BATTLE OF THE SEA

300 WORLD WAR II: THE WEST

evacuations and landings

OPERATIONS IN SUPPORT of land forces constituted a major part of Royal Navy warships with the assistance of a flotilla of small craft under
the naval war in the European theater. In April 1940 the Germans intensive air attack. From 1942, however, with the United States in the
landed troops in Norway, primarily by sea, precipitating an war and the tide of victory flowing in the opposite direction,Allied naval
intensive air-sea battle as Britain and France attempted first to interrupt forces developed expertise in troop landings rather than evacuations. After
the landings and then to put their own soldiers ashore. Both sides suffered British and American warships had successfully escorted troops to North
naval losses in the Norway campaign, which ended in victory for Germany Africa in late 1942, they went on to cover the landings in Sicily and
in June. By then the Germans had invaded France and the Low Countries, southern Italy in the following year, and finally played a crucial role
forcing a mass evacuation of Allied troops from Dunkirk, carried off by in achieving the vast-scale invasion of Normandy in June 1944.

WORLD WAR II Two German destroyers were sunk
and three others damaged. Having sunk
NARVIK Date April 10–13, 1940 some cargo ships and exchanged The Normandy Landings KEY
Forces British: 1 carrier, fire with German forces on shore,
Location Narvik, 1 battleship, 14 destroyers; Warburton-Lee then set to leave, but Before dawn on June 6 the vast Allied fleet 1 US battleship or cruiser
Ofotfjord, Norway Germans: 10 destroyers on the way out he was surprised by passed through the carefully prepared gaps 1 British/Canadian battleship
Losses British: 2 destroyers, five more German destroyers that had or cruiser
2 aircraft; Germans: 10 been concealed around the fjord. Hardy in the minefields in the center of the Naval minefields
destroyers, 1 U-boat and Hunter were lost and Hotspur English Channel.As the troop ships German gun battery
severely damaged. Killed on board transferred their men into smaller landing Smaller craft not shown on map
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Hardy,Warburton-Lee was awarded craft, the warships began to bombard
a posthumous Victoria Cross. German positions on the Normandy coast. BRITAIN
The first troops went ashore at 6:31 a.m.
Early in the Norway campaign, Captain Three days later the Royal Navy
Bernard Warburton-Lee, in command sent the battleship Warspite, escorted Southampton
of a destroyer flotilla, decided to attack by destroyers and supported by the
a German naval force in port at Narvik, carrier Furious, to Narvik.The eight Portsmouth
which was outside the range of German destroyers still in the fjord,
Luftwaffe air cover. He took his five H- several damaged and all short of fuel Isle of
class destroyers—Hardy, Hotspur, Havock, and ammunition, were annihilated by Wight
Hunter, and Hostile—stealthily up the this overwhelming force.Troops were
Ofotfjord in a heavy snowstorm, then landed at Narvik, but had to be Rendezvous point south “The Spout,” the series
approaching Narvik at dawn.The evacuated two months later as Norway of the Isle of Wight of lanes cleared through
Germans had taken a picket ship off became indefensible. the minefields
station and were caught by surprise.
English Channel
paddle steamers, trawlers, tugboats, Flagship of Commander
and lifeboats.This was not a pure Western Task Force, Flagship of Commander
improvisation—most of the boats the cruiser USS Augusta Eastern Task Force, the
belonged to the Royal Navy’s “small cruiser Scylla—later badly
WORLD WAR II vessels pool.”The function of the little damaged by a mine
boats was to ferry soldiers from the
DUNKIRK Dunkirk beaches through the shallows FRANCE
to naval ships waiting off shore, since
Date May 4-June 26, 1940 Dunkirk port had become unusable. Cherbourg Sword Beach
Forces Allies: 222 naval vessels, The evacuation was carried out under (British)
665 civilian craft repeated attacks from the Luftwaffe, Cotentin Juno Beach
Losses British: 6 destroyers, 24 N Peninsula (Canadians)
other naval vessels, c.200 small especially from Stuka dive-bombers.
craft; French: 3 destroyers Ships were also lost to U-boats and US landings Omaha
German Fast Attack Boats (E-boats) at Utah Beach Beach (US)
as they crossed to England.
Location Dunkirk, NORMANDY Gold Beach (British)
northern France The evacuation peaked on May
31 when 68,000 men were rescued.
The evacuation of Allied troops The following day four destroyers
trapped by German forces at
Dunkirk was codenamed were lost to enemy attack, after
Operation Dynamo.Vice- which the operation was
Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay restricted to night-time. In all
was initially ordered to take
off 45,000 men over two 338,226 troops were brought
days, but once it became safely across the Channel, the
apparent more time was majority British but some
available, the operation 120,000 of them French.
was greatly expanded.
The troops were Dunkirk
mostly carried across little ship
the Channel on At only 15 ft
destroyers and (4.5 m) long,
minesweepers, Tamzine was the
but Ramsay smallest vessel to
also called for take part in the
the aid of evacuation of Dunkirk.
hundreds of
small civilian
vessels including

EVACUATIONS AND LANDINGS 301

the normandy landings WORLD WAR II

The invasion of Normandy by Midget submarine helmet and crossed the English Channel THE NORMANDY LANDINGS
Allied forces on June 6, 1944, The first craft off the shore of Normandy through “the Spout,” a series of
was the largest amphibious on D-Day were midget submarines that lanes swept clear of mines. Midget Date June 6–30,1944
operation in military guided the invasion force toward the submarines laid navigation beacons Location Normandy, northern France
history.The naval aspect beaches with navigation beacons. approaching the Normandy coast. Result Allied victory
of the landings was The naval bombardment of the
known as Operation since they considered coastal defenses behind the five landing COMBATANTS
Neptune.The naval forces an invasion in such beaches was formidable. Kirk’s force
had three major functions: weather unlikely. consisted of three battleships—Nevada, ALLIES GERMANY
to transport troops and Texas, and Arkansas—nine cruisers, and
equipment across the Intervention by 20 destroyers.Vian had the battleships COMMANDERS
English Channel; to German naval forces Warspite and Ramillies, along with 12
protect the invasion also had to be taken cruisers and 37 destroyers. Sir Bertram Ramsay Gerd von Rundstedt
force against attack by seriously. During a Erwin Rommel
German surface warships rehearsal for D-Day The operation did not end with the
or submarines; and to at Slapton Sands in landings. Naval forces had to maintain FORCES
bombard the German land southern England the supply lifeline across the English
defenses.That the operation in April 1944, a group Channel, using the famous Mulberry Ships: 1,213 warships Ships: unknown
succeeded should not hide the fact of German Fast Attack artificial harbors towed across to (including 6 battleships
that it involved considerable risks. Boats (E-boats) struck a convoy Normandy. Naval guns continued to and 25 cruisers), 4,126
of landing craft and killed more than bombard German land forces as the landing craft, 1,600
From a naval point of view, bad 600 American servicemen. If E-boats, fighting moved inland.There were support vessels
weather was probably the most serious U-boats, or even large surface warships losses to mines and air attacks, duels
hazard, for heavy seas would have had got among the landing craft during with coastal artillery, and occasional LOSSES
prevented the landings entirely.Weather the actual landings the death toll could fights with German destroyers. But
did in fact force a postponement from have been serious. In the event, the taken as a whole the Ships: 59 Ships: unknown
the original planned D-Day of June 5, threat of the German navy was nullified. Normandy invasion
and conditions on June 6 were far from Air patrols kept U-boats out of the was a remarkable 1918 – PRESENT
perfect.This resulted in most troops English Channel, while minefields demonstration of the
arriving at the beaches seasick, but put and screening destroyers blocked command of the sea
the German defenders off their guard, the possibility of surface attacks. and the importance
The massive invasion fleet put to sea of logistics.
Normandy beachhead on the night of June 5-6, the American
Fleets of US transport and landing Western Task Force under Rear Admiral D-Day landing craft
craft disgorge their cargoes onto Alan G. Kirk and the British and A British Landing Craft Assault
the beaches at Normandy. Canadian Eastern Task Force under Rear (LCA) ferries US troops to shore
Barrage balloons overhead Admiral Sir Philip Vian.The convoys during the rehearsals for the
protect against German formed up south of the Isle of Wight Normandy landings.
strafing aircraft.

302 WORLD WAR II: THE WEST

war in the mediterranean

ITALY’S ENTRY INTO THE WAR in June 1940 initiated a three-year naval struggle for The mediterr anean theater 1940–1943
control of the Mediterranean.The Italian navy, the Regia Marina, fought bravely,
although its effectiveness was limited by lack of radar.When the Italians were joined By 1942 the Mediterranean was in KEY
by the land-based aircraft of the German Luftwaffe, Britain’s Royal Navy came under severe danger of becoming an Axis lake.
pressure. Running convoys from Alexandria and Gibraltar to Malta, a key British base less The Germans had invaded Greece Under Allied control Jul 1940
than 62 miles (100 km) from Sicily, was always difficult and sometimes impossible.Although in 1941, and by October 1942 Under Axis control Jul 1940
British victories at Taranto and Cape Matapan weakened the Italian fleet, the Royal Navy’s British land forces had been driven Vichy French possessions
losses were grievous, mostly to air attack but also to German and Italian submarines. By the back almost to Alexandria. Yet the Axis airbase
start of 1942 the Axis was winning control of the Mediterranean.The progress of Allied Royal Navy continued to operate, Main British convoy routes
ground forces in North Africa, facilitated by naval attacks on Axis supply ships, eventually escorting convoys to isolated Malta. Main Axis convoy routes
relieved the pressure on sea communications. Italy was defeated in September 1943. The situation changed in November Allied victory
1942 with the Allied victory in Axis victory
Egypt and US landings in Algeria. Inconclusive action

PORTUGAL SPAIN ITALY Brindisi TURKEY
Naples
Sardinia
Taranto
Elmas
Balearic Taranto GREECE
Islands Nov 1940
Athens
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Gibraltar Palermo Messina Piraeus
Sicily
(to UK) Calabria
Trapani Jul 1940
Algiers
SPANISH Cyprus
MOROCCO Mers el-Kebir Comiso Crete
Jul 1940 Tunis May1941
TUNISIA Malta Bombing of
Oran Illustrious Cape Matapan Crete
(to UK) Jan1941 Mar 1941 Sea
Casablanca
Mediterranean

Second Syrte Italian midget
Mar1942 submarine attack
Dec 1941
MOROCCO
N ALGERIA Tobruk

Tripoli Alexandria Port
Cairo Said

Benghazi

0 km 300 EGYPT
0 miles 300
LIBYA

WORLD WAR II demand that the French either join Dunkerque was immobilized, and WORLD WAR II
the British war effort, surrender their Provence set on fire and forced to beach.
MERS-EL-KeBIR ships into British hands, or sail Only Strasbourg escaped to Toulon, but CALABRIA
to internment in the Americas. If she was scuttled along with the rest of
Date July 3, 1940 they refused these options they had the Vichy fleet in 1942 to prevent her Location East of Punta Date July 9, 1940
Forces British: 1 carrier, to scuttle their ships or be fired upon. falling into Germans hands.Almost Stilo, Calabria Forces British: 1 carrier,
2 battleships, 1 battlecruiser, The French commander in Mers-el- 1,300 French sailors died at Mers-el- 3 battleships, 5 cruisers,
2 light cruisers, 11 destroyers; Kebir,Admiral Marcel Gensoul, Kebir, an action regretted by the Royal 16 destroyers; Italians:
French: 4 battleships, preferred to fight. He cleared his four Navy and bitterly resented in France. 2 battleships, 14 cruisers,
6 destroyers, 5 submarines battleships—Dunkerque, Strasbourg, 16 destroyers
Losses British: none; French: 3 Bretagne, and Provence—for action Losses none
battleships sunk or disabled and attempted to get under way.The
Location West of Oran, British gunnery was accurate and
French Algeria destruction swift. Bretagne was hit by
15-inch salvoes, exploded and capsized,
As German forces overran France French fleet at Mers-el-Kebir One month after Italy had entered the
in June 1940, the French Navy made A French soldier stands guard next to the war, a British naval force under Admiral
vigorous efforts to keep its warships battleships Dunkerque and Strasbourg. Sir Andrew Cunningham escorting
out of Nazi hands. Ships dispersed to The sister ships were of an unusual design convoys from Alexandria to Malta was
British ports and the French overseas with all their main guns mounted forward. intercepted by Italian warships under
empire, including Mers-el-Kebir in Admiral Inigo Campioni.The British
French Algeria.The armistice terms had suffered damage in attacks by
agreed on June 24 specified that the Italian land-based aircraft, leading the
French Navy would not be handed Italians to believe they were in worse
over to the Germans.The British, shape than was actually the case.After
however, did not trust Germany a clash between opposing cruisers,
or France to stick to the agreement. Cunningham’s flagship Warspite dueled
The addition of the French fleet to at maximum range with the Italian
the Axis naval forces would have battleships Giulio Cesare and Conte di
dangerously altered the balance of Cavour. Warspite hit Giulio Cesare with
power at sea. Britain decided to ensure a 15-in shell from a distance of 15
this could never happen.A force miles (24 km), causing considerable
consisting of the battlecruiser Hood, the damage.As the other British battleships,
battleships Valiant and Resolution, and Malaya and Royal Sovereign, came up the
the carrier Ark Royal was sent to Mers- Italians turned for home.The Italian air
el-Kebir. Its commander,Admiral Sir force concluded the engagement by
James Somerville, had orders to bombing both fleets indiscriminately.

WAR IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 303

the battle of taranto WORLD WAR II

Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham THE BATTLE OF TARANTO
approved a bold plan for a night attack
by the Fleet Air Arm upon the Italian Date November 11–12, 1940
naval base at Taranto. For the first time Location Taranto, southern Italy
in history a naval attack would use Result British victory
only planes, launching them from
offshore aircraft carriers.The raid was Fairey Swordfish COMBATANTS
originally scheduled for Trafalgar Day, British Fairey Swordfish torpedo-bombers
October 21, and was to involve the used modified torpedoes dropped from a low BRITAIN ITALY
carriers Eagle and Illustrious. However, height to attack the Italian fleet at Taranto.
fire damage to one ship and structural the sea.Their torpedoes had been COMMANDERS
damage to the other delayed the action. 12 and nine Swordfish an hour apart. skillfully adapted to run in the shallow
Eventually it was decided to go ahead Half the aircraft were armed with harbor waters and explode beneath the Sir Andrew Inigo Campioni
with Illustrious only, bolstered by the torpedoes and the rest with bombs. torpedo nets protecting the capital Cunnngham
transfer of five aircraft from Eagle. The torpedoes were used against the ships. Five struck home, hitting the
six battleships and three cruisers battleships Vittorio Veneto, Caio Duilio, FORCES
THE AIRCRAFT moored in Taranto’s outer harbor, and Conte di Cavour.A cruiser in the
while the bombs were dropped on inner harbor was badly damaged Ships: 1 carrier, 4 Ships: 6 battleships,
It was a peculiarity of the Fleet Air the smaller ships in the inner harbor. by bombs. Remarkably only two cruisers, 4 destroyers 9 cruisers,17 destroyers
Arm that its carriers were superb but Swordfish were shot down during the
its aircraft were obsolescent.The raid THE OUTCOME conflict. For this trivial cost, the Fleet LOSSES
was carried out by slow-moving Fairey Air Arm succeeded in halving the
Swordfish, two-seater biplanes that had The Italians were well prepared for an Italian battleship strength in a single Men: 2 Men: 59
first entered service in 1936 and were aerial attack.The Swordfish flew into night. Vittorio Veneto and Caio Duilio Ships: none Ships: 1 battleship sunk,
affectionately known as “Stringbags.” an inferno of anti-aircraft fire, some were recommissioned the following Aircraft: 2 2 battleships and 1
Escorted by cruisers and destroyers, keeping so low their wheels touched year, but Cavour was never salvaged. cruiser disabled
Illustrious approached within striking
range of Taranto on the evening of The victory tilted the balance of power
November 11, flying off two waves of in the Mediterranean in favor of the
Allies.Any Italian ships that survived
the attack were moved further north
to Naples and La Spezia.

Italian firepower 1883–1963 1918 – PRESENT
Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto
fires a salvo from her nine 15-inch andrew B. cunningham
guns. The Vittorio Veneto was
the most powerful warship to BRITISH ADMIRAL OF THE FLEET
survive the attack on Taranto.
Admiral Andrew B Cunningham, known as “ABC,”
was commander-in-chief of the Royal Navy’s
Mediterranean Fleet from the outbreak of World
War II to the Italian surrender in September 1943.
A forthright man of action, Cunningham best
showed his nerve and aggression in the night-time
pursuit and destruction of the Italian fleet at Cape
Matapan. His iron will helped keep his fleet going
through the savage losses of the Malta convoy battles
and the Crete campaign. In October 1943 he was
appointed First Sea Lord and was responsible for
British naval strategy through the rest of the war.

