty, 260 Mead, Margaret, 22 passenger pigeon, 183
Leatherback turtles, 259–60, 260f Megareserves, 238 phosphorus cycle, 71f
Lentic (standing) freshwater life zones, 174 Menander, 74 precipitation and temperature, 147f
Leopold, Aldo, 20, 22b, 22f, 184, 188b, 245 Mesotrophic lakes, 176 prices and, 19–20
Levin, Donald, 186 Metallic mineral resources, 13 rangeland restoration, 233f
Levin, Philip, 186 Microbes, 61b reductions in ranges of species, 194f
Lewison, R. I., 260 Microorganisms, 61b restoration, 233f
Life expectancy, 129 Midsuccessional plant species, 116 species as vital part of, 189–92
Life raft ecosystems, 240 Migration, 129 structure of earth, 55
Life-support system, earth’s, 54–55 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, U.N., 10, 70, 74, subsidies and, 20
biomes and, 55–56 sulfur cycle, 72f
conditions for life, 86b 184, 185, 240, 252 use of, 15f
factors sustaining life on, 56 Mimicry, 103 wetlands restoration, 267f
four spheres of, 54–55 Minimum viable population size, 113
solar energy and, 56–57 Mississippi River, 177–78 Natural ecological restoration, 16
Likens, Gene, 28 Mistletoe (parasitism), 105f Natural ecosystem services, 240
Limiting factor principle, 58 Mitigation banking, 266 Natural greenhouse effect, 33b, 56–57, 68
Limiting factors, 58 Model(s), 30, 73 Natural income, 10
Limnetic zone, 174, 175f Molecular compounds, 37 Natural radioactive decay, 40, 41f
Lipids, 38 Molecule, 37, 52f Natural resources, 8f, 9
Littoral zone, 174, 175f Monogrowth tree plantation, 216f
Local extinction, 185 Monomers, 38 consumption of, 14f
Lofoten fishery, Norway, 263 Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve, 87 Natural selection, 80
Logging, 217–220 Mountains, 157, 157f
Logistic growth in populations, 110, 111b beneficial genetic traits and, 82–83
Longlining, 257 as islands of biodiversity, 157 human species and, 83
Losey, John, 54b Moving energy, 40 limits to adaptation and, 83–84
Lotic (flowing) freshwater life zones, 174 Muddy-boots biology, 72 myths about evolution through, 84
Louisiana coast and global warming, Muir, John, 159 reduction of competition among species and,
Multispecies management, 263
178, 178f Mutagens, 82 107–8
Low-quality energy, 42 Mutations, 82 Natural services, 8f, 9
Low-quality matter, 39, 39f Mutualism, 101, 106, 106f Nature Conservancy, 236, 252, 259, 262
Nature reserves
Maathai, Wangari, 230b in coral reefs, 162
MacArthur H., Robert, 90b, 141 Myers, Norman, 186, 239, 240 designing and connecting, 236–37, 237f
Macromolecules, 38 management of, 234–39
Madison, Wisconsin, 253b National Academy of Sciences, 266, 268 Nekton, 164
Malpai Borderlands, 232 National Forest System (U.S.), 223 Net primary productivity (NPP), 64–65, 64f
Management of forests, 227–31 National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 207 Neutral solution, 37
Mangrove forests, 166, 168f, 168 National parks Neutrons (n), 36, 36f
New Orleans and flood control, 177–78,
protection and restoration of, 255b management of, 234–39, 236f
Mantle, earth’s, 55 threats to, 234–35 177f, 178f
National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, 271 Niche (ecological), 91, 93f
National Wildlife Refuge System, 208
Native species, 92 reduction of overlap, 107, 107f

INDEX I5

Nile perch in Lake Victoria, 249, 253, 272 Phytoplankton, 58, 61, 164 Prescribed fires, 228
Nitrogen cycle, 68–70, 69f Piaster orchaceus sea stars, 95 Prevailing winds, 141, 143
Nitrogen fixation, 68 Pimental, David, 198 Prey, 102
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 68 Pimm, Stuart, 186
