BATTLE OF THE SEA

ROME ACHIEVES MASTERY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN 49

the battle of NAULOCHUS ROMAN CIVIL WARS

In the course of the civil wars that as the arpax, a catapult that projected in a desperate bid to regain command BATTLE OF NAULOCHUS
succeeded the assassination of Julius grappling irons onto an enemy galley. of the sea, which alone offered him a
Caesar in 44 BCE, Sextus Pompeius, son Agrippa also had his ships’ hulls chance of resisting Octavian’s invasion. Date September 3, 36 BCE
of Pompey the Great, attempted to grab reinforced with beams around the Location Off north coast of Sicily
a share of the spoils. In command of waterline to resist ramming. Almost equal in number, the two Result Crushing victory for Octavian
the Roman fleet, he captured Sicily, a forces approached each other in line
vital source of grain supplies. Octavian, THE POMPEIANS CRUSHED abreast along the Sicilian coast.Agrippa’s COMBATANTS
a member of Rome’s ruling triumvirate, ships were, however, slightly more
entrusted Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa In summer 36 BCE, Octavian launched widely spaced.This enabled them to OCTAVIAN SEXTUS POMPEIUS
with creating a fleet to retake Sicily. an invasion of Sicily with armies from turn Sextus’s flank on the seaward side
Italy and North Africa.Agrippa, who and press their enemy in to the shore. COMMANDERS
Agrippa established a naval base, was to cover the movement of troops As the battle developed into a close-
Portus Julius, near modern-day Naples. and keep their supply lines open, moved packed mêlée,Agrippa’s well-trained Marcus Vipsanius Sextus Pompeius
There he built ships and trained their to a forward base on the Lipari islands. force gained the upper hand. His archers, Agrippa
crews in the latest fighting techniques. From there he made a successful but mounted on towers, shot fire arrows
They learned to use not only the rock- inconclusive attack on part of Sextus’s down onto the enemy. His catapults FORCES
hurling artillery now standard upon fleet at Mylae. Sextus then sent his battered hulls and carved deadly paths
warships, but also a new device known entire naval force to confront Agrippa through crowded decks.The arpax Ships: c.300 Ships: c.300
allowed his men to grapple and board
ships weakened by the missile barrage. LOSSES

c.63–12 BCE When the fighting stopped, 28 Men: unknown Men: unknown
of Sextus’s ships had been sunk and Ships: 3 Ships: 28 sunk,
marcus vipsanius agrippa almost all the rest had been captured. c.255 captured
Only 17 ships escaped out of a fleet
ROMAN NAVAL COMMANDER of around 300 vessels. Sicily fell to Mosaic of Roman war galley
Octavian. Sextus slipped away to the The mosaic shows the helmsman in the stern, the
Agrippa was a friend of Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavian east, but the following year fell into commander standing in the galley’s bow, and armed
from childhood, and became the future emperor’s right-hand the hands of one of Mark Antony’s soldiers ready to board an enemy ship.
man during his rise to power. He made a reputation as a general followers and was summarily executed.
on land before, in 37 BCE, Octavian made him consul and 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
gave him responsibility for creating a fleet to defeat Sextus
Pompeius. His victories over Sextus at Naulochus and Mark

Antony at Actium showed a firm grasp of naval tactics as
well as great powers of organization and leadership.
Much of his later life was spent on campaign in Gaul,
Spain, Germany, and Rome’s eastern provinces.

50 ROMAN NAVAL WARFARE ROMAN CIVIL WARS

the battle of actium

The Battle of Actium was the climax The breakout was planned THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM
of the great power struggle between for August 29, but four
Mark Antony and Octavian for the days of storms delayed Date September 2, 31 BCE
leadership of the Roman world the operation until the Location Ionian Sea, off the Gulf of Abracia,
following the assassination of Julius morning of September 2. western Greece
Caesar in 44 BCE. In the summer of Antony led his war galleys Result Decisive victory for Octavian
31 BCE the forces of Antony and his out of harbor, while
Egyptian ally Cleopatra were cornered transport vessels loaded with COMBATANTS
by Octavian at Actium, a Roman treasure remained in the
colony on the Greek coast. Octavian’s rear under Cleopatra’s OCTAVIAN MARK ANTONY
admiral, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, command. Most unusually, CLEOPATRA VII
who commanded a battle-hardened all of Antony’s galleys had
Roman fleet, pinned Antony’s fleet in their masts and sails on Antony and Cleopatra COMMANDERS
harbor with a close blockade and cut his board—normally these Cleopatra was the last of the dynasty of pharaohs
supply line from Egypt.This allowed were never carried into battle.The plan founded by Ptolemy, one of Alexander the Great’s Marcus Vipsanius Mark Antony
Octavian to ferry an army from Italy was to exploit the expected offshore generals. In order to prevent Egypt from falling to Agrippa
across the Adriatic unchallenged and breeze from the north in order to sail Rome, she used her legendary charms to seduce
to confront Antony on land. off to Egypt and safety. first Julius Caesar, then Mark Antony. FORCES

DESPERATE MEASURES Throughout the morning there grappled closely, many set aflame by Ships: 400 warships, Ships: 230 warships,
was a stand-off, Antony’s fleet staying incendiary devices such as fire arrows. mostly liburnians and mostly quinqueremes
By August,Antony’s soldiers and inshore and waiting for the wind. In the afternoon the long-awaited triremes
seamen had run desperately short of Then, as Agrippa’s ships attempted to breeze got up and Cleopatra seized the
food and other supplies, their ranks outflank their enemy, battle was joined. opportunity to sail her ships through LOSSES
decimated by desertion and disease. The squadron that included Antony’s the center of the blockading line,
Antony and Cleopatra devised a plan flagship, on the right of his line, was which had thinned as battle raged on Men: unknown Men: 5,000 dead
for a breakout by sea, hoping to escape especially hotly engaged. the flanks. Deserting his flagship, which Ships: unknown Ships: 300 vessels of all
back to Egypt with as much as possible had been grappled by the enemy, for types—warships and
of their treasure and their army. Many of AN UNEQUAL CONTEST a lighter vessel, Antony sped after the transports
their ships were in poor condition and, Egyptian queen. Few of his warships
THE AGE OF GALLEYS even after sending out press-gangs to Agrippa’s host of small warships, mostly were able to follow. The leaderless fleet Cleopatra reached Alexandria with
round up able-bodied locals, they were liburnians, were far nimbler than fought on for a while until, heavily around 60 vessels, but, the following
short of oarsmen.Although the least Antony’s hefty quinqueremes, however battered, it surrendered.Antony and summer, abandoned by almost all his
seaworthy ships were burned, the rest these larger galleys provided a high troops, and facing defeat,Antony
were still undermanned. platform for catapults and for soldiers committed suicide.A week later
with bows, spears, and slingshots. Ships Cleopatra did the same.

Cleopatra’s escape
This fanciful representation of the battle shows
Cleopatra fleeing treacherously—a version of Actium
no longer widely accepted. The escape of the
Egyptian queen was rather a pre-planned maneuver.

ROME ACHIEVES MASTERY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN 51

key OCTAVIAN'S CAMP After burning the ships for which he had
OCTAVIAN’S FLEET no crews, Antony embarks all his troops to
try to break through Octavian’s blockade
15–18 small
liburnian vessels ANTONY'S CAMP
15–18 larger
triremes Cleopatra’s galleys are not
drawn up in Antony’s battle
ANTONY’S FLEET line, but stay in the rear
12–14 with the transports
quinqueremes
12–14 At first Octavian’s fleet stays out The two fleets engage
quinqueremes of range of Antony’s archers and
under sail catapults, simply blocking the After an initial stand-off, at about noon Antony
escape route to the sea orders his fleet to move out to engage the enemy.
CLEOPATRA’S FLEET The first stage of the battle involves exchanges of
12–14 Egyptian missiles from a distance—arrows, spears, and
galleys, under sail rocks hurled from catapults.

IONIAN SEA

Gap opens up in the ANTONY'S CAMP The first clashes are
line; Cleopatra directs between Octavian's right
OCTAVIAN'S CAMP her squadron to sail wing and Antony's left
into the space

A gap opens in the line Octavian's left tries to outflank IONIAN SEA
Antony's right; Antony's fleet
The ships on Antony’s right move out to moves right to counter ANTONY'S CAMP
prevent Octavian’s ships from encircling them. The The battle rages for two hours
same happens on the left of his line. As a result, after Cleopatra and Antony
a gap opens in the center and Cleopatra takes have fled, but then their
advantage of this to make a dash for the open sea. undermanned galleys begin
to surrender to the enemy
OCTAVIAN'S CAMP Antony sees Cleopatra
escaping and breaks
Octavian's left away to join her
envelops Antony's
right flank

IONIAN SEA Cleopatra breaks through antony and cleopatr a
the gap and flees the battle
Antony, whose flagship is in the thick of the
fighting on his right, transfers to a smaller vessel
and follows Cleopatra. At first his sailors and
legionary marines fight on despite their leaders’
desertion, but after a while are forced to surrender.

52 THE AGE OF GALLEYS

naval warfare in asia

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVAL WARFARE in East Asia was in some ways
similar to that of Europe.At the time of the Roman Empire, Chinese warships
fought using the tactics of ramming or grappling and boarding just as fleets
did in the Mediterranean.The Chinese even had an equivalent to the corvus,
the Romans’ boarding bridge. Naval warfare in Japan, where samurai contested
land battles on water fought with bows and swords, at times resembled the
battles fought between seaborne medieval European knights and archers.Yet
Asian navies developed a distinctive range of ships, including large numbers
of vessels with paddlewheels, a form of propulsion that did not catch on in
Europe until the steam era.The Chinese in particular were at the cutting edge
of technology, using gunpowder, crossbows, and the compass earlier than
Europeans, and by the 15th century building the world’s largest sailing ships.

THE AGE OF GALLEYS Samurai warriors at sea M ASSIVE BATTLES Tang Dynasty (618–907) Chinese influence was
Samurai sailed out on fast, light boats to harass the extended around southeast Asia into the Indian
invasion fleets of Kublai Khan’s Mongols. Two attempts There is record of naval battles in China dating Ocean and across to the east coast of Africa.
to invade Japan from China failed, the second in 1281 back to around 400 BCE, but land warfare was This brought the Chinese into contact with
when the invasion fleet was destroyed by a typhoon. understandably the major preoccupation of the Arab sailors and with Indian fleets such as that
Chinese emperors, given their country’s barely of the southern Indian Chola dynasty in the 11th
Legends of the Three Kingdoms defensible western frontier. Battles on rivers and century. By the time the Song dynasty founded
Three leaders competing for the fragmented Han Empire lakes usually accompanied land operations. China’s first permanent navy in 1132, southern
fought a decisive river battle at Red Cliffs in 208 CE. This Japan and Korea also developed naval forces China almost certainly had the world’s largest
illustration shows legendary events from the period, early on. The Koreans largely outfought the concentration of naval forces. The Song fought
including “borrowing” arrows by sailing boats manned Chinese in the Yellow Sea during the wars massive naval battles against Jurchen Jin and
with straw scarecrows past the enemy’s camp. between the Korean Goguryeo and Chinese Mongol Yuan assailants from the north. After
Sui dynasties from 598 to 614. The Chinese the Yuan triumphed over the Song under Kublai
navy was more successful against Japan in the Khan in the 1270s, Chinese naval power was
Baekje War, fought in Korea in 663. Under the asserted from the Indian Ocean to Japan—
although Yuan attempts at a seaborne invasion
of Japan failed. The Japanese, meanwhile, were
feared as pirates raiding the coasts of the Asian
mainland. They also undertook major naval
battles during the civil conflict known as the
Gempei Wars, fought in the 12th century,
when the movement of troops around Japan’s
Inland Sea became strategically crucial. A naval
victory at Dan-no-Ura ensured that the
Minamoto clan would take power in Japan as
shoguns in 1185.

SHIPS AND WEAPONRY

The Chinese developed a range of warship
types with different tactical roles. These
included large multi-deck war junks and “tower
ships” with portholes through which crossbows
could be fired and lances thrust, and often
carrying varieties of catapult. Smaller vessels
included “covered swoopers,” fast assault ships
covered with thick hides to protect against
missiles and incendiary devices, which were
designed for aggressive “swoops” on the enemy.
“Flying barques” were fast moving galleys with
more oarsmen than usual and a smaller

53

complement of soldiers—comparable to the crossbows and lances to catapults and, Samurai helmet 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
Greek trireme in concept. Paddle-wheel craft, later, primitive cannon. Gunpowder Most battles at sea are
initially introduced in the 8th century, became became a common element in missile won by selfless teamwork,
of paramount importance under the Song warfare in the Song period. It could but the medieval samurai
dynasty. The wheels were driven by treadmills be wrapped in small packages around warrior was able to show off
inside the hull typically operated by the leg- arrowheads to make fire-arrows, or used his individual prowess,
power of crews of 28 to 42 men. Large vessels to fuel a fire-lance—a kind of proto- especially his skill as an
might have 23 wheels—11 on each side and one flamethrower—or made into explosive
at the stern—and measure up to 360 feet grenades or bombs. Many Chinese naval battles archer, just as well on
(110 m) in length. One type, known as a “sea- were decided by ships being set on fire. water as on land.
hawk” ship, had a low bow and a high stern,
a ram at the prow and iron plates for armored MING SEAPOWER some of the numerically largest fleets ever
protection. Used on rivers and lakes, the paddle- assembled. Once in power, the Ming at first
wheel craft were extremely maneuverable, Naval conflict played a critical role in the devoted vast resources to shipbuilding. Since
capable of traveling forward or backward with warfare that ended in the establishment of the they also had the magnetic compass at their
equal ease. On-board weaponry ranged from Ming dynasty in China in the 14th century. disposal, there was nothing to stop them
There were engagements between probably embarking upon oceanic voyages. Between
1405 and 1433 fleets led by the eunuch Admiral
WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY Zheng He cruised around southeast Asia and
across the Indian Ocean, entering the Red Sea
song catapult ship and voyaging down the east African coast as
far as Mozambique. The greatest of the Chinese
A trebuchet is a sling for hurling missiles, using the principle River ship with trebuchet fleets comprised 63 large war junks—the largest
of the lever to give greater power and accuracy than a torsion This 13th-century drawing shows a more than 390 ft (120 m) long and almost
device such as a ballista. The Chinese are credited with the trebuchet with the counterweight on 160 ft (50 m) broad—plus more than 200
invention of the first trebuchets around the 5th century BCE. support vessels and nearly 30,000 men. This
The power for these traction trebuchets was supplied by teams the shorter arm and the longer constituted a thoroughly intimidating assertion
of men pulling on ropes attached to the shorter arm of the device, throwing arm on the right. of imperial suzerainty. On the few occasions
the sling being at the end of the longer arm. The more when he encountered resistance, Admiral He
powerful counterweight trebuchet was introduced to did not hesitate to use force to impose respect—
China from Muslim west Asia in the 13th century, for example arresting and executing a Sumatran
first playing a crucial role in the siege of ruler who objected to paying tribute.
Xiangyang in 1273. In the Song dynasty
navy trebuchets were habitually deployed From the 1430s, however, China’s Ming
as shipborne artillery, mounted on the emperors turned instead to a policy of inward-
larger “tower ships” both as a weapon for looking development that rejected all overseas
ship-to-ship combat and as a siege weapon ventures. The maintenance of an ocean-going
for bombarding land fortifications from navy was completely abandoned. By the time
the water. When attacking ships, the European mariners arrived in Chinese and
trebuchets would often hurl explosive Japanese waters in the 16th century, they
incendiary devices, an effective tactic encountered no serious competitors in their bid
against highly flammable vessels. Many for control of the world’s ocean trade routes.
of the Song catapult ships were driven by
paddlewheels, but they could also be
propelled by oars.

54 NAVAL WARFARE IN ASIA

china, japan, and korea

NAVAL POWER played an important part in East Asian warfare, as a Song after adapting to naval warfare.The period of Yuan rule was framed
sometimes crucial ancillary to land campaigns. As early as the 3rd by two naval battles: a Mongol victory at Yamen in 1279 and a defeat at
century CE, the battle of Red Cliffs established a consistent theme Lake Poyang in 1363. Sea battles were also crucial in the histories of Korea
in Chinese history: the ability of the southern Chinese to defend themselves and Japan.The Japanese failed to extend their influence into Korea in the
against invaders from the north by resort to river and sea warfare.This pattern 7th century, repulsed by the Chinese navy, and the Mongols made equally
was repeated against the Jurchen at Tangdao and initially against the Mongols unsuccessful attempts to invade Japan.The outcome of Japan’s civil wars was
in the 13th century.The Mongol Yuan dynasty eventually conquered the affected by fighting on water, notably at Dan-no-Ura in 1185.

SILLA–BAEKJE WARS men to aid Baekje forces under siege JURCHEN–SONG WARS navy among the islands of the East
at Churyu.They intended to ferry the China Sea.The Song had developed
BAEKGANG troops up the Geum River, but found TANGDAO paddle-wheel craft powered by
the river blocked by a Chinese fleet. treadmills, which moved swiftly into
Date August 27–28, 663 The Chinese were heavily outnumbered Date November 16, 1161 the attack. On their decks they had
Forces Japanese: 800 ships; but their ships held a disciplined line Forces Song: 120 ships; Jurchen: trebuchets that hurled primitive
Chinese: 170 ships from bank to bank. In two days of 600 ships incendiary bombs to explode on the
Losses Japanese: 400 ships, repeated attacks the Japanese failed to Losses Unknown wooden enemy ships. Soon much of
Chinese: unknown break through. Seeing the Japanese tired the Jurchen armada was ablaze. Its
THE AGE OF GALLEYS and disorganized, the Chinese then Location Near Shandong commander, Zheng Jia, jumped into the
Location Geum River, launched a counterattack, outflanking peninsula, East China Sea sea and was drowned.The following
Korea and encircling the Japanese fleet. Many month another Jurchen fleet was
of the Japanese ships were burned and In 1161 the Jurchen of northern China defeated by the Song at the battle of
China’s Tang dynasty occupied the thousands of soldiers drowned. Baekje were attempting to conquer southern Caishi on theYangtze River, ensuring
Baekje kingdom of southern Korea in was defeated and, with Chinese aid, China, ruled by the Song dynasty.An the survival of the southern Song as an
alliance with another Korean kingdom, the Silla kingdom unified Korea. invasion force of warships and troop independent state for another century.
Silla. Japan’s Yamato government sent a transports was intercepted by the Song
fleet and an army of more than 40,000

CHINA, JAPAN, AND KOREA 55

the battle of red cliffs FALL OF THE HAN DYNASTY

The Battle of the Red Cliffs, or Chibi but his military of disease in his army
as it is sometimes known, was a crucial
point in the transition from the Han commander Zhou and the difficulty his
Dynasty to the Three Kingdoms period
in Chinese history.The all-powerful Yu argued that Cao’s soldiers experienced
Han minister Cao Cao had embarked
on a campaign to unify China under forces were less in fighting on water.
his rule. His army was enormous and
initially victorious. But in order to formidable than they To provide a more
conquer southern China, he needed
to gain command of theYangtze River. seemed. Exhausted stable platform for THE BATTLE OF RED CLIFFS
This ambition was opposed by the
warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan, who after a long, hard his troops, he had his Date 208 CE
formed an alliance to resist Cao Cao. Location Chibi, Yangtze River
campaign and boats lashed together Result Victory for Liu Bei and Sun Quan
FIGHT OR SURRENDER
unaccustomed to in large groups.This
The warlords looked doomed when
Cao captured a powerful river fleet naval warfare, they made it impossible for COMBATANTS
and the Yangtze naval port of Jiangling.
Cao loaded his men onto the boats would be outfought them to maneuver LIU BEI, SUN QUAN CAO CAO
and set off downstream toward Sun’s
power base at Chaisang.The majority by a fresher enemy and vulnerable to COMMANDERS
of Sun’s advisers advocated surrender,
skilled in river incendiary weapons, Zhou Yu Cao Cao
Unleashing the fire ships
Having ignited the flammable materials aboard the fighting.What is such as fire arrows,
fire ships, Huang Gai’s men escape in rowing boats as
the ships drift downriver to collide with their targets. more, he anticipated that were a feature FORCES

correctly that Cao’s of Chinese warfare. Men: c.50,000 Men: c.220,000

northeners would Cao Cao on the eve of Red Cliffs It appears that a LOSSES

succumb to illness In this atmospheric 14th-century painting, veteran soldier, Huang Men: unknown Men: unknown
Gai, offered to sail fire Ships: unknown Ships: unknown
when they were the great general ponders the wisdom of ships, loaded with dry

exposed to the disease confronting his enemies in a river battle.