304 WORLD WAR II: THE WEST

WORLD WAR II the battle of cape matapan

OPERATION EXCESS

Date January 10–11, 1941 On March 27, 1941, a substantial force executed a pincer movement that Cape Matapan medallion
Forces British: 1 carrier, of Italian warships assembled off threatened to trap Pridham- Two warships on a parallel course with aircraft
2 battleships, 3 cruisers, southern Italy, commanded by Admiral Wippell’s force between the overhead adorn this unofficial Italian medal
7 destroyers; Axis: 2 destroyers, Angelo Iachino on the Littorio-class heavy cruisers and Vittorio commemorating the defeat at Cape Matapan.
land-based aircraft battleship Vittorio Veneto. Iachino had Veneto, but at around
Losses British: 1 cruiser and been misled by intelligence reports 11:00 a.m. torpedo By this time night had
1 destroyer; Italians: 1 destroyer suggesting the Royal Navy had only bombers from Andrew fallen.The Italians had
one battleship and no aircraft carriers Cunningham’s carrier no radar and no training
Location Off southern in the sea around Crete. In reality, Formidable arrived on in night fighting.Totally
Sicily Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham had the scene.While the undetected by the
the battleships Warspite, Barham, and Italian warships were Italians in the pitch
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES The Luftwaffe’s Fliegerkorps X moved Valiant, and the carrier Formidable. preoccupied with darkness, Cunningham’s
to bases in Sicily in January 1941.The Once the Italian fleet was at sea, evading air attack, battleships, which had
British mounted a complex convoy Cunningham set out from Alexandria Pridham-Wippell
operation, Operation Excess, in which to intercept, calling on Vice Admiral slipped away. radar, advanced to around
merchant ships from Gibraltar were Henry Pridham-Wippell to join him 3,800 yards (3,500 m) of the
escorted to the south of Sicily by a force, with a destroyer flotilla and light THE ITALIAN RETREAT ships clustered around Pola
including the carrier Illustrious, and cruiser squadron from Piraeus. before opening fire. Struck repeatedly
passed to cruiser escorts from Alexandria Without air cover, Iachino wisely by heavy armor-piercing shells from
to continue eastward. Illustrious was On March 28 an Italian aircraft decided to withdraw. Meanwhile Valiant and Barham’s 15-in guns, Fiume
attacked by Stuka dive-bombers on spotted Pridham-Wippell’s light Cunningham ordered further air and Zara were disabled in minutes, on
January 10. Hit by eight bombs and cruisers and destroyers and Iachino attacks during which Formidable’s fire, and listing heavily. British destroyers
partially disabled, she limped to Malta, headed to intercept. Shortly after 8:00 airmen succeeded in scoring hits on sank two Italian destroyers; only the
where air attacks continued.The next a.m. Pridham-Wippell came under fire Vittorio Veneto and the heavy cruiser destroyer Gioberti escaped. Fiume sank
day the cruiser Southampton, heading from Italian heavy cruisers. Iachino Pola, slowing down the former and around 11:00 p.m. Zara and Pola were
for Alexandria, was so damaged by immobilizing the latter. Still unaware finished off by torpedoes in the early
dive-bombing that she had to be scuttled. Warned of Italian that heavier Royal Navy forces were in hours of the following morning.
movements, British the vicinity, Iachino ordered Admiral The battle ended Italian hopes to
Cape Matapan send 3 battleships Carlo Cattaneo’s heavy cruisers Fiume control the Mediterranean. Mussolini’s
and carrier Formidable and Zara plus three destroyers, to stay once proud fleet would not emerge in
Hoping for an easy victory over British behind to rescue Pola. force again until it surrendered in 1943.
cruisers in the area, Italian forces are surprised
by the presence of British battleships and a British and
Italian cruisers
carrier. Disadvantaged in the subsequent in action
night battle by their lack of radar, the Italians
lose three heavy cruisers and two destroyers.

Unaware of the presence of
British battleships and carrier,
Italian cruisers head to intercept
approaching British cruisers.

Vittorio Veneto

CRETE British cruisers Vittorio Veneto
and destroyers in action with
British cruisers

KEY

1 British aircraft carrier, stage 1 Italians ships
1 British aircraft carrier, stage 2 withdraw west to
1 British battleship, stage 1 avoid air strikes
1 British battleship, stage 2 and night battle
1 British cruiser, stage 1
1 British cruiser, stage 2 Italian ships
1 wave of British bombers Maleme attacked by
1 Italian battleship, stage 1 Airfield bombers
1 Italian battleship, stage 2 from Crete
1 Italian cruiser, stage 1
1 Italian cruiser, stage 2
1 sunk or destroyed cruiser

Torpedo bombers from
Formidable cripple Pola. Zara
and Fiume turn back to help

Cape Crippled Pola
Matapan sunk by British
destroyers
Radar-equipped British battleships
fire on Italian ships in dark. Fiume,
Zara and two destroyers sunk

GREECE

N Allied ships return home in Remaining Italian
morning fearing Axis air strikes ships retire toward
air cover of Taranto
Ionian Sea

WAR IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 305

WORLD WAR II WORLD WAR II Cunningham was determined to From May 28, with the land battle on
prevent German troop reinforcements Crete lost, the Royal Navy’s task was
CRETE arriving by sea from Greece. His to evacuate as many troops as possible
principle throughout was that “the to Egypt.This was a perilous task.The
Date May 21–June 1, 1941 Navy must not let the Army down.” destroyers Hereward and Imperial were
Forces British: 1 carrier, 4 Since his ships were operating without sunk evacuating troops from Heraklion
battleships, 12 cruisers, 32 air cover within range of German land- on May 29. Most troops were taken off
destroyers; Axis: unknown based aircraft, losses were inevitably from Sphakia in southern Crete. In all
Losses British: 3 cruisers and 6 heavy. On May 21 a first flotilla of some 16,000 soldiers were evacuated.
destroyers sunk; Axis: unknown German troop transports was forced The last Royal Navy ship sunk was the
to turn back.The next day a larger cruiser Calcutta, sent from Alexandria
THE BATTLE OF CAPE MATAPAN Location Crete, eastern invasion force was attacked and to cover the withdrawal, on June 1.
Mediterranean scattered, but this time Luftwaffe air The British had lost nine ships, all to
attacks took their toll—the cruiser aerial attack, and had 15 others damaged.
Date March 28–29, 1941 On May 20, 1941, German paratroops Gloucester sunk and 723 lives were lost. Some 2,000 sailors lost their lives.
Location Off coast of Greece launched an assault upon Crete, held
Result Allied victory by British Commonwealth troops.
British naval commander Admiral
COMBATANTS

BRITAIN ITALY

COMMANDERS

Sir Andrew Angelo Iachino three Maiali were carried to the entrance targeted instead.The time-delayed
Cunningham of Alexandria harbor, home of the charges exploded the next morning.
WORLD WAR II British Mediterranean Fleet, by the The two battleships were severely
submarine Scire. Released under water, damaged, Queen Elizabeth settling
FORCES RAID ON ALEXANDRIA they penetrated the harbor’s defenses on the bottom of the shallow harbor.
undetected by following behind a The explosion under the tanker also
Ships: 1 carrier, Ships: 1 battleship, Date December 17–18, 1941 British cruiser, the entry of which damaged the destroyer Jervis.All of
3 battleships, 24 other 6 heavy cruisers, Forces British: unknown; required the anti-submarine barrier the Italian commandos were taken
ships 19 other ships Italians: 1 submarine, to be opened.Two of the crews prisoner. Both of the battleships were
3 midget submarines attached their charges to the hulls eventually returned to action, but the
LOSSES Losses Italians: 3 midget of the battleships Valiant and Queen short-term loss to British naval strength
submarines; British: 2 battleships, Elizabeth—Admiral Andrew in the Mediterranean was serious.
Men: 3 Men: c.2,300 1 destroyer severely damaged, Cunningham’s flagship.The third was
Ships: none Ships: 3 heavy cruisers, 1 tanker sunk destined for the absent aircraft carrier Italian manned torpedo
2 destroyers Eagle, so a large tanker, Sagona was Nicknamed maiali (pigs) by their crews because of
Location Alexandria, their poor handling, the manned torpedo carried
Egypt a detachable warhead of up to 660 lb (300 kg).

Ambush at Cape Matapan The Italian Regia Marina developed
HMS Valiant, together with her fellow midget submarines known as Maiali, for
Queen Elizabeth-class battleships underwater raids on British harbors. On
Barham and Warspite, fires her 15-in the night of December 17-18, 1941,
guns. The three British battleships
destroyed two Italian cruisers and two
destroyers at Cape Matapan.

WORLD WAR II draw the British toward their battleship, British cruisers also took hits.Toward
which loomed into sight around 4 p.m. nightfall Admiral Iachino withdrew,
SECOND SIRTE Heavily outgunned, the British laid and all the British ships were able to
down a thick smoke screen, from behind escape.The aftermath of the battle
Date March 22, 1942 which they dodged out intermittently was painful for both sides.Two Italian
Forces British: 5 cruisers, 18 to engage the Italians with their guns destroyers foundered in a storm
destroyers, 1 submarine; Italians: and torpedoes.The destroyer Kingston returning home; all the British supply
1 battleship, 3 cruisers, 8 was almost torn apart by a hit from ships were sunk by air attack on
destroyers, 1 submarine Littorio’s 15-in armament and Havock arrival at Malta.
Losses British: none; Italians: was so badly damaged she was for a
none time dead in the water. Most of the

Location Gulf of Sirte,
Mediterranean

The First Battle of Sirte, on December WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY
17, 1941, was an inconclusive fight
between Italian and British convoy enigma intercepts
escort forces under Admiral Angelo
Iachino and Rear-Admiral PhilipVian. The Enigma machines used by the German Navy for
The same commanders clashed at the
same location three months later.Vian encoding communications used three (later four) rotors
was escorting four supply ships from
Alexandria to Malta, with four light to scramble the messages. They were considered utterly
cruisers, an anti-aircraft cruiser, and
a bevy of destroyers.The Italian Regia secure because the receiver needed to know the exact
Marina intercepted with a squadron
that included the heavy cruisers settings of the rotors, which changed daily. British
Gorizia and Trento, and the battleship
Littorio.The weather was stormy, with codebreakers, however, intermittently managed to
heavy seas.Vian sighted the heavy
cruisers and, leaving five destroyers to decipher these messages, providing advance warning
escort the supply ships, turned the rest
of his escort force to confront the of the movements of Axis warships, supply convoys,
enemy.The Italians maneuvered to
and submarines. The Enigma intelligence is credited,

among other things, Enigma machine
with contributing to By rotating the cylinders at the rear

victory at Cape Matapan of the machine, code settings could

and the defeat of German be changed daily. Viewing windows

U-boats in the Atlantic. on the lid showed the encoded letters.

306 FOOD AND DRINK

LIFE ON BOARD

FooD and drink

AN AGE-OLD PROBLEM of naval warfare is how to keep ships supplied with food and STORAGE Provisions in the hold of a reconstructed
drink at sea. In the ancient world galleys carried only enough supplies for a few days Spanish royal galley from 1570. Typical daily fare issued
of sailing. Hugging the coastlines, they beached to buy food and usually ate on shore, to the oarsmen would have included a 26 oz (720 g)
although when the galley was in a hurry the oarsmen might snack biscuit, made by baking bread and legumes without oil.
while they rowed. As sailing ships ventured far from land, however, Pork and wine was added to the volunteers’ rations.
they had to carry their own supplies with them for long periods of time.
This led to health problems because of the lack of fresh food available
and inadequate methods of food preservation.

A SAILOR’S DIET

Sailors basically consumed the food and drink typical of their society. In the 16th
century Spanish sailors ate squid, tuna, sardines, oil, rice, and wine, while the
English ships carried beef, butter, and beer. The distinguishing feature of shipboard

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES food was that it needed to last. So freshly baked bread was replaced by biscuit,

provided for Venetian galley crews as “biscotti” and the Royal Navy as “hard tack.”

Although liable to infestation by weevils and other pests, it provided a good basic

foodstuff. Salted meat and fish (“stockfish”) were also near universal staples, along

with cheese and peas or lentils. That these lacked essential

vitamins found in fresh food was recognized long before

any scientific explanation was available. Navies in the The crew made haste that they (did not stop
18th century tried to provide fresh fruit and vegetables for meals but) pulled and ate at the same time,
when possible and carried live animals for slaughter. barley bread mixed with wine and olive oil.
Sailors were on the whole not badly fed by the standards
of their day. Scurvy, a disease formed by a deficiency of
vitamin C, was found on land as well as at sea.

THUCYDIDES c.)%% 78: ! dc i]Z ZmXZei^dcVa X^gXjbhiVcXZh l]Zc V ig^gZbZ XgZl Y^Y cdi \d Vh]dgZ id iV`Z i]Z^g bZVa#

FRESH FOOD COOKING AND MESSING CLOSE QUARTERS The crew on a
Live animals were brought on board 19th-century warship would have
when space permitted in order to overcome the Arrangements for messing (eating) and cooking eaten elbow to elbow amid guns and
problem of meat spoiling in storage. This meant on a packed wooden sailing ship were always hammocks. Eight adults and one boy
that men and livestock shared the confines of unsatisfactory. Men messed on the gun deck where would have sat around this table.
the lower gun deck, lending additional odor they slept, letting down tables that hung from the
and noise to already overcrowded conditions. deckhead. There were typically eight men to a mess.
One man from each mess prepared the rations and
HARD TACK “Ship’s brought them to the ship’s cook—a petty officer,
biscuits” were so hard often a disabled man unfit for other service. For
that sailors would dunk safety reasons the cooking fire was small and in
them in liquid to soften the safest place that could be found. All food was
them up. typically cooked in a single large pot. Until the
mid-19th century men provided their own table
utensils. Naturally, life for officers
was very different and quite
luxurious by comparison.
They could pay for their own
more refined food and drink,
and were waited on by
servants, sometimes eating
from silver plates.

BEER TANKARD
Beer was standard in Nelson’s
navy since water soon went
stagnant in the storage barrels.

FOOD AND DRINK 307

WATER AND ALCOHOL ISSUING THE GROG
Men gather aboard the
Keeping water fresh at sea was beyond the Royal Sovereign in 1895.
technological capacity of the age of sail. Teetotallers could claim
It corrupted in the barrels, a problem only solved the money value of the
by the use of iron storage tanks in the 19th century. rum, or its equivalent in
Instead, sailors mostly drank beer or wine. A sailor cocoa and sugar.
in Nelson’s Royal Navy was allowed a gallon
(4.5 liters) of beer a day. There was also a daily rum
ration of half a pint (280 ml) per man, drunk mixed
with water as “grog.” However, punishments for
men drunk on duty were severe. Concern about
alcohol led to the reduction of the Royal Navy rum
ration to an eighth of a pint (70 ml) by the 1850s.
The US Navy stopped alcohol rations in 1862 and
banned all alcohol on board warships in 1914.

RUM BARRELS The red line on the top of the COMPACT KITCHEN
barrel indicated its contents of rum. Rum gradually With room for only two
replaced brandy as the Royal Navy’s official daily to three people, this is
ration after the British capture of Jamaica in 1655. one of several cooking
areas on board the
The stench of 51 sweating seamen, diesel oil, Greek armored cruiser 1918 – PRESENT
rotting food, and moldy bread mingled with Georgios Averof, active
the noisome odors that emanated from the from 1910 to 1952.
galley and the two tiny washrooms.
CRAMPED CONFINES The
HERBERT A. WERNER Iron Coffins! YZhXg^W^c\ i]Z jcVeeZi^o^c\ XdcY^i^dch ^c V J"7dVi ^c LdgaY LVg >> unchanging problem of limited
space calls for multi-purpose
areas. Here 1950s sailors bunk
and mess in the same room.

MASS PRODUCTION The bakery on board the US
aircraft carrier George Washington provides bread for
6,000 crew members. A far remove from early days of
unvarying fare, there are specially catered meals and
even an ice-cream stand available on board.

MODERN INNOVATIONS

The introduction of canned foods, followed
later by refrigeration, improved nutrition on
board through the 19th century. Also the increase
in the speed of steamships shortened times at sea,
making use of fresh ingredients more feasible. In
Britain’s Royal Navy in 1914, potatoes, powdered
soup, smoked salmon, and milky tea were on the
menu, although men still ate in messes eight to
a bench with a table that probably doubled as a
bed. During World War II self-service cafeterias
became common on larger ships, though this
brought no end to seamen’s grumbling about food.

308 CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES

world war II: the Pacific

LAUNCHING A WAR in the Pacific was a desperate gamble by the Japanese.
The temporary weakness of Britain, France, and the Netherlands—the
colonial powers in southeast Asia—created an irresistible opportunity for
Japan to seize control of the oil and other natural resources of British-ruled
Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. But Japanese military leaders knew they
would also have to fight the United States, with its vastly superior long-term
warmaking potential.Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander-in-chief of
the Imperial Navy, proposed a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii. By crippling the US Pacific fleet, the Japanese would buy
enough time to establish a defensive perimeter across the Pacific, ready to
resist an eventual US counterattack.The raid on Pearl Harbor on December 7,
1941, initiated the most intensive large-scale naval conflict ever seen.