Nitrogen input into environment, 70, 70f Pioneer (early) successional species, 116 ways of avoiding predators, 102–3, 103f
Nondegradable pollutants, 16 Pioneering species, 115 Prices, and natural capital, 19–20
Nonmetallic mineral resources, 13 Planetary worldview, 20 Primary consumers, 59
Nonnative species, 92–93 Plankton, 164 Primary ecological succession, 115, 116–17, 116f
Nonpoint sources, 16 Playa Junquillal, Costa Rica, 260 Private property rights, 12–13
Nonrenewable resources, 13–14 Poaching, 204, 204f Probability, 34b, 35
Nonuse value, 190–91 Point sources, 16, 17f Producers, in ecosystems, 58
Nuclear changes in matter, 40, 41f Polar bears and global warming, 203 Profundal zone, 174, 175f
Nuclear fission, 40, 41f Pollination, 95 Prokaryotic cells, 51, 52f
Nuclear fusion, 40, 41f Pollutants, 16 Property (resource) rights, 12–13
Nucleic acids, 38 Proteins, 38
Nucleus (atomic), 36 effects of, 16–17 Protons (p), 36, 36f
Nucleus (cellular), 38f, 51 Pollution, 16–17 Purchasing power, 10
Nutrient cycles, 65 Purchasing power parity (PPP), 10
Nutrient cycling, 9, 9f, 23f, 24, 56, 60–61 aquatic biodiversity and, 252–53, 254f Purple loosestrife, 252
cleanup vs. prevention, 17 Purse-seine fishing, 256–57
Obaid, Thorya, 135 species extinctions and, 201–2, 202f Pyramid of energy flow, 62–63, 63f
Oceans. See also Aquatic life zones, Aquatic as threat to kelp forests, 104b
Pollution cleanup (output pollution Quagga mussel, 270
systems
atmosphere and, 143, 144f control), 17 Radiation (heat), 41
currents, 143, 143f, 144f problems with, 17 Radioactive isotopes, 40
ecological and economic resources of, 165–66 Pollution prevention (input pollution Radioisotopes, 40
global, 163 Rain shadow effect, 145
Ocean life zones, 56 control), 17 Random dispersion, populations and,
Old-growth forest, 215–16, 216f Polymers, 38
Old-growth trees and forest fragmentation, 195b Polyps, 162 108, 109f
Oligotrophic lakes, 174, 175f Poonswad, Pilai, 205 Rangelands, 231–33
Omnivores, 59 Population(s), 52, 52f, 53f
One-child policy in China, 135–36 sustainable management of, 232–33, 233f
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection age structure, 109 Range of tolerance, 57, 58f
changes in size, 109 Rational grazing, 232
(Darwin), 80 dieback (crash), 111, 112f Ray, G. Carleton, 250
Open access renewable resource rights, 13 Population change, 126 Reasoning
Open sea, 170 Population change types, 113–14, 114f
Opportunist species, 112 Population control, 23f, 24, 58 deductive, 32
Optimum sustained yield (OSY), 263 Population decline, 132–33, 133f inductive, 32
Organelles, 51 Population density, 113 Reconciliation ecology, 244
Organic compounds, 38 Population distribution (dispersion), 108, 109f Blackfoot River Valley, 244–45
Organisms, 7, 52f Population dynamics, 108 Red Sea corral reef, 261b
Output pollution control (pollution cleanup), 17 Population growth. See also Human population Recycling, 13–14
Outputs, in systems, 44 age structure and, 130–33 Red Lists, 186
Overfishing, 254–57, 254f aquatic biodiversity and, 252–53 Red Sea Restaurant, 261b
in China, 135–36 Rees, William, 14
marketplace and, 264 developing countries and, 133–34 Reliable science, 33
subsidies and, 264 humans and, 114, 122–37, 124b Remote sensing, 72
Overgrazing, 231–33, 232f in India, 136–37 Renewable resource, 12
Oxpeckers (mutualism), 105f J-curves and S-curves, 109–11, 123 Replacement-level fertility rate, 126
Oysters, 173 limiting by abiotic factors, 58 Reproductive isolation, 86, 87f
limiting factors, 108–15, 111f Reproductive patterns of species, 112