environment of the south. reeds and inflammable wax, into Cao’s

Zhou Yu led the combined forces tethered fleet.To confuse the enemy, Enough of Cao’s fleet was destroyed to
discourage him from any further naval
of Sun and Liu upriver.The precise Huang approached Cao’s boats adventures. His army set off overland on
a retreat that turned into a rout.The
location of their encounter with Cao’s pretending he wanted to surrender. defeat ended Cao’s chances of unifying
China, which entered a period of
fleet is uncertain.The battle opened Then the crews set the ships on fire, warfare between conflicting kingdoms.

with indecisive skirmishing, after disembarked into small boats, and

which the two sides broke off to rest. watched as the blazing vessels drifted

Cao was concerned about the spread down on to their immobile target. 1200 BCE – 1550 CE

56 NAVAL WARFARE IN ASIA

GEMPEI WARS The Minamoto army embarked at GEMPEI WARS
Mizushima on Honshu to cross the
MIZUSHIMA Inland Sea, but was surprised by a Taira YASHIMA
fleet sent to intercept them.This force
Date November 17, 1183 was commanded by Taira no Tomomori Date March 22,1185
Forces Minamoto: unknown; and Taira no Noritsune, experienced Forces Minamoto: unknown;
Taira: unknown fighters with victories to their name. Taira: unknown
Losses Unknown They ordered their ships to be tied Losses Unknown
together with hawsers at the stem and
THE AGE OF GALLEYS Location Between stern, and planks laid across them, so Location Yashima,
Honshu and Shikoku the whole fleet was a level surface for off Shikoku
the samurai and their followers to fight
Beginning in 1180, the Gempei Wars on.The Taira then drew their bows and By 1185 Japan’s Gempei Wars between
pitted the Minamoto samurai clan deluged the Minamoto ships with a rain the Minamoto and Taira clans were
against the rival Taira clan in a struggle of arrows.When the fighting came to approaching their climax. Minamoto
for control of Japan. In the summer of close quarters, men attacked one another noYoshitsune was pursuing the Taira in
1183 the Minamoto seized the upper with swords and daggers, while some their last remaining fortresses in Shikoku.
hand in the civil war. Minamoto no infantry with long rakes tried to pull While crossing the Inland Sea, however,
Yoshimaka defeated the Taira at the enemy warriors into the water. Yoshitsune ran into a storm and much
battle of Kurikara and surrounded of his fleet was lost.Although he was
the imperial capital, Kyoto.The Taira As the battle turned against him, resupplied by his ally Kajiwara Kagetoki,
were forced to flee and take refuge in Yada Yoshiyasu led a desperate foray he no longer had a clear advantage. By
their traditional power base in western forward with a few followers in a small lighting hundreds of fires around the
Honshu and Shikoku, where they had boat, but the vessel was overturned fortress of Yashima,Yoshitsune tricked
a number of fortresses around the and all aboard drowned. Desperate the Taira into thinking that he had a
shores of the Inland Sea. Minamoto soldiers splashed to shore much larger army. They abandoned the
through the shallows, but they were fortress, embarking on ships with their
Taking the offensive, Minamoto no pursued by the Taira, who had horses most precious possessions, the child
Yoshimaka sent an army to attack the on board their ships.The Taira horsemen emperor Antoku and the imperial
Taira fortress at Yashima, a small island rode down upon the Minamoto treasure.As the Taira fled, one of the
off the coast of Shikoku.The army was remnants and scattered them in flight. Minamoto samurai, Nasu no Yoichi,
put under the command of a general, This spectacular victory could not rode into the sea and shot a fan off
the unsophisticatedYadaYoshiyasu, since preventYoshimaka from seizing Kyoto the masthead of one of the departing
Yoshimaka himself was preoccupied for the Minamoto the following year. ships—a celebrated feat of archery.
with power struggles in his own clan.
Aftermath of Yashima
1152–1185 Although most of the Taira escaped with the child
emperor, some fell into the hands of the enemy.
taira no tomomori Here a Taira lady is discovered by Yoshitsune.

COMMANDER OF THE FORCES OF THE TAIRA CLAN MONGOL–SONG WARS located by a Yuan fleet under the
command of Kublai’s general Zhang
The son of a famous father—the clan leader YAMEN Hongfan.The Song fleet and soldiers
Taira no Kiyomori—Tomomori was the were commanded by grand general
most successful of the Taira military Date March 19, 1279 Zhang Shijie. Instead of advancing his
commanders in the Gempei Wars. He won Forces Mongol Yuan: unknown; ships to defend the mouth of the bay,
battles against the Minamoto on land at Uji Song: unknown which would have left the option of
in 1180 and Sunomata in 1181 and on the Losses Unknown fleeing in case of defeat, Zhang Shijie
sea at Mizushima in 1183.Although adopted a passive formation inside
primarily a soldier, he also seems to have Location Guangdong, the anchorage. He had his ships tied
possessed considerable experience in the use South China Sea together and awaited the Yuan attack.
of ships in war. He committed suicide after
the final defeat of the Taira at the sea battle After years of stubborn resistance, in Zhang Hongfan first sent fire ships
of Dan-no-Ura, jumping into the water 1278 southern China, ruled for 300 into the bay, but the Song coped
with an anchor tied to his feet. years by the Song dynasty, was finally successfully with this timeworn tactic.
overrun by the armies of Kublai Khan, So theYuan divided their fleet in order
MONGOL–SONG WARS had to learn to fight on rivers and Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty. to attack from three directions.They
lakes.The lengthy struggle to reduce The surviving officials and members were apparently heavily outnumbered
XIANGYANG the fortified city of Xiangyang, held of the Song imperial family became by the Song, but their ships were
by the Song, was in effect a battle for fugitives, seeking a base from which equipped with primitive gunpowder
Date 1268–1273 control of the Han river, a major to begin organizing weapons and stone-hurling catapults.
Forces Mongol Yuan: 5,000 tributary of the Yangtze. Xiangyang resistance. In March
ships; Song: unknown was surrounded on three sides by 1279 they were on The Song soon lost heart. Zhang
Losses Unknown mountains and on the fourth by the board ship in a bay Shijie attempted to stage a breakout
river.The Mongols had already realized at Yamen, on the with a few ships carrying the seven-
Location Xiangfan, the need for naval power in the Guangdong coast,
Hubei province, China conquest of the Song and recruited when they were year-old emperor and the imperial
a vast fleet of river craft.This enabled entourage.When this failed,
The Mongol warrior Kublai Khan them to impose a river blockade, as Mongol bowcase a senior official picked up
made himself ruler of northern China well as besieging Xiangyang by land. The Mongols learned the emperor and jumped
in 1260, establishing the Yuan dynasty. One Song flotilla managed to break to use siege weapons overboard with the boy in
The wealthy and populous lands of through the blockade to resupply the to conquer the Song, his arms. Other officials
southern China, however, remained city’s defenders, but this was not enough but they still relied and concubines
under the rule of the Song dynasty. to save Xiangyang. Once it fell, theYuan on the bows that followed his example.
fleet could sail down the river system brought them such Zhang Shijie himself
The Mongols were steppe horsemen to capture the major Song cities. success on the survived the battle
with no knowledge of naval warfare, Asian steppe. but was drowned in
but in order to conquer the south they a storm shortly after.

57

MONGOL–JAPANESE WARS mounted a full-scale invasion, assembling FALL OF THE YUAN DYNASTY have to be doubted. Chen Youliang had 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
more than 4,000 ships from China and the largest vessels, three-decked “tower
FAILED MONGOL Korea to carry some 150,000 troops. LAKE POYANG ships” propelled by sails and oars, with
INVASION OF JAPAN The 900 Korean ships were thoroughly high sterns and iron-armored turrets.
seaworthy vessels, but the Chinese ones Date August 30– The Ming ships were smaller but more
Date June–August 1281 were mostly flat-bottomed river or September 2,1363 numerous and maneuverable, many of
Forces Mongols: 4,400 ships: coastal craft. Kublai’s fleet formed two Forces Ming: unknown; them treadmill-powered paddle ships.
Japanese: unknown squadrons, the smaller sailing from Korea Han: unknown
Losses Mongols: c.3,000 ships and the larger from northern China. Losses Unknown The lake battle lasted four days.
The force from Korea arrived first, but The initial Ming attack came close to
Location was unable to land its soldiers because Location disaster. Zhu’s flagship ran aground on
Tsushima Strait of the coastal fortifications built and Lake Poyang, China a sandbank and was set on fire by
manned by the Japanese since 1274. incendiary weapons. His other ships
The Mongol emperor of China, Kublai By the mid-14th century the rule rescued him, but Ming attempts to
Khan, demanded that the Japanese Anchored offshore, the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty in China was close and board Han vessels failed.
acknowledge his suzerainty. In 1274 he were harassed by Japanese samurai in disintegrating. Rebel peasant bands On the second day, Zhu exploited
raided Japan, sending a substantial force small craft, who set fire to ships and known as the Red Turbans took control a favorable wind to send in fire ships—
across from Korea to land in Hakata Bay. killed crew and soldiers.The Mongols of theYangtze River region, and two of small boats packed with straw and
The attack failed to cow the Japanese, withdrew to Iki island to rendezvous their leaders, Chen Youliang and Zhu gunpowder.These had considerable
but it did stimulate them to organize with the squadron from China.They Yuanzhang, became rivals for power. success against the tower ships, whose
new coastal defences. In 1281 Kublai then attacked Takashima island, while Chen declared himself emperor and deep draft limited their mobility in the
founder of the Han dynasty. Zhu, leader shallow waters of the lake.After a day
the Japanese awaited an of the Ming, ruled a large area of spent on repairs, battle was resumed
assault on the mainland. southern China from his capital city, on September 2.This time the Ming
The invasion never came, Nanjing.The war between them lasted ships penetrated the weakened Han
however, for a typhoon— from 1360 to 1363, climaxing in formation and a number of ships were
known to the Japanese a large-scale naval battle on China’s boarded and taken.
as the “divine wind” or largest freshwater lake, Lake Poyang.
“kamikaze”—struck the The battle ended inconclusively and
Mongol fleet, sinking ZhuYuanzhang voyaged up the there followed a month-long stand-off
most of the Chinese ships. Yangtze from Nanjing with a large between the two fleets. In a skirmish
number of ships to confront the Han on October 4, Chen Youliang was shot
Hit-and-run tactics fleet blockading Ming forces in the through the head with an arrow and
Before the Mongol invasion fleet lakeside town of Nanchang. Some killed.The Han cause collapsed without
was struck by a typhoon, it was sources claim that a million men were its leader. Zhu Yuanzhang went on to
attacked by waves of attacks by present in the two fleets, making this overthrow the Yuan and founded the
samurai archers in fast, light boats. possibly the largest naval battle in Ming dynasty four years later.
history, although such immense figures

58

THE AGE OF GALLEYS key Direction of Battle of Shimonoseki Strait
MINAMOTO FLEET ebb tides It was a challenge for both sides to
negotiate the fast-flowing waters
40–45 galleys Shimonoseki Strait of the strait. At first the Taira had the
TAIRA FLEET advantage of the tide, but once they
The Taira divide their fleet into three lost this, their cause was doomed.
40–45 galleys squadrons and make use of the
powerful tides to launch an attack on The Minamoto galleys,
HONSHU the stronger Minamoto fleet which have the tides
against them, are drawn
contr asting battle lines KYUSHU up in line abreast across
The Minamoto draw up a defensive line across the entrance to the strait
the entrance to the Shimonoseki Strait. The Taira,
who plan one last, desperate action to escape INLAND SEA
their pursuers, split their fleet into three to launch
an attack, making use of the favorable tide. The Minamoto maintain
their line, but the Taira
HONSHU The battle begins with start to outflank them
exchanges of arrows
Shimonoseki Strait at long range INLAND SEA

The Taira advance in three
squadrons, hoping to outflank
the Minamoto both on their
left and their right

the tair a hold their own KYUSHU

The Taira attack goes well as they hit the
enemy line on both its flanks and in the center,
raining down arrows on the Minamoto ships.
As battle is joined more closely, the Taira fight
bravely and nobody can predict the outcome.

CHINA, JAPAN, AND KOREA 59

the battle of dan-no-ura

By 1185 the Gempei Wars, in which the GEMPEI WARS
Minamoto and Taira clans fought for
control of Japan, had turned decisively in THE BATTLE OF DAN-NO-URA
favour of the Minamoto.The Taira had
possession of the child emperor Antoku Date 25 April 1185
and the sacred imperial treasure, but Location Strait of Shimonoseki
they were on the run from the samurai Result Minamoto victory
MinamotoYoshitsune after being driven
from their fortress of Ichi-no-Tani in COMBATANTS
March 1184.The Taira only escaped
massacre at Ichi-no-Tani by taking to squadrons maneuvered to surround MINAMOTO CLAN TAIRA CLAN
their boats.Yoshitsune pursued them by the Minamoto fleet on three sides and
sea, driving them from an anchorage at engage at close quarters. Soon ships Suicide of Taira no Tomori COMMANDERS
Yashima later in the same year. In April were grappled and samurai fought Tomomori (center) has tied himself to an anchor
1185 he caught up with them again in samurai with sword and dagger. Men before throwing himself into the sea, accompanied Minamoto Yoshitsune Taira no Tomomori
the strait of Shimonoseki between armed with hooks or rakes—perhaps by one of his retainers (left) and his mistress (right).
Honshu and Kyushu. grappling implements—used them to Ships: 850 FORCES
pull enemy warriors into the water. fighting was information he brought
The vessels employed by both sides Archers targeted helmsmen and rowers, with him.The Taira had concealed the Ships: 500
in the battle were oared galleys, carrying hoping to immobilize ships or put them child emperor, his female relatives, and
samurai armed with bows, swords, and out of control by disabling the crew. the sacred treasure on an unremarkable LOSSES
daggers.The Taira were outnumbered ship. Shigeyoshi indicated which vessel
but had the advantage of familiarity with THE TAIRA BETRAYED this was.The Minamoto closed in to Men: unknown Men: unknown
local weather and tides.They adopted capture this most valuable of prizes. Ships: unknown Ships: unknown
a well-organized formation in three The battle was evenly poised until two
squadrons, while the Minamoto came events—one predictable, the other The end of the battle is the stuff of also tried to throw the imperial crown 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
forward in a single line abreast. Like not—swung the balance.The tide legend. Facing certain defeat, the Taira jewels overboard, but the ultimate fate of
a Japanese land battle at this period, turned, giving the advantage formerly apparently chose mass suicide rather the sacred treasures—a sword, a mirror,
the combat began with a long-range enjoyed by the Taira to their opponents. than captivity.Taira no Tomomori and a necklace—remains a mystery.
archery duel, in which the splendidly And one of the Taira commanders, set the example in spectacular fashion, The sea was red with blood and, we are
armoured samurai competed to show Taguchi Shigeyoshi, suddenly defected jumping into the sea tied to an anchor, told, with dye from the Taira banners.
off their prowess with the bow—then and attacked his own side. More which carried him to the bottom.The
the most prestigious samurai weapon important than his contribution to the emperor’s grandmother Taira no Tokiko The battle of Dan-no-Ura brought
rather than the sword. took her six-year-old grandson in her the Gempei Wars to an end, enabling
arms and leapt into the sea.The Taira the Minamoto to establish a shogunate,
Taira commander Tomomori was a form of government that was to
waiting for an ebb tide to flow in mid- persist in Japan in various forms until
morning, which would aid his oarsmen. the mid-19th century.
With the help of the tide, his three

Galley on which emperor and
royal family have been concealed.
Identity of ship is revealed by
traitor, Taguchi Shigeyoshi

HONSHU

Shimonoseki Strait As they press forward to
take the emperor’s galley,
Taguchi Shigeyoshi, a Taira the Minamoto gain the
commander, switches sides. upper hand
His galleys start fighting
against the Taira The tide changes and starts running
in the opposite direction through the
mina moto victory strait. This allows the Minamoto to
The turning of the tide and the treachery of drive back the Taira galleys
Taguchi Shigeyoshi change the course of the battle.
The Minamoto start to overwhelm the Taira galleys INLAND SEA
and, when Taira no Tomomori and the emperor’s
family commit suicide, the battle comes to an end. KYUSHU

the gempei wars

The wars fought in medieval Japan between
the rival Minamoto and Taira clans became the
subject of a popular epic sung by blind musicians.
In this detail from a screen that shows the last
great battles, the Taira ships are being attacked by
the mounted warriors of Minamoto at Yashima in
March 1185. The Taira managed to escape their
pursuers for a time, but were defeated at the
decisive naval battle of Dan-no-Ura in April 1185.



62 THE AGE OF GALLEYS

Battles for the

mediterranean

DURING THE THOUSAND YEARS between 500 and 1500 CE maritime powers
rose and fell in the Mediterranean.The initial dominance of the Byzantine
Empire, the successor state to Rome, was first challenged by the Muslim
Arabs, then supplanted by the Italian maritime republics,Venice, Genoa, and
Pisa, and by the Catalan galleys of the kingdom of Aragon.With no single
state capable of achieving command of the sea, outbreaks of naval warfare
were inevitable. Innovative weaponry, from Greek fire to the crossbow,
produced important changes in combat at sea, as did variation in ship design
and rowing systems. But galleys still predominated and boarding the enemy
remained the essential goal in battle, as it had been in Roman times.

THE AGE OF GALLEYS The sack of Constantinople TACTICS AND TECHNOLOGY Aragonese were especially famed for their use
Venice contracted with the organizers of the Forth Crusade The dominant warship of the period of of this weapon. It added a deadly new element
to ship their army to Egypt. When the crusaders were unable Byzantine-Arab wars was the dromon. This was to the array of missiles hurled against an enemy
to pay the full sum, the fleet was diverted to the Byzantine a formidable platform for marines, catapults, and as galleys closed for combat—which included
capital, Constantinople, where, in 1204 the Venetians and flamethrowers, heading into battle propelled not incendiary grenades, darts, containers filled
crusaders ended up capturing and sacking the city. only by up to 100 oarsmen but also by sails— with soap thrown onto the opponent’s deck
a radical departure from the practice of the to make it slippery under foot, and lime dust
WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY ancient world. The raised beak at the prow intended to blind the enemies’ eyes. Galleys
of the dromon would smash through an entered battle in line abreast, each ship
greek fire opponent’s oars and provide a bridge for protecting its neighbor’s vulnerable flank.
boarding soldiers to swarm across. Oarsmen Maintaining formation was considered of far
The inflammable liquid known as “Greek fire” was were expected to take up arms and join the greater importance than maneuver—galleys
reportedly invented by an engineer called Callanicus fighting once the enemy was engaged at close were sometimes loosely linked together with
in Constantinople around 670 CE. It was used chiefly quarters. From the 12th century the crossbow cables, to keep them in line and prevent an
in incendiary grenades and flamethrowers. A small was introduced as an important element in enemy from penetrating between them.
catapult on deck propelled clay jars containing the Mediterranean sea battles. The Genoese and the
substance onto enemy ships; the jar broke apart and the SHIFTING POWER
fire ignited. Alternatively, a bronze tube was mounted psychological effect, the tube of the flamethrower often
at the prow of a ship, through which the Greek fire stuck out from the mouth of a carved dragon’s or lion’s Similar tactics and technology were used by all
was pumped, projecting a stream of flame. For head. It was known as a “siphon.” The composition sides in medieval Mediterranean naval conflict.
of Greek fire was a carefully guarded secret and can For example, the dromon and its style of
still only be guessed at. It was employed in Byzantine warfare—including the use of Greek fire—was
naval warfare for five centuries. invented by the Byzantines but was over time
adopted by the Arabs as well. Relative success in
Greek fire in action naval warfare depended upon material resources
The few contemporary illustrations and seafaring and fighting skills. Once it had
of ships using Greek fire in battle resisted the initial Arab onslaught in the 7th and
give little clue as to its composition early 8th centuries, which briefly threatened to
or how it was propelled. overrun Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire
remained a dominant presence at sea in the
eastern Mediterranean because it could afford
a large fleet and dockyards.