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Kamikaze suicide attack EARLY SUCCESSES Americans fought back sooner than expected.
Smoke billows from US carrier Belleau Wood after an US carrier aircraft checked Japanese carriers at
attack by a kamikaze pilot in October 1944. The battle At the start of the Pacific War the Japanese and the Coral Sea and then dealt them a severe blow
of Leyte Gulf saw the first organized attacks by Japanese US fleets were quite evenly balanced, except in at Midway—one from which the Imperial
suicide planes—a tactic that became increasingly terms of carriers. Japan had more, and its carrier Japanese Navy never fully recovered.
widespread in the closing stages of the Pacific War. aircraft were the best in the world. For the first
six months of the war Japanese forces ran amok. Neither the Americans nor the Japanese shied
The Pearl Harbor raid subdued the US Navy away from a fight. Particularly fierce sea battles
briefly, and Britain’s Royal Navy, committed were fought around the island of Guadalcanal
to the war against Hitler’s Germany, could offer in the Solomon Islands, with heavy losses on
little resistance. In early 1942 the formidable both sides. The Americans benefited from
British base at Singapore fell to an attack from superior naval intelligence—having broken the
the land. Part of the Japanese fleet entered the Japanese naval codes—but the Japanese proved
Indian Ocean and there was nothing to stop it
sailing up the Red Sea to the Suez Canal or Desperate fighting
attacking Iraq, a vital source of British oil USS Bunker Hill burns after being hit by two
supplies. But the Japanese never went further kamikaze planes in the space of 30 seconds
west than Sri Lanka. By May 1942 they were near Okinawa in 1945. Around 1,500 kamikaze
thoroughly occupied in the South Pacific, as the planes were crashed into US ships or shot down
during the Japanese defense of the island.

Next! Japan
A poster advertising bonds to help the US
government finance the war in the Pacific
and the drive on the Japanese home islands.

WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC 309

The Japanese advance N Ale u
USSR Attu
The Pacific War began with Japan’s
invasion of China and Manchuria in t i a n Is l a n d s
1937–39 before moving into a second Kiska
more intensive phase after Japan’s Dutch
attack on Pearl Harbor in December Jun 7,1942 Harbor
1941. This was followed by the invasion
of the Philippines, Burma, Malaya, and Jun 3,1942
the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) and
the seizure of their economic resources. ds
Kurile Islan
KEY MONGOLIA MANCHURIA
(to Japan)
Under Japanese control Dec 1941 Vladivostok
Under Japanese control Jun 1942
Japanese invasion/landing Beijing Sea of JAPAN
Route of Pearl Harbor carrier fleet KOREA J a p a n
Doolittle Raid on Tokyo Apr 18, 1942 (to Japan) Tokyo PACIFIC OCEAN
Japanese victory
US/Allied victory Hiroshima Apr 18,1942
Inconclusive battle
Japanese bombing raid CHINA
US/Allied bombing raid
Shanghai Yellow Nagasaki Jun 4–6,1942

Sea Midway
Jun 4–5,1942
Hong Ryukyu Midway
Macao Kong Formosa Islands
INDIA BURMA Pearl Harbor
(to UK) Philippine
Wake Hawaiian Dec 7,1941
Islands
Sea Tinian Dec 23,
Rangoon SIAM 1941
FRENCH S o u t h Saipan
Bangkok INDO- C h i n a Manila Guam Eniwetok

CHINA S e a PHILIPPINE Truk Marshall Islands
ISLANDS Kwajalein
(to USA)
Prince of Wales Caroline Islands
MALAYA
(to UK) and Repulse sunk Makin
Dec 10,1941

Singapore Borneo Bismarck Tarawa Gilbert Eastern Solomons
Archipelago Islands Aug 24–25,1942
Sumatra NE NEW
Hollandia GUINEA Santa Cruz Islands
DUTCH EAST INDIES Rabaul Oct 25–27,1942
New (to UK) Solomon
Java Sea Guinea Islands Savo Island
Aug 1942
Batavia Java PAPUA
Cape Esperance
INDIAN Java Sea Darwin (to Australia) Port Oct 11–12,1942
OCEAN Feb 27,1942 Moresby
Guadalcanal
Feb 19,1942 C o r a l Coral Sea Nov 12–15,1942

S e a Apr 28–May 11,1942 Tassafaronga
Nov 29,1942
0 km 1000

0 miles 1000 AUSTRALIA

Submarine binoculars developed, turning amphibious landings into The kamikazes inflicted much damage, but by 1918 – PRESENT
A pair of Japanese conning tower precisely coordinated operations, and evolving this stage the Allies could replace ships faster
binoculars. Despite the vulnerable robust systems of fleet defense against air attack than they lost them. By the end of the war
Allied supply line in the Pacific, Japanese such as the use of destroyer “pickets” to identify Japan was under total naval blockade. In
submarines generally focused on sinking incoming enemy aircraft and the coordination September 1945 Japan’s formal surrender took
warships rather than merchant vessels. of ship anti-aircraft fire with air combat patrols. place on board USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

better at night-fighting and had Acutely aware of their growing material 1884–1943
more effective torpedoes. At the end inferiority, the Japanese fell back upon their
of 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy was still fighting spirit. Naval commanders remained Isoruku Yamamoto
holding its own, but against the huge industrial committed to seeking a decisive fleet encounter
potential of the United States Japan’s long-term in which they would destroy the enemy against COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF JAPANESE COMBINED FLEET
prospects looked more grim. all the odds. The result in 1944 was a series
of epic battles as the Japanese Imperial Navy Born Isoroku Takana, the future admiral entered the
INDUSTR IAL MIGHT attacked US ships supporting landings on the Etajima Naval Academy aged 16 and fought as an
Marianas and the Philippines. The absolute ensign at the battle of Tsushima in 1904, losing two
The United States embarked on the largest superiority of US naval aviation, with improved fingers on his left hand. He became part of the
shipbuilding program in history. From 1943 aircraft and better-trained pilots, achieved the Yamamoto samurai family by adoption in 1914.As
onward the US Navy expanded its resources in destruction of Japanese carrier-borne air power an admiral in the 1930s he was an advocate of naval
the Pacific until it had achieved an overwhelming at the battle of the Philippine Sea. At Leyte air power, deploring Japan’s obsession with outsize
superiority over the Japanese. New heavy carriers, Gulf the Japanese fleet made its last serious bid battleships. He was deeply pessimistic about Japanese
light carriers, and escort “jeep” carriers were for a decisive victory and lost. chances of success in a war against the US, and he
organized into Carrier Task Forces, each with opposed Japan’s alignment with Nazi Germany. On
a protective screen of escort vessels. They soon DESPER ATE OFFENSIVES being appointed commander-in-chief of the Japanese
surpassed their target of 27,500 naval aircraft Combined Fleet in 1939, he
to equip the new carriers. Landing craft were Japan’s adoption of kamikaze suicide tactics in pushed through the plan for
produced on a massive scale for assaults on the the final phase of the war was in part a practical a preemptive attack on
Pacific islands, for which the big guns of their response to the problem of how to inflict damage Pearl Harbor. On April
ships, plus carrier aircraft, provided fire support. on the well-defended US fleet. What the 18,1943, pinpointed by
Meanwhile US submarines overcame problems Japanese really needed was guided missiles, but a American intelligence,
with non-functioning torpedoes to take a suicide pilot could perform a similar function. the aircraft in
mounting toll on Japanese merchant shipping For the final battles, as the war approached which he was
and warships. The US Navy handled its rapid Japan itself, the Japanese had no usable warships traveling was
expansion remarkably well, achieving a high and no time or fuel to train naval pilots operating shot down over
level of training for fresh pilots and sailors and from land bases. A vast fleet of US, British, and Bougainville.
the provision of an efficient supply line to keep Australian ships was the object of mass suicide
the massive new fleets at sea. New tactics were attacks by pilots who could barely fly.

310 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

the japanese offensive

THE SURPRISE ATTACK by Japanese naval aircraft on the American opponent not only superior in numbers but also highly motivated, well
naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was the first trained, and in some departments, better equipped.Yet at the decisive battle
of a series of bold aggressive moves that within six months gave of Midway in June 1942 the Japanese carrier force that had humiliated the
Japan control of all of southeast Asia and much of the Pacific.The navies United States at Pearl Harbor was itself crushingly defeated.The fierce
of Britain and the Netherlands were able to put up little more than token battles fought around the island of Guadalcanal during the second half of
resistance to an enemy overwhelmingly superior both in heavy-gun 1942 showed that the Japanese Imperial Navy was still confident and
warships and in land- and carrier-based aviation. It fell to the US Navy aggressive, but Japan had ultimately failed to achieve a decisive naval victory
to contest the dominance of the Japanese at sea.The Americans faced an while the balance of power at sea was most in its favor.

WORLD WAR II pearl harbor

On November 26, 1941, a Japanese naval to Pearl Harbor, full-size boats carrying were picked up on radar and one midget
task force commanded by Vice Admiral
Chuichi Nagumo slipped out of midget submarines to penetrate the submarine was spotted, but none of this
Hitokapu Bay in the Kurile Islands
bound for Hawaii.The force included American defenses.At dawn on disturbed the Americans.The ship’s band
six aircraft carriers: Akagi, Kaga, Zuikaku,
Shaokaku, Hiryu, and Soryu. Its goal was December 7, 250 miles (400 km) was playing on the deck of the battleship
to attack and destroy the US Pacific
Fleet in its base at Pearl Harbor.The key north of Hawaii, the Nevada as the bombs began to fall.The
figure behind the Pearl Harbor raid was
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES PEARL HARBOR Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto: Japan had first wave of 183 aircraft that should have defended
decided to seize Malaya and the Dutch
Date December 7, 1941 East Indies and, convinced this must Japanese aircraft the base were destroyed as
Location Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii mean war with the United States,
Result Japanese victory Yamamoto planned a preemptive strike took off from they sat on the ground.
against the US fleet, to coincide with,
COMBATANTS rather than follow, a declaration of war. their carriers— Japan’s naval pilots

The operation depended on total Nakajima “Kate” were a highly trained
surprise. Observing strict radio silence,
JAPAN UNITED STATES Nagumo’s force would cross thousands torpedo- elite flying the
of miles of ocean undetected, refuelling
COMMANDERS from tankers en route.A separate force bombers, world’s best carrier
of Japanese submarines also proceeded
Isoroku Yamamoto Husband E. Kimmel Mitsubishi “Zero” aircraft. It is believed
Chuichi Nagumoe
fighters, and Aichi that 90 percent of

FORCES “Val” dive-bombers. the torpedoes at Pearl

Ships: 2 battleships, Ships: 90 ships Although Japan Binoculars from USS Arizona Harbor found their
6 carriers, 28 submarines, including 8 battleships, and the US were not The first ship to be sunk at Pearl Harbor, the target, as did around
23 other ships, 432 300 aircraft at war, diplomatic battleship Arizona was ripped apart by an 60 percent of the
aircraft (353 on raid) relations had reached explosion in its forward magazine. bombs dropped by

LOSSES a breaking point and American forces dive-bombers.Within 20 minutes of

Men: 55 Men: 2,403 should have been on full alert. But Pearl the start of the attack the battleship
Ships: 1 submarine, Ships: 18 ships sunk or
5 midget submarines seriously damaged Harbor was enjoying a sleepy peacetime Oklahoma had capsized after hits by five

Sunday morning.The incoming aircraft torpedoes, while Arizona had suffered

KEY Pearl Harbor Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date
which will live in infamy—the
1 wave of Japanese bombers The Japanese raid on the US naval base United States of America was
at Pearl Harbor was carefully coordinated, suddenly and deliber ately attacked.
1 US battleship or cruiser with different types of dive-bomber and
1 US destroyer or submarine torpedo-bomber approaching at different PRESIDENT FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT! HE::8= ID 8DC<G:HH DC 9:8:B7:G -! &.)&
heights and from various directions.

7:55: 40 “Kate” The bombers target the row
torpedo-bombers of battleships moored off
arrive to open the Ford Island, sinking California
Japanese attacks and West Virginia, Oklahoma,
and Arizona. Only Nevada is
Pearl City able to get underway

During the second wave US NSavtaatlioAnir Ford 8:00: 49 “Kate”
of attacks the captain of Island high-level bombers
the Nevada is forced to armed with armor-
beach his ship to prevent piercing bombs
her sinking and blocking arrive to target the
the exit to the harbor US battleships

Other Japanese aircraft 8:54: A second wave of N
present on the raid include bombers arrives, but with
“Val” dive-bombers to the US defenses fully
attack the airfields and alerted enjoys less success
“Zero” fighters as escorts

THE JAPANESE OFFENSIVE 311

1919–1943 WORLD WAR II landings. His ships, designated Force Z,
were spotted by Japanese submarines
Doris “doriE” miller SINKING OF PRINCE OF and cruiser-carried reconnaissance
aircraft.Aware that he had lost the
COOK THIRD CLASS, USS WEST VIRGINIA WALES AND REPULSE advantage of surprise, Phillips turned
back on the night of December 9–10.
Like most black sailors in the US Navy in 1941, Date December 10,1941
Doris Miller was a mess attendant.When the Forces British: 1 battleship, Japanese naval aircraft of the 22nd
Japanese struck Pearl Harbor he was on board 1 battlecruiser, 4 destroyers; Air Flotilla, based at airfields around
the battleship West Virginia.Amid the inferno of Japanese: 84 aircraft Saigon in Japanese-occupied Indochina,
the burning ship, Miller first attempted to save Losses British: 1 battleship, failed to find Force Z that night, but the
his wounded captain and then manned an anti- 1 battlecruiser; Japanese: following morning they located the ships
aircraft gun. He is credited with shooting down 6 aircraft off Kuantan. Force Z was not unprepared
at least one Japanese aircraft, despite having no for air defense—Prince of Wales alone
training. Miller was awarded the Navy Cross for Location South mounted 175 anti-aircraft guns—but
“distinguished devotion to duty, extraordinary China Sea waves of attacks by conventional
courage, and disregard for his own personal bombers and, in particular, torpedo-
safety.” He died in 1943 when the ship on which On December 2, 1941, the battleship bombers were devastatingly effective.
he was serving was sunk by a Japanese submarine. Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser The air attacks began shortly after 11:00
Repulse arrived at the British base at a.m; Repulse sank at 12:30 p.m. and
an even worse fate: an armor-piercing There were a few glimmers of light in Singapore, along with four destroyers. Prince of Wales at 1:20 p.m. Some 2,000
bomb penetrated its forward magazine, an otherwise grim scene.The attempted They had been sent in the vain hope men were rescued by the destroyers,
setting off an explosion that ripped the attack by Japanese midget submarines of deterring the Japanese from going although Admiral Phillips was among
battleship in two, killing more than was a total failure.The Japanese also to war.The ships should have been those lost.This disaster left the Japanese
a thousand of its crew. failed to destroy the oil tanks at the accompanied by a carrier, but a mishap in command of the seas and Malaya and
base.And most important of all, the US en route left this under repair in the US. Singapore exposed to Japanese conquest.
A second wave of 170 aircraft Navy’s four aircraft carriers were absent
arrived later in the morning to add when the raid took place. But for the On the same day as Pearl Harbor,
to the mayhem. By the time it was all time being, the Japanese navy had the Japanese began landing troops in
over, 18 American ships were sunk or established dominance in the Pacific. Malaya.Admiral Sir Tom Phillips sailed
disabled, including all the battleships. north from Singapore to intercept the

USS Nevada on fire 1918 – PRESENT
Despite being damaged in the first wave of attacks,
Nevada was the only battleship to get underway
during the raid. The battleship was struck again and
beached during the second wave of attacks.