Papermaking alternatives, 229, 229f minimum viable population size, 113 Reproductive time lag, 111
Paradigm shift, 32 older people and, 132 Research frontiers, 35, 250
Parasitism, 101, 105, 105f projections of human population, 125f Reservoirs, 65
Passenger pigeon, 183, 183f, 211 slowing, 133–37 Resilience, 119
Pastures, 231 slowing by empowering women, 135, 135f Resource, 12
Pauly, Daniel, 264 species extinction and, 201 Resource partitioning, 107, 107f
Peer review, 31 United States and, 126–27, 127f, 128f Resource (property) rights, 12–13
Peking willows, 266b young people and, 130–31, 131f Reuse, 13, 13f
Pelican Island, Florida, 208 Population, human, and its impact, 122–37 Riparian zones, 232
Per capita ecological footprint, 14 Potential energy, 40, 42 River of Grass, 267
Per capita GDP, 10 Poverty, 18, 18f River Runs Through It, A, 244–45
Per capita GDP PPP, 10 extreme, 11, 11f Rivers and streams, 176–78
Permafrost, 150 and malnutrition, 18, 19f ecological services of, 270f
Perpetual resource, 12 Phosphorus cycle, 70, 71f protecting and sustaining, 269–71
Persistence, 119 Prairie potholes, 178 RNA, 38
Peterson, Charles “Pete,” 96 Precautionary principle, 210–11, 263 Roadless Rule, 239
pH, 37 Precipitation, 65 Rocky shores, 168
Photosynthesis, 9, 58–59, 67 Predation, 101, 102 Rojstaczer, Stuart, 65
Physical change in matter, 39 Predator, 102, 103–4 Roosevelt, Theodore, 208
Predator–prey relationship, 102 Rosenzweig, Michael L., 244
and natural selection, 103–4

I6 INDEX

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, 262 Sea stars (Piaster orchaceus), 95 Surface fires, 220, 220f
r-selected species, 112, 112f Sea urchins, as threat to kelp forests, 104b Surface runoff, 65
Runoff, 176 Secondary consumers, 59 Surface water, 176–79, 176f
Secondary ecological succession, 115, 117, 117f Sustainability, 8–10
Sacramento Valley, 266b Second law of thermodynamics, 43, 43f, 56, 60
Safina, Carl, 259 Second-growth forest, 216 adaptation and, 85
Sahara Desert, 140, 140f Seed banks, 208–9 American alligator and, 97
Saint Lawrence Seaway, 269 Selective breeding, 88b biodiversity and, 80, 119
Salinity, 58, 163 Selective cutting, 219, 219f climate change, catastrophes and, 85
Salmon, 270 Sharks, protection of, 96–97 constant change and, 118–19
Salt marsh, 166, 167f Short-grass prairies, 150 coral reefs and, 180
Saltwater life zones, 163 Simple carbohydrates, 38 energy flow and, 60
Sample size, 34b Single-variable analysis, 28 ethical obligation to protect species and, 192
Sand County Almanac (Leopold), 22b Slash, 227 exponential growth and, 5, 24
Sandy shores, 168 Smith, Amy, 229 forest management and, 227, 227f
Savanna, 150, 151f Smokey Bear campaign, 227 Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest and, 47
Scenic rivers, 271 Snake River, 270 human activities and, 46–47, 124b
Science, 29 Social capital, 20–21 individuals and, 9
Socolow, Robert, 70 interactions among species and, 100, 101, 119
limitations of, 34–35 Solar capital, 9, 56f limits to population growth and, 58, 109,
and media reporting, 33b Solar energy, 23, 23f, 56–57
results of, 33–34 Soulé, Michael, 190 119, 124b
Science Focus Source zone (surface water), 176 Nile perch in Lake Victoria and, 249, 253, 272
bats, ecological roles of, 192b Southern sea otters, 100, 104b, 110b, 119 nutrient cycling and, 60, 65
carp as invasive species, 253b Specialist species, 91f, 92 passenger pigeon and, 211
changing genetic traits of populations, 88b Speciation, 86 population growth and, 137
conditions for life on earth, 86b protection of natural capital and, 9–10
desert life, 148b biodiversity and, 86 rangeland management and, 232–33, 233f