From the end of the 11th century the balance
of naval power shifted as maritime trade brought
rising wealth to relatively small states further
west. The Italian republics of Venice and Genoa
had populations of only a few hundred thousand,
but their involvement in the Crusades in
the 12th and 13th centuries brought them
a dominant position in the trade of the Levant
and the Black Sea. This provided them with the

63

funds to develop powerful navies to defend Portolan chart innovations as the compass, the stern rudder, 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
their trade routes and fight their competitors— From the 13th century Mediterranean sailors used a and the lateen sail. Their oarsmen—volunteers
chiefly one another. There was in this period distinctive kind of map, the portolan. Coasts and ports or conscripts—were honored seamen rather
only relatively minor conflict between were well charted and the maps were criss-crossed with than galley slaves, some earning promotion
Christians and Muslims at sea, but intense a network of lines projecting from compasses. through long careers to captain. By the 15th
armed rivalry between Christian states, much century Venice had created a Mediterranean
of it fought out around the coasts of Italy VENETIAN EMPIR E empire based on sea power, as Athens had done
and Sicily between galleys from Catalonia in ancient times. But by the end of that century
and Provence as well as various Italian ports. Of all medieval Mediterranean states, Venice profound changes were under way, both in the
was the quintessential naval power. The naval balance of power with the rise of the
shipbuilding and repair facilities of the Venetian Ottoman Empire, and in technology with
Arsenal, founded around 1200, grew into the the introduction of cannon into naval warfare.
biggest industrial enterprise in Europe—it was
said they could build and fit out a galley in a Provisioning the Crusades
single day. Venetian galleys were rowed “alla The larger items of cargo are being loaded aboard a cog,
sensile”—with oarsmen grouped in threes, each while the galley in front of it is filled with armed men.
with a single oar—and proved successful, highly Among the banners of the various crusading states
maneuverable warships. The Venetians were involved, those of England and France are most
generally reckoned the first to adopt such prominent, along with the crossed keys of the papacy.

64 BATTLES FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN

byzantine–arab wars

WHEN THE ARABS, inspired by the newly founded religion of Carthage to the Muslims at the end of the 7th century extended Arab sea
Islam, embarked upon their campaigns of conquest around 630 CE, power into the western Mediterranean. Fierce naval battles were fought over
the Byzantine Empire was the dominant naval power in the the following two centuries in struggles for control of major islands such as
Mediterranean.This status was swiftly challenged by the victory of an Arab Sicily, Cyprus, and Crete. In the 11th and 12th centuries the strategic
fleet at the battle of the Masts in 655.Although the technologically situation began to shift, with Turks replacing Arabs as the dominant force in
innovative use of Greek fire helped the Byzantines drive back Arab ships the Muslim world and the Byzantines becoming increasingly dependent
from under the walls of Constantinople two decades later, the fall of upon the navies of the Italian city-states of Genoa andVenice.

The mediterr anean N France EUROPE
world C.650—950
Venice
Following the conquest of Egypt in 639–646,
it took Arab armies just 70 years to extend the Genoa
lands of the Caliphate across North Africa into
the Iberian Peninsula. Since the Arabs had no Fraxinetum Adriati Black Sea
experience of seafaring, conquests by sea were (Arab base 890–975)
less spectacular. In the east the Byzantine First siege of
Empire remained a powerful block to Arab UMMAYADS 934 Rome c S ea Constantinople
expansion, but in the 9th century the Byzantines (756–1031) 674–78
were ejected from Sicily and Arab raids Corsica Italy
extended into Italy and the South of France, Iberian Bari Constantinople
where Arab corsairs established bases. Peninsula 889 (Arab base 841–876)

KEY Cordova Balearic 846 Taranto
Islands
Abbasid Caliphate c.850 (Arab base
Other Islamic states Sardinia
Byzantine Empire
Arab invasion/ raid 841–876) BYZANTINE EMPIRE
Arab victory
Byzantine victory 798 850 840 841 G r e e c e ABBASID
CALIPHATE
760, 827 Palermo

Carthage 827 Sicily Calabria
964
698 878: Arab conquest
IDRISIDS Cephalonia Battle of
(789–926) AGHLABIDS Tunis of Sicily completed the Masts
880
(800–909) 655 Cyprus
RUSTAMIDS Malta
(776–906) Kairouan
870
Crete
670, 712

THE AGE OF GALLEYS Mediterranean Sea Damascus

Tripoli 654, 827

AFRICA Alexandria

0 km 200 400 TULUNIDS Cairo

0 miles 200 400 (868–905)

ARAB EXPANSION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN conquering or raiding Byzantine- combined Egyptian and Syrian fleets, fell upon both sides, causing substantial
ruled islands throughout the eastern under the command of Abdullah bin casualties.The Byzantine were more
BATTLE OF THE MASTS Mediterranean. Saad, were advancing along the coast skilled in naval maneuver and this,
together with their superior numbers,
Date 655 With the fall of Rhodes in 654, of Asia Minor, intending to raid the at first gave them the advantage.At one
Forces Byzantines: c.500 ships; the young Byzantine Emperor shores and islands of the Aegean. point the Arab flagship was grappled
Arabs: c.200 ships Constans II woke up to the threat The Arabs came upon the Byzantine by a Byzantine dromon and almost
Losses Byzantines: c.400 ships; and sought to organize a counter- fleet anchored off southwest Turkey. captured. But soon ships became so
Arabs: unknown offensive.The following year he packed together that men fought with
sailed south in command of an The Arabs were probably swords and daggers from deck to deck.
Location Off Lycia, imperial fleet possibly numbering outnumbered by more than two The forest of masts gave the battle its
southern Turkey 500 ships.At the same time, the to one, but after some hesitation name—in Arabic, That al-Sawari.

The Arab conquests of the 7th they decided to attack. The tide of battle turned in favor
century gave them control of Both fleets carried of the Arabs.Amid scenes of carnage,
ports and seafaring populations archers and as the many Byzantine dromons were boarded
on the coasts of Egypt and Syria. distance between and captured. Constans himself escaped
Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, the ships closed,
urged the development of naval after prudently changing
warfare but Caliph Omar, a man showers of arrows clothes with one of his men.
bred in the Arabian desert, was The Byzantine navy was
unconvinced, describing people shattered. Fortunately for
on board ship as like “a worm the empire, the following
in a log of wood.”When year the Arab world was
Uthman succeeded to the thrown into political
caliphate in 644, however, turmoil, ending further
Muawiyah was uthorized naval ventures until the
to develop a fleet, as was establishment of Muawiyah
the governor of Egypt,
Abdullah bin Saad bin Abil as caliph in 661.
Sarh.This took two years,
after which the Arabs began

Byzantine dromon
The word “dromon,”which meant
“swift runner,” was applied to
a range of ships, from small
galleys to large biremes like
the one shown here.

BYZANTINE–ARAB WARS 65

the siege of constantinople

The establishment of the Umayyad Siege of Constantinople Arab troops were landed Black Sea N
Caliphate in Damascus, Syria, in 661 was to extend the siege to the
followed by a reinvigoration of Arab The siege of 674–677 was the most sustained Arab landward side of the city, Bosphorus
efforts to conquer the Byzantine Empire. attempt to take Constantinople. How far its failure but they too failed to break
Caliph Muawiyah understood the through Byzantine defenses
importance of sea power and in 672 was due to the innovative use of Greek fire is
sent a fleet through the Dardanelles impossible to estimate. In any case, the strategy Constantinople Throughout the siege
into the Sea of Marmara, where it the vital supply route
established a base at Cyzicus, about of a naval siege was flawed, since there was through the Bosphorus
80km (50 miles) from Constantinople. neither shipborne artillery powerful enough remained open
Four years later Muawiyah’s son Yazid to destroy the fortifications nor the means
led a full-scale naval attack on the Sea of Marmara
Byzantine capital. to enforce a total blockade.

A FOUR-YEAR CAMPAIGN EUROPE

The Byzantine ruler, Constantine IV, Dardanelles Arab camp For three consecutive winters KEY
was a vigorous leader who ensured the Cyzicus the Arab fleet withdrew to
city’s defenses were in excellent repair. their base at Cyzicus Byzantine fleet
The Arabs used their ships as artillery ASIA MINOR Arab fleet
platforms, sailing up to the city walls Arab army
and bombarding them with rocks from
giant catapults mounted on deck.The Numbers of ships involved
Byzantines responded with harassing in the battles are unknown
sorties by small, fast-moving galleys,
some of them probably employing the the Arabs sailing into the Bosphorus, impressive fortifications. In October before the Arabs finally gave up.
newly invented Greek fire as a shock which remained a lifeline for grain the Arab fleet withdrew to Cyzicus, In that year they suffered two disasters.
tactic.The Byzantine fleet also prevented supplies from across the Black Sea. where they refitted their ships and They were defeated by a Byzantine fleet
rested their crews, ready to renew the at Syllaeum, a site probably in the Sea
The Arab attacks on Constantinople fight in the spring.This pattern was of Marmara, and a large part of a force
were maintained through the summer repeated stubbornly through to fall 677, returning to Syria was sunk in a storm.
of 674 without much effect on the

The walls of Constantinople BYZANTINE–ARAB WARS 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
When the Arabs attacked Constantinople in 674,
the city was protected by the Theodosian Walls,
built in the 5th century CE. Restored stretches of
the land wall still stand, though the original sea
wall has long since disappeared.

SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Date 674–677
Location Sea of Marmara, near Istanbul, Turkey
Result Byzantine victory

COMBATANTS

BYZANTINE EMPIRE UMAYYAD CALIPHATE

COMMANDERS

Emperor Caliph Muawiyah I
Constantine IV

FORCES

Ships: unknown Ships: unknown

LOSSES

Men: unknown Men: unknown
Ships: unknown Ships: unknown

BYZANTINE–ARAB WARS to retake the city. Caught by surprise, BYZANTINE–ARAB WARS during which time Byzantine naval
the Arabs were defeated at sea and forces based in southern Italy fought
CARTHAGE Carthage returned to Byzantine rule— CALABRIA a number of battles with an Arab fleet
but not for long.The Arabs mounted based in Palermo. By 964 Byzantine
Date 698 a siege by sea and land.The city held Date 964 resistance was at an end and Patriarch
Forces Byzantines: unknown; out while resupplied by sea, but Forces Byzantines: unknown; Nicetas organized a squadron of ships
Arabs: unknown eventually the Arab fleet broke through Arabs: unknown to evacuate the last Byzantine forces
Losses Unknown the line of ships defending the harbor. Losses Unknown from eastern Sicily. Unfortunately the
Carthage fell but Ioannes escaped with squadron was intercepted by a superior
Location Carthage, much of the fleet, only to be murdered Location Off Calabria, Arab force off the coast of Calabria.
near present-day Tunis by his second-in-command, a German southern Italy The Arabs reportedly used swimmers
called Apsimarus.With the support of to attack the Byzantine ships with
When the port of Carthage was lost in his mutinous crews,Apsimarus then In 827 Arabs and Berbers invaded incendiary devices, an unconventional
the Arab advance across North Africa, sailed to Constantinople and seized the Byzantine-ruled Sicily from North tactic that contributed to the total
Byzantine Emperor Leontius sent a throne as Emperor Tiberios III. Africa.The struggle for control of the destruction of the patriarch’s squadron.
large fleet under Ioannes the Patrician island lasted for more than a century,

66 BATTLES FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN

the rise of the italian

maritime republics

THE ITALIAN CITY-STATES of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa grew rich SMALL STATES
on seaborne trade and providing transport and naval support for
the Crusades.Their rivalry for control of trade routes from the HUNGARY
Levant and the Black Sea led inevitably to conflict. Pisa was knocked out
of the competition by defeat at the hands of Genoa in 1284, while Venice Turin Milan VENETIAN
and Genoa fought one another to exhaustion in four inconclusive wars REPUBLIC
between 1253 and 1381.The battles between Venetian and Genoese galley
fleets often resulted in crushing losses for one side or the other, but defeat Venice Chioggia Belgrade
had little long-term effect as new galleys were built and fresh crews were Genoa 1380
recruited. Losses of merchant convoys to commerce raiders often had more
strategic significance. By the 15th century Genoa was becoming exhausted REPUBLIC Bologna
while Venice faced the task of defending its scattered possessions in the
eastern Mediterranean against the rising power of the Ottoman Empire. OF GENOA Pisa Zara

Meloria 1284 Florence Spalato
REPUBLIC
OF PISA PAPAL Adriatic SERBIA BULGARIA Black
STATES Sea
Elba Ragusa Sea

Corsica Curzola to Venice Bosphorus
1205–1358 1352
disputed by Rome 1298
Pisa and Genoa

Constantinople

Alghero Naples Bari Durazzo
1353 Taranto 1081
Amalfi
Sardinia Ty r r h e n i a n

controlled in Sea
part by Genoa

Cagliari
THE AGE OF GALLEYS Salonica EMPIRE
D BYZANTINE
OM
OF SIC ILY
The italian m aritime republics C.1050–1400

Although their territorial possessions were KEY Trapani Palermo Messina DUCHY OF Chios
negligible, the Italian maritime republics gained 1266 KING ATHENS to Genoa
extraordinary wealth through trade with the Venetian Republic and possessions c.1270
east—especially in silks and spices. Venice Republic of Genoa Athens 1346
acquired a string of ports on the Adriatic and Republic of Pisa
the coasts of Greece, while Genoa had trading Genoese victory Tunis Settepozzi
posts in Greece and even on the Black Sea. Venetian victory 1263
Inconclusive battle
HAFSIDS Modon
1354
0 km 100 200
0 miles 100 Mediterranean Sea Crete N

to Venice

200

NORMAN–BYZANTINE WAR harbor. During the night the doge PISAN–GENOESE WAR Pisano, at the mouth of the Arno, but
had his largest ships anchor in a line, were lured out by a ruse. Doria drew
DURAZZO with cables looped from ship to ship, MELORIA up his own 63 galleys in a line offshore;
making an impassable barrier described Zaccaria’s 30 galleys lurked behind
Date June 1081 as a “sea harbor.” Behind this he Date 6 August 1284 with their masts lowered. Believing
Forces Venetians: 59 ships; positioned his war galleys. Forces Genoese: 93 galleys; they had the numerical advantage, the
Normans: 150 ships Pisans: 72 galleys Pisans’ Venetian commander Alberto
Losses unknown In the morning the Normans, led Losses Genoese: unknown; Morosini and his second-in-command
by Guiscard’s son Bohemond, attacked. Pisans: c.40 galleys, c.10,000 Ugolino della Gherardesca led their
TheVenetians had built towers on their casualties and prisoners 72 galleys out to sea. By the time they
ships, which were manned by soldiers saw Zaccaria’s galleys coming up to
Location Adriatic, off armed with heavy timbers studded Location Off Livorno, join Doria, it was too late to retreat.
modern-day Albania with iron spikes.When the Norman Italy
ships were halted by the Venetian The Pisans fought fiercely against
When Norman adventurer Robert barrier, the soldiers hurled the timbers Genoa and Pisa went to war in 1282 the odds.The opening exchange of
Guiscard conquered Sicily and southern down to smash holes in their hulls. over control of the islands of Corsica missiles—bolts fired from crossbows,
Italy, threatening Venetian shipping in Bohemond’s ship was one of those sunk. and Sardinia. In the summer of 1284 stones hurled by mangonels—was
the Adriatic,Venice agreed an alliance Retreating from this bombardment, the Genoese sent part of their fleet followed by boarding and murderous
with the Byzantines. In spring 1081 the Normans were pursued to shore to Sardinia under the command
Guiscard sailed with 30,000 men from by the Venetian galleys and routed. of Benedetto Zaccaria. Seeing an hand-to-hand combat. Many of the
Brindisi, captured Corfu, and besieged The battle marked a significant step opportunity to catch their enemy Pisans wore armor, which exposed
the city of Durazzo.A Venetian fleet in the rise of Venetian maritime power. at a disadvantage, the Pisans
under Doge Silvio arrived to confront dispatched their entire fleet to them to heat exhaustion under
the Normans anchored in the city’s met Lanfranco Borbonino’s Genoese attack Genoa. Unfortunately the summer sun; the Genoese
fleet sailing south from Corsica.Aware for them, Zaccaria returned fought stripped to their shirts
FIRST VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR that most of his crews were Lombards just as their ships reached and lasted better. Morosini’s
with no seafaring skills and no battle the city.The outnumbered flagship, eventually under
TRAPANI experience, Borbonino adopted a static Pisans fled for home, simultaneous attack from
defensive formation, cabling his galleys with the Genoese, Doria and Zaccaria,
Date June 1266 together with their sterns to the shore. under the overall was overcome and the
Forces Genoese: 27 ships; The Venetians, experienced sailors command of Oberto standard cut down.
Venetians: 24 ships inspired by patriotic fervor, launched Doria, in pursuit. Ugolino escaped with
Losses Genoese: entire fleet; a vigorous and noisy attack, exciting The Pisans reached a handful of galleys.
Venetians: none terror in the Lombards who abandoned the safety of Porto After this catastrophic
ship in droves, making for the nearby defeat, Pisa lacked the
Location Off western shore.Three of the Genoese galleys Survivor of Meloria resources to build and
Sicily were burned and the rest captured. Ugolino later starved to crew a new fleet. It
death in captivity with never regained its
During the first war between Genoa his sons and grandsons, status as a naval or
and Venice,Venetian admiral Jacopo an event narrated in commercial power.
Dandolo’s galleys sailing round Sicily Dante’s Inferno.

THE RISE OF THE ITALIAN MARITIME REPUBLICS 67

the battle of curzola

SECOND VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR The battle of Curzola occurred
during the Second Venetian-
THE BATTLE OF CURZOLA Genoese War (1294-99). In 1298 Deadly crossbow and ordered the fight to continue.
Genoa mounted a bold raid into The principal Genoese weapon both on The Venetians, however, came off
Date 7 September 1298 Venetian home waters. Sailing from La land and at sea was the crossbow. The worse.At a crucial moment, 16
Location Adriatic, off Dalmatia (Croatia) Spezia on the west coast of Italy, a fleet highly trained Genoese crossbowmen were Genoese galleys that had become
Result Genoese victory of Genoese galleys made its way round feared across Europe and the Middle East. detached from the main body in
to the Adriatic via Tunisia and Sicily. the earlier gale returned to attack
COMBATANTS It was commanded by the veteran The hastily conscripted soldiers theVenetians from the flank. Only
Admiral Lampa Doria, younger brother and sailors did not have the skills Querini’s experienced crews had
VENICE GENOA of the Doria who had triumphed over usually expected ofVenetian galley the skills to maneuver out of the
the Pisans at Meloria 14 years earlier. crews.The fleet was commanded ensuing debacle, but led back into
COMMANDERS Entering the Adriatic Doria’s galleys by Andrea Dandolo, son of the mêlée in an attempt to rescue
were scattered by a storm, but most a former Doge. Dandolo, they too were overcome.
Andrea Dandolo Lampa Doria of them reassembled and proceeded Only a handful of galleys returned
Maffeo Querini up the coast of Dalmatia, burning and The Venetians found the to Venice to report the disaster.
plundering the Venetian-ruled towns Genoese galleys in a sheltered bay Taken prisoner and bound in
FORCES of the mainland and offshore islands. near the eastern tip of the island chains, Dandolo committed suicide
On the afternoon of 6 September late on 6 September. Battle was by dashing his head against one of
Ships: c.100 Ships: c.85 they were busy pillaging the island joined early the following morning the rowing benches.Among other
of Curzola when a large Venetian and lasted through to evening. It prisoners taken by the Genoese was
LOSSES fleet suddenly appeared on the scene. was a savage combat.The Genoese Marco Polo, who had commanded
suffered heavy casualties, including one of the Venetian galleys.
Men: 7,000 killed, 7,400 Men: c.2,000 killed Venice had been caught off guard by Lampa Doria’s son Octavian, killed The battle had little political
taken prisoner Ships: unknown the attack on its Dalmatian possessions. by an arrow while fighting on the consequence.The war ended the
Ships: 18 galleys sunk, A squadron of galleys commanded by forecastle of his father’s flagship. following year with no significant
66 captured Maffeo Querini was brought back Seeing his men waver, the admiral advantage to the Genoese.
from the Ionian islands and joined had his son’s body thrown
An indirect legacy of the battle with freshly equipped and crewed unceremoniously into the sea 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
It is said that Marco Polo began dictating his famous galleys from Venice and Dalmatia to
memoirs while in Genoese captivity after the battle form the largest war fleet theVenetians
of Curzola. He is seen here departing from Venice had ever assembled. Quality had,
with his father and uncle on his journey to China. however, been sacrificed to quantity.