WORLD WAR II Air raid on Tokyo
A US Army Air Force B-25 takes off from the deck of
DOOLITTLE RAID the USS Hornet on its way to take part in the first US
air raid on Japan – an important propaganda coup
Date April 18, 1942 for the United States military.
Forces Americans: 2 carriers, 4
cruisers, 8 destroyers, 16 aircraft destroyers. Maintaining strict radio
Losses Americans: 16 aircraft; silence, they had advanced to 650 miles
Japanese c.50 civilians (1,000 km) from Tokyo when, on the
morning of April 18, they were spotted
Location Pacific Ocean by a Japanese patrol boat.The decision
and Tokyo, Japan was taken to launch the planes
immediately, though the extra distance
With Americans in desperate need of meant they would be unlikely to reach
a morale boost, a plan was devised for the airfield in a friendly area of China
a carrier raid on the Japanese homeland. where they planned to land.
The US Navy believed it could
advance a carrier task force to within Doolittle had exhaustively practised
400 miles (650 km) of Tokyo.As no short take-offs with his volunteer crews,
naval airplane had sufficient range, the but no one actually knew if the aircraft,
US Army Air Force agreed to supply laden with fuel and bombs, would
B-25 Mitchell bombers, although launch from a pitching deck in a heavy
no B-25 had ever flown from a flight sea. Remarkably, they took off without
deck. Lieutenant Colonel James mishap and, four hours later, bombed
Doolittle led the air side of the mission. Tokyo and other cities.All the aircraft
were subsequently lost but most of the
The carrier Hornet set to sea on April crews found their way back to the US.
2, 1942 with 16 B-25s tethered on the The raid was a severe embarrassment
flight deck—they were too large to to Japanese military leaders and partly
be stowed below. North of Hawaii motivated their fateful decision to
Hornet rendezvoused with the carrier attack Midway the following June.
Enterprise and its escort of cruisers and

312 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

Heavy cruiser Nachi WORLD WAR II cruisers—the Royal Navy’s Exeter and
The Japanese cruiser Nachi and her sister ship Haguro the US Navy’s Houston—one Australian
outclassed their opponents at the battle of the Java JAVA SEA Date February 27–March 1,1942 and two Dutch light cruisers, and nine
Sea. Nachi’s longlance torpedoes, more reliable than Forces Allies: 5 cruisers, 9 destroyers, four of them American.They
the Allied torpedoes, sunk the Dutch light cruiser Java. Location destroyers; Japanese: 4 cruisers; found the Japanese troop transports
Java Sea 14 destroyers defended by Admiral Shoji Nishimura
Losses Allies: 5 cruisers; with the heavy cruisers Nachi and Haguro
5 destroyers; Japanese: 4 troop supported by light cruisers and destroyers.
transports
Although on paper the two forces
An American-British-Dutch-Australian were comparable, the Japanese were
(ABDA) force under Dutch superior in guns, torpedoes, organization,
admiral Karel Doorman was and morale.After two hours’ gunfire
created to prevent the
Japanese landing troops on Exeter withdrew from battle
Java. On February 27, after a hit on her boiler
1942, an invasion force room and two ABDA
was spotted and Doorman destroyers were sunk.
sailed from Surabaya to At around 6:00 p.m.
intercept it. His force
consisted of two heavy Dutch medallion
Admiral Doorman’s flagship De
Ruyter appears below his reputed
last words at the battle of the Java
Sea: “I’m attacking, follow me.”

WORLD WAR II the carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku.The forces, concealed by cloud cover, failed cruiser.As night fell six Japanese planes
US Navy was well informed of Japanese to find one another. Fletcher was, tried to land on Yorktown, believing
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES CORAL SEA plans through radio intercepts and Rear however, informed of the course of the it was one of their own ships.
Admiral Frank Fletcher was ordered to invasion force bound for Port Moresby,
Location Date May 4–8, 1942 seek out and attack the Japanese forces. which was located by the US Army Air The following morning both sides
Coral Sea Forces US and Australians: 2 He assembled the carriers Lexington Force. On May 7 carrier aircraft attacked flew off their aircraft to attack. Many of
carriers, 8 cruisers, 13 destroyers; and Yorktown and a number of cruisers the Japanese troop convoy escorts. US the American pilots had trouble finding
Japanese: 2 carriers, 1 light and destroyers in the Coral Sea, including fliers piled in to sink the light carrier the Japanese carriers, which were sailing
carrier, 6 cruisers, 6 destroyers a contingent from the Royal Australian Shohu with a plethora of torpedoes and through a tropical rainstorm. Zuikaku
Losses US and Australians: 1 Navy under Rear Admiral John Crace. bombs. But the overkill on a single ship escaped in the poor visibility but Shokaku
carrier, 1 destroyer, 74 aircraft; meant other available targets were was left ablaze and incapable of operating
Japanese; 1 light carrier, 1 The Americans struck the first blow neglected. Meanwhile, Japanese carrier aircraft. Meanwhile, Japanese bombers,
destroyer, 70 aircraft on May 4 when aircraft from Yorktown aircraft attacked and sank an American enjoying better conditions, attacked
attacked the Japanese at Tulagi, sinking destroyer and oil tanker that had been with excellent coordination. Yorktown
In April 1942 the Japanese, pushing south a destroyer and several merchant vessels. mistakenly identified as a carrier and a was hit by a bomb that exploded below
toward Australia, sent a force to occupy For the next two days the rival carrier decks, killing or seriously injuring 66.
Tulagi in the Solomon Islands and Port
Moresby in New Guinea, supported by

THE JAPANESE OFFENSIVE 313

the US destroyers covered a tactical CREW PROFILE
withdrawal by laying a smokescreen,
Doorman intending to maneuver US aircraft carrier
around the Japanese escorts and get
among the troop ships at night. However, WORLD WAR II
the destroyers then left for Surabaya and
by the time Doorman encountered the WITH A CREW NUMBERING OVER 2,000 men, a World War II American fleet aircraft carrier
Japanese again he had only his four was a complex social world, in which divisions of function were often as important as
remaining cruisers. In the darkness, a differences of rank. Some officers and men executed tasks required on all warships, while
devastating Japanese torpedo attack sank others did jobs specific to the business of operating warplanes from carriers. These included
two light cruisers including Doorman’s the aviation machinists and electricians who serviced the aircraft in the hangars, the aviation
flagship.The admiral was not among ordnance teams responsible for arming the planes, the aviation boatswain’s mates whose tasks
the few survivors. included supervising the catapults and arresting gear on the flight deck, and the landing
signal officer—usually a trained aviator—who stood prominently on deck using colored
Two days later the Exeter, with paddles to guide pilots attempting to land. Until 1943 the navy accepted no draftees, so all
two destroyers, encountered Nachi and crew members were volunteers, many going to sea to avoid being drafted into the army.
Haguro as she headed for Sri Lanka.All
three ships were sunk.Also on March NAVAL AVIATOR down enemy aircraft, the other
1, Houston and the Australian light
cruiser Perth were sunk in night action American naval pilots were a three were there primarily to
in the Sunda Strait.This completed a
naval disaster for the Allies, who had lost gung-ho body of men, eager to cover his back. A carrier pilot’s
more than 2,000 men and 10 warships.
fight and justly proud of their task was exceptionally demanding
Lexington took the worst of the damage,
struck by at least two torpedoes and skills. Between 1942 and 1944 because of the need to launch
two bombs, and had to be scuttled.
more than 50,000 were trained, from and land on a small pitching
Overall the US Navy came off the
worse in the world’s first battle fought most passing through Naval Air flight deck crowded with aircraft.
exclusively between carriers. But the
Japanese were forced to abandon their Station Pensacola in Florida. Taking off even with the aid of
intended invasion of Port Moresby, an
important strategic setback. Officers became Naval Aviators a catapult was only possible if the

Preparing for launch while enlisted men were Navy cadet carrier was making speed into the 1918 – PRESENT
SBS Dauntless dive-bombers stand on the flght deck designated Naval Aviation Pilots A US Navy pilot climbs into the cockpit of a gleaming wind. Landing posed even more
of the US carrier Yorktown. Coral Sea was the first (NAPs). On flying operations T-6 Texan trainer aircraft during flight training at Naval complex problems. Once the pilot
battle fought as a duel between between carrier Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas in 1942.
aircraft, without opposing ships sighting one another.
rank was disregarded, the most got “into the groove” to land, he

experienced fliers taking command even if this meant was in the hands of the landing officer who would

non-commissioned men giving orders to officers. As give him “the cut” to authorize landing or the “wave

in all aerial warfare, a few pilots proved exceptionally off ” if all was not well. Pilots tended to be competitive

gifted and these men led from the front. In fighter individualists by nature, but they acknowledged that

squadrons pilots flew in divisions of four aircraft. The they needed the help and support of many other crew

leader of the division was the man expected to shoot members to stay operational.

Pilot briefing
The commanding officer of Fighting Squadron
16 briefs his pilots in front of an F6F-3 Hellcat
fighter on board the USS Lexington in 1943.

314 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC WORLD WAR II

the battle of midway

In June 1942 Japan embarked upon an commanded Task Force 16 with the BATTLE OF MIDWAY
invasion of the American-held Midway carriers Enterprise and Hornet, while
atoll. One of the objectives was to draw Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance led Date June 4–7, 1942
the US Pacific Fleet into a decisive Task Force 17 with Yorktown, repaired Location Pacific Ocean near Midway Island
battle that Japanese commanders were at Pearl Harbor in a mere three days Result American victory
confident they would win.Admiral after its battering at the Coral Sea.
Yamamoto dispersed his forces in a COMBATANTS
complex plan to distract and envelop DECISIVE AIR STRIKES
his adversaries. Since the Americans UNITED STATES JAPAN
had broken Japanese naval codes they Battle was joined on June 4. Unaware
were aware of Yamamoto’s intentions of the proximity of the US carriers, COMMANDERS
and, ignoring a diversionary attack on Nagumo launched an early morning
the Aleutians, concentrated their efforts air strike on Midway. He was planning Chester Nimitz, Isoroku Yamamoto,
against Vice-Admiral Nagumo’s force a follow-up when a reconnaissance Frank Fletcher, Chuichi Nagumo
of four carriers. US Admiral Chester aircraft reported sighting enemy ships, Raymond Spruance
Nimitz sent two carrier task forces to tardily identified as including carriers.
defend Midway. Rear Admiral Fletcher By then the Americans had already Purple encoding machine FORCES
flown off their aircraft. Launched in The Americans never captured the Japanese
key haste and some confusion, the Wildcat “Purple” encoding machine, but Japanese Ships: 3 carriers, Ships: 4 carriers,
fighters, Dauntless dive-bombers, and naval code was understood well enough to 8 cruisers, 15 destroyers 9 battleships, 6 cruisers,
US FLEET Devastator torpedo-bombers from warn the US Navy of the attack on Midway. Aircraft: 233 carrier- 25 destroyers
Cruisers, destroyers, and smaller ships in US Hornet and Enterprise searched for based, 127 land-based Aircraft: 248
the enemy in uncoordinated groups.
carrier task forces not shown. Unfortunately the slow-moving with aircraft, munitions, and fuel lines. LOSSES
torpedo-bombers were first to locate In five minutes Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES 1 US aircraft carrier Nagumo’s carriers.Without fighter were all burning wrecks. Men: 307 Men: 3,057
cover, they were pounced upon by Ships: 1 carrier, Ships: 4 carriers,
Wave of US Zero fighters. Not one of Hornet’s 15 The Japanese still had one carrier 1 destroyer 1 cruiser
bomber aircraft Devastators survived. intact. Hiryu flew waves of bombers to Aircraft: 98 Aircraft: 228
deliver a counter-strike against Yorktown.
JAPANESE FLEET Aircraft from Yorktown, launched Showing great determination in the face were made to salvage Yorktown, until a
Cruisers, destroyers, and smaller ships in later than those from the other two of American fighters and anti-aircraft Japanese submarine hit the carrier with
Nagumo’s carrier strike force not shown. Main carriers, arrived together at around fire, the Japanese pilots inflicted crippling two torpedoes, also sinking a destroyer
Japanese invasion force is off area of map. 10:20 a.m. By chance, two squadrons damage upon the carrier. It was small alongside. But nothing could detract
of dive-bombers from Enterprise found compensation for a day of disaster for from the scale of the American victory.
1 Japanese Nagumo’s force at the same moment. the Imperial Japanese Navy, capped late That the invasion of Midway had been
aircraft carrier While Yorktown’s Wildcats took on the on when Hiryu was destroyed by dive- defeated was a minor point compared
Zeros, dive-bombers from Yorktown bombers from Enterprise. with the blow inflicted upon Japan’s
Wave of Japanese and Enterprise were left free to attack naval aviation.The loss of four carriers
bomber aircraft the carriers. Bomb after bomb struck Over the following days American and many of their best naval pilots was
the decks of Japanese carriers packed aircraft and submarines harassed the a setback from which the Imperial
1 Japanese cruiser withdrawing Japanese fleet, sinking Navy never recovered.
the cruiser Mikuma. Meanwhile, efforts

Vice Admiral Nagumo’s First Yorktown
Carrier Strike Force launch Enterprise
an initial attack wave of 108
aircraft against US airfields
on Midway Island

PACIFIC OCEAN Hornet

Kaga Hiryu US carriers Yorktown, Enterprise, and
Hornet, with an escort of cruisers and
Soryu Akagi destroyers, are waiting for Japanese
attack. The carriers launch attack
US bombers from Midway against the Japanese carriers
launch three attacks on
Japanese fleet, but cause Warned of the
no significant damage approaching Japanese
bombers by radar, US
bombers on Midway
take off prior to their
arrival to launch a
retaliatory strike

KURE
ISLAND

Japanese bombers heavily damage MIDWAY
US base on Midway, but fail to ISLAND
destroy airbase. Many bombers
are damaged by anti-aircraft fire

The Japanese approach

The initial thrust of the Japanese attack on
Midway comes from Vice Admiral Nagumo’s carrier
strike force. Warned of the Japanese approach, two
US carrier task forces are laying in wait and launch
retaliatory air strikes against the Japanese carriers.

315

Crippled carrier at Midway I saw this glint in the sun and it looked
USS Yorktown lists heavily after being just like a beautiful, silver waterfall, these
attacked by bombers from the Japanese dive-bombers coming down. I’d never seen
carrier Hiryu. Yorktown was sunk the such superb dive-bombing.
following day by a Japanese submarine.
US PILOT JIMMY THATCH! G:86AA>C< I=: 76IIA: D; B>9L6N! &.)'

Kaga, Akagai, and Soryu are all Yorktown 1918 – PRESENT
knocked out of action and later Enterprise
scuttled. Only Hiryu escapes

First strikes by Torpedo Hiryu
bombers from Hornet
and Enterprise repulsed Kaga Akagi Hornet
with heavy US losses Soryu

PACIFIC OCEAN

Dive-bombers from Enterprise KURE ISLAND
attack Kaga and Akagi leaving
both carriers heavily ablaze Dive-bombers from Yorktown
attack Soryu, hitting the carrier
with three bombs

car r iers abl aze

Initial air strikes by American torpedo-bombers
and dive-bombers are repulsed with heavy losses.
Subsequent waves of dive-bombers from Enterprise
and Yorktown leave three of Nagumo’s four aircraft
carriers as blazing wrecks. Only Hiryu escapes.

Sinking of Hiry u 9pm, Hiryu Hiryu’s aircraft knock Yorktown
Hiryu, the only surviving Japanese carrier, finally sinks Yorktown out of action
counterattacks with further air strikes that knock
Yorktown out of action. However bombers launched Hiryu Yorktown later sunk
from Enterprise, Hornet, and airfields on Midway by Japanese submarine
Island heavily damage and finally sink Hiryu. B-17 bombers
from Midway cause Enterprise
Yamamoto’s bombardment further damage to Hiryu Hornet
group, approaching
Midway from the west, Several hits by dive-
ordered to retire bombers from Enterprise
sets Hiryu ablaze
Enterprise and
KURE ISLAND Hornet move
down toward
Midway air cover

PACIFIC OCEAN MIDWAY ISLAND

316 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

The Battle for guadalcanal

AMERICAN FORCES LANDED on Guadalcanal and other islands in Cruz Islands.The US Navy equally failed to prevent the Japanese running
the Eastern Solomons on August 7, 1942.As the Japanese were the convoy ships of the “Tokyo Express” down New Georgia Sound at night
determined to retake Guadalcanal and the Americans equally to land reinforcements on Guadalcanal and shell the airbase at Henderson
determined to hold it, the island became the focus for intense naval warfare. Field.The climax of the campaign came in two major night encounters in
The Japanese Navy was at first supremely confident, viewing the fighting as mid-November, known as the naval battle of Guadalcanal, during which the
a chance to draw American forces into battle and destroy them.After a Japanese lost two battleships.Their attempt to retake the island was eventually
stunning initial victory at Savo Island, however, the Japanese failed to crush abandoned.The Japanese Navy successfully evacuated troops from Guadalcanal
the Americans in fleet encounters at the Eastern Solomons and the Santa in February 1943, but it had been unable to achieve decisive naval superiority.