Easter Island, 31b Species, 7, 51, 80–84 scientific principles of, 23–24, 23f
ecological succession of species, 118b species diversity and, 191
elephants, protecting using DNA, 191b endemic, 87 species-rich ecosystems and, 90–91
Endangered Species Act, U.S., 209b evolution of new, 86–87 tree plantations and, 217
extinction rate, estimating, 188b extinction and, 87–89, 87f, 183–211 tropical rain forests and, 74
forest fragmentation and old-growth t foundation, 92, 95–96 winds and, 159
generalist, 91, 91f wolves in Yellowstone and, 245
rees, 195b indicator, 92, 93 Sustainability (environmental) revolution,
gray wolves, Yellowstone National Park, 235b interactions, 101–6
human population growth, 124b introduced, 197–201 16, 24f
importance of insects, 54b invasive, 92, 197–201, 252, 252f, 253b, Sustainable forest management, 227, 227f
kelp forests, 104b Sustainable rangeland management, 232–33,
mangrove forests, protection and restoration 269–70
keystone, 92, 95–96 233f
of, 255b native, 92 Sustainable seafood, 264
microbes, 61b natural selection and, 80 Sustainable yield, 12
models and systems, 44b nonnative, 92–93 Sustainably grown timber, 228b
scientific consensus on global warming, 33b prone to extinction, 188f Swamps, 178
southern sea otters, 110b protection of wild, 206–11 Synergistic interaction, 46
species richness on islands, 90b richness of, on islands, 90b Synergy, 46
statistics and probability, 34b roles in ecosystems, 91–97 System(s), 44–47
sustainably grown timber, 228b shared resources and, 107–8
tropical dry forest restoration in Costa specialist, 91f, 92 components of, 44
threatened, 186, 189f feedback loops in, 44–46
Rica, 242b as vital part of natural capital, 189–91 models of, 44b
value of ecosystems’ ecological services, 218b Species diversity, 79, 89–91, 224 synergy and, 46
vultures, wild dogs, and rabies, 197b Species equilibrium model, 90b time delays in, 46
water’s unique properties, 67b Species evenness, 89, 89f unintended results of human activities in,
Scientific Certification Systems, 228b Species-rich ecosystems, 90–91
Scientific hypothesis, 30 Species richness, 89, 89f 46–47
vs. theory, 32 Stable population size, 113
Scientific law, 32 Standing (lentic) freshwater life zones, 174 Taigas, 155
Scientific principles of sustainability, 23–24, 23f, Statistics, 34b, 35 Tall-grass prairies, 150
Stewardship worldview, 20 Tectonic plates, 84, 85f
24, 46, 47, 60, 65, 74 Stored energy, 40 Temperate shrubland, 152
Scientific process, 29–32, 30f Stratosphere, 54 Temperate deserts, 148, 149f
Streams and rivers, 176–78 Temperate forests, 153, 154f, 155–56
features of, 31 Strip cutting, 219, 219f Temperate deciduous forests, 153, 154f, 155–56
Scientific reasoning, imagination, Subatomic particles, 36 Temperate grasslands, 150, 151f
Subsidies Temperate rain forests, 156, 157f
and creativity, 32 natural capital and, 20 Tentative science, 33
Scientific testing, 33 overfishing and, 264 TerraMai, 230
Scientific theory, 31, 32 Succulent plants, 148b Terrestrial biodiversity, sustaining, 245f
Sulfur cycle, 70–71, 72f Testing, scientific, 33
vs. hypothesis, 32 Sumaila, U. R., 264 Theory of island biogeography, 90b, 188b, 194
Scientific theories and laws, 32–33 Third-level consumers, 59
Sea anemone (mutualism), 106f Thoreau, Henry David, 24
Seagrass beds, 166 Threatened species, 186, 187f, 189f
Sea lampreys (parasitism), 105f, 269
Seasonal wetlands, 178

INDEX I7

Threshold level, 46 United States Watershed(s), 176
Throughputs (flows), in systems, 44 biodiversity hotspots in, 241f protection of, 271