68 TBAHTETFLIERSSFTONRATVAHLE BMAETDTILTEESRARNADNTEHAEN RISE OF THE GREEKS

THIRD VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR the war of chioggia

BOSPHORUS The conflict known as the War of Adriatic.The galleys were still there on The destruction of its galleys at Pola
Chioggia (1378-81) was the last fling May 7, refitting and taking on supplies, put Venice at great risk. Its other major
Date February 13, 1352 in the long struggle between Venice when a Genoese squadron appeared at fleet, commanded by Carlo Zeno, was
Forces Venetians, Aragonese, and Genoa. In alliance with Hungary the harbor mouth. Pisani had only 16 far away, commerce raiding in the
Byzantines: 78 ships; and Padua, the Genoese came close to galleys ready for action, but this seemed eastern Mediterranean. Doge Andrea
Genoese: 64 ships inflicting a humiliating defeat on their enough since the Genoese galleys in Contarini hastily improved the defenses
Losses Unknown Venetian enemies. sight numbered 14.When theVenetians of the city, but could do nothing to
went out to give battle, however, 10 prevent a reinforced Genoese fleet of
Location Near Venice’s problems began in the more enemy galleys appeared from 47 galleys under Pietro Doria entering
Constantinople spring of 1379.A fleet commanded by behind a headland. After fierce fighting the Venetian lagoon in early August.
Vettor Pisani—nephew of the Niccolo most of the Venetian galleys were With the aid of the land forces of
In its third war with Genoa,Venice was Pisani defeated at Modon and one of captured along with their crews. Pisani Francesco da Carrara, lord of Padua,
allied with Aragon, which included Venice’s most successful admirals—had Doria seized the port of Chioggia at
Catalonia, and the Byzantine Empire. wintered at Pola in the northern survived but, on his return to the southern end of the lagoon.
In February 1352, Paganino Doria’s Venice, was permanently
Genoese fleet was wintering on the Venetian and Genoese gold coins banned from holding Pisani was immensely popular with
Bosphorus when a fleet of mostly Both republics introduced gold coinage a command and, for a his sailors—he was known as the “chief
Venetian and Catalan galleys under in the 13th century in imitation of the time, clapped in irons. and father of all the seamen of Venice.”
Niccolo Pisani appeared.The Genoese Byzantine Empire and the Arab world.
came out to give battle and a fierce The coins shown here are a Genoese
action ensued, fought beyond nightfall grosso (below) and a Venetian
in strong winds and rough seas. Next ducat or sequin (above).
day Pisani judged his fleet no longer
in fit shape to continue and withdrew.

THIRD VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR

THE AGE OF GALLEYS ALGHERO Date August 29, 1353
Forces Venetians and
Location Aragonese: unknown;
Off Sardinia Genoese: unknown
Losses Venetians and
Aragonese: unknown;
Genoese: 33 galleys

After the battle of the Bosphorus the
Byzantines made peace with Genoa,
but the war continued. In summer 1353
the Aragonese were fighting for control
of Sardinia, supported by a force of
Venetian and Catalan galleys under
Niccolo Pisani.The Genoese, without
their inspired admiral Paganino Doria,
were defeated in another fierce battle.
Pisani took 4,500 prisoners, most of
whom were executed. Genoa was then
forced to accept rule by Milan as the
price for financing a new fleet.

THIRD VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR

MODON

Date November 3,1354
Forces Venetians: unknown;
Genoese: unknown
Losses Unknown

Location Gulf of
Sapienza, Peloponnese

In 1354 Niccolo Pisani anchored his
fleet for the winter at Porto Longo,
near Modon.The Genoese had rebuilt
their fleet with Milanese money after
the defeat at Alghero, so Paganino Doria
sailed to Porto Longo to challenge the
Venetians to fight. Outnumbered, Pisani
refused, so the Genoese penetrated the
harbor and overwhelmed theVenetians,
capturing Pisani and many others.
Venice made peace shortly afterward.

THE RISE OF THE ITALIAN MARITIME REPUBLICS 69

At this moment of crisis, many refused FOURTH VENETIAN–GENOESE WAR
to serve under anyone else.TheVenetian
authorities gave in to popular pressure take back your prisoners … i shall
and reinstated the fired admiral, placing be at venice in a few days to release
him in control of the defense of the city. them … from your dungeons.

VENICE STRIKES BACK FRANCESCO DA CARRARA GJA:G D; E69J6! G:;JH>C< I=: K:C:I>6C E:68: D;;:G

The Genoese did not attempt a direct THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA
attack on Venice, depending instead
on a blockade by land and sea to reduce were now the besieged. It still seemed On June 24, the Genoese and their Date August 16, 1379–June 24, 1380
the city to surrender. Doge Contarini possible that the hungry, demoralized allies inside Chioggia surrendered. Location Venice lagoon
did seek peace terms from the enemy, Venetians would be forced to give up When a peace treaty was signed the Result Venetian victory
but found the price too high to pay. the fight when, on January 1, 1380, following year, the terms were equable,
Pisani naturally had no intention of Carlo Zeno’s ships were sighted on but Genoa’s attempt to win control COMBATANTS
surrendering. On December 21 he the horizon.This tipped the balance of the lucrative trade routes through
launched an operation to turn the of forces decisively in favor of Venice. the eastern Mediterranean had failed. VENICE GENOA, PADUA,
tables on the Genoese. Under cover A Genoese relief fleet led by Matteo Venetian naval power would not be HUNGARY
of darkness he sank stone-filled hulks Marufo arrived on May 12, but could challenged again until the rise of the
in the channels leading from Chioggia find no way through to Chioggia. Turkish Ottoman Empire. COMMANDERS
to the open sea.The original besiegers
Vettor Pisani Pietro Doria
Carlo Zeno

FORCES

Venetian galleys outside Chioggia Ships: unknown Ships: unknown
In this triumphalist painting celebrating
Venice’s victory over the Genoese in LOSSES
1380, the galleys depicted are typical
16th-century vessels rather than those Men: unknown Men: unknown
in use two centuries earlier. Ships: unknown Ships: unknown

1200 BCE – 1550 CE

70 BATTLES FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN

the war for sicily

WHEN THE PEOPLE OF SICILY rose in rebellion against their hated FRANCE SMALL STATES Venice
ruler Charles of Anjou in 1282, King Peter III of Aragon landed
troops in Sicily to fight the Angevins.The complex conflict that NAVARRE
followed the uprising known as the “Sicilian Vespers” brought a number
of naval engagements, from the battle of Malta in 1283 to Ponza in 1300, Montpellier Aigues-Mortes Genoa VENETIAN HUNGARY
in which Aragonese admiral Roger di Lauria proved himself a ruthless REPUBLIC SERBIA
master of galley warfare.The war ended in 1302 with the Aragonese to Aragon
in control of Sicily and the Angevins ruling Naples and southern Italy.
CASTILE ARAGON Gerona Pisa PAPAL
Corsica STATES
Las Hormigas 1285

Barcelona

Valencia e a r i c Islands Rome
Bal Naples

Sardinia Gulf of Naples 1284
war of the sicilian vespers 1282—1302THE AGE OF GALLEYS
D
OM The Counts 1287
OF SI C I LY
KEY Mediterranean Sea Ty r r h e n i a n Ponza
1300
Kingdom of Sicily (to House of Anjou) 1282
Southern Italy and Sicily had been part of the Kingdom of Aragon Sea
domains of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Route of Aragonese invasion
When he died in 1250, the papacy was Aragonese victory over the Angevins Aug 1282: Peter III of Aragon,
determined that the kingdom should not pass to Aragonese–Angevin victory over Sicily
his heirs and in 1265 gave it to Charles of Anjou, who has been campaigning Cape Orlando
brother of Louis IX of France (St Louis). in North Africa, lands with
1299
invasion force at Trapani
Palermo

Trapani Sicily I N G Messina
Catania
Z AY YA N I D S K

HAFSIDS Syracuse N

0 km 100 200 200 Malta Malta 1283
0 miles 100

WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS eager to demonstrate his courage and numerically inferior enemy and led his abreast, they turned and bore down
fighting prowess. He was humiliated Neapolitan and Provencal galleys out on Charles’s galleys, which had been
GULF OF NAPLES to stand by passively as di Lauria’s fleet to attack. Di Lauria turned and fled pursuing in no particular formation.
captured incoming ships and carried southward with Charles in pursuit. The Neapolitan galleys had lagged
Date June 5, 1284 out raids around Naples. On June 5 the behind and were thus able to flee in
Forces Aragonese: 36 galleys; Aragonese admiral succeeded in luring As the galleys approached disorderly fashion back to the harbor.
Angevins: c.30 galleys Charles of Salerno out of harbor with Castellammare the trap was sprung. The Provencal galleys, including
Losses Aragonese: unknown; the apparent offer of an easy victory. The group of Aragonese galleys that Charles’s own ship, were outflanked
Angevins: c.12 galleys captured Making a conspicuous show of sending had sailed southward rejoined the main and attacked from the sides and rear.
a dozen of his galleys away to the body of di Lauria’s ships.The opposing Outnumbered and outfought, the
Location Gulf of south, di Lauria approached the harbor forces were now roughly equal in galleys were captured after a short,
Naples, Italy with a weakened force. Charles could numbers, but the Aragonese were far sharp action. Charles’s ship was the last
not resist the temptation to engage a superior in organization and fighting to surrender, deluged with the bolts of
The victory of the Aragonese fleet at experience. Forming a crescent in line the Catalan crossbowmen and assailed
Malta in 1283 gave Admiral Roger di by combat swimmers.
Lauria a temporary naval superiority he
was eager to exploit. Charles of Salerno, The capture of Charles was the
Charles of Anjou’s son, was in command crucial outcome of a victory otherwise
in Naples, capital of the mainland half lacking in strategic significance. He
of the kingdom of Sicily. In spring 1284 was carried off to Aragon, where he was
Charles of Anjou was preparing to send held prisoner until 1288. He was then
powerful naval reinforcements to Naples. released after swearing that he would
Di Lauria took his fleet to blockade cede Sicily to the Aragonese, but this
the city, hoping to provoke Charles was a promise he felt free to renounce
of Salerno into sending his galleys out once he had returned to Naples.
to fight before reinforcements arrived.
Coronation of Charles of Anjou
Charles of Anjou had given his son This French manuscript illumination shows Charles
strict instructions to avoid a sea battle, arriving in Rome by sea in 1265 and being crowned
but the young man was impetuous and king of Naples and Sicily by Pope Clement IV.

The Gulf of Naples
The spectacular bay dominated by Mount Vesuvius
was the scene of three of Roger di Lauria’s great
naval victories, the first being over Charles of
Anjou’s son Charles of Salerno in 1284.

THE WAR FOR SICILY 71

WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS c.1245–1305

LAS HORMIGAS THE COUNTS roger di lauria

Date September 4, 1285 Date June 23, 1287 ADMIRAL OF THE ARAGONESE FLEET
Forces Aragonese: 40 galleys; Forces Aragonese: 44 galleys;
French: 30 galleys Angevins: c.70 galleys Roger di Lauria was born into the nobility
Losses Aragonese: unknown; Losses Aragonese: unknown; of Calabria, southern Italy, but was driven into
French: 13 galleys captured Angevins: 40 galleys captured exile at the court of Peter III of Aragon when
the Angevins seized his family’s lands in 1266. He
Location Location proved his worth as a soldier before his appointment
Off Catalonia, Spain Bay of Naples, Italy as admiral at the start of the War of the Sicilian Vespers
in 1282. His energy and administrative skill were
In 1285 Philip III of France invaded By 1287 the original contenders for demonstrated in strengthening the Aragonese fleet,
the kingdom of Aragon, a rapacious the throne of Sicily had disappeared but he is respected above all for his leadership in
enterprise declared a crusade by a from the scene. Charles of Anjou died combat. He never lost a single sea battle, showing
partisan pope. French troops advanced in 1285, leaving southern Italy to his a cunning, good judgement, and boldness that have
down the coast of Catalonia, supported son Charles of Salerno, still a prisoner earned him a reputation as the finest of medieval
by a force of Provencal and Genoese of the Aragonese after his defeat at the naval commanders. Ruthless toward his enemies, he
galleys. Roger di Lauria’s fleet sailed battle of the Gulf of Naples. In 1286 remained unswervingly loyal to the Aragonese throne.
from Sicily to help resist the invasion. Peter III of Aragon also died. He left
his Aragonese kingdom to his eldest son in eastern Sicily, which had been seized Count of Brienne, who was ruler of 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
Arriving in Barcelona at the end of Alfonso III, but Sicily to his second by Angevin troops, leaving the west of the Principality of Taranto; and Guy
August, di Lauria led his own 40 galleys son James II. In the absence of the the island vulnerable to invasion. But de Montfort, Count of Nola, son of
from Sicily and 10 Catalan galleys north imprisoned Charles II, the Angevin ruled England. But these counts, for
toward Gerona, which was under siege. cause was led by Count Robert II the Angevins failed to act and di whom the battle is named, were no
At the same time, unaware of di Lauria’s of Artois. He assembled substantial Lauria had time to sail back around match for di Lauria in a sea fight. Far
arrival, the French fleet advanced south land and naval forces in Naples the south of Sicily to seek battle superior at maneuver, his experienced
toward Barcelona, hoping to annihilate for an invasion of Sicily, hoping with their fleet. In June he found and highly motivated Sicilian galley
the small Catalan galley force.The two to prevent James II’s succession. crews attacked their opponents from
fleets met, to their mutual surprise, some them in harbor at Naples. the beam, destroying their oars and
time before daybreak on September 4. The Aragonese defense The Count of Artois leaving them immobilized, to be
Chroniclers disagree about almost every of the island still lay was willing to send his massacred by the Catalan crossbowmen
detail of the battle that followed. In the primarily in the hands galleys out to fight. and boarding parties of fierce Spanish
darkness the action must have developed of Roger di Lauria He had a far more light troops, the almogavers.
into a confused close-quarters mêlée, and his experienced substantial galley
with boarding the only effective tactic. fleet. In the spring force than the one More than half the Angevin galleys
of 1287 he sailed defeated by di were captured, along with some 5,000
A lucky dozen of the outnumbered to relieve Augusta Lauria off Naples crew and soldiers.Those taken prisoner
French galleys escaped back to Aigues- three years before. included Hugh of Brienne, and Guy
Mortes.The rest fell into the hands of Catalan astrolabe There was also an de Montfort, who did not survive his
a vengeful enemy.The wounded were Many of the Catalans’ impressive array of captivity.The planned invasion of Sicily
tied to cables behind galleys and left to naval skills were inherited military leaders at was abandoned, enabling James II to
drown. Fit prisoners were blinded and from Spain’s Muslims, as his side, including confirm his hold on the throne.
sent back to the French king, led by was the use of the astrolabe Reynald III Quarrel,
one of their number left with a single as an astronomical aid. This
eye.The invasion failed. one is from the late 13th century. Count of Avella; Hugh,

WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS When the Sicilians arrived, an onshore of the Sicilian line, fainted and was WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS
breeze made it hard for di Lauria to rowed from the battle. Di Lauria got
CAPE ORLANDO leave the bay where he was moored. some of his galleys behind the Sicilians, PONZA
Instead he adopted a tight defensive who were gradually ground down in
Date July 4, 1299 formation, his galleys drawn up in line fierce fighting. Only 12 Sicilian galleys Date June 14, 1300
Forces Aragonese and Angevins: close to the shore and linked by cables. escaped.As at Las Hormigas, di Lauria Forces Aragonese and Angevins:
56 galleys; Sicilians: 48 galleys was savage in victory, slaughtering the 59 galleys; Sicilians 32 galleys
Losses Aragonese and Frederick entered the bay on the crews of captured galleys out of hand. Losses Aragonese and Angevins:
Angevins: unknown: Sicilians: morning of July 4, also placing his fleet 1 galley captured; Sicilians: c.20
36 galleys captured in a cable-linked line. galleys captured
The galleys exchanged
Location missiles at distance until Location Gulf of Gaeta,
Off northern Sicily a Sicilian captain, tiring north of Naples, Italy
of the punishment his
In the 1290s the struggle for Sicily took crew was taking from the Despite his crushing victory at Cape
on a radically altered shape. James II Catalan crossbowmen, cut Orlando, James II failed to seize Sicily
inherited the throne of Aragon, leaving his cables and plunged for the Angevins from his brother
Sicily to his brother Frederick. But forward to engage the Frederick.The following year a rebuilt
James then made an alliance with his enemy at close quarters. Sicilian fleet boldly entered the Bay of
old enemy, Charles II of Anjou, and led Others followed suit and Naples, challenging Roger di Lauria’s
an expedition to regain Sicily for the the battle became a Angevin galleys to come out and fight.
Angevins. Roger di Lauria stayed loyal mêlée. In the heat and Di Lauria prudently chose to wait for
to Aragon and found himself fighting exhaustion of combat reinforcements from Genoa and Apulia
against his old Sicilian fleet, now led by Frederick, in the center before accepting the challenge.The
Frederick and admiral Conrad d’Oria. one-sided engagement took place
Prisoners of war off the island of Ponza.The Sicilians’
In summer 1299 King James and di Angevin prisoners are escorted admiral Conrad d’Oria bravely attacked
Lauria sailed from Naples for northern onto a Sicilian galley. Sicilian di Lauria’s flagship, but despite inflicting
Sicily, the war galleys escorting a convoy soldiers and sailors captured by some damage, was obliged to surrender,
of troop transports. Frederick sailed di Lauria were not so lucky—they along with more than half his force.
from Messina to intercept, but moved were often executed on the spot. Frederick nonetheless retained Sicily in
too slowly. James was able to land his the peace treaty signed two years later.
troops and horses at Cape Orlando.

72 BATTLES FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN

the battle of malta

The outbreak of the War of the Sicilian commanded by two Marseillais Valletta harbor
Vespers in 1282 set Charles of Anjou, admirals, Guillaume de Cornut and The harbor today is still dominated by
Count of Provence and ruler of Naples Bartolomé Bonvin. In June 1283 these Fort St. Angelo. It retains its medieval
and Sicily, against King Peter III of Provencal galleys arrived in Malta to appearance, but has been completely
Aragon, whose domains included aid an Angevin garrison besieged in rebuilt since the time of Roger di Lauria.
Catalonia. Initially the Aragonese had Fort St.Angelo on the Grand Harbor.
the better of the Angevins at sea, so impossible for enemy ships
Charles ordered the creation of a new In the Sicilian port of Messina, to pass between them.
galley fleet at Marseille—to be manned Aragon’s newly appointed admiral
by Provencal crews and soldiers, and Roger di Lauria was informed of the At daybreak the Angevin
Angevin move and set off in pursuit. galleys emerged into the
WAR OF THE SICILIAN VESPERS The Aragonese fleet was considered harbor, their complement
the best in the western Mediterranean. of marines augmented by
THE BATTLE OF MALTA Its oarsmen were Sicilians in revolt a hundred armored knights armored soldiers.The fierce almogavers,
against Angevin rule, and therefore from the castle.They deluged nimble and lightly clad in leather, sure-
Date July 8, 1283 highly motivated. Each galley carried the Aragonese galleys in a footedly stormed the Angevins’ galleys.
Location Grand Harbor, Valletta, Malta 30 or 40 Catalan crossbowmen and hail of missiles—crossbow The Sicilian oarsmen joined in the
Result Aragonese victory some 50 almogavers—tough fighters bolts, stones, javelins, darts, and pots fight, leaving their benches to take up
recruited from wild areas of Spain containing a variety of substances from sword and shield.
COMBATANTS bordering on Muslim territory. burning pitch to lime (intended to
blind its victims). Di Lauria told his The Angevins were overwhelmed
PETER III OF CHARLES OF ANJOU GIVE THE ENEMY A CHANCE men to take cover and return fire only and slaughtered. Only a handful of
ARAGON with crossbows. Ranging from heavy their galleys evaded capture. Bonvin
THE AGE OF GALLEYS Di Lauria reached Malta on June 7. winched machines to light hand-held was among those who escaped, but de
COMMANDERS That night, under cover of darkness, he weapons spanned using a foot-stirrup, Cornut was killed along with the
slipped an armed boat into the harbor these were cruelly effective.A chronicler majority of those he commanded.
Roger di Lauria Bartolomé Bonvin to reconnoiter. It found the Angevin says the Catalan archers “did not Roger di Lauria had laid the
Guillaume de Cornut galleys beached with oars unshipped in discharge a shot without killing or foundations of his reputation as the
a narrow inlet under the castle walls. disabling the man they attacked greatest naval commander of his age.
FORCES Di Lauria decided to draw them out
into the open harbor to fight. When the Angevins had exhausted Medieval Catalan galleys
Ships: 18 galleys Ships: 19 galleys Sacrificing the chance to surprise most of their supply of missiles, di This romantic image shows the ships crammed
a sleeping enemy, he announced his Lauria ordered his galleys forward. with almogavers, the troops that played such a
LOSSES presence with a blast of trumpets. They crashed into the prows of the vital role in the Aragonese victory at Malta.
While the startled Angevins rushed enemy ships with a splintering shock.
Men: 300 Men: 3,500 to man and launch their galleys, di Then Aragonese missiles rained down
Ships: none Ships: 14 galleys Lauria organized his fleet in line abreast on the enemy decks, including pots
across the harbor. Heavy cables were filled with soap that shattered, making
strung from galley to galley, making it the pitching decks treacherous for

THE WAR FOR SICILY 73

key The Angevins place two boats
ARAGONESE FLEET to guard the harbor entrance,
moored close to the shore
2 Aragonese
war galleys FORT An Aragonese boat slips into Di Lauria’s galley fleet
ST ANGELO the harbor under cover of arrives from Sicily
1 small Aragonese darkness. Rowing with muffled during the night
scout ship oars, the crew spies out the
Angevins’ strength and positions night befor e the battle
ANGEVIN FLEET The Aragonese galleys reach the harbor on the
night of July 7. Di Lauria orders them to remain
2 Angevin galleys outside the harbor while he sends a small boat
inside to reconnoiter. The Angevins have posted
1 small Angevin two guard boats, but these fail to spot the intruder.
guard boat
Just before sunrise, di Lauria deploys his galleys
GRAND in line abreast across the harbor entrance. The
HARBOR ships are tied together with strong cables to stop
the enemy from breaking through
Angevin galleys are beached
close to the fort. With their
sterns to the shore, their
position is easily defended

cl ash in the harbor The Angevins, roused from
their slumbers by the
Di Lauria decides to fight in open water Aragonese trumpets, sail out
rather than attack the Angevins on shore. Taking to do battle with the enemy
up a position at the harbor entrance, he orders his
trumpeters to wake the Angevins. The latter hastily
board their galleys and row out to do battle.