the battle of savo island

Japanese vice admiral Gunichi Mikawa, cruiser Canberra. Hit by gunfire and Savo IslandN Mikawa withdraws
based at Rabaul, organized a rapid naval torpedoes from four Japanese cruisers, before daylight in case
response to the initial American landings Canberra was wrecked in minutes. Bode,
on Guadalcanal.With no air cover, rudely torn from his sleep, succeeded in US carriers are present
Mikawa planned to attack under cover extracting Chicago from the action with
of darkness, as his cruisers were well relatively little damage, but his flight The Japanese raid caught US forces largely
trained in night-fighting. On the evening left the rest of the ships exposed. Other
of August 8, the Allied naval forces Allied warships fatally hesitated to open by surprise. However, Mikawa missed the
covering the landings were far from alert. fire on Japanese searchlights, unsure
Admiral Frank Fletcher had withdrawn whether they would be hitting friendly Vincennes opportunity to destroy the transports
his carriers and British admiral Victor vessels.The cruisers Astoria, Quincy, and
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Crutchley, commanding the warships Vincennes were all sunk after multiple supporting the US troops on Guadalcanal.
screening the landings, had departed hits from shells and torpedoes.
from his station with his flagship Savo US transports Florida Island
Australia to discuss this move with the Mikawa could have gone on to Island
overall commander,Admiral Turner. destroy the Allied transport ships, but he
was unaware that the US carrier aircraft Astoria Quincy
On the ships of the screening force were no longer there and wanted to get Canberra
it was hot and crews were tired. Captain away before daylight.The Japanese Pacific Ocean
Howard Bode, left in command on cruiser Kako was sunk by a submarine
Crutchley’s departure, slept soundly on on its way back from the action, a small Chicago and Canberra, San Juan and Hobart guard
board his cruiser Chicago.The approach consolation for the battered Allies. guarding Southern approach, eastern entrance to passage
of Mikawa’s force was undetected until are surprised by Japanese. and take no part in battle
far too late.The destroyer Patterson raised Torpedo damage Chicago flees battle leaving
the alarm at almost the same moment Crewmen on the heavy cruiser USS Chicago the transports exposed US
that Japanese floatplanes dropped flares cut away torpedo-damaged plating on the transports
to illuminate Chicago and the Australian day after the battle of Savo Island. Guadalcanal Island
Admiral Crutchley is in KEY
conference on Australia
and takes no part in battle 1 Japanese cruiser, stage 1
1 Japanese cruiser, stage 2
1 US cruiser, stage 1
1 US cruiser, stage 2
1 sunk US cruiser

WORLD WAR II

THE BATTLE OF SAVO ISLAND

Date August 8-9, 1942
Location Solomon Islands
Result Japanese victory

COMBATANTS

UNITED STATES AND JAPAN
AUSTRALIA

COMMANDERS

Richmond K Turner Gunichi Mikawa
Victor Crutchley

FORCES

Ships: 5 heavy cruisers, Ships: 5 heavy cruisers,
6 destroyers 2 light cruisers,
1 destroyer

LOSSES

Men: 1,077 Men: 58
Ships: 4 heavy cruisers Ships: none

THE BATTLE FOR GUADALCANAL 317

WORLD WAR II WORLD WAR II

EASTERN SOLOMONS Before Guadalcanal the enemy CAPE ESPERANCE
advanced at his pleasure—after
Date August 24,1942 Guadalcanal he retreated at ours. Date October 11-12, 1942
Forces Americans: 2 carriers, Forces Americans: 4 cruisers, 5
1 battleship, 4 cruisers, 11 ADMIRAL WILLIAM HALSEY! 9:H8G>7>C< I=: H><C>;>86C8: D; I=: 86BE6><C ;DG <J696A86C6A destroyers; Japanese: 3 cruisers,
destroyers; Japanese: 2 carriers, 2 destroyers
Location Off Solomon 1 light carrier, 2 battleships, Losses Americans: 1 destroyer;
Islands 16 cruisers, 25 destroyers Japanese: 1 cruiser, 1 destroyer
Losses Americans: 25 aircraft;
Japanese: 1 escort carrier, 75 Location Off Cape
aircraft Esperance, Guadalcanal

Encouraged by their victory at Savo to the original Japanese landings. Japanese navy sextant Both sides reinforced their troops on 1918 – PRESENT
Island, the Japanese devised Operation Because of confused intelligence Sextants were used to calculate Guadalcanal as the ground fighting
Ka, a counteroffensive whose twin reports, Fletcher was latitude so Japanese officers could intensified. On the night of October
objectives were to retake Guadalcanal unsure whether 11-12 a group of Japanese destroyers
from the US Marines and to establish the Japanese navigate around the was ferrying in soldiers and equipment
naval dominance in the South Pacific Combined Fleet Pacific Ocean. while another force under Rear Admiral
by the destruction of American fleet was in the area. Goto was sent to bombard the airbase at
carriers. On August 20, 1942, 3,000 On August 23, them.The Henderson Field.A US Navy task force
soldiers embarked on transport ships at an American incoming Japanese of cruisers and destroyers, commanded
the Japanese base of Rabaul and headed reconnaissance aircraft aircraft were by Rear Admiral Norman Scott aboard
for Guadalcanal to reinforce a first spotted the troop transports, picked up on US San Francisco, had orders to stop Japanese
wave of troops already ashore.Admiral but in the absence of any radar and carrier-based ships entering Ironbottom Sound. Goto’s
Yamamoto, commander-in-chief of the sighting of carriers Admiral F4F Wildcat fighters flown force of three cruisers and a destroyer,
Japanese Combined Fleet, hoped this Fletcher sent Wasp away to refuel.The off to engage them, but despite detected by radar, was surprised off Savo
troop convoy would lure the American following morning there were more their best efforts and those of Island around midnight. Goto’s flagship
carriers into a trap. His fleet carriers sightings of Japanese ships, including anti-aircraft gunners on the ships, some Aoba was immediately hit and the
Shokaku and Zuikako, under Admiral the light carrier Ryujo. of the Japanese bombers got through. admiral fatally wounded.Two other
Chuichi Nagumo, would surprise and Enterprise received the brunt of the Japanese ships were sunk by gunfire
destroy them, allowing a powerful BOMBER ATTACKS aerial onslaught. Hit by three bombs in and torpedoes, but the Americans also
force of battleships and cruisers to mop rapid succession, the carrier was on fire, suffered losses.The light cruiser Boise’s
up the remaining American ships and In the early afternoon, still unaware of listing, and for a time without steering magazine exploded killing almost 100
support the retaking of Guadalcanal. the approaching Japanese fleet carriers, control, yet she survived. men, and the destroyer Duncan was sunk,
Fletcher ordered a strike by aircraft After this the battle petered out, the shelled by both sides in the confusion.
In the event, the American carriers from Saratoga against Ryujo, which Japanese battleships and cruisers giving Although on balance an American
Enterprise, Saratoga, and Wasp, under was duly sunk. Meanwhile,Admiral up efforts to locate the US carriers victory, the battle failed to stop the
Admiral Frank Fletcher, were already Nagumo, having located the American soon after nightfall.The attempt to Japanese continuing to land troops.
heading toward Guadalcanal in response carriers, launched waves of torpedo- land einforcements was
bombers and dive-bombers to attack abandoned the following day.

WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY Anti-aircraft gun
The Swiss-designed
anti-aircraft defense 20-mm Oerlikon was
one of the most widely
American naval defense against air attack to 40-mm Bofors for medium-range and used anti-aircraft guns
improved steadily in the course of the Pacific .50-caliber machine guns or 20-mm Oerlikons of World War II.
War. Carrier task forces adopted a circular for close-range fire. Improving fire-control
formation, with carriers in the center surrounded systems increased the chances of hitting a rapidly
first by a circle of battleships and cruisers and moving target, but probably the most important
then by an outer ring of destroyers. These ships development in the war was the adoption of
between them threw up an impressive weight radar proximity fuses. These made shells explode
of anti-aircraft fire. The carriers also when close to an enemy aircraft, rather than at
provided aerial defense, their fighter
aircraft guided onto incoming aircraft a pre-set time after firing. The sheer
by radar controllers on the ships. number of guns on ships vastly
Naval anti-aircraft guns ranged increased as well as their quality.
from 5-in guns for long-range fire By 1945 the American battleship
South Dakota, for example,
Anti-aircraft gun crew mounted 16 5-in, 68 40-mm
Sailors man an Oerlikon 20-mm and 76 20-mm guns.
anti-aircraft gun during training
on board the USS Iowa in 1943.

318 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

WORLD WAR II naval force bound for to stop the Japanese dive-bombers and An attempt to take Hornet under tow
Guadalcanal.The torpedo-bombers and the US carriers failed as further waves of Japanese
SANTA CRUZ Japanese, under Vice took a pounding. Hornet was hit first aircraft attacked.The carrier was
Admiral Kondo, had and worst.The Japanese struck her eventually abandoned and finally sunk
Location Off Santa Cruz Date October 26,1942 the carriers Shokaku, with bombs and torpedoes, and with by a torpedo. For a short period after
Islands, Solomon Islands Forces Americans: 2 carriers, Zuikaku, Zuiho, and two aircraft that, deliberately or not, the battle, until Enterprise had been
1 battleship, 6 cruisers, 14 Junyo, as well as a powerful crashed into the ship. Hornet was left repaired, the United States had no
destroyers; Japanese: 4 carriers, force of battleships and cruisers. dead in the water and on fire. Enterprise, aircraft carriers in the Pacific.Yet the
2 battleships, 10 cruisers, 22 initially hidden by a rain shower, soon Japanese had suffered such heavy losses
destroyers On the morning of October 26, the came in for her own share of attention of experienced pilots—148 aircrew
Losses Americans: 1 carrier, opposing carriers located one another and suffered serious bomb damage. killed—that they were in no position
1 destroyer, c.80 aircraft; and launched air strikes.The first Many US aircraft were forced to ditch to exploit this temporary advantage.
Japanese: c.200 aircraft American and Japanese attack waves in the sea for lack of a deck to land
crossed in flight.The American attack on. Japanese losses of aircraft were, Dive-bomber attack
In October 1942 the United States had put the carriers Zuiho and Shokaku however, far heavier, for they pursued A Japanese “Val” bomber dives on the USS Hornet
only two carriers, Hornet and Enterprise, out of action, along with the cruiser their attacks with relentless courage during the battle of Santa Cruz. Seconds later the
operational in the Pacific. Rear Admiral Chikuma. But the Japanese strike was through a storm of anti-aircraft fire. plane crashed into the Hornet’s signal bridge.
Thomas Kinkaid, on board Enterprise, more deadly. Combat air patrols failed
led them on a sweep north of the Santa
Cruz Islands, searching for a Japanese

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES the Naval Battle of guadalcanal

In November 1942 the Japanese planned On the night of November 12–13 Japanese Naval Landing the Japanese guns. Washington,
to turn the battle for Guadalcanal Vice Admiral Hiroaki Abe led a force Forces helmet however, succeeded in stealing
decisively in their favor by mounting of two Japanese battleships and 12 Japanese attempts to land troop up on the Japanese unnoticed
a naval bombardment on the US airstrip smaller warships into “Ironbottom reinforcements on Guadalcanal and hit Kirishima with a sudden
at Henderson Field and landing Sound” off northern Guadalcanal— were repulsed after two devastating salvo that set the
thousands of reinforcements on the so named for the number of ships nights of naval fighting. Japanese battleship ablaze.
island.The operation would take place sunk there.As usual, the Americans The night ended with the
by night to avoid attack by aircraft from had forewarning of the Japanese battleship Kirishima Japanese scuttling Kirishima.
the airfield and the carrier Enterprise. movements and sent a force of five and 13 other ships The battle doomed the Japanese
cruisers and eight destroyers to meet shortly before midnight. plans to reinforce Guadalcanal. By
WORLD WAR II them.The Japanese and American ships The destroyers screening November 15, seven transport ships
blundered into one another in the dark the American had been sunk by air attack.The
and a brutal, disorganized fight broke battleships
out at close quarters—memorably performed their four remaining transports beached that
described by one US officer as like “a role courageously, but two were morning and were quickly destroyed
bar-room brawl after the lights had quickly sunk, a third so badly damaged by American bombardment from air,
been shot out.” In the confused mêlée it sank the following day, and the land, and sea.The ultimate outcome
both Admiral Callaghan and his second- fourth disabled. Meanwhile South was that the Americans could strengthen
in-command were killed—the latter Dakota suffered electrical failures that and supply their forces on Guadalcanal
probably by “friendly fire.”The Japanese left her exposed to a pounding from while the Japanese could not.
battleship Hiei took significant damage,
GUADALCANAL but the Americans suffered worse. By
the time the Japanese disengaged only
Date November 12–15, 1942 two US ships were still in a condition to WITNESS TO WAR
Location Off Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands fight. The next day the limping Hiei was
Result American strategic victory attacked by American land-based and Commander Chihaya Masataka
carrier aircraft and eventually scuttled.
COMBATANTS OFFICER ON BOARD JAPANESE BATTLESHIP HIEI, NIGHT OF NOVEMBER 12–13, 1942
ROUND TWO BATTLE OF GUADALCANAL
UNITED STATES JAPAN
Nothing could be done to stop the “I think it was about a minute before I was due to give the order to
COMMANDERS Japanese bombarding Henderson Field start bombarding [Henderson Field] when, all of a sudden, the look-
the following night, but by November out on the bridge shouted out:“Enemy ships starboard ahead” . . .
Daniel J Callaghan Hiroaki Abe 14–15 the Americans had brought I can still remember it.There was no time to get permission from my
Willis A Lee Nobutake Kondo a new force into play, consisting of commanding officer. I shouted:“Change target! New target! Enemy
the battleships Washington and South
FORCES Dakota and four destroyers.This force ships starboard ahead! Start bombardment with searchlights on!”…
encountered the advancing Japanese The ships fought at close quarters, almost falling aboard each other.
Ships: 1 carrier, 2 Ships: 2 battleships, 8
battleships, 5 cruisers, cruisers, 16 destroyers We missed our antiquated rams very badly.”
12 destroyers

LOSSES

Men: 1,732 Men: 1,900
Ships: 2 cruisers, Ships: 2 battleships,
7 destroyers 1 cruiser, 3 destroyers

THE BATTLE FOR GUADALCANAL 319

1886–1969 WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY

raymond fire control systems

a spruance The increasing range of naval guns and speed of warships from solution was transmitted electronically to the gun turrets,

US ADMIRAL AND COMMANDER OF US FORCES the late 19th century onward led to the introduction of fire appearing as a visual pointer indicating the correct elevation
AT MIDWAY AND THE PHILIPPINE SEA
control systems to replace gunners sighting by eye. Personnel and bearing. The gunner matched the pointer on his gun to
A career naval officer, Raymond Spruance
commanded a cruiser division in the early aloft in the director tower were equipped with optical the desired position and the guns were ready to fire. The use of
stages of the Pacific War. Despite having
no previous experience of carriers, he was instruments to gauge the bearing and range of a target to a fine radar and increasingly complex computers allowed large strides
given command of Task Force 16 in time
to play a vital part in the crucial battle of degree of accuracy. They also “spotted” the splash of shells to to be made in speed and accuracy of fire during World War II.
Midway in June 1942.As commander
of the US 5th Fleet from 1943 he provide feedback to correct the aim. This information was Observers in gun director The adoption of radar during
spearheaded the drive through the transmitted to a plotting room below the decks, where tower take readings for World War II increased the
central Pacific, presiding over the gunnery officers combined this data with other input (the range, speed, and bearing speed and accuracy of readings
destruction of movement of the ship, wind speed and direction, and so and send the information
Japanese naval on)to produce a “firing solution.” Various forms of analog to the plotting room
aviation at
the battle of computers were developed to permit fast and accurate The captain on the The pointer and trainer in
the Philippine update of the calculation in a rapidly bridge retains
Sea. Sometimes changing situation. The firing overall command of
criticized as over- fire control systems
cautious, Spruance
enjoyed an the gun turret aims the guns
exceptional
record of by matching needles in the
success in
major naval director indicator. The guns
engagements.
fire when the ship rolls to

a level position

Director firing Data is processed in the plotting
Most of the guns on a large warship were directed— room at the fire control table
the person firing the gun relied on a series of readings (a kind of simple analog computer)
and calculations taken elsewhere on the ship. and the gun elevation and train
angles are transmitted to the turret

Wrecked Japanese transport WORLD WAR II 1918 – PRESENT
Japanese cargo ship Kinugawa Maru lies beached
and gutted on the Guadalcanal coast, destroyed by TASSAFARONGA
US aircraft after the naval battle of Guadalcanal.
Date November 30, 1942
Forces Americans: 5 cruisers,
4 destroyers; Japanese
8 destroyers
Losses Americans: 5 cruisers,
4 destroyers; Japanese:
8 destroyers
Location Off Guadalcanal,
Solomon Islands

In response to a shortage of supplies,
Japanese destroyers under Rear Admiral
Raizo were delivering drums of food
by night to troops based on Guadalcanal
when they were intercepted by Task
Force 67 commanded by Rear Admiral
Wright.The five cruisers in Wright’s
force had an overwhelming superiority
in firepower and possessed radar, which
the Japanese did not. On detecting the
Japanese ships there was a brief delay
before permission to commence firing
was granted. However, once the word
was given, the Americans concentrated
their fire on a single ship, Takanami. She
was quickly incapacitated, but in the
interim the other Japanese destroyers
had converged. None of the torpedoes
fired by the American force found their
mark. Guided onto target by the flashes
of the American guns, the Japanese
destroyers delivered a series of
devastating torpedo attacks that left
Minneapolis, New Orleans, and Pensacola
holed and on fire. Northampton was the
last cruiser hit; struck by two torpedoes,
she sank in the course of the night.
All of the Japanese destroyers except
Takanami escaped unscathed, but did
not succeed in delivering the supplies.