Tides, 168 immigration and, 129–30, 129f
Tilman, David, 91 infant mortality rate, 129 Watts, Alan, 192
Timber and wood trade, 220, 228b, 228–30 inland wetlands losses in, 179 Wave, 42
Time delays, in systems, 46 per capita ecological footprint, 14 Wavelength, 42
Tipping point, 46, 119 population growth of, 126–27, Weather, 141
Tolerance, 118 127f, 128f Weaver, Warren, 29
Tompkins, Douglas and Kris, 236 wilderness protection in, 238–39 Welland Canal, 269
Toothed whales, 257, 258f Wetlands, 177–79
Top-down population regulation, 113, 114f U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 266, 267, 268
Top predator keystone species, 95 U.S. Endangered Species Act, 188, 207–8, disappearing, 265–66
Total allowable catch (TAC), 264 preserving and restoring, 266–68, 266b, 267f
Total fertility rate (TFR), 126 209b, 214, 244, 257 protecting and sustaining, 265–68
Trade-offs, 9, 21 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), 207, Whales, protection of, 257–59
Tragedy of the commons, 13 Whaling, 257–59, 259f
Transition generation, 24 208, 214 White-tailed deer populations in U.S., 114–15
Transition zone (surface water), 176 U.S. Forest Service (USFS), 223 Wild and Scenic Rivers System, 271
Transpiration, 65 U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act Wilderness, 238
Trawling, 251, 251f, 256 protection of in U.S., 238–39
Treaties of 1972, 257 Wilderness Act of 1964, U.S., 238–39
U.S. National Center for Ecological Analysis Wilderness Society, 22b
to protect marine species, 257 Wildlife refuges, 208
to protect wild species, 206–7 and Synthesis, 171 Wild rivers, 271
Tree farm, 216 U.S. national parks, stresses on, 234–35 Wild species, protection of, 206–11
Tree harvesting methods, 219f U.S. Whale Conservation and Protection Act Wilson, Edward O., 54b, 90b, 184, 186, 188,
Tree of life, 80, 81f
Tree plantation, 216–17, 216f of 1976, 257 192, 211, 271, 272
Trophic levels, 61, 62, 62f Unreliable science, 34 Wind
Tropical deserts, 148, 149f Upwelling, 64, 170
Tropical forests, 153, 154f, 155f, 156f Urban development and grazing in American biomes, climate, and, 140
deforestation of, 223–27, 224f, 225f, 226f Win–Win Ecology: How Earth’s Species Can
protecting from deforestation, 230–31 West, 233
restoration in Costa Rica, 242b Use values, 190, 190f Survive in the Midst of Human Enterprise
Tropical grasslands, 150, 151f (Rosenzweig), 244
Tropical rain forests, 153, 154f, 155f, 156f Van Leeuwenhoek, Antoine, 97 Women
disappearing, 50 Variables, in controlled experiment, 28, 35 slowing population growth by empowering,
Troposphere, 54 Vaughan, Mace, 54b 135, 135f
Tundra, 150, 151f, 152 Venter, J. Craig, 170 World Conservation Union, 186, 197
Turtle excluder devices (TEDs), 260 Vertical zones, 170 World Resources Institute (WRI), 222
Twain, Mark, 141 Vitousek, Peter, 65 World Trade Organization (WTO), 264
Volcanic eruptions, 84 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 14, 262
Ultraplankton, 164 Voyage of the Turtle (Safina ), 259 Worm, Boris, 255
Undergrazing, 232 Vultures, wild dogs, and rabies, 197b
U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP), 22 Yellowstone National Park, gray wolves, 214,
Uniform dispersion, populations and, 108, 109f Wackernagel, Mathis, 14 235b, 245
United Arab Emirates Wallace, Alfred Russel, 80
Wal-Mart, 265 Yosef, Reuven, 261b
per capita ecological footprint, 14 Warblers, resource partitioning and, 107f
Ward, Barbara, 6 Zebra mussel, 269–70, 269f
Water Zooplankton, 164
Zoos, 209–10
properties of, 67b Zooxanthellae, 162
Water cycles, 65–67
Water hyacinth, 252f

I8 INDEX