FORT ST. The Angevins attack the
ANGELO Aragonese with spears,
crossbows, and other projectiles

GRAND
HARBOR

crushing victory The Aragonese close on their A few Angevin galleys
defenseless foe, unleashing manage to escape
The Angevins attack fiercely but eventually a hail of missiles, then start the carnage in the
run out of ammunition. Di Lauria’s men now boarding the Angevin ships harbor and return
emerge to start firing themselves, then grapple to Marseille
and board the enemy galleys, capturing most of
them and slaughtering their crews. MEDITERRANEAN SEA

FORT ST. ANGELO The Angevins start to
run out of crossbow
bolts and other
ammunition

GRAND
HARBOR

74 THE AGE OF GALLEYS

the rise of sail

THE EVOLUTION of the three-masted sailing ship in the 15th century was a
turning point in history.Armed with cannon, it was to give Europe global
reach and maritime dominance. It also brought a fundamental change to
naval warfare within Europe. Large sailing ships rendered maneuverable by
a combination of square and lateen sails could outfight galleys, providing a
superior platform for large numbers of cannon.These ocean-going ships
began to shift the focus of European seapower from the Mediterranean to
the Atlantic. Portugal showed the way in voyages down the African coast in
the 15th century, but Spain was best placed to take the lead in ocean sailing
because it was both a Mediterranean and an Atlantic power. Northern Europe
had a long sailing tradition but its states rarely had the resources and political
organization to maintain substantial fleets of warships until the 16th century.

THE AGE OF GALLEYS Warship fit for a king LONGSHIP R AIDERS
Henry VIII’s trip to France in 1520 to meet with French
King François I was a chance to show off the largest ship The first distinctive contribution of northern Sea battle at La Rochelle
in his navy—possibly in all Europe—the Henry Grace à Europe to naval history was provided by the During the Hundred Years War sieges of ports often led to
Dieu. Launched in 1514, the “Great Ship” was armed with Viking warriors of Scandinavia from the 8th clashes at sea. In 1372 an English convoy taking supplies
21 heavy bronze cannons and scores of smaller iron ones. century. Their longships used sails and oars, and reinforcements to their troops in La Rochelle lost all
like Mediterranean galleys, but were better able its ships to a Castilian squadron fighting for the French.
Catching the wind to function in heavier seas. Warriors doubled as
Many later Viking longships were equipped oarsmen. Viking raiders devastated coastal size and sophistication of the great arsenals at
with a bronze weather vane that was settlements around the British Isles, besieged Venice and Genoa. Henry VII finally established
attached to the tip of the prow. These were Paris, and even sailed into the Mediterranean a permanent dock for the English king’s ships
often decorated with grotesque animals. and penetrated the Black Sea via the river at Portsmouth at the end of the 15th century.
systems of the Ukraine. Raiding parties grew
into fleets as political consolidation created Nevertheless, Anglo-French rivalry ensured
powerful Scandinavian kingdoms. that the English Channel became a focal point of
naval operations from the 13th century onward.
Viking ships were mostly employed in Large numbers of ships were sent in both
amphibious operations—the fighting took place directions to land troops, horses, and supplies,
on land—but crude sea battles occasionally took and for coastal raids, as when Southampton was
place with exchange of missiles and boarding sacked by French galleys in 1338. During the
with hand weapons. Although Anglo-Saxon Hundred Years War, English military operations
England in particular tried to develop naval in northern France and Aquitaine would have
strength, there was little that any country—at been impossible without maritime support. Sea
least any as undeveloped as the states of northern battles as such, however, were infrequent, and
Europe were at this time—could do to stop the when they did take place, consisted mostly
Vikings landing forces or settlers whenever they of fights between knights, men-at-arms, and
wanted. England was invaded twice in 1066, by archers on board ships.
Scandinavians and their Frenchified descendants
the Normans, without succeeding in mounting
a response at sea.

A NGLO-FR ENCH R IVALRY

The development of England and France as naval
powers was slow. Medieval English fleets were
improvised from a few king’s ships, vessels
provided by port towns and merchant cogs—
round sailing ships—pressed into service for
the purpose. Under French King Philip le Bel
in the late 13th century the “clos des galées” for
a while functioned as a kind of royal dockyard
at Rouen, but there was nothing in northern
waters that was remotely comparable with the

75

COGS AND CARR ACKS platforms for the archers who played a major Grace Dieu, a carrack as large as a first-rate ship 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
role in combat at sea, as well as spacious holds of the line of the Nelson era. Such “Great Ships”
The French used galleys for cross-Channel for the purposes of military transport. appealed to monarchs for their prestige value.
raiding and in the battles of the Hundred Years Initially, their fighting advantage lay primarily
War—the oared vessels were often supplied by The carrack emerged in the in how difficult they were to board, with their
Genoese mercenaries. The Castilians also used 15th century as a large hybrid high inward-sloping hull. But by the start of
galleys successfully against the English, who for of the cog and sleeker
their part had balingers, small singled-masted Mediterranean lateen-sailed the 16th century they were being equipped
vessels powered by a combination of oars and ships. The Genoese brought with cannon in large numbers, with gun ports
sails. But ships powered by sails alone were carracks into the Channel
becoming increasingly important in northern in support of the French cut into the hull. Purpose-built warships
wars. Sturdy single-masted cogs were the trusty fighting England’s such as England’s Mary Rose were
workhorses of maritime trade in the Baltic and Henry V in 1416. a new kind of fighting machine
North Sea. With high castles added fore and Henry himself whose firepower would
aft, these merchant ships provided excellent built the massive make earlier forms of
naval warfare redundant.

Portuguese carracks
Having explored the entire west coast of Africa,
the Portuguese reached their true goal when
Vasco da Gama completed his historic
voyage to India in 1498. Carracks were
the mainstays of their long-distance
voyages of exploration.

76 THE RISE OF SAIL

The vikings

DURING THE LATE 8th and 9th centuriesViking sea warriors from Greenland N O RWAY
Scandinavia terrorized much of Europe, devastating sites along
coasts and up rivers.At first small-scale hit-and-run raids mounted ICELAND VOLGA
by single war bands, these attacks grew into sustained operations involving c.860 BULGARIA
hundreds of longships, and led to permanent Viking settlement in France
and the British Isles. From around 980 a new wave of Viking expansion, Bulgar
led by warriors such as Olaf Trygvasson, struck in particular at Anglo-Saxon
England, which came under the rule of the Danish King Canute from 1017. Staraya Ladoga
In Scandinavia the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were
consolidated and their warrior kings, or claimants to their thrones, fought Reykjavik Trondheim 750
one another repeatedly in shifting alliances. Longships were central to 873
Viking invasions and raids, but actual battles on water were rare.When forces Novgorod 750
clashed at sea, the style of fighting differed little from a battle on land, with an c.860 Faroe Islands
exchange of missiles followed by close combat with axe, sword, and spear. c.800 Gnezdovo
SWEDEN

Orkney Islands Birka Itil

Shetland Islands Kaupang K I E VA N KIEVAN
RU S RUS
DANELAW: Name given North Nissa 1062 Baltic Sarkel
from 9th century to parts Sea Kiev
of England where Danish British Sea Lund
law was observed rather Isles DENMARK Helgea 1026 882

than Anglo-Saxon Svold 1000

Lindisfarne Hedeby
793
Dublin 841 Hamburg POLAND

Ireland York 845 Black
Sea
Limerick 866 Antwerp HUNGARY
836 HOLY
836 London
NORMANDY: Granted ROMAN
as fief to Viking leader Rouen 841
Paris EMPIRE
Rollo by French
king in 911 845 I
R
Nantes 843 BULGARIA Constantinople E
VENETIAN
The viking world C.793–1050 CE ATLANTIC BURGUNDY Pisa 839 P

FRANCE REPUBLIC M

O C E A N 844 860 E
859
KEY E
The Viking raids of the late 8th and early Rome N
9th centuries were followed by a period Area settled by Vikings NAVARRE I nS
of conquest and settlement, with Vikings Area of Viking influence NT a Damascus
settling in Iceland as well as in conquered Viking voyage, trade route, or raid LEÓN Sardinia PAPAL ZA ane Cairo
areas of France, Britain, and Ireland. As the Major Viking settlement CASTILE STATES terr
regions ruled by the Vikings grew to become Date of Viking voyage, battle, raid, or settlement
powerful states, wars between rival Viking Viking sea battle CALIPHATE Balearic Islands Sicily BY e a
leaders became increasingly frequent as they Viking raid OF CORDOVA 859 Tunis Medi
quarreled over their inheritance. Lisbon

844

Seville
844
to Canary Is
THE AGE OF GALLEYS FAT I M I D S
N

0 km 400 800

0 miles 400 800 A F R I C A

VIKING ATTACKS ON NORTHERN ENGLAND VIKING ATTACKS ON NORTHERN FRANCE NORWEGIAN-DANISH WAR raining spears and arrows upon one
another, he had smaller longships
RAID ON LINDISFARNE RAID ON PARIS SVOLD lashed to each side of his large warship,
to provide a stable platform on which
Date June 793 Date November 885– Date September 1000 he and his followers could fight.
Forces Vikings: unknown October 886 Forces Norwegians: 11 ships;
Losses Unknown Forces Vikings: c.300 longships; Coalition: c.70 ships Earl Eirik led the attack on Olaf ’s
Franks: 200 men-at-arms Losses Norwegians: 11 ships; floating fortress. Sailing alongside and
Losses Unknown Coalition: unknown grappling the smaller ships, Eirik’s
warriors boarded them and cleared
Location Lindisfarne Location Location their decks in tough hand-to-hand
Island, off Northumbria Paris Baltic Sea fighting.They then cut the hawsers
holding the smaller ships to Long Serpent.
In the 8th century the monastery on In 885 a vast Viking fleet, led by the Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, was Earl Eirik brought his longship Barthi
Lindisfarne was a famed center of chieftain Sigfrid, sailed up the River opposed by a coalition of Danish king directly alongside Long Serpent, but his
Christian learning. Its remote coastal Seine, bent upon pillaging inland Svein Forkbeard, Swedish king Olaf first boarding party was repelled with
location showed the security felt by a France and Burgundy.The Frankish Eiriksson, and the Earl of Lade, Eirik heavy losses. Despite desperate resistance,
people unsuspecting of seaborne attack. town of Paris, built on the Ile de la Hakonarson, a pretender to the Olaf ’s men were gradually worn down,
The Viking raiding party that crossed Cité, was joined to each bank of the Norwegian throne. Olaf was sailing until they held only the aft of their ship,
the North Sea and beached its longships Seine by bridges, one of wood and one home from Wendland when his small grouped around their king.To avoid
near the monastery in 793 met little or of stone.To the surprise of the Vikings, fleet was intercepted by a far superior being taken, Olaf leaped into the sea
no resistance.According to the Anglo- the handful of Frankish warriors in the coalition force.The battle that followed and was never seen again.The victors
Saxon Chronicle, the raiders “devastated town, led by Count Odo, defended the is best described by Icelandic chronicler divided Norway between them, with
God’s church on Lindisfarne island by bridges, blocking the raiders’ progress Sonni Sturluson in his sagas of the Earl Eirik taking the lion’s share.
looting and slaughter.” The Vikings up the river.A prolonged siege ensued. Norwegian kings, the Heimskringla.
stole the treasures of the church and TheVikings were determined not to be
either killed the monks or carried thwarted by a few Frankish warriors: King Olaf was
them off in chains to be sold as slaves. they used siege engines to bombard the traveling on board
Only a hit-and-run attack by a small fortifications; they attempted to burn Long Serpent, a ship
war band, the raid was a profound 165 ft (50 m) long,
shock to Christian Europe.The the wooden bridge with fireships; powered by 70 oars
scholar Alcuin wrote that they filled moats with dead and carrying 200
“never before has such bodies.After the timber warriors.As the
terror appeared as we bridge was destroyed by opposing fleets
have suffered from winter floods, some of closed for battle,
a pagan race.” theVikings sailed on to
plunder elsewhere.The Presumed death
Viking leader’s helmet rest were eventually of Olaf Trygvasson
Elaborate bronze helmets bought off by the The king throws himself
contributed to the terrifying Frankish emperor, overboard to avoid
spectacle of sudden landings Charles the Fat, with capture at Svold,
of groups of Viking raiders. 60 pounds of silver. an event that passed
into Norse folklore.

THE VIKINGS 77

WARS OF KING CANUTE Swedes and Norwegians hastily
took to their ships and rowed out
the pagans … came with a naval HELGEÅ of the harbor, taking up a defensive
formation offshore. Since it was late
force to britain like stinging Date 1026 in the day and his fleet was widely
Forces Danish and English: dispersed, Canute sailed into the now
hornets and spread on all sides c.600 ships; Swedes and empty harbor to spend the night.
Norwegians: c.400 ships As there was limited space, most of
like fearful wolves, robbed, tore, Losses Unknown his ships remained in open sea.The
following morning his enemies breached
and slaughtered … Location the dam, releasing a cascade of water.
Coast of Sweden Some of Canute’s men were drowned.
SIMEON OF DURHAM! HISTORIA REGUM! &&'. The king’s own ship rode the surge out
While Canute, king of England and into the sea, where it was surrounded
Viking longship Denmark, was ruling his English by the enemy. But Canute’s vessel was
This reconstruction of a Viking domains, Swedish King Anund Jacob so large and well defended that it could
longship of the 11th century, and Norwegian King Olaf Haraldsson not be boarded.There was some fierce
created at Roskilde in Denmark, ravaged his Danish territories. In search fighting before Olaf and Anund, sure
has demonstrated its ability to of revenge, Canute led a large fleet in that they would lose heavily once
sail long distances in open water pursuit of the marauders. Olaf and Canute’s ships were properly organized
without resort to oar power. Anund devised a trick to counter their for battle, decided to withdraw.Their
enemy’s superior force. Landing at the flight confirmed Canute’s dominance
mouth of the Helgeå River—a site of Scandinavia. He replaced Olaf as
located on the Swedish coast—they king of Norway two years later.
had a dam constructed upstream.When
Canute’s war fleet was sighted, the

c.990–1035 1200 BCE – 1550 CE

canute

KING OF ENGLAND, DENMARK, AND NORWAY

Canute accompanied his father Svein
Forkbeard, king of Denmark, on an
invasion of England in 1013.The

following year his father died and
the Danish army elected him king
of England, although it was only after
a second seaborne invasion and much
hard fighting that the Anglo-Saxons
submitted to his rule. Canute succeeded
his brother as king of Denmark in 1018
and, after the battle of Helgeå in 1026,
also affirmed his claim to be “king of the
Norwegians and some of the Swedes.”
He ruled his North Sea empire wisely
but failed to create any political structure
that could maintain it after his death.

NORWEGIAN-DANISH WAR fleet than Harald’s, but many of his
followers seem to have been lacking
NISSA in confidence. On either side of Svein’s
own vessel ships were tied together
Date 9 August 1062 with cables, but many other Danish
Forces Norwegians: 150 ships; ships were loose and disorganized,
Danes: 300 ships some hanging back while others
Losses Norwegians: unknown; pressed forward to fight.
Danes: more than 70 ships
captured The battle was joined late in the
day and continued through the night.
Location Enemies assailed one another with
The Kattegat stones and arrows, as well as closing
to clash with swords and shields.The
Harald III Sigurdsson, also known as loose Danish vessels were mopped
Harald Hardrada, was one of the most up by aggressively-led groups of
celebrated ofViking warriors. He served Norwegian longships. Svein’s ship
in the elite Varangian Guard of the and those tied to it in the center were
Byzantine Empire before returning to finally overrun after savage fighting,
become king of Norway in 1047. He although the king escaped capture.
also claimed the throne of Denmark, Despite the scale of the Norwegian
held by Svein Estridsson, a nephew of victory, Harald made peace with Svein
Canute.There was warfare between in 1064. Instead he pursued a flimsy
the two for 15 years. In summer 1062 claim to the English throne. Harald
Harald sailed south to seek battle with was killed leading an invasion of
the Danes. He laid waste the Danish England at Stamford Bridge in 1066.
coast to draw Svein out to fight.The
Danish king appeared with a far larger

78 RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION

LIFE ON BOARD

religion and superstition

THE HAZARDOUS AND UNPREDICTABLE nature of any seaman’s life, subject to the vagaries
of weather and waves, is compounded in naval service by the uncertainties of warfare creating

fertile ground for superstition of all kinds. Religious belief at sea has in some of its aspects been

hard to distinguish from superstition, although religion has often developed a very different role

as a motivating and bonding force, and a source of spiritual comfort on board.

THE AGE OF GALLEYS OMEN AND SACRIFICE APOLLO Ancient Greek
galley crews sang specific
In ancient times any enterprise, whether in peace or war, hymns, or paeans, to the
would be preceded by animal sacrifice and the consultation god Apollo as they rowed
of omens, often by examination of burned entrails. into battle. Battlefield
On important occasions renowned professionals were paeans were accompanied
employed for the purpose, like Euphrantides the by pipes and instruments
Soothsayer who allegedly advised Themistocles to sacrifice called kitharas, like the one
three Persian prisoners to the gods before the battle of Apollo is seen holding here.
Salamis. When Roman consul Publius Claudius infamously
refused to heed the omen presented by sacred chickens before SACRED CHICKENS
the defeat at Drepana, Rome was in uproar and it nearly cost him Roman leaders would consult
his life. The Viking warriors, worshipers of Odin and Thor, practiced sacred chickens, specially brought
human sacrifice and divination from examining the remains of the on board for the purpose, for signs
victims. Omens could also be accidental, however. At Lepanto a of divine support prior to battle.
number of crows were seen over the Turkish fleet before the battle, and A chicken that refused to eat
their admiral had great difficulty persuading his men to enter the fight. the grain it was offered
could prove ominous.
SILVER COIN In deference to
Charon, ferryman of the underworld Now Friday came. Your old wives say,
in Greek legend who was paid with Of all the week’s the unluckiest day.
a coin, shipbuilders once placed
a silver coin under the masthead. RICHARD FLECKNOE, 9^Vgjb &+*+ dc i]Z WZa^Z[ egZkZci^c\ h]^eh aVjcX]^c\ dc ;g^YVnh#

EX-VOTO These works were a display
of gratitude to God for sparing the
mariner, fulfilling part of the deal they
made with God in a time of difficulty.
The painting by a Spanish sailor
opposite depicts the moment of peril.