320 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

drive to victory

THE AMERICAN WAR EFFORT in the Pacific began inexorably to N 1000 Aleutian Islands
gather momentum after 1943.At first naval action was confined to 0 km
relatively small-scale engagements around the Solomons and in the Komandorski
North Pacific, but from November 1943 the United States began a drive 0 miles 1000 USSR Islands
through the Central Pacific to the Marshall and Mariana Islands, and from Mar 27, 1943
New Guinea to the Philippines.Attempting to resist this advance, the Japanese
navy committed its forces to major battles at the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf.
These epic engagements revealed the overwhelming naval superiority the
Americans had achieved by this stage in the war.After Leyte Gulf the Japanese
navy could only put up meaningful resistance by operating naval aircraft from
land bases. Using kamikaze tactics they inflicted heavy losses on the Allied
fleet at Okinawa in 1945, but by then Japan had already lost the naval war.
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES MONGOLIA MANCHURIA Kurile Isla
nds
Vladivostok

Beijing S e a o f JAPAN
Shanghai KOREA J a p a n
Tokyo PACIFIC OCEAN
Hiroshima

CHINA Yokohama

Yellow Nagasaki

Hong S e a Ryukyu Okinawa
Apr–Jul 1945
Islands Iwo Jima Midway

BURMA Kong Formosa P h i l i p p i n e Okinawa Iwo Jima Hawaiian
Macao Sea Islands

Rangoon South Philippine Sea Saipan Feb–Mar 1945 Pearl Harbor
SIAM
Chin a Manila Jun 19–20,1944 SaipanJun 15,1944
Sea Leyte Gulf Marianas
Eniwetok
Bangkok FRENCH Oct 23–26, Tinian Islands
INDO- PHILIPPINE 1944
ISLANDS Guam Marshall Islands
CHINA Palau
The War in the Pacific 1943–1945 MALAYA Islands Truk Kwajalein
Caroline Islands
Makin
By late 1943 the tide of the Pacific War had KEY Singapore Bismarck Sea Bismarck Tarawa Gilbert
turned and the US Navy began its long, Mar 2–4,1943
inexorable advance through the Pacific toward Area under Japanese control Jan 1943 Sumatra Borneo New Archipelago Islands
Japan, one island to the next. The destruction US/Allied landing/advance
of the Japanese Navy and naval aviation at US/Allied victory DUTCH EAST INDIES Hollandia Britain Rabaul Empress Augusta Bay
Leyte Gulf and the Philippine Sea opened the Inconclusive battle
way to the Japanese home islands. Java Sea New Guinea Nov 1–2,1943

Batavia Java Solomon

Darwin Port Kula Gulf Islands
Moresby Jul 6,1943

INDIAN Coral
Sea

OCEAN AUSTRALIA

WORLD WAR II WORLD WAR II WORLD WAR II to Kolombangara Island.This “Tokyo
Express” was intercepted by Rear
BISMARCK SEA KOMANDORSKI ISLANDS KULA GULF Admiral Walden Ainsworth’s force
of light cruisers and destroyers.The
Date March 2–3, 1943 Date March 27, 1943 Date July 6, 1943 Japanese, newly equipped with search
Forces Americans: 168 aircraft; Forces Americans: 2 cruisers, Forces Americans: 3 cruisers, radar, spotted the Americans first and
Japanese: 8 destroyers, 4 destroyers; Japanese; 4 cruisers, 4 destroyers; Japanese: three destroyers turned for a torpedo
8 transports 4 destroyers 10 destroyers run. Niizuki was hit by radar-directed
Losses Americans: 5 aircraft; Losses Americans: none; Losses Americans: 1 cruiser; fire from the US cruisers and sank, with
Japanese: 4 destroyers, 8 Japanese: none Japanese: 2 destroyers Admiral Akiyama among those killed.
transports But the two other destroyers fired
Location Off Papua New Location South of Location Solomon longlance torpedoes before turning
Guinea, Bismarck Sea Komandorski Islands, North Pacific Islands, South Pacific away.The cruiser Helena was struck
by several torpedoes and sank.Another
In 1943 the Allies installed elements The heavy cruiser Salt Lake City, In summer 1943 the Americans were Japanese destroyer ran aground and was
of the US 5th Army Air Force and the the light cruiser Richmond, and four fighting for control of the Solomons. demolished by American aircraft after
Royal Australian Air Force at bases on American destroyers, all commanded On the night of July 5-6 10 Japanese daylight, leaving honours roughly even.
New Guinea to intercept Japanese by Rear Admiral Charles McMorris, destroyers commanded by Rear
convoys ferrying troops from their base were sent into the North Pacific to Admiral Teruo Akiyama on board cruisers Myoko and Haguro. Both sides
at Rabaul across the Bismarck Sea. On block the path of a Japanese convoy Niizuki, were carrying reinforcements engaged in complex maneuvers in the
March 1, 1943, a convoy of eight bound for the Aleutian Islands. dark, creating considerable confusion.
Japanese troop transports with destroyer McMorris encountered the convoy on WORLD WAR II
escorts, under Rear Admiral Masatomi March 27, only to find it escorted by The US destroyer Foote lost touch
Kimura, was spotted heading for Lae in a stronger force of warships than his EMPRESS AUGUSTA BAY with its formation and was hit by a
New Guinea. One transport was sunk own.Vice Admiral Boshiro Hosogaya stray torpedo that blew off the back
by B-17 bombers on March 2, but the had the heavy cruisers Nachi and Maya, Date November 2, 1943 of the ship, although she was eventually
main air strike was delivered on the plus light cruisers and destroyers. Forces Americans: 4 cruisers, towed to safety.Various Japanese ships
morning of March 3.American B-25 8 destroyers; Japanese: careered just past or into one another,
Mitchell bombers and Australian The Americans first steamed toward 4 cruisers, 6 destroyers Myoko slicing through the destroyer
Bristol Beaufighters attacked at low the convoy, but soon judged it wiser to Losses Americans: none; Hatsukaze—she carried the destroyer’s
altitude with torpedoes,“skip” bombs— stage a fighting withdrawal. Nachi was Japanese: 1 cruiser, 1 destroyer bow back to port with her.The light
released onto the water to bounce into the first ship hit, but Salt Lake City ran cruiser Sendai was disabled by multiple
their target—and strafing guns. into serious difficulties as the shelling Location Off Bougainville hits from American guns, but in general
intensified, losing steering and power. Island, South Pacific both sides expended shells to little effect.
The destroyers Shirayuki, Arashio, As she sat dead in the water, the US Omori broke off the engagement before
Tokitsukaze, and Asashio were sunk, destroyers laid a protective smokescreen On November 1, 1943, 14,000 US daybreak, convinced he had inflicted far
along with all the troop transports. On in front of her and launched torpedo Marines were landed on Bougainville more damage than was actually the case.
the day after the battle Allied aircraft attacks against the Japanese cruisers in the Solomon Islands. In response the Sendai and Hatsukaze were left behind to
and torpedo boats systematically while under heavy fire. Salt Lake City Japanese sent a hastily assembled naval be finished off by the Americans. Several
machine-gunned Japanese survivors in fortunately got her engines restarted force from Rabaul under Admiral hundred Japanese were killed in the
the water.Almost 2,900 Japanese soldiers and the Japanese turned away, short of Sentaro Omori.American light cruisers engagement; 19 American lives were lost.
and sailors were killed in what General ammunition and fuel.This inconclusive and destroyers commanded by Rear
Douglas MacArthur described as “one encounter was one of the last in naval Admiral Aaron “Tip” Merrill took up
of the most complete and annihilating history in which large ships battled position to defend the landings. In
combats of all time.” almost exclusively with gunnery. principle the Japanese force was much
the stronger, as it included the heavy

DRIVE TO VICTORY 321

the battle of the philippine sea

By the summer of 1944 the Americans Marc Mitscher to support landings on The Philippine Sea KEY
held the strategic initiative in the Pacific Saipan with bombardment by carrier
War.Without any source of intelligence aircraft and naval guns. Japanese Vice The Japanese fleet opposing the US landings in US Fleet, Stage 1
on US planning, the Japanese were Admiral Osawa Jisaburo, with a force the Marianas launched four main waves of US Fleet, Stage 2
reduced to guessing where the next of carriers and battleships, was 2,000 Japanese Fleet, Stage 1
blow might fall.The target chosen by miles (3,000 km) to the south when aircraft. Huge numbers of Japanese planes were Japanese Fleet, Stage 2
the Americans in June 1944 was the the Japanese realized the Marianas shot down, leaving her carriers defenseless and 1 wave of US aircraft
Mariana Islands, which would provide would be the next battleground. He marking the end of Japan as a naval air power. 1 wave of Japanese aircraft
bases for bomber aircraft within range steamed north at speed, hoping to 1 sunk Japanese carrier
of Japan.Admiral Raymond Spruance catch the Americans between his The first two waves
sent Task Force 58 under Vice Admiral carriers and airbases on the islands. of Japanese planes A third wave of 47
launched: 139 out of planes launched:
WORLD WAR II The battle began on the morning 188 are shot down 7 planes shot down
of June 19. For the Japanese it was an
unmitigated disaster.The waves of aircraft 216 US aircraft A fourth wave of 82 planes Guam
sent to attack the American fleet met a launched agaist launched: 54 shot down
sophisticated defense system. Incoming Japanese fleet: US fighter
aircraft were detected by radar, allowing carrier Hiyo sunk Philippine Sea aircraft raid the
the carrier Combat Information Centers Japanese airfield
to scramble fighters and vector them N on Guam
onto the intruders.The Japanese pilots
were less experienced than the US submarines sink Japanese
Americans and had no aircraft to match carriers Shokaku and Taiho
the Grumman Hellcats.The few who
THE PHILIPPINE SEA survived being pounced on by the
fighters were shot down by anti-aircraft
Date June 19–20, 1944 fire. In total the Japanese lost over 300 on the Japanese fleet.The Americans did out of fuel before reaching the US
Location Philippine Sea, Western Pacific aircraft in what became known as the not locate the enemy naval force until carriers and were forced to ditch
Result United States Victory “Marianas Turkey Shoot.” Meanwhile, late in the afternoon. Mitscher decided in the ocean, although the majority
American submarines preyed on the to launch his aircraft although they of the aircrews were rescued.
COMBATANTS Japanese carrier force with first Taiho would be operating at extreme range
and then Shokaku struck by torpedoes. and would have to return after nightfall. The battle of the Philippine Sea
UNITED STATES JAPAN The attack was largely successful, destroyed the Japanese carriers as a
The following day Mitscher sought sinking the carrier Hiyo for the loss fighting force.The losses of aircraft and
COMMANDERS to complete the victory with an air strike of a handful of aircraft, but the return pilots were even more crippling than
journey proved to be a nightmare for the losses of ships. Another step had
Raymond Spruance Osawa Jisaburo the naval aircrews. Some 80 aircraft ran been taken toward the total dominance 1918 – PRESENT
Marc Mitscher of the US Navy in the Pacific.

FORCES

Ships: 15 carriers, 7 Ships: 9 carriers,
battleships, 21 cruisers, 5 battleships, 13 cruisers,
69 destroyers 28 destroyers

LOSSES Turkey Shoot
Part of the propeller from a Japanese plane
Ships: none Ships: 3 carriers that crashed into the carrier Essex during the
Aircraft: 123 Aircraft: 600 one-sided air battle American aviators and
sailors nicknamed the”Marianas Turkey Shoot.”

Battleship Iowa
USS Iowa’s huge 16-in guns were used to bombard
Japanese positions on Saipan and Tinian during
the Marianas campaign, and helped to protect the
US carriers at the battle of the Philippine Sea.

322 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

WORLD WAR II the battle of leyte gulf

THE BATTLE OF LEYTE GULF On October 20, 1944, US forces began simultaneous thrusts by Admiral Takeo picked up out of the sea, the admiral
landing on Leyte island as the first stage Kurita’s Center Force through the shifted his flag to Yamoto and pressed
Date October 23–26, 1944 in the invasion of the Philippines. Sibuyan Sea and Admiral Shoji on, entering the Sibuyan Sea on
Location The Philippines Admiral Thomas Kinkaid’s 7th Fleet Nishimura’s Southern Force through October 24.There his ships were
Result Allied victory was responsible for the amphibious the Sula Sea, emerging to the east of spotted by Halsey’s carrier aircraft and
operation, while Admiral William the Philippines to catch Kinkaid’s ships an air-sea battle commenced. Japanese
COMBATANTS Halsey’s 3rd Fleet was on hand to help in a pincer from north and south. aircraft based on Luzon succeeded in
resist any effort by the Japanese navy to Admiral Ozawa’s force of four impotent destroying the light carrier Princeton at
US AND AUSTRALIA JAPAN disrupt the invasion. Japan had in fact aircraft-less carriers was to provide great cost to themselves in aircraft and
drawn up plans to meet this contingency a suicidal decoy for the Americans, pilots lost, but they could not prevent
COMMANDERS and these were swiftly implemented. drawing some of their fleet away to waves of American carrier aircraft
Virtually all available Japanese naval the north.The plan was ambitious, striking the Japanese fleet, putting 19
William Halsey Takeo Kurita, Jisaburo forces were to be thrown into a death- complex, and very unlikely to succeed. bombs and 17 torpedoes into Musashi
Thomas Kinkaid Ozawa, Shoji Nishimura or-glory battle on an awesome scale. before the leviathan finally sunk.
THE BATTLES BEGIN
FORCES By this stage in the war, after the At this point the Americans made
disaster of the battle of the Philippine Admiral Kurita’s Center Force, with five an error that could have cost them dearly.
Ships: 35 carriers, 12 Ships: 4 carriers, 9 Sea, Japan had few carriers and barely battleships including the giants Yamato Believing that Kurita had turned back
battleships, 24 cruisers, battleships, 19 cruisers, any carrier aircraft, but still possessed a and Musashi, set out for the Philippines to escape air attack, Halsey departed
141 other ships 34 other ships formidable tonnage of large battleships on October 22. It suffered its first losses
and cruisers.These would have to within 24 hours when two of its heavy
LOSSES rely on land-based aircraft from the cruisers, including Kurita’s flagship
Philippines for air cover. The Japanese Atago, were sunk by American
Ships: 3 carriers, 4 other Ships: 4 carriers, 3 plan, Operation Sho-Go, envisaged submarines.When he had been
ships battleships, 8 cruisers,
10 destroyers
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES

DRIVE TO VICTORY 323

Would it not be a shame to have 1885–1966
the fleet remain intact while our
nation perishes? … You must all of chester nimitz
you remember that there are such
things as mir acles. COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF PACIFIC NAVAL FORCES

ADMIRAL TAKEO KURITA 7G>:;>C< =>H D;;>8:GH 7:;DG: I=: 76IIA: D; A:NI: <JA; Born in Texas into a family of German origin,
Chester Nimitz graduated from the US Naval
northward, accepting the bait offered by to meet Admiral Shoji Nishimura’s two Academy in 1905.After earning a reprimand
Ozawa’s carrier force. Communication battleships, cruiser, and four destroyers as a young ensign for running a destroyer
between the two American commanders coming through the Surigao Strait. aground, he transferred to submarines and
was poor and Kinkaid mistakenly during World War I acted as chief of staff of
thought Halsey had left part of his fleet Emerging from the strait in the early the US Atlantic Submarine Force. Promoted
covering the northern flank of the hours of October 25, the Japanese ships to rear admiral in 1938, he was chief of the
invasion force. He had not. Meanwhile, were ambushed by US destroyers firing Bureau of Navigation when the Japanese
Kinkaid sent most of his warships south a total of 27 torpedoes and sinking the attacked Pearl Harbor.Ten days later he was
battleship Fuso and three destroyers. appointed commander-in-chief of the Pacific
Fleet. During a period of Japanese naval
superiority, Nimitz followed an aggressive
strategy based on calculated risk.This bore
fruit in the crucial victory at Midway in
1942. He masterminded the subsequent
“island-hopping” drive through the Central
Pacific toward Japan. Nimitz was appointed
a fleet admiral in 1944 and was a signatory
at the Japanese surrender ceremony in
Tokyo Bay in October 1945.