SUPERSTITIONS

Sailors maintained into modern times many beliefs that
are widely though to be pagan in origin. For example,
death was believed to come with the ebb tide. If a dying
man survived one ebb tide, he would live until the
next. Possessing a caul from a newborn baby was
believed to ensure a man against drowning—sailors
were still known to buy cauls into the 20th century.
It was also unlucky to kill a seagull or, especially,
an albatross, since they embodied the souls of lost
mariners. This prohibition was not universally
observed—sailors were known to make tobacco
pouches out of albatrosses’ webbed feet. It was bad luck
to carry a corpse on board. If unavoidable, it should
always be carried sideways onto the ship, not end on.
Whistling was generally disapproved of as likely to cause
a storm, although soft whistling might be indulged in
a dead calm as a way of summoning a wind. Placing a
silver coin under the mast might ensure good fortune,
while it was taboo to launch a ship on a Friday.

79

PRAYER SERVICE Sailors often
attended religious services before
and after battle. Here British officers
and men pray for their fallen comrades
after the battle of the Nile (1798).

ORTHODOX CHAPEL Many ships had their own May the great God … grant to my 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
chapels, where a chaplain could perform services and country and … Europe in general,
rites. This Orthodox chapel from the Greek WWII-era a great and glorious victory: and may
battleship Georgius Averof came with its own icons. no misconduct, in anyone, tarnish it …

RELIGION ON BOARD HORATIO NELSON EgVnZg lg^iiZc WZ[dgZ WViiaZ d[ IgV[Va\Vg dc DXidWZg '&! &-%*

Clergymen, monks, or nuns on board were traditionally BLESSING CEREMONY
regarded as unlucky. In the 16th century Spanish royal Clergy inspect a submarine
galleys, which operated close to shore and were never at sea for after a ceremony. Another
long periods, had clergy assigned to them, but the oceangoing maritime tradition views a
sailing fleet did not. The celebration of mass on board was priest on board as bad luck.
banned because the consecrated wafer or wine might be spilled
in the sea. The ship’s master led services on board and the ORGAN Specially built
ship’s boys sang the Ave Maria at sunset. Spanish sailors organs for submarines,
wore medallions of the saints and Virgin around their necks such as this WWII model,
as charms, and made ex-voto offerings in churches to give were issued for religious
thanks for a safe voyage. English sailors of Francis Drake’s time, services until the 1980s.
affected by Protestantism, would sing hymns on deck, while
denouncing their Catholic enemies as merely superstitious.
Religious services on board Royal Navy ships in the 18th
century were mostly conducted by the captain. The growth
of Christian evangelicalism in the early 19th century affected
Royal Navy officers, who were more likely to take their
religious duties seriously. From 1812 the official policy of the
Royal Navy was that every ship from a sixth-rate upward should
have a chaplain, but until the mid-19th century there were never
enough chaplains to fulfill this aspiration. Eventually, in the
course of the 19th century, religious personnel on board were
generally provided by navies around the world as part
of a concept of a well-run ship caring for its sailors.

80 THE RISE OF SAIL

sea battles in

northern europe

DURING THE PERIOD of almost half a millennium between the to land troops and horses for larger scale military incursions. Naval matters
Norman invasion of England in 1066 and the loss of the English were most important to the English kings, who needed to ferry armies
“Great Ship” Mary Rose in the Solent in 1545, naval warfare in to the European mainland where they possessed or claimed substantial
northern Europe underwent decisive technological changes.The Normans territories, and also depended on the Channel to protect them from attack
crossed the Channel in vessels resembling Viking longships; by the 16th by continental armies. Rivalry between the kings of France and England,
century war fleets included large three- and four-masted carracks armed at its fiercest during the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), was at the root
with cannon. But the place of sea power in north European warfare of most naval conflicts in the region. Permanent navies were slow to
remained relatively constant. It enabled states to conduct coastal raids or emerge, however, limiting the scale and frequency of sea warfare.

the norman invasion of england

THE AGE OF GALLEYS In 1066 Anglo-Saxon England was the failed because King Harold defeated the ships were probably much Norman helmet
target of no less than three seaborne King Harald’s land forces at Stamford broader in the beam and Standard equipment of the Norman knights
attacks, all concerned with contesting Bridge.The third seaborne operation, deeper in draft than a that crossed the Channel in 1066 was
the accession to the Anglo-Saxon mounted by William Duke of Viking longship. It has chainmail armor and an iron helmet
throne of Harold Godwinson at the Normandy, was a resounding success. been estimated that one with a distinctive nose guard.
start of the year. In May Harold’s exiled such ship would have
brother Tostig landed on the Isle of DAUNTING LOGISTICS taken a team of 12 several ships en route
Wight with a fleet from Flanders and shipwrights three through stormy weather.
went on to raid Harold’s main naval Whatever the merits of William’s claim months to build. This placed William’s
base at Sandwich. In early September to the English throne, his preparations Given the scale of the invasion force closer
a fleet of some 300 ships commanded were thorough and determined. enterprise, most vessels to England, enabling him
by Norwegian King Harald Hardrada, William had to transport an army of must surely have been existing to target a landing site nearer London.
with Tostig as his ally, landed an army 7,000 men or more, along with some craft supplied by the duke’s King Harold was well informed of
in northern England.This invasion 2,000 horses, and equipment that seagoing subjects. William’s preparations and waited
included the components for a with his own ships and army on
The invasion fleet prefabricated wooden fort.At Dives- The fleet was ready by August England’s south coast.The long delay
The Bayeux Tapestry includes a fairly faithful sur-Mer on the Normandy coast he 12, but the weather would not worked against Harold, however. Firstly,
representation of William’s ships, especially the assembled a fleet that has been cooperate and a north wind kept the on September 8, most of his forces were
sails, stays, and steering oars. Less realistic is the estimated at around 700 ships. Some of ships firmly bottled up in harbor for sent home.Then the invasion by Harald
method shown of transporting horses. these were built from scratch, a process a month. On September 12, the fleet Hardrada required a hasty march
shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. Most of moved to StValéry-sur-Somme, losing

SEA BATTLES IN NORTHERN EUROPE 81

WITNESS TO WAR KING JOHN’S WAR WITH FRANCE King John assembled his own fleet,
under the command of William de
master wace DAMME Longespee. It comprised some 500
ships carrying 700 knights and large
ANGLO-NORMAN CHRONICLER (C.1115 – C.1183) Date May 30–31,1213 numbers of mercenaries.Whether the
Forces English: c.500 ships; plan was for a preemptive strike to
NORMAN INVASION OF ENGLAND French: c.1,700 ships prevent a French invasion is not clear.
Losses English: none; Leaving England on May 28, the ships
“… but I have heard my father say—I remember it well, although French: c.400 ships reached the Zwyn two days later.The
I was but a lad—that there were seven hundred ships, less four, French were totally unprepared for an
when they sailed from St.Valéry; and that there were besides these Location Scheldt attack from the sea. Hundreds of their
ships, boats and skiffs for the purpose of carrying the arms and estuary, Flanders ships lay at anchor or beached on
harness. I have found it written (but I know not whether it be true) mudflats outside the port, with few men
that there were in all three thousand vessels bearing sails and masts. In 1213 French King Philip Augustus aboard.The English seized these vessels
Any one will know that there must have been a great many men was threatening an invasion of England. almost without a fight, taking 300 as
to have furnished out such vessels …The duke placed a lantern on He assembled a large fleet at the mouth prizes and burning a hundred more.
the mast of his ship, that the other ships might see it, and hold of the Seine, but when English King
John made a number of concessions The following day de Longespee
their course after it.” that undermined the justification for attacked the port of Damme itself.The
an invasion, Philip instead turned his fighting moved onto land and there
northward.When a southerly wind NORMAN CONQUEST forces against England’s ally, the Count was some sharp combat as the French
finally set in that could carry the of Flanders.The French fleet sailed to organized a counterattack.The English
Norman fleet to England, coastal the area of the Scheldt estuary known force had to reembark in some haste,
defences were almost nonexistent. as the Zwyn and came ashore at but sailed happily back to England
Damme, threatening the important with its prizes and a wealth of booty.
Soldiers and horses boarded the ships Flemish cities of Bruges and Ghent.
on September 27—probably ten horses
to each transport—and at high tide NORMAN INVASION c.1176–1226
around 3:00 p.m. they rowed out to OF ENGLAND
an assembly point at sea.There, sails william de longespee
were raised and the fleet set off with Date September 28, 1066 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
the duke’s ship in the lead.When night Location Pevensey, southern England ENGLISH NOBLEMAN AND MILITARY COMMANDER
fell, there was no moon, so lanterns Result Norman victory
were hoisted to keep the ships in An illegitimate son of King Henry II, de Longespee,
formation.A few became detached, COMBATANTS Third Earl of Salisbury, was also known as William
but the main body came ashore— Longsword. Holding the post of warden of
unopposed—on the pebble beach NORMANS ANGLO-SAXONS the Cinque Ports may have given him some
at Pevensey on the morning of knowledge of naval affairs, but he commanded
September 28. Such ships as Harold COMMANDERS the English fleet at Damme in 1213 as a
had on duty were stationed in the leader of fighting men, not as a sailor. He
Solent, far to the west. William Duke King Harold II subsequently fought the French on land at
of Normandy of England the battle of Bouvines in 1214 and later in
William went on to defeat Harold at Gascony. In 1225 he was shipwrecked in the
Hastings and replace him on the English FORCES Bay of Biscay while en route to England.
throne, an event that radically altered He eventually reached home but died
the structure of English society and Ships: c.600–700 Ships: c.200 shortly after, possibly poisoned by the victor
England’s relation to mainland Europe. of the battle of Dover, Hubert de Burgh.
LOSSES

Men: none Men: none
Ships: none Ships: none

FRENCH INVASION OF ENGLAND resistance to the French and tried to
prevent reinforcements and supplies
DOVER reaching England from France.

Date August 24, 1217 In summer 1217 Marshal and de
Forces English: c.40 ships; Burgh were besieged in Dover. On
French: c.80 ships August 24, 70 French supply vessels
Losses English: none; approached the coast escorted by 10
French: 65 ships warships under the command of Eustace
the Monk, a famed sea warrior from
Location English Boulogne. De Burgh reacted swiftly,
Channel, off Dover setting sail with some 40 ships.At first
the English sailed past the incoming
The barons’ revolt against King John convoy, but then came about to attack
enabled the French to invade England from the rear and grappled the enemy
in 1215 and occupy a large part of the ships for boarding.They captured
country.After John’s death in 1216, they
wanted to install the almost all the French
Dauphin Louis on vessels and towed them
the throne of into Dover. Eustace was
England in place of found hiding in the
the nine-year-old bilges of his ship and
Henry III.William summarily executed.
Marshal and Hubert
de Burgh led the This defeat forced
the French to abandon
Arms of the Cinque Ports their invasion of
The Cinque Ports were Dover and England.The battle can
four other nearby ports, entrusted probably be counted as
with defending England from invasion. the first fought between
sailing ships in open sea.

82 THE RISE OF SAIL

the battle of sluys

THE AGE OF GALLEYS On June 22, 1340, the English king, mercenary naval commander Egidio pell-mell, and men- Commemorative coin
Edward III, set sail across the North Bocanegra, known as Barbavara.While at-arms struggling This gold noble was issued by
Sea from the Orwell estuary on board the English waited for a favorable wind and striking in Edward III in the year of the
CogThomas, bound for the Scheldt and tide to enter the estuary, the hand-to-hand battle of Sluys. It shows the
in Belgium. His large fleet of round French placed their ships in a defensive combat.” Iron king standing in a ship armed
ships, balingers, galleys, and barges was formation, anchored in lines tied grappling hooks with a sword and shield.
packed with troops, although a party together with cables.The idea was were used to hold
of high-born English ladies was also to create a stable floating platform the enemy ships Both Quiéret and
on board, being carried to the court of to be defended by the crossbowmen fast for boarding. Béhuchet were killed.
Edward’s Flemish wife at Ghent. Joined and men-at-arms.The Christopher, The Christopher was The latter was possibly
by the English North Sea squadron one of five large English ships recently one of the first vessels executed after the battle
under the command of Sir Robert captured by the French, was stationed to be taken, and all her on Edward’s orders, though
Morley, Edward arrived off the in front of this mass, with Genoese defenders were killed or captured. for what reason is not known.
Flanders coast to find a large French crossbowmen manning her high castles. The sea was red with blood and
fleet anchored in the Scheldt estuary. Barbavara, a true sailor, kept his own CONTROL OF THE SEA thick with the bodies of French soldiers
ships separate and maneuverable. and sailors who had sought vainly to
DEPLOYMENTS BEFORE According to a letter written by King escape.The English victory, establishing
The English fleet was arranged with Edward after the battle, the fighting naval dominance at the outset of the
THE BATTLE one ship packed with men-at-arms continued “all that day and the night Hundred Years War, was strategically
between each two ships of longbowmen. after.”The French clearly had the worst decisive, ensuring that the conflict
According to the French chronicler Maneuvering to approach with the sun of it, possibly because of the rapid rate would be fought in France, with little
Froissart, the king was astonished and wind behind them, the English of fire and accuracy of the English risk of a counter-invasion of England.
by the number of French ships, attacked at around noon on June 24. king’s longbowmen, or because the
whose “masts resembled a forest.” Both sides sounded trumpets, horns, English ships were free to move around A land battle fought on the sea
Commanded by Admiral Hugues and drums to encourage resolve as their anchored adversaries. It is no Sluys was not a battle of naval maneuver:
Quiéret and by a lawyer, Nicolas battle was joined.According to Froissart, doubt significant that Barbavara’s the ships were effectively static and it was
Béhuchet, the French force had been “fierce fighting broke out on every galleys were the only ships on the fought out by two armies of knights,
assembled for an invasion of England. side, with archers and crossbowmen French side to escape the debacle, men-at-arms, and archers.
It included a contingent of Genoese shooting arrows and bolts at each other taking two prizes into the bargain.
galleys under the experienced

The French ships were all chained together, so that
they could not be separ ated from one another; thus
only a few English ships were needed to guard one
group of those which had been abandoned.

GEOFFREY LE BAKER DE SWYNEBROKE! :C<A>H= 8=GDC>8A:G

Sluys North Sea N

The lines of French ships The English were able
stretched across the Scheldt to attack in waves and
estuary, blocking the English deploy ships and troops
fleet’s route to the port of Sluys. where they were most
But, when battle was joined, needed in the battle
not only did the English have
the advantantage of mobility, Barbavara’s Genoese
galleys were not
their longbowmen and included in the French
men-at-arms proved more defensive line
deadly than their opponents.
Sluys
The French lines of anchored ships
appeared to present a formidable
obstacle to the English, but their lack of
maneuverability proved their undoing

Scheldt estuary

FLANDERS

KEY

3–4 English ships
3–4 French ships

SEA BATTLES IN NORTHERN EUROPE 83

HUNDRED YEARS WAR HUNDRED YEARS WAR SAILING TACTICS

LES ESPAGNOLS tacking and wearing

SUR MER SAILING INTO THE WIND

Date August 29, 1350 The obvious disadvantage of a sailing ship is that it cannot move directly into
Forces English: 50 ships;
Castilians: 40 ships the wind.To make progress against the wind a ship has to follow a zig-zag
Losses English: 2 ships;
Castilians: 14 ships sunk or course toward its ultimate destination.When the ship turns with its bow into
captured
BATTLE OF SLUYS the wind to change direction, this is known as “tacking”: when it turns with
Location Off
Date June 24, 1340 Winchelsea, S. England its stern facing the wind, this is called “wearing”.Wearing required more sea
Location Flanders coast, Belgium
Result English victory English King Edward III decided to room, so in a confined space—for example, when leaving port—a sailing
intercept a fleet of France’s ally Castile,
as it sailed from Flanders for Spain. He ship was often obliged to tack.
assembled a naval force at Winchelsea
COMBATANTS under his personal command aboard Tacking Wind
Cog Thomas. Castilian commander direction
Carlos de la Cerda was happy to give
ENGLAND FRANCE battle. He had larger ships, their fighting To follow its zig-zag course into the wind,
tops crammed with crossbowmen and the ship turns its bow through the
COMMANDERS soldiers armed with various missiles. direction of the wind before setting off in Course
The English sallied forth to meet of ship
the Castilians as they sailed into the
King Edward III Admiral Hugues Quiéret Channel. King Edward ordered the the other direction—the “opposite tack.”
Nicolas Béhuchet master of his ship to sail directly into
Egidio Bocanegra one of the enemy ships. Damaged Port tack: the ship’s port
(Barbavara) by the impact, Cog Thomas began (left) side is now to
to founder. Edward succeeded in windward and its sails fill
FORCES grappling another Castilian vessel with wind from that side
and transferred his men across before
Ships: c.210 Ships: c.190 his cog sank.Although the king’s son,
the Black Prince, also lost his ship, the
LOSSES English generally had far the better
of a hot engagement.
Men: 4,000–9,000 Men: c.20,000–30,000 Starboard tack: the ship’s
Ships: 2 captured Ships: c.170 lost starboard (right) side is to
windward and its sails are
adjusted to fill with wind
from that side

DETAIL Wind
direction
1200 BCE – 1550 CE
HUNDRED YEARS WAR As ship turns, the sails
swing around to catch the
LA ROCHELLE wind on the opposite tack

Date June 22–23,1372 Wearing Wind
Forces English: unknown; In contrast to tacking, the ship direction
Castilians: 12 galleys goes about (changes direction)
Losses English: entire fleet, by turning its stern through the Course
8,400 captured; Castilians: none wind rather than its bow. As a of ship
result the ship will sail for a time
Location with the wind—in the opposite
La Rochelle direction to the way it is trying
to go. Progress is slower than
The Earl of Pembroke led a large with tacking.
convoy of round ships carrying troops,
horses, and money to reinforce the Wind DETAIL
English army at La Rochelle, which direction
was under siege by the French. France As ship turns through
called upon its ally Castile to intercept the wind, it briefly sails
the English convoy.A Castilian back in the direction it
squadron of 12 galleys commanded has come before
by Genoese mercenary Ambrosio setting off in the
Bocanegra, met the English in the opposite direction
mouth of La Rochelle harbor.

The first encounter was indecisive,
but on the second day the Spanish
galleys exploited their superior
maneuverability and ability to operate
in shallow water. Many of the English
ships were grounded.The Castilians
sprayed their decks with oil and set
them ablaze with burning arrows.
The Earl of Pembroke and all his men
were captured, along with £20,000. It
was a striking example of a victory for
galleys over sailing ships.The English
had now clearly lost the control of the
sea, which had been theirs since their
victory over the French at Sluys in 1340.