N Leyte Gulf Ozawa’s toothless carrier C
force successfully lures
The contest known as the battle of Leyte Halsey away from main 1918 – PRESENT
Gulf was actually a series of battles battle. All four Japanese
carriers are sunk or crippled
taking place around the Philippines on at the battle of Cape Engano
October 20–24 as the Japanese Navy
made a last desperate attempt to trap and Japanese planes
destroy the US forces supporting the from Luzon sink
the light cruiser
landings at Leyte. Princeton

D LUZON F

US carrier aircraft sink Kurita meets
battleship Musahi and Kinkaid’s 7th Fleet
cripple cruiser Myoko at in battle off Samar.
battle of Sibuyan Sea Suspecting a trap,
Kurita retreats
South
China Sea Sibuyan
Sea
SAMAR

LEYTE E

Heavy cruisers Atago US troops land
and Maya sunk by on Leyte Island
US submarines in the
Palawan Passage

A Nishimura’s Southern
Force destroyed and
PALAWAN Shima’s repulsed at
battle of Surigao Strait
Sula Sea MINDANAO
KEY
Landings at Leyte Gulf A Kurita – Center Force
Two Coast Guard-manned LSTs (Landing Ships Route of US fleet
Tank) open their jaws onto Leyte Beach. While B Route of Japanese fleet
the landings themselves were not strongly US bomber wave
opposed, the Japanese Navy later threw all the B Nishimura – Southern Force Japanese bomber wave
forces they had left against the invading forces. Battle or engagement
C Ozawa – Northern Force (decoy)

D Shima – Second Striking Force

E Kinkaid – US Seventh Fleet

F Halsey – US Third Fleet

324 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Nishimura’s flagship Yamashiro was hit Exhausted survivors the destroyers and carrier aircraft On October 25-26 they crashed onto
but pressed on.At 3:52 a.m. the An American patrol torpedo boat between them sank three of Kurita’s 47 US ships, including seven carriers.
darkness ahead suddenly erupted as a hoists Japanese survivors out of heavy cruisers and badly damaged three The first to be sunk by a kamikaze
semicircle of waiting American warships the water after the destruction of more.Although Sprague’s carriers were attack was the escort carrier St Lô.
opened fire.The most modern of them the Japanese forces at Leyte Gulf. still theoretically at his mercy, Kurita had
had radar fire control that left the had enough and turned back, safely The suicide attacks were a
Japanese no chance. Nishimura was Mogami and then withdrawing the remainder of his ships disturbing conclusion to an important
already dead by the time Yamashiro sank. torpedoing an island from the battle. American victory. By any measure it
misidentified as an had been one of the largest sea battles
Approaching this scene of carnage, enemy ship, before fleeing DESPERATE LAST GAMBLE in history, and the Japanese had lost.
some way behind Nishimura, a second back down the strait. Their surface warships would take no
group of warships under Admiral Shima Admiral Ozawa’s carriers and cruisers further active part in the war, beyond
added an element of farce to the tragedy To the north, had performed their function bravely a suicidal gesture at the very end.
by colliding with the crippled cruiser meanwhile, Kurita led his by drawing Halsey’s 3rd Fleet away
ships undetected through from Leyte, though all to no avail.Their key
the San Bernadino Strait destruction, which took place off Cape US FORCES AT SURIGAO STRAIT
and on the morning of Engano, at the northern tip of Luzon,
October 25 sailed south was inevitable—indeed, it formed part 1 US Battleship
down the coast of Samar of the Japanese plan.The only use that
island toward Leyte. First light revealed remained for the once proud Japanese 1 US cruiser
a force of 16 American escort carriers carrier force was as sacrificial victims.
and seven destroyers and destroyer 1 US destroyer
escorts lying in his path.As the It was as a response to his pilots’ squadron
Japanese ships opened fire, Rear inability to damage enemy ships with Several US torpedo
Admiral Sprague radioed desperately for conventional tactics that Admiral boat squadrons
help, believing his carriers would be Ohnishi, commander of the 1st Air
destroyed in minutes.With outstanding Fleet on the Philippines, called for JAPANESE FORCES AT SURIGAO STRAIT
bravery the destroyers attacked volunteers to carry out suicide attacks.
the Japanese capital ships, winning the On October 21, off Leyte, a pilot flew 1 Japanese
carriers a breathing space.All but one his aircraft into the cruiser Australia. battleship
were eventually sunk by Japanese guns Four days later Ohnishi’s Special Attack
and many of the carriers took hits. But Unit, formally dedicated to kamikaze 1 Japanese cruiser
tactics, began systematic suicide attacks.

No chance of escape 1–3 Japanese
A Japanese heavy cruiser desperately maneuvers destroyers
while US bombers send up plumes of water around it.
The raid on Manila Bay was part of the American
campaign to reconquer the Philippines after Leyte Gulf.

DRIVE TO VICTORY 325

Battle of surigao str ait Squadrons of small LEYTE ISLAND
torpedo boats make
The a mbush repeated attacks on
Vice Admiral Nishimura’s Southern Force tries the approaching
to reach Leyte Gulf by sailing south of Leyte Island Japanese fleet
through the Surigao Strait. On entering the narrow
strait, however, they are ambushed by a strong US
force under Rear-Admiral Jesse Oldendorf.

Shima’s Second Striking Force Nishimura’s surviving The battleships and cruisers of
enters the Surigao Strait some ships attempt to retreat Oldendorf’s 7th Fleet Support Force
way behind Nishamura’s main force line the far end of Suirigao Strait,
After advancing to fire their blocking the route to Leyte Gulf
As Nishimura’s Southern Force enters torpedoes, the US destroyer
the Surigao Strait, torpedo attacks squadrons retire to the sides of the PACIFIC OCEAN
from the waiting US destroyer strait to clear the way for the heavy
squadrons sink one Japanese guns of the cruisers and battleships
battleship and several destroyers

DINAGAT ISLAND

The retreat The US torpedo boat 1918 – PRESENT
Nishimura attempts to retreat under heavy squadrons attack the
fire but goes down with his ship. Only one destroyer fleeing Japanese ships
from Nishimura’s column escapes to join Shima’s
retreat. Unable to reach Leyte Gulf through the LEYTE ISLAND
Surigao Strait (and repelled further north in the
Sibuyan Sea) Operation Sho-Go ends in failure. The battleship
Yamashiro sinks with
Only one ship from Nishimura on board
Nishimura’s column, the
destroyer Shigure, escapes
with Shima’s force

In the confusion, Shima’s
flagship Nachi collides with
the retreating cruiser Mogami

The US cruisers and battleships fire
on Nishimura’s ships, moving at
right angles to the Japanese line to
“cross the T” of the Japanese ships

Shima’s Second Striking Force
encounters the wrecks of the sunk
Japanese ships and decides to retreat

DINAGAT ISLAND

PACIFIC OCEAN

I heard one of the signalmen yell: “Goddamit, boys,
they’re getting away!” I could not believe my eyes, but it
looked as if the whole Japanese fleet was indeed retiring
… At best I had expected to be swimming by this time.

VICE ADMIRAL CLIFTON SPRAGUE 9:H8G>7>C< I=: 76IIA: D;; H6B6G

326 WORLD WAR II: THE PACIFIC

WORLD WAR II fighting force, and Iwo Jima was far WITNESS TO WAR
distant from Japanese air bases.The
IWO JIMA Date February 19–March 26, function of the US armada was to US Seaman William P. Campbell
1945 bombard the island and land Marines.
Location Iwo Jima, Forces Americans: Over 800 The naval bombardment of Iwo Jima CREWMAN ON AMPHIBIOUS VEHICLE DURING LANDINGS AT IWO JIMA
Ogasawara Islands ships, 74,000 Marines; Japanese: began three days before the landings—
23,000 soldiers a much shorter softening-up than the BATTLE OF IWO JIMA
Losses Americans: 1 escort Marines would have liked. Battleships
carrier, 1 tank landing craft, 1 and cruisers fired a total of 22,000 “We made it in all right carrying in troops off the ship. My trouble
infantry landing craft shells into the island.The effect of started when I went back and picked up a load of medical supplies
this onslaught and the accompanying
Lying halfway between the Marianas aerial bombardment was slight. a little after dark. I went onto the beach and couldn’t get off.
and the Japanese mainland, the small Under Lieutenant General Tadamichi They’d shoot flares and it would light the whole island up,
volcanic island of Iwo Jima was of Kuribayashi, the 22,000 soldiers on
limited military value. But the Americans the island had created a network of just like it was daylight … I was at the back of the boat when
decided to take the island as a stepping strongpoints and bunkers linked by a shell or mortar hit the front of the boat. It blew the bow door
stone across the Pacific, and the Japanese tunnels deep inside the cave-riddled
defended it to the death. volcanic rock.When the first wave off it. We got off that thing and dug a foxhole …”
of Marines came ashore at 8:59 a.m.
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES The Iwo Jima landings were an on the morning of February 19, the not only with enemy fire but also with The outcome of the battle was never
amphibious operation on an awesome Japanese were ready to receive them. waves that dashed boats onto the beach. in doubt, but the human cost was
scale.Almost 500 ships were dedicated Close support for the Marines from naval appalling. By the time the island
to transporting and landing more than MARINE ASSAULT guns and carrier aircraft was inhibited was finally secured the Marines had
70,000 men of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th by worsening weather. On February 21 suffered over 23,000 casualties and the
Marine Divisions. Hundreds of other The initial landing was not contested. the attack carrier Saratoga and escort US Navy around 2,000. Almost all the
ships were deployed in support, including The Japanese only opened fire when carrier Bismarck Sea were hit by attacks Japanese soldiers on the island died.
battleships, cruisers, and escort carriers. a log-jam of Marines and equipment from Japanese kamikaze aircraft. Saratoga
The US Navy was not expecting had built up on the beaches, trapped limped away for repairs after fires and The beaches of Iwo Jima
interference from the Imperial Japanese by the volcanic terrain. Sailors bringing explosions caused over 300 casualties US Marines make their way up the volcanic beaches
Navy, which was no longer a viable landing craft into shore had to contend on board; Bismarck Sea was blown apart on Iwo Jima. The Japanese waited until the beaches
and sank with the loss of 318 men. were full of men and equipment before opening fire.

WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY

amphibious warfare

The Americans deployed an impressive range of amphibious

vehicles during the Pacific War. The most basic was the LCVP

(Landing Craft Vehicle Personnel) or Higgins Boat. Men

climbed down netting from transports into these shallow-draft

wooden boats to be ferried ashore. More than 23,000 LCVPs were

built in World War II, along with 11,000 LCMs (Landing Craft

Mechanized) designed to carry tanks and other vehicles. The larger LCI

(Landing Craft Infantry) was an oceangoing vessel capable of carrying 200

soldiers. Alongside these landing craft a number of inventive types of

amphibious vehicle were used. These included the DUKW, an amphibious

wheeled truck, and various forms of LVT (Landing

Vehicle Tracked). LVTs were basically designed to carry DUKW amphibious truck
men ashore, but they developed in the course of the war This US Navy six-wheel drive truck
into armored vehicles, some equipped with turret guns carried 25 soldiers and could maintain

so that they could function as amphibious tanks. a speed of 5 knots in the water.

327

Shore bombardment
USS Idaho‘s big 14-in guns bombard
Okinawa shortly before the first
amphibious assault on April 1, 1945.

the battle of okinawa WORLD WAR II

The assault on Okinawa was the largest numbering over 100,000, were hidden battleship in the world, accompanied THE BATTLE OF OKINAWA 1918 – PRESENT
amphibious operation of the Pacific in well-prepared defensive positions by the cruiser Yahagi and a handful of
war. More than half a million Allied from which they could only be removed destroyers—at that point the entire Date March 21–June 23 1945
personnel were involved in the battle by months of hard infantry fighting. naval force that Japan could muster. His Location Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, Japan
for control of an island regarded by the mission was to attack the Allied fleet Result Allied victory
Japanese as part of their homeland. In OPERATION TEN-GO off Okinawa. None of the ships was
many ways the operation resembled expected to return; they had only been COMBATANTS
the struggle for Iwo Jima, only on a The Allied naval forces at Okinawa supplied with fuel for a one-way trip.
larger scale.The preliminary naval consisted of the American Fifth Fleet UNITED STATES JAPAN
bombardment to soften up the defenses, —which included an astonishing 40 On April 7 the 11 carriers of Vice BRITISH
begun on March 21, was so intensive carriers and 18 battleships—and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher’s Task Force COMMONWEALTH
that Okinawans called it the “Typhoon Admiral Sir Bernard Rawlings’s Royal 58 launched three waves of aircraft.
of Steel.”As at Iwo Jima, the initial Navy Task Force, under American Swarming around the Yamato, they COMMANDERS
landings on April 1 were unopposed. operational control.The fleet was in struck it time and again with bombs
The Japanese soldiers on Okinawa, an exposed position, within range of and torpedoes until the battleship
Japanese air bases on Kyushu island in turned turtle and exploded, sending
up a plume of smoke that could be Raymond Spruance Seiichi Ito
southern Japan. It was seen 125 miles (200 km) away.The
also close enough to cruiser and four destroyers were also FORCES
tempt the remnants of sunk and the operation abandoned.
the Japanese navy into Ships: c.1,300 Ships: unknown
a final sortie, Operation FINAL SACRIFICE
Ten-go. On April 6, LOSSES
Admiral Seiichi Ito sailed The Allied fleet did not find it so easy
out of the Inland Sea on to cope with air attack. On April 6, Men: 4,028 Men: unknown
board Yamato, the largest Japanese aircraft under launched the Ships: 79 Ships: 16
first mass kamikaze attack with over
Kamikaze attack 300 aircraft. By crashing their aircraft the Allied fleet. In raids that continued
A Japanese suicide pilot about to onto warships, young half-trained through to the third week of June, the
crash his plane into the starboard pilots caused fearsome damage, even kamikazes sank more than 40 Allied
side of the battleship Missouri though few of them penetrated the ships, damaged some 200 others, and
during the battle for Okinawa. combat air patrols and massed fire of killed over 5,000 sailors.The fall of
Okinawa came as a relief to battered
and exhausted naval personnel.

We watched each plunging k amik aze with the
detached horror of one witnessing a terrible
spectacle r ather than as the intended victim.

VICE ADMIRAL C. R. BROWN! 9:H8G>7>C< ?6E6C:H: @6B>@6O: 6II68@H

328 CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES

postwar conflicts

IN THE SECOND HALF of the 20th century, the developments in naval tactics
and technology evident during World War II continued apace. Big-gun naval
vessels were reduced to a shore bombardment role, before virtually disappearing
as ever larger aircraft carriers and submarines took center stage. By the 1960s
carriers were operating missile-armed jet aircraft from their decks and nuclear-
powered, nuclear-armed submarines had become a central part of the Cold War
“nuclear deterrent.” Surface warships gained a new lease of life through the
introduction of shipborne missiles, which not only equipped escort ships for
fleet defense but also provided powerful offensive weapons.The days of pitched
battles between fleets seemed over, but the relevance of maritime strength to
military power projection remained essential, in particular to the global role of
the United States, from the Korean War through to modern Middle East conflicts.

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES Global reach NO BIG BATTLES size, but were not potential opponents of the
Fast Combat Support Ship USS Bridge leads a flotilla of United States. The Soviet Union emerged as
vessels in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001. Since the end of World War II there have been a global superpower rival for the United States
Auxiliary vessels such as the Bridge enable the US Navy no major battles at sea. The end of the war found in the Cold War, but the Soviet navy was not
to refuel, rearm, and restock warships wherever they are the United States in possession of what was in a major force in the first decades after the war.
in the world, extending US naval power across the globe. practice an unchallenged worldwide naval When the Soviet Union did develop a major
supremacy. Defeated Germany and Japan were fleet, by the 1970s, both sides planned for a sea
denied any significant naval forces. Britain and conflict that never happened. Indeed, the Soviets
France still maintained navies of significant and Americans observed rules to prevent hostile
encounters between their navies. Thus the
WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY Soviet Union did not intervene with its navy
during the Korean War in the 1950s, although
nuclear power the United States and its Allies operated large
fleets close to the Soviet Pacific coast, and
Nuclear propulsion has been in existence for over half Nuclear power has also been used in some surface during the Vietnam War the Americans mostly
a century—the first nuclear-powered vessel, the vessels. A basic steam-turbine nuclear reactor works did not interfere with Soviet seaborne supplies
submarine USS Nautilus, was launched in 1955. by generating heat through the fission of nuclear of war material to North Vietnam. With the
Nuclear power has some impressive advantages over material. The heat converts water to steam, and the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United
conventional propulsion systems since nuclear reactors steam is used to drive a turbine that powers the vessel’s States was left with no credible enemy for a
produce a high power output and rarely need refueling. propshaft and generators. Nuclear propulsion is not
For these reasons, and the fact that nuclear reactors do without disadvantage: heavy and expensive structures
not require air to operate, nuclear propulsion is ideal need to be put in place to contain the radiation, and
for submarines, which spend long periods of time the reactor core continues to be radioactive for
submerged and away from refueling ships or ports. hundreds of years after the ship is decommissioned.

Pressurizer pumps water through Steam generator uses Nuclear-powered propulsion
reactor under pressure heat from reactor water A nuclear engine uses heat exchangers to transfer
energy between three systems: a primary system of
Water returns to water pumped through the reactor core; a secondary
steam generator system that drives the turbines; and a cooling circuit.