84 THE RISE OF SAIL

WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF CAMBRAI the battle of the solent

BREST

Date August 10, 1512 In 1543 English king Henry VIII went invasion fleet but failed to do significant Carraquon caught fire before leaving
Forces English: 25 ships; to war with France as an ally of damage. Dudley arrived back at harbor and had to be abandoned.
French: 22 ships Emperor Charles V. After the English Portsmouth on July 13 with his ships He then shifted his flag to La Grande
Losses English: 1 ship; seized Boulogne, French king François in need of resupply and repair.The Maîtresse, which subsequently ran
French: 2 ships I planned an invasion of England. English fleet was far from ready when aground as the invasion fleet left the
He assembled a fleet at Le Havre in the French invasion force arrived. French coast on July 15.The Maîtresse
Location Off Brest, the summer of 1545, bringing 25 continued across the Channel but was
Brittany, France Mediterranean galleys north to join his AN INAUSPICIOUS START shipping water, and had to be sent
Channel ships. In June English admiral
In 1512 England went to war with John Dudley led an attempted pre- The man appointed admiral in home before battle was joined.
France. Edward Howard took a fleet to emptive strike against the French charge of the French expedition The French reached the Sussex
sea and harassed French shipping.To put was Claude d’Annebault, a soldier
a stop to these depredations, Louis XII WARS OF FRANÇOIS I & CHARLES V with great experience of land coast on 18 July and sailed west to
ordered a fleet to be assembled at Brest warfare but no experience at the mouth of the Solent, off the
underVice Admiral René de Clermont. sea. He suffered an early Isle of Wight.The English were
setback when his flagship distracted by the presence of
On August 10 the English surprised their king, who had come to
the French at anchor off the Pointe de Relics of the Mary Rose visit his fleet and inspect the
St Mathieu. Many Breton gentry were Among the nautical instruments defenses of Portsmouth.
on board the ships to celebrate the found in the wreck of the Mary Sunday, 19 July was a fine,
Feast of St Lawrence.The French cut Rose were this wooden compass still day.With sailing
their cables and many fled for the safety dial and a pair of dividers. ships becalmed, some
of the Brest roadstead. De Clermont’s
flagship was assailed by Howard aboard THE BATTLE OF THE SOLENT
the newly commissioned Mary Rose
and had his mainmast shot away before Date July 10-15,1545 when she heeled over with the
drifting out of the battle.The largest Location Solent, off Portsmouth, southern wind, the water entered by the
English ship, the 1,000-ton Regent, England lowest row of gun ports which
commanded by Sir Thomas Knyvet, Result Inconclusive battle had been left open after firing.
grappled Cordelière, whose captain
Primauget was a noted Breton seaman. COMBATANTS VAN DER DELFT, >BE:G>6A 6B76HH69DG! G:EDGI>C< I=: 688DJCI D; 6 HJGK>KDG ;GDB I=: MARY ROSE
Knyvet was cut in two by a cannonball,
THE AGE OF GALLEYS but Cordelière seemed sure to be taken ENGLAND FRANCE
when it exploded, destroying both ships
and killing more than a thousand men. COMMANDERS
Despite the loss of Regent, it was
a clear English victory. In reward, Admiral John Dudley Admiral Claude
King Henry VIII appointed Howard d’Annebault
Admiral of England.
FORCES

Ships: 80 Ships: 150 sailing ships,
25 galleys

LOSSES

Men: unknown Men: unknown
Ships: unknown Ships: unknown

SEA BATTLES IN NORTHERN EUROPE 85

French galleys rowed into the Solent gun ports below water.The Mary waves. Lady Carew fainted, while of fire between the two fleets the
toward Portsmouth.When they were Rose sank with awesome swiftness. King Henry cried out in anguish at following day and French soldiers
sighted, the king was dining on board The cries of the trapped crew the sight.All but 30 of the 415 briefly went ashore on the Isle of
the great ship Henry Grace à Dieu with were momentarily audible to the people on board the Mary Rose Wight. But while the English vainly
various officers, including Sir George onlookers on the castle ramparts, attempted to salvage the sunken
Carew, Dudley’s newly appointed before they were stifled by the were drowned. Sir George Carew Mary Rose, the French then withdrew
vice-admiral.The king departed to was not among the survivors. eastward along the coast. Dudley
view events from the ramparts of Main top-mast eventually came out in pursuit, but
Southsea Castle, while his fleet The French failed to capitalize
prepared to fight. upon this shocking disaster.There d’Annebault had had enough
were some long-range exchanges of the sea and tamely headed for
The English ships had great home, to the great displeasure
trouble extricating themselves Second mizzen or of his king.The battle, like the
from their crowded anchorage bonaventure mast war of which it formed part,
with barely a breath of wind
to aid them. In the afternoon, Main top was entirely inconsequential.
however, a wind arose and
they began to emerge, sailing Fore-mast
out toward the French
galleys in the Solent.The Mizzen-mast The high forecastle
large but aged carrack Mary Sterncastle is a relic of medieval
Rose, with Vice-Admiral Main mast fighting ships
Carew on board, took the
lead.The vice-admiral’s wife Blindage–removable screen for
Lady Mary Carew was among protection from enemy archers
the spectators alongside King
Henry who were watching the
action from Southsea Castle.

THE MARY ROSE SINKS The Mary Rose 1200 BCE – 1550 CE
The Mary Rose was a state-of-the art
Witnesses to the battle saw the Mary warship when she was launched in 1511,
Rose fire her starboard broadside at a carrack fitted with gun ports on the main
the galleys and come about to bring deck to deliver broadsides. But she was
the guns on the port side to bear.As an aging vessel when she sank in 1545,
she did so, a gust of wind caused the having undergone two extensive refits.
ship to heel over, plunging her open

Watching the spectacle
Massed English forces line the shore as the
Henry Grace à Dieu (center) exchanges fire with
French galleys. Nearer to shore small boats try
to rescue survivors from the sinking Mary Rose.

86 THE AGE OF GALLEYS

the ottomans

AT THE BEGINNING of the 14th century the Ottoman Turks were a small
band of Muslim warriors in northern Anatolia. In a remarkably short time
they made themselves rulers of a great land empire and a major naval power.
The capture of Constantinople in 1453 completed their conquest of the
Byzantine Empire.This was followed by expansion westward and southward
that gave them control of the eastern Mediterranean, coastal areas of North
Africa, and the Red Sea.Through most of the 16th century the Christian
states of the Mediterranean could do little to counter Ottoman naval
operations, which threatened Italy and Provence with invasion and filled the
slave markets of the Islamic world with Christians carried off by Muslim
privateers.Victory at Lepanto in 1571 gave the Christian powers a breathing
space, but the Ottoman navy remained a major force into the 18th century.

THE AGE OF GALLEYS A constant menace FIGHTING CORSAIRS
An Ottoman fleet commanded by Kheir-ed-Din sails past
the entrance to the harbor at Genoa. No port in the The Ottoman navy was a hybrid force that Ottoman war galley
Christian Mediterranean was safe from his raids. At times drew strength from its diversity. The empire This 16th-century depiction of an Ottoman galley
the Ottomans were allied with the French, as when Kheir- was run by a well organized bureaucracy and bristles with cannons. This was more typical of
ed-Din joined forces with François I to sack Nice in 1543. had impressive financial resources. Once these a Venetian galleass of the period—Ottoman
were devoted to constructing, equipping, and ships were usually more lightly armed.
c.1478–1546 manning a navy in the late 15th century,
a formidable fleet was the almost inevitable in a new base at Malta. Emperor Charles V and
kheir-ed-din result. But the Ottomans also relied heavily subsequent Habsburg rulers of Spain fought,
upon the skills and initiative of privateers. with little success, to contest Ottoman control
OTTOMAN NAVAL COMMANDER AND PRIVATEER The Barbary corsairs of Algiers and other of the Muslim states of North Africa. Even
North African ports, officially sanctioned by when the Christians achieved sufficient unity
Kheir-ed-Din, known to Europeans as Barbarossa, was the Ottoman sultans, not only preyed upon to send out a combined fleet, they were defeated
born on the island of Lesbos, probably to a family of Christian merchant shipping and raided the at Preveza in 1538 and Djerba in 1560, before a
Albanian origin. He went to sea at an early age and became coasts of Christian states, but also provided victory for the Holy League in the great galley
a corsair, a role in which he was initially overshadowed by a considerable percentage of the galleys found battle of Lepanto in 1571 sent the whole of
his elder brother Oruç Reis. Kheir-ed-Din succeeded in Ottoman war fleets. The daring and Christendom delirious with relief.
Oruç as ruler of Algiers in 1518, swearing allegiance to the aggression of their commanders was a vital
Ottoman sultan. Like his brother, he helped large numbers adjunct to the more formal fighting style of FIREPOWER REVOLUTION
of mudejars, Spanish Muslims, to escape from Andalusia the official Ottoman navy. The Ottoman state
always tended to regard sea power as a support The rise of Ottoman naval power coincided
to North Africa. He was also to land operations, best used for transporting with the introduction of cannon and handguns
extraordinarily active as a large armies such as the 100,000 soldiers into naval warfare. On land the Turks were
corsair, appearing off the coast employed in the successful siege of Rhodes not at all backward in the deployment of
of Spain, the Balearic Islands, in 1523, or the 40,000 used in the failed siege gunpowder weapons, but their Christian
southern France, and Italy, to of Malta in 1565. opponents were definitely more thoroughgoing
launch lightning raids that in their use at sea. Even the Venetians’ low and
made him both feared CHRISTIAN DISUNIT Y nimble galleys would have a bow gun firing
and admired. In 1534
he was appointed The Christian states around the Mediterranean
Fleet Admiral of struggled to mount a unified response as the
the Ottoman navy, Ottomans pressed westward. No country alone
winning a great was sufficiently strong to stand up to the Turks.
victory over the Venice suffered first and worst. After they had
Christian Holy suffered defeat at the hands of the Ottoman
League at Preveza navy at the end of the 15th century, the Venetians
four years later. He found all their possessions and trade in the
retired to Istanbul eastern Mediterranean under threat. The Knights
in 1545, shortly of St. John, who operated as Christian predators
before his death. upon Muslim shipping, were driven out of their
stronghold on Rhodes but survived precariously

THE OTTOMANS 87

The ottom an empire Paris HOLY POLAND- R
FRANCE ROMAN LITHUANIA
The great period of Ottoman expansion EMPIRE KHANATE OF
was in the reigns of Selim the Grim Vienna THE CRIMEA
(1512–20) and Suleiman the Magnificent
(1520–66). The former conquered AUSTRIA
Egypt and much of the Middle East, the
latter extended Ottoman rule far into Budapest MOLDAVIA
southeastern Europe and North Africa.
During this time the Ottomans also TRANSYLVANIA
became the dominant naval power in
the eastern Mediterranean and Venice HUNGARY
threatened to do the same in the
western half. 1580–1640: Marseille Genoa VENETIAN WALLACHIA
Annexed REPUBLIC
KEY
by Spain SPAIN PAPAL Black
Ottoman Empire 1512 Madrid STATES Sea
Ottoman conquests by 1639 Lisbon
Austrian Habsburg possessions PORTUGAL Barcelona Corsica
Spanish Habsburg possessions
Frontiers 1600 Balearic Islands Rome NAPLES
Holy Roman Empire Me
Ottoman victory Sardinia Naples O Constantinople
Ottoman defeat TTO 1453
d it Corfu M A N EMPIRE
e Lepanto
1571

Zonchio

Oran Algiers r r a Sicily 1499 Negroponte

to Spain 1509–1708 Tunis Preveza Athens 1470
1538

n

Principal base of Barbary corsairs ALGIERS Gozo 1570 e a
led by Kheir-ed-Din (Barbarossa)
1541: Charles V’s expedition to capture Siege of Malta n Rhodes
1565 Malta
TUNIS 1522 Cyprus

Algiers ends in humiliating defeat Djerba Sea Crete 1571: Ottomans
N 1534: Barbarossa captures Tunis, 1560 capture island
to Venice from Venetians
Tripoli

but is driven out the following year

by a large invasion force under

Habsburg emperor Charles V

1574: Recaptured by Ottomans

0 km 200 400 TRIPOLI EGYPT Cairo
0 miles 200
straight ahead—aimed by 400
pointing the galley at the target—

augmented by swivel guns to rake

the enemy decks. Other Christian vessels might fleet to replace the one it had lost. The into the Atlantic, their nifty xebecs even 1200 BCE – 1550 CE

carry a much heavier weight of armament. Ottomans were long able to hold their own raiding the coasts of the British Isles—almost

Large galeasses—converted merchant ships— against Christians in the eastern Mediterranean, the entire population of the Irish village of

were even capable of firing broadsides. beating Venice in a war for control of Crete in Baltimore was carried off by the North African

Christian fighting men often wore armor and the mid-17th century and besting a combined raiders in 1631. The depredations of the

fired arquebuses instead of crossbows, while the Christian fleet at Matapan in 1717. Meanwhile, Barbary pirates continued largely unchecked

Muslims remained lightly clad and equipped the Barbary corsairs extended their activities until the early years of the 19th century.

with traditional missile weapons. An Ottoman

fleet often had the advantage of superior

maneuverability, however. In the course of the

16th century most Christian states resorted to

a scaloccio rowing—very large oars, each pulled

by four, five, or even more rowers. These were

operated mostly by slaves and criminals

condemned to the galleys. Venice alone

maintained a predominance of free oarsmen.

The a scaloccio system militated against deft and

skilful maneuver, as did the increasing size of

galleys viewed as gun platforms. Christian fleets

typically advanced in line abreast to defend

their flanks and maximize forward fire.

Handled aggressively, Ottoman galleys

could break up the Christian line and

win in a pell-mell battle.

AFTER LEPANTO

Lepanto, the last major battle in
which galleys overwhelmingly
predominated, was a major
Ottoman defeat. But it was far
from ending Ottoman naval
efforts, because the empire had
the resources to build a new

The Crescent and the Cross
In this clash of galleys of the Lepanto era,
the Christians fire their foredeck cannons
on the Ottoman foe.

88 THE OTTOMANS

christian navies

against the turks

THE FIRST CHRISTIAN STATE to feel the effects of Ottoman naval the Barbary corsairs of Algiers,Tunis, and Tripoli, acting as Ottoman
power was Venice, thoroughly defeated in a war fought between privateers, were a constant threat in the western Mediterranean.The
1499 and 1503. From then until the battle of Lepanto in 1571, Ottoman cause was aided by lack of unity between the Christian powers,
the Christians were unable to challenge Ottoman command of the eastern withVenice and the Habsburgs fixed enemies, and the French mostly allied
Mediterranean. However, the galleys of Malta, under the Knights of St. with the Turks.The battle of Diu, which extended Christian-Muslim
John, harassed Turkish communications, and the failure of the Ottoman conflict into the Indian Ocean, was a reminder that the Mediterranean
siege of the island in 1565 was a major relief for Christian Europe. Efforts powers were fighting for control of a backwater, as oceanic voyages opened
to wrest control of North Africa from the Muslims repeatedly failed and up new trade routes and ocean-going ships transformed naval warfare.

VENETIAN–OTTOMAN WAR could reputedly carry 700 soldiers.
In the first engagement on August 12
ZONCHIO Göke was boarded by two Venetian
carracks, one of them commanded by
Date August 12–25, 1499 Andrea Loredano.A fire broke out on
Forces Ottomans: 87 galleys Göke and all three vessels were burned.
and galliots, c.200 other ships; Grimani was accused of failing to come
Venetians: 64 galleys and to Loredano’s aid.
galliots, c.100 other ships
Losses Unknown Further actions were fought between
the two fleets on August 20, 22, and 25.
Location Cape Zonchio, The overall result was a clear defeat for
Lepanto, Greece the Venetians. Grimani was arrested on
his return to Venice, but survived to
THE AGE OF GALLEYS In spring 1499 a Venetian force under become doge later in life.
Antonio Grimani met an Ottoman fleet
under Kemal Reis off Lepanto. Both Grappling and boarding
fleets had a number of great galleys and This contemporary woodcut shows the central event
carracks that provided a high platform of the battle of Zonchio, when two Venetian ships
for breach-loading iron cannon and grappled the Ottoman flagship, resulting in hand-to-
primitive handguns, as well as men hand fighting and deadly exchanges of arrows.
armed with bows and other traditional
missiles. Kemal Reis’s flagship, Göke,

PORTUGUESE–OTTOMAN WAR gave the Egyptians galleys to send into carracks and caravels to seek revenge. OTTOMAN–HABSBURG WARS
the Indian Ocean.The Egyptian He found the Egyptian-Gujerati force
DIU squadron joined with the dhows of in port at Diu.The Portuguese used DJERBA
Gujerati Sultan Mahmud Begada and, their cannon to bombard the enemy,
Date February 1509 in March 1508, intercepted a Portuguese then closed to board.The many Date May 1560
Forces Portuguese: 18 ships; convoy. In the action Lourenço de prisoners taken were vilely mistreated Forces Ottomans: 86 galleys or
Egyptian-Gujerati force: 12 ships Almeida, son of Portuguese viceroy by de Almeida, incensed at his son’s galliots; Christians: 54 galleys,
Losses Unknown Dom Francisco de Almeida, was killed. death.The battle established the 66 other vessels
absolute superiority of European Losses Ottomans: none;
Officially replaced as viceroy in ocean-going sailing ships in Christians: 30 ships captured
December 1508, de Almeida refused naval warfare.
Location Diu, to give up command and took his Location Off coast
western India of Tunisia

After Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India In 1560 panic at Muslim raids in the
in 1498, the Portuguese set out to take western Mediterranean led various
over the spice trade between the Indian Christian powers, including Genoa,
Ocean and Europe.This was a threat to Malta, and Savoy, to support an
Egypt,Venice, and the Ottoman expedition mounted by Philip II
Empire, which all profited
from the trade.The Ottomans of Spain against North Africa. Led
by the Genoese Giovanni Andrea
Portuguese naval artillery Doria, they captured the island
The swivel-gun was a small anti-personnel of Djerba.With Djerba and Malta
weapon with a wide arc of fire, fired at in their hands, they would control
the enemy’s deck as one closed to board. access to the western Mediterranean.
The Ottomans dispatched a fleet under
As long as you may be powerful at sea, you will hold Grand Admiral Piyale Pasha, who
India as yours; and if you do not possess this power, arrived off Djerba to find the Christian
little will avail you a fortress on the shore. ships scattered and half their crews
ashore. He attacked immediately and
FRANCISCO DE ALMEIDA >C 6 A:II:G ID @>C< B6CJ:A D; EDGIJ<6A 6;I:G I=: K>8IDGN 6I 9>J captured half the Christian galleys in
a few hours. Doria escaped in a small
boat, but thousands were taken prisoner.
Piyale returned to Constantinople
towing the captured galleys in triumph.

CHRISTIAN NAVIES AGAINST THE TURKS 89

the battle of preveza OTTOMAN–HABSBURG WARS

In 1537 the Ottoman admiral-in-chief opposite shore of the gulf. With the opportunity for outflanking that
numerical superiority provided. He also
Kheir-ed-Din (Barbarossa) launched a guns of these two strongholds under failed to engage the Ottoman center
with any vigor, maneuvering to avoid
campaign to annexeVenetian possessions his command, he was able to shelter close contact.The Papal andVenetian
galleys on the flanks were meanwhile
around the coasts of Greece. He also his fleet inshore while the Christian heavily engaged and the sailing ships
exposed to capture. By the end of
raided the Italian coast, ravaging the ships were forced to keep out to sea. the day the Ottomans had suffered
substantial casualties but had taken 36
Papal States and the domains of the The Ottomans were ships as prizes and some 3,000 prisoners. THE BATTLE OF PREVEZA

Spanish Habsburgs. In greatly inferior in HIDDEN AGENDA Date September 28, 1538
Location Ionian Sea, off northwest Greece
desperation the numbers and The Venetians wanted to continue Result Ottoman victory
the fight the following day, but Doria
Christian states firepower.Their insisted on withdrawal to Corfu. He
may have been influenced by financial
united to face a 122 galleys and considerations, since he owned many of COMBATANTS
the galleys under his command. But he
common enemy, light fustas faced was probably obeying secret orders from HOLY LEAGUE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
his Habsburg masters, who were not at
forming a Holy more than 130 all sorry to see Venice lose territory, the COMMANDERS
immediate consequence of the battle.
League under the Christian galleys Andrea Doria Kheir-ed-Din
(Barbarossa)
leadership of Pope with a host of

Paul III. In summer Terracotta grenades other vessels in FORCES

1538 they assembled The Ottomans were very innovative in their use support.The Holy Ships: 130 galleys Ships: 122 galleys and
a large fleet under of gunpowder weapons. As well as powerful League may have and 172 other ships light fustas
the overall command cannons, they used arquebuses and exploding had as many as
of the Habsburgs’ grenades made of terracotta. 60,000 fighting LOSSES

admiral, the Genoese Andrea Doria. men, outnumbering the Ottomans Men: unknown Men: unknown
Ships: 49 ships lost or Ships: none
Barbarossa, who was in the Aegean by three to one.Yet Barbarossa had captured

when he heard that the Christian fleet no intention of avoiding battle.The

had appeared in the Ionian Sea, sailed Ottomans attacked at dawn on 28

around Greece to confront it.The Holy September, a still day that virtually

League attacked Preveza, an important immobilized the sailing ships that made

Ottoman base on the Greek mainland up a substantial part of the Christian 1466–1560

at the mouth of the Gulf of Arta.The fleet. Much of the fighting consisted of andrea doria

attack failed and Barbarossa reinforced lightweight Ottoman galleys and fustas GENOESE ADMIRAL 1200 BCE – 1550 CE

Ottoman control of the coast by maneuvering deftly around relatively The most famous Christian admiral of his day,Andrea Doria
was admired and distrusted in equal measure. Born into
seizing the fortress of Actium on the static but heavily armed Christian ships one of Genoa’s most distinguished families, he earned
his reputation fighting for the French in the 1520s
in order to board them. before changing sides and selling his services to the
Habsburgs.A military entrepreneur who rented out
Crushing victory for the Turks Doria’s conduct during and after his galleys to his employer, he was always suspected
Barbarossa and his captains exploited the speed and the battle was controversial. He of putting his business interests first in the struggle
mobility of their galleys to outmaneuver the heavier organized his fleet in depth against the Turks. He did not retire from fighting
until the age of 89. His great nephew Giovanni
Christian ships, inflicting heavy material losses. rather than exploiting the Andrea Doria inherited his role as Habsburg admiral.



the capture of tunis

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who was also
king of Spain, organized regular campaigns against
the Muslim states of North Africa to try to curb
the depredations of Christian shipping by Kheir-
ed-Din and other Barbary corsairs. In 1535, Charles
led a force of 60,000 soldiers, with a Genoese fleet
commanded by Andrea Doria, to take the port of
Tunis. The Spanish held on to a base at Tunis until
1574, when it was recaptured by the Ottomans.

92 THE OTTOMANS

OTTOMAN EXPANSION soldiers were landed, including at least
6,000 janissaries, the Ottomans’ crack
SIEGE OF MALTA troops. Cannon and gunpowder was
shipped to the island in enormous
Date May 18–September 11, quantities to besiege the Knights of
1565 Malta in their fortresses around the
Forces Ottomans: c.180 ships; Grand Harbor.A relief force gathered
Knights of Malta: unknown in Sicily, but Spanish commander Don
Losses Unknown Garcia de Toledo knew his fleet was not
strong enough to take on the Turks.
Location
Malta The first fortress to suffer the
onslaught of the Turkish artillery was
In spring 1565 the Ottoman sultan Fort St. Elmo at the entrance to Grand
Suleiman the Magnificent sent an Harbor.The defenders held out
expedition to capture Malta.The navy valiantly for over a month, but Turgut
was commanded by Grand Admiral Reis was killed during the siege.
Piyale Pasha, aided by the Barbary An attempt to attack St. Michael fort
corsair Turgut Reis and an Egyptian across the Grand Harbor failed, the
fleet under Uluç Ali. Some 40,000 Turkish ships blocked by a boom
and blasted by cannon at water level.
Ottoman landings on Malta
The Ottoman army disembarks at Marsascirocco In September the Ottomans admitted
on the east coast of Malta south of Grand Harbor. defeat and headed for home.The failed
The distinctive white headgear of the janissaries is siege was the first significant reverse for
conspicuous among the Turkish forces. the Ottomans in the Mediterranean.

CREW PROFILE OTTOMAN EXPANSION

renaissance galley GOZO

THE AGE OF GALLEYS 16TH CENTURY Date July 15, 1570
Forces Knights of Malta:
THE CREW OF A RENAISSANCE WAR GALLEY was typically assembled by a captain of high social 4 galleys; Ottomans: 19 galliots
status, appointed to his command by the state. On the other hand, a galley might also be Losses Knights of Malta:
the private venture of a mercenary or corsair. The captain did not necessarily have any 3 galleys captured; Ottomans:
nautical experience, relying on a team of experienced seamen to navigate and run the ship. none
Spanish royal galleys had a chaplain to look after the crew’s spiritual welfare and a governor
to maintain order and discipline. Although sailors and even oarsmen might at a push take Location Off Cape
part in combat, the fighting force was a separate body of men—a land army at sea that Passaro, Sicily
included gentleman volunteers, infantry, and specialist artillerymen.
In June 1570 the Knights of Malta
CONVICTS AND SLAVES convicts and slaves were shackled to their sent four galleys under the command of
benches. Life below deck on a crowded French knight François de St Clément
Oarsmen made up the great majority of the galley was miserable. A drum was to join a Christian fleet in Sicily that
crew. Some were free men, either signing on beaten to give the rhythm for had assembled for a campaign against
as volunteers or recruited by conscription— their strokes, but the lash was the Turks.As things turned out, this
the latter common in Ottoman and Venetian often used freely on any man campaign, did not come to fruition
fleets. But in the 16th century free oarsmen thought to be slacking. An until the following year, when the
became increasingly rare, especially in the oarsman was a valuable item fleet of the Holy League defeated the
Spanish galley fleet, partly because they and intelligent captains Ottomans at Lepanto. Since there was
were too expensive to employ. Their place kept their ships clean and little prospect of action in Sicily,
was taken by convicts or slaves. A spell in the crew well fed. But more St. Clément decided to return to
the Spanish galleys was the punishment for often sanitary arrangements Malta, setting sail on the evening
offences such as murder, robbery, blasphemy, were poor, ships stank, disease of July 14.
rape, bigamy, and vagrancy, with sentences was rife, and gross ill-treatment
ranging from a few months to life. common. Average life expectancy The following morning, some
for a convict in a Spanish galley 20 miles (30 km) off the island of
CONDITIONS ON BOARD has been estimated at two years. Gozo, the Knights’ galleys were spotted
by a squadron of galliots that Uluç Ali,
The slaves were usually prisoners of war, Venetian galley slave recently appointed Beylerbey of Algiers,
although more likely to have been seized As the Venice lost its possessions in the Ionian was taking to Constantinople. St.
by marauding privateers than taken prisoner and Aegean to the Ottomans, there were fewer Clément turned back for Sicily with
in battle. Slaves in Christian galleys were free men to recruit as oarsmen, so it relied more the Muslims in pursuit.The galliots
chiefly Muslims, and vice versa. Free and more on slaves and convicts. were faster under oars than the large
oarsmen were not chained and might have Maltese galleys, whose Muslim slave
a weapon so they could fight if needed. But oarsmen had no incentive to hurry.
Two galleys, Santa Anna and San
Giovanni, were surrounded by galliots
and boarded after heavy fighting that
left their decks strewn with the dead
and dying.The other two galleys
reached the Sicilian coast, where
St. Clément’s flagship ran aground.
As the knights fled, the slave oarsmen
took over the galley and handed it over
to Uluç Ali. Returning to Malta, St.
Clément was condemned to death and
his body thrown into the sea in a sack.

93

The opposing lines at Lepanto
This painting, completed in 1581, gives a
spectacular aerial view of the battle. It depicts
three Christian squadrons (left) firing on the
smaller galleys of the Ottoman fleet (right).

HABSBURG–OTTOMAN WARS 1200 BCE – 1550 CE

THE BATTLE OF LEPANTO

Date October 7, 1571
Location Gulf of Patras, off western Greece
Result Victory for the Holy League

the battle of lepanto COMBATANTS

HOLY LEAGUE: SPAIN OTTOMAN EMPIRE
VENETIAN REPUBLIC
On September 16, 1571, a large Papacy, Savoy, and Malta’s Knights into four squadrons: that on the right PAPAL STATES
Christian fleet set sail from Sicily on of St. John had all made contributions. commanded by Genoese Giovanni REPUBLIC OF GENOA
an expedition to relieveVenetian-owned In command was the Habsburg prince Andrea Doria, the left under Venetian SAVOY
Cyprus, then under attack by the Don John of Austria. Agostino Barbarigo, the center under KNIGHTS OF MALTA
Ottoman Empire. Most of the men and Don John himself. Spanish admiral
galleys had been supplied by Venice As his fleet drew near to where the Santa Cruz was placed in reserve. COMMANDERS
and Habsburg Spain, but Genoa, the Ottomans lay at Lepanto in western
Greece, Don John organized the galleys Facing the Christian fleet, the Don John of Austria Muezzinzade Ali Pasha
Ottoman forces advanced in a crescent,
with the admiral Ali Pasha in the center, FORCES
the right wing under Suluc Mehmed
Pasha, and the left under the feared Ships: 206 galleys, Ships: 230 galleys
corsair Uluç Ali, an Italian-born convert 6 galleasses
to Islam.As the moment for combat
approached Don John had the Holy LOSSES
League’s banner of Christ crucified
1547–1578 raised above his flagship, Real.Ali Pasha Men: 8,000 casualties Men: 20,000 casualties,
sailed under a banner embroidered Ships: 13 galleys sunk Ships: 50 galleys sunk,
don john of austria 29,800 times with the name of Allah. 130 captured

COMMANDER OF SPAIN’S MEDITERRANEAN GALLEY FLEET CANNON AND ARQUEBUS shot, flanked by up to four smaller
cannon, plus many swivel guns and
The illegitimate half-brother of Philip II of Spain, The Christians placed their faith in soldiers with arquebuses.The Ottoman
John of Austria was named commander of the firepower. Most of their galleys had galleys were smaller than the Spanish
Spanish galley fleet at the age of 18, with more a centerline cannon or culverin in the ones, but similar to theVenetian.They
experienced admirals to advise him. He developed bows firing up to a 60 lb (25 kg) iron had fewer and less powerful cannon
a reputation for reckless courage during the and their soldiers depended more on
suppression of the Moriscos revolt in Andalusia, composite bows than on firearms.The
before his appointment to lead the fleet of the Ottomans hoped to maneuver, ram,
Holy League.Victory at Lepanto was followed by and board the Christian vessels. Both
the capture of Tunis from the Muslims in 1573. sides hoped to maintain formation and
Philip then sent him to deal with a rebellion in avoid being attacked on the flank.
Flanders, where he died aged 31.

94 THE OTTOMANS

THE AGE OF GALLEYS Crucially, theVenetians also provided six Although his fleet was thrown into Commemorating the victory The key to the outcome was the use
galleasses—large transport galleys turned disorder and two galleys had been sunk, Lepanto became a favorite subject for art all over of the reserve squadron made by Santa
into floating gun platforms.These were Ali Pasha pressed on past the galleasses Catholic Europe. This colorful Spanish version is Cruz. Feeding his galleys into the action
so unwieldy they had to be towed into and through the fire from the galleys painted on tiles. Between the Christian fleet (below) where they were needed, he enabled the
position, but their massed guns packed behind to engage the Christian center and the Ottomans (above), the huge Christian Venetians on the left to hold and then
a formidable punch.The presence of at close quarters. On the flanks a galleasses open fire at the start of the battle. put to flight their adversaries—many
the galleasses was a surprise to the desperate battle was joined as the horns Ottoman troops escaping through the
Ottomans.They were unsure of their of the Turkish crescent attempted to shallow water beyond the edge of their shallow water onto land.
tactical function, but soon found out as outflank the Christian line.The line. Barbarigo’s galleys skillfully backed
the thunder of the galleases’ guns sent Venetian galleys on the Christian left to turn outward facing toward the Santa Cruz then decisively
a savage hail of iron balls lashing into were close to shore, but some of Suluc’s shore, presenting their bow guns to the intervened in the struggle in the center.
the galleys of the Ottoman center. ships succeeded in rowing through Ottoman ships, which were forced to The Sultana was stormed and taken.
turn to face them.A close-quarter mêlée Ali Pasha’s severed head was displayed
ensued, in which Barbarigo was hit by on a pike and the Ottoman standard
an arrow and killed. struck from the mast.As the Ottoman
center collapsed, fighting turned to
On the Christian right there was massacre and plunder. Only Uluç Ali
open water. Uluç Ali tried to outflank was able to extricate his galleys from the
Doria’s squadron, and Doria shifted debacle, leading perhaps a sixth of the
further to the right to block him.This original force back to Constantinople.
stretched the line between the Christian
right and center. Choosing his moment, The Ottomans quickly built a new
the wily Uluç Ali turned swiftly back fleet—their grand vizier bragged that
to attack the straggling Christian galleys the Christians had merely shaved the
left behind by Doria’s rightward move. Ottoman beard that “would grow all
the better for the razor.” But Christian
CHAOS AND BLOODSHED jubilation at victory in one of the largest
sea battles ever fought was justifiable,
By this stage, cloaked in a fog of for it stemmed the tide of Ottoman
gunpowder smoke, the battle was a expansion that had threatened to engulf
scene of brutal slaughter. Everywhere the whole Mediterranean.
galleys were locked together, soldiers
fighting hand-to-hand on the decks Detailed contemporary record
with sword and pike. At the heart The individual ships engaged in the center are
of the battle, Don John’s flagship was clearly identifiable by their banners. At this
boarded by janissaries—elite Ottoman early stage of the battle several of the Christian
infantry—from Ali Pasha’s Sultana. galleys have been boarded by Ottoman troops.

CHRISTIAN NAVIES AGAINST THE TURKS 95

key The Christian left is The Ottoman right is
HOLY LEAGUE FLEET commanded by Venetian commanded by Suluc
Agostino Barbarigo Mehmed Pasha
10 Christian galleys

2 Venetian galleasses SCROPHA POINT Small Ottoman
reserve
OTTOMAN FLEET
10 Ottoman galleys GULF OF PATRAS

The Ottomans advance in the fleets engage
a crescent formation with The guns of the huge Christian galleasses
Ali Pasha in the center cause havoc as the two sides engage. The Ottoman
wings attempt to outflank their Christian
A reserve squadron The main Christian line The galleasses are towed The feared corsair counterparts, while fierce battles develop as the
under Spanish admiral is drawn up in three toward the advancing Uluç Ali commands galleys in the center close with the enemy.
Santa Cruz remains at the squadrons, with Don John Ottomans. Their guns the Ottoman left
rear of the Christian line of Austria in the center launch a devastating hail As the fleets clash in the
of iron shot center, a crucial battle
The fleets line up develops around the two
As the Christian galleys sail past Scropha Point The Christian right is flagships. Troops engage
and into the Gulf of Patras, the Ottoman fleet is commanded by Genoese in fierce hand-to-hand
sighted around 9 miles (14 km) to the east. The Giovanni Andrea Doria fighting as they attempt
Ottoman galleys are more numerous than the to board enemy galleys
Christian, but also smaller and less heavily armed.

SCROPHA POINT The first clash takes place
close to the coast as Suluc’s
light galiots attempt to
outflank the Christian galleys
by rowing through shallow
water near the shore

Seeing that the Christian left
wing is under pressure, Santa
Cruz moves the reserve
squadron forward to assist

A few galleys Uluç Ali abandons attempt
become isolated to outflank Doria and
from Doria’s makes for gap that has
squadron opened in Christian line

As Doria’s squadron advances, Uluç Ali’s squadron GULF OF PATRAS
most of his galleys move to attempts to outflank the
the right to counter Uluç Christian right wing initially
Ali’s outflanking maneuver

SCROPHA POINT Some Turkish soldiers Christian victory
escape onto the shore
The collapse of the Ottoman The Christian left wing traps the Ottoman
right wing frees up some of The galleys on the Christian right against the shore. With the reserve Christian
Santa Cruz’s galleys to join right wing succeed in squadron joining in the battle for the center, the
in the battle for the center pinning the Ottomans’ ships Ottoman line finally collapses. A few Ottoman
against the shore galleys escape but most are captured.

Don John’s galley is boarded Two galleasses move up to help A few Ottoman galleys
from Ali Pasha’s Sultana, but prevent threatened breakthrough escape, chiefly those
then the tables are turned, the on the Christian right of Uluç Ali
Ottoman flagship captured,
and Ali Pasha killed

Seeing the Ottoman
standard cut down from
the flagship’s mast, the
Turkish center collapses

Doria’s right wing turns to GULF OF PATRAS
assist the isolated galleys that had
been under attack from Uluç Ali

96

RECONSTRUCTED RENAISSANCE GALLEY

galera real

THE GALERA REAL was no ordinary war galley, but a luxury vessel made for Don John Main Mainmast
of Austria, commander-in-chief of the fleet of the Holy League assembled to fight lateen sail and shrouds
the Ottoman Turks.A gift from his half-brother, King Philip II of Spain, the galley
was built in the shipyards of Barcelona in 1568, then decorated and gilded in Seville. Stern lantern, Foresail
one of three
THE PALATIAL ROYAL FLAGSHIP was 197 ft The choice of these two figures was significant:
(60 m) long and 24 ft (6.2 m) wide and carried in his quest for the Golden Fleece Jason sailed Royal
a crew of as many as 400 men. Of these, 236 with the Argonauts to Colchis on the Black standard
were required simply to row the galley, with Sea, while legend placed the Pillars of Hercules
four men manning each oar. In addition, there at the Strait of Gibraltar—the two extremes of Admiral’s Oar ports Fighting Prow
were a number of skilled sailors to steer and the vast length of coastline controlled by the Surgeon’s platform
manage the two lateen sails, as well as a large Ottoman Empire. quarters Hold quarters
detachment of soldiers. The galley was armed under awning
with a large central cannon in the bow, flanked In action at Lepanto
by four medium-sized guns. There were also Don John’s galley fought a close-quarters duel
four much smaller guns sited between the with the Ottoman flagship Sultana. Turkish
oarsmen’s stations, two on each side of the ship. soldiers boarded the galley, but were driven back.

This replica of the galley was made for the Poop Cooking Oarsmen’s Mast sited
Maritime Museum in Barcelona to mark the deck area benches to allow for
400th anniversary of the Holy League’s victory recoil of cannon
at the battle of Lepanto on October 7, 1571.
THE AGE OF GALLEYS The ship’s most striking feature is the sheer Gun Central cannon
richness of its decoration, from the figurehead
of Neptune to the paintings and statues on the Galera Real
stern. These were painstakingly recreated from The galley raised its sails when crossing open sea with
a description written at the time. Many of them a favorable wind, but in battle relied on its 236 oarsmen.
feature the Classical heroes Hercules and Jason. The main battle tactic was to board and capture enemy ships.

the great banner of the League, displaying
Christ crucified, … the coats of arms of
Habsburg Spain, the pope, and the republic of
Venice, was hoisted on the Real’s mainmast.

NICCOLÒ CAPPONI 9:H8G>7>C< I=: DE:C>C< D; I=: 76IIA: D; A:E6CID

Classical figurehead Prow
The prow ends in this magnificent The galley’s long prow is
figurehead of a gilded Neptune, decorated with the coat
the Roman god of the sea, riding on of arms of Philip II of Spain,
a dolphin and brandishing a trident. supported by two mermen.
The statues and reliefs on the original Before Lepanto Don John had
galley were created by the leading the end of the prow cut off so
sculptors of Renaissance Spain. that the central cannon could
be depressed to shoot down
on the Ottoman ships.

Imperial ambition
The gilded eagles on the
stern are a reference to the
Roman Empire and Christian
Europe’s desire to win back
Rome’s former possessions
from Ottoman domination.

Rudder
The rudders fitted on
Mediterranean galleys
were smaller than those
found on sailing ships of
comparable size. It was
always possible to use
the oars to alter course.

Latin motto
The motto engraved at
the top of the rudder
extols the virtues of
prudence and strength,
essential qualities
needed to control
the power of the sea.

Stern lantern Statues on the stern Head of Medusa
The poop deck, where the The frieze at the top shows Hercules in the The gorgon Medusa stares out
helmsman controlled the tiller, Garden of the Hesperides. Below, the two from the the stern, deflecting
is crowned with three ornate lions hold the coats of arms of Austria and evil and bringing destruction
lanterns, beacons for keeping the Order of the Golden Fleece, while the four to Don John’s enemies.
the fleet together at night. female figures represent Christian virtues.
Gilded baluster
Paintings with a moral Every tiny detail around the
The painting of Time’s chariot suggests that the leader stern of the ship, where the
must seize any opportunity when it comes, while the admiral and his officers were
elephant and the rhinoceros about to do battle express housed in the poop, is richly
the idea “be ready for victory or death.” carved and decorated.

Entry ports Fancy scuppers
The pair of curved ladders on either side of the Even the scuppers, the ports that could
poop were used for embarking and disembarking. be opened to let excess water run off
LIke everything else at the stern end of the galley, the decks, contributed to the decorative
they are richly decorated with gilded reliefs. scheme of Don John’s galley.

Above deck Position of Deck Oarsmen’s bench
principal oarsman
THE GALERA REAL mounted five cannon on the raised Outrigger
fighting platform or forecastle at the prow and four lighter Outrigger Oars
artillery pieces. Going into battle, soldiers were stationed Thole pin
around the galley from the bow to the stern, many of them
armed with arquebuses. The galley was rowed a scaloccio, Hull Waterline
with four men to a single oar. Although elaborately Keel
decorated, the poop functioned as the center of armed
resistance if the galley was boarded in battle, fighting men Hold
clustering there to defend their flag and their commmander.
At Lepanto the galley was rammed by the Turkish flagship, the Cross-section of galley
enemy prow penetrating as far inboard as the fourth oarsman. The galley has 30 oars on the starboard (right) side and 29 on the port
(left) side, with four oarsmen to each oar. As the men rowed the inside
Interior of the poop oarsman had to move further than the others, rising to his feet as he
The poop deck, where Don John and his officers spent most of their pressed on the foot brace in front of him to pull the oar through the water.
time, was richly decorated with marquetry. The scenes on the backrest
of the bench are episodes from Greek mythology, most having a
nautical angle as well as a moral point to make.

Canopy and awning
The admiral’s quarters on the poop deck did
not have a permanent roof. When necessary
the canopy would be covered with a large
cloth to keep out the sun or the wind and rain.
This covering was also used in battle.