Secondary turbine Steam circulates in Main propeller
produces electricity secondary system drives vessel

Reactor Pressure from steam
core heats spins turbines
water

Shield Cooling Main turbine is geared
system to propeller shaft

Batteries store
excess power

Condenser uses cold
seawater to cool steam

329

major war. But the Middle East offered plenty some sharp, if mostly limited, naval combat that assembled by the United States and its allies for 1918 – PRESENT
of scope for US power-projection in which provided the opportunity for real-life use of operations in Afghanistan and Iraq constituted an
naval forces could play a central role. developing new technologies and tactics. The awesome concentration of force and sophisticated
Middle East and the Indian subcontinent were technology. Nuclear submarines were among
SUPPORTING L AND FORCES the scenes of interesting encounters, including the technological wonders of the modern world.
the successful use of a ship-to-ship missile in Whether such supremely impressive naval forces
The largest naval operations since 1945 have the sinking of the Israeli destroyer Eilat by were a weapon that would continue to suit
been conducted in support of land forces, with Egyptian missile boats in 1967. The Falklands 21st-century strategic needs in the age of the
firepower deployed for the bombardment of War of 1982 was an unequal contest between “War on Terror” remained to be demonstrated.
targets on land. During the Korean War and the the Royal Navy and Argentina’s small and ageing
Vietnam War, big naval guns and carrier aircraft fleet, but a more balanced contest between the WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY
were used by the Americans and their allies on British ships and shore-based Argentinian aircraft
a massive scale to provide fire support and to armed with advanced missiles as well as bombs. ballistic missiles
devastate targets in enemy territory. This pattern
was repeated in Iraq and Afghanistan in the 1990s AWESOME POWER Unlike cruise missiles, which take a guided
and more recently—although with ship-launched flight path to their targets, ballistic missiles
missiles replacing the big warships’ heavy guns. By the early 21st century the firepower of navies are guided only during the relatively brief
was far beyond anything that had previously powered multi-stage lift-off and initial
These large-scale operations were largely existed, even if nuclear warheads were left out flight, which takes the missile to sub-
uncontested at sea, but during the same period of account. The aircraft and missiles of the fleets orbital altitudes. Thereafter the missile
several of the world’s smaller navies engaged in flies on using its own ballistic, free-
flight energy, eventually deploying
Quiet sentinels nuclear or conventional warheads at
Modern nuclear-powered submarines supersonic speeds to the target area.
such as HMS Astute, launched by the Ranges of these missiles vary from a few
Royal Navy in 2007, are able to remain hundred miles to more than 3,418 miles
submerged for months at a time. (5,500 km) in inter-continental models.
Naval ballistic missiles are primarily
submarine-launched weapons. The
first operational naval model was the
Polaris, which entered service with
the US Navy in 1961 after a five-year
development program. The latest
Trident ballistic missiles have a range
of 7,000 miles (11,300 km), reach
speeds of 18,000 mph (29,000 kph)
in sub-orbit, and use star-sighting and
inertial guidance systems.

Polaris nuclear missile
The Polaris missile was a submarine-launched,
solid-fuel, nuclear-armed, ballistic missile
(SLBM), which was carried by British submarines
from 1968. It was later replaced by Trident I.

330 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

cold war conflicts

AFTER THE END OF World War II the United States and it allies September 1950, they provided close air support for UN ground forces with
became involved in global resistance to the spread of Communism. carrier aircraft, and flattened North Korean coastal towns with naval gunfire.
Communist triumph in the Chinese Civil War in 1950 was followed The fact that both the Communist Soviet Union and the United States
by a major war in Korea, where Communist North Korean and Chinese possessed nuclear weapons deterred them from fighting one another directly,
forces fought South Korean and US-led United Nations forces.The navies but a dangerous confrontation developed after Fidel Castro came to power
of the United States and its allies were deployed on a large scale through in Cuba in 1959 and allied his country with the Soviets.The possibility that
the three years of the war, operating unchallenged around the whole Korean the Soviets might defy a naval blockade imposed on Cuba by the United States
peninsula.As well as the amphibious operations such as that at Inchon in during the missile crisis of 1962 brought the world close to nuclear disaster.

THE COLD WAR the inchon landings

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES YANGTZE INCIDENT In August 1950 United Nations and Douglas MacArthur planned a bold Wolmi-do, which would have to be
South Korean forces were pinned in amphibious operation to land troops captured first. On the other hand, the
Date April 20–July 31, 1949 the Pusan area of southern Korea. behind North Korean lines at Inchon. UN forces had total command of the
Forces British: 4 frigates; UN Supreme Commander General The conditions for landings were sea and air.The operation, codenamed
Chinese: shore batteries difficult. Inchon had one of the most Chromite, was set for September 15,
Losses British: none; Chinese: THE KOREAN WAR extreme tidal ranges in the world— when the tide would be high enough
none around 36 ft (11 m) maximum to allow large tank landing craft to
THE INCHON LANDINGS variation between low and high tide— reach the shore.
Location Yangtze River, and was surrounded by treacherous
near Jiangyin, China Date September 15, 1950 mudflats.The two sea approaches, the AMPHIBIOUS OPERATION
Location South Korea Flying Fish Channel and the Eastern
On April 20, 1949, the British frigate Result UN victory Channel, were narrow and difficult A force of 261 ships, including British
HMS Amethyst sailed up the politically to negotiate.The approaches were and Canadian vessels as well as American,
fraught waters of the Yangtze River in COMBATANTS dominated by the fortified island of assembled under Vice Admiral Arthur
China.At this time, China was split D. Struble, although preparations were
between Chiang Kai-Shek’s beleaguered UNITED STATES NORTH KOREA US troops land at Inchon disrupted by a typhoon in early
Nationalists and the Communists of In the course of operations around the port of September. Diversionary attacks were
Mao Tse-tung’s ascendant People’s Inchon, UN forces landed some 50,000 US troops. mounted to disperse the North Korean
Liberation Army (PLA), with the The Inchon landings led to the recapture of Seoul defenses, but Inchon itself was
Yangtze forming one of the frontlines and turned around UN fortunes in the Korean War. thoroughly softened up with strikes by
in the conflict. Amethyst was tasked carrier aircraft. Seven destroyers made
with shipping supplies to the British
community at Nanking, and with the COMMANDERS
relief of the guardship HMS Consort
stationed there, a journey that would Douglas MacArthur Choi Yong-kun
take it through the heart of a war zone. Arthur D Struble
From the outset, Amethyst was shelled
at close range by several PLA shore FORCES
batteries, resulting in over 50 hits that
killed 17 crewmen and wounded Ships: 261 ships, Ships: 1,000 troops
another 30.The ship’s commanding 40,000 troops
officer, Lieutenant Commander
Bernard Skinner, was among those LOSSES
who were killed during the shelling.
Men: 196 Men: unknown
Ships: none Ships: none

RESCUE MISSION

With the Amethyst run aground off
Rose Island near Jiangyin, HMS Consort
launched a spectacular high-speed rescue
effort, knocking out several Chinese
shore batteries before being forced to
retreat. Other rescue attempts by the
vessels HMS Black Swan and HMS
London were similarly roughly handled,
resulting in many dead and wounded.
Thereafter, Amethyst remained trapped
for 14 weeks during negotiations—
during this time the ship’s company
(under Lieutenant Commander John
Kerans) managed to complete major
temporary repairs. On the night of July
30–31, Amethyst fired up her engines
and made a break for the sea in a storm
of gunfire.The ship punched through
the boom at the mouth of the Yangtze
River and made open water and safety.
The incident was cheered in Britain,
and the crew were hailed as heroes.

COLD WAR CONFLICTS 331

THE COLD WAR Agency (CIA) trained a group of 1,500
Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba,
BAY OF PIGS with the aim of removing Castro from
power.The exiles were to land at the
Location Off coast of Date April 17, 1961 Bay of Pigs in four freighters, alongside
southwest Cuba Forces Americans/Cuban exiles: two CIA landing craft, with heavy air
1 aircraft carrier, 6 destroyers, and fire support from the US carrier
4 freighters, 2 landing craft; Essex and six US Navy destroyers.
Cubans: 15,000 men
Losses Americans/Cuban exiles: The landing force went in on April
1 freighter sunk; Cubans: 17, 1961.Air strikes destroyed initial
unknown Cuban resistance and the landing was
successful. However, the invasion force
In the early 1960s, with Communist was subsequently destroyed over three
dictator Fidel Castro firmly in power days of fighting, to the embarrassment
in Cuba, relations between the United of the US government. Four US pilots
States and its Caribbean neighbor were also died during engagements over Cuba
deteriorating fast. In 1961 the US and Cuban strike jets managed to sink
government decided to pursue a military one enemy freighter.
solution.The Central Intelligence

a risky foray into the Flying Fish north and south of Wolmi-do, had to THE COLD WAR US blockade of Cuba 1918 – PRESENT
Channel to test North Korean defenses. wait for the late afternoon tide.The Soviet tanker Polzunov is inspected by the US Navy
When shore guns opened up, revealing North Koreans proved unable to mount CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS picket ship Vesole as it carries a cargo of ballistic
their location, these were destroyed by a swift counterattack, however, and by missiles away from Cuba on November 9, during the
air attack and salvoes from cruisers. around 5:30 p.m. Marines were Date October-November 1962 Soviet withdrawal of missiles from the island.
swarming up ladders over seawalls in Forces Americans/Allies: 183
On the night of September 14-15 Inchon itself. Marine casualties on the warships; Soviets: unknown off Cuba with warships, aircraft carriers,
US Marines traveled toward Wolmi-do day amounted to 22 killed and 174 Losses Americans/ Allies: none; and nuclear-armed submarines. On
on board the high-speed destroyers wounded.The success of the landings led Soviets: none October 24, the blockade faced its first
Bass, Diachanko, and Wantuck, preceded to the recapture of the South Korean major challenge with the approach
by a destroyer escort, followed by large capital Seoul and obliged North Location Atlantic, of 19 cargo ships, mostly containing
landing craft with heavy equipment, Korean forces to retreat northward in northeast of Cuba missile equipment, shadowed by Soviet
and covered by a force of cruisers.The an effort to avoid encirclement. It also submarines.A dramatic stand-off ensued,
Marines transferred to landing craft and unfortunately tempted MacArthur to From the summer of 1962, Soviet which finally resolved itself when most
went ashore at first light, exploiting the take the war into North Korea, leading engineers and scientists began work of the Soviet ships turned around in
morning flood tide.An intense naval to the involvement of Chinese troops on the Communist-controlled island the face of US intransigence.
bombardment ensured that resistance and a bloody stalemate lasting into 1953. of Cuba, establishing medium-range
was slight.The follow-up landings, to the ballistic missile launch facilities. By using Only one Soviet ship, the tanker
Cuba as a nuclear missile launch-pad, Bucharest, managed to make it through
KEY Mansfield Second wave (5th the USSR could target almost the to Havana.Tensions escalated and for
DeHaven Marines) land on Red whole of the southern United States. a time the world teetered on the brink
1 UN cruiser Swenson Beach at 5:33 p.m.– When the facilities were revealed by of nuclear war. Ultimately, however,
1 UN destroyer 8 Marines killed U-2 reconnaissance flights over the the US naval blockade effectively
1 UN LSMR (Landing island in October 1962, the deployments convinced the Soviet government
Ship, Medium Rocket) Limit of first terrified the US authorities. under Nikita Khrushchev that Cuba
day’s advance was not a viable investment for missile
The US government of John F. defense, and it agreed to remove the
First wave (3rd Batallion, 5th Wolmi-Do INCHON Kennedy opted to take a tough stance missile sites from Cuba under UN
Marines) lands at Green Beach against the Soviets, issuing a demand inspection.The naval blockade of Cuba
on Wolmi-Do at 6:33 a.m.–14 Limit of first that the missiles and their facilities be was finally lifted on November 20.
Marines and over 200 North day’s advance withdrawn from Cuban soil
Korean soldiers killed Colette LSMR immediately, and threatening a nuclear
Gurke response against the Soviet Union
Flying should it attempt any open aggression.
Fish The stakes were raised when the
Channel United States, with maritime support
from Venezuela,Argentina, and
Troops disembark LSMR Dominica, imposed a naval blockade
into landing craft to
approach beaches Henderson Submarine Geiger counter
The US deployed nuclear submarines during the Cuban
Shallow water Second wave (1st blockade. Geiger counters such as this one were used
(mudflats at Marines) land on Blue to check levels of radiation in the vessels and monitor
low tide) Beach at 5:32 p.m.– how much radiation had been absorbed by crews.
1 landing ship sunk

Kenya

Toledo

Rochester Large cruisers and the soviet government cannot
destroyers remain on instruct the captains of soviet
Inchon Landings edge of channel and vessels bound for cuba to observe
bombard North Korean the orders of the american naval
gun emplacements forces block ading that island.

The UN forces approached Inchon down N NIKITA KRUSHCHEV, SOVIET PREMIER, A:II:G ID JH EG:H>9:CI ?D=C ;# @:CC:9N
the narrow Flying Fish Channel. Larger
ships remained off shore to bombard the Shallow water
(mudflats at low tide)
North Korean positions while assault forces
embarked into shallow-draft landing craft

to attack the three landing beaches.

COLD WAR WARRIOR

The crew of the USS Nautilus, the world’s first
nuclear-powered submarine, takes to her deck as
she enters New York Harbor in 1957. The next
year Nautilus made the first submerged transit of
the North Pole. Nuclear submarines, able to stay
submerged for weeks or even months at a time
and carrying a payload of ballistic missiles, soon
became a key part of the Cold War stalemate.



334 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

the vietnam war

THE POPULAR IMAGE of theVietnam War is of foot-slogging search- strikes against NorthVietnam andViet Cong targets in SouthVietnam. Navy
and-destroy operations.The impression does little justice to the key and Coast Guard units cut Communist supply lines during Operation Market
US and SouthVietnamese naval operations during the decade-long Time, while a composite US Navy and US Army “Brown Water Navy” fought
conflict. US involvement in theVietnam War began in earnest at sea with the the Communists along the waterways of the Mekong Delta.Vietnam also saw
Gulf of Tonkin engagement in 1964, and ended with major evacuations from more traditional forms of naval warfare, with the battleship New Jersey deployed
the South Vietnamese coastline in 1975. In between were a huge range of to provide fire support to ground troops with her huge 16-in guns.Although
maritime operations.Aircraft carrier groups sat at two locations off the theVietnam War ultimately ended in defeat for the West, the efforts of the US
Vietnamese coast (“Yankee Station” and “Dixie Station”) to launch naval air maritime forces were arguably the most successful component of the war.

riverine operations

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES The Mekong River Delta in South and French colonial monitor gunboats. creation of the Mobile Riverine Force The Mobile Riverine Force was critical
Vietnam was home to over 50 percent Yet the arsenal also included purpose- a joint army-navy unit dedicated to in curtailing Viet Cong influence in
of the country’s population during the built vessels such as the Patrol Boat, search-and-destroy operations. Soldiers the Mekong, particularly during the
Vietnam war and contained the most River (PBR) whose shallow draft, a (principally the 9th Infantry Division) Communist Tet offensive of 1968,
fertile rice-producing land. It was also high-speed of 25 knots, and armament were carried into battle in Armored when the riverine craft were used to
laced with 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of of machine guns and grenade launchers Troop Carriers (ATCs), with fire support deploy troops around SouthVietnam to
tangled, jungle-shrouded waterways that made it an ideal river assault craft. from gun-bristling monitor gunboats. douse the fires of Viet Cong uprisings.
provided superb covert transportation Headquarters were created from In 1969 the MRF was reorganized
lanes for Communist insurgents, the The US launched Operation Game floating base ships—often converted under the SEALORDS program (the
Viet Cong, to traffic people, supplies, Warden in 1966, aimed at stopping and LSTs (Landing Ships,Tank) left over Southeast Asia Lake, Ocean, River, and
and weapons.Taking the war to the searching vessels along the Mekong from World War II. Pontoons provided Delta Strategy).The 9th Infantry were
Viet Cong along the Mekong was the waterways.These patrols could be detached for other land warfare duties,
task of the “Brown Water Navy” a violent affairs—in platforms for floating but the boat force grew in scale and
collection of US Army, Navy, and South 1967 alone Game artillery firebases. included the now 258-boat strong RPF.
Vietnamese riverine patrol units. Warden operations
destroyed 2,000
The first unit tasked with patrolling enemy vessels, and
the Mekong was the River Patrol Force boarded around
(RPF), established in 1965. In terms of 400,000.Yet US forces
vessels, US forces made use of almost soon sought more
anything that could float and be armed, aggressive solutions.
including World War II-era landing craft The result was the

1943–PRESENT Slow but sure
The turtle emblem on this uniform
john kerry patch is an affectionate nod to the
armored monitor gunboats used by
SWIFT BOAT COMMANDER AND ANTI-WAR ACTIVIST riverine units in Vietnam.

Future US Senator and presidential
candidate John Kerry served inVietnam
from 1968–1970, his first tour of duty
being aboard the frigate USS Gridley.
Kerry voluntarily transferred to be the
commander of a Patrol Craft, Fast (PCF)
Swift boat, performing coastal and river
interdiction. In this role he saw much
action, receiving three Purple Hearts
for wounds sustained in action.After
leaving Vietnam, Kerry became an

antiwar activist and was
the first Vietnam
veteran to testify
about the war
before Congress.

THE VIETNAM WAR 335

THE VIETNAM WAR Tonkin when she was approached by
three North Vietnamese torpedo boats.
THE GULF OF Warning shots failed to deter the
TONKIN INCIDENT attackers, and US gunfire subsequently
destroyed one boat and damaged another.
Date August 2-4, 1964 Two days later Maddox was on patrol
Forces Americans: 2 destroyers; with another destroyer, Turner Joy. Radio
North Vietnamese: 5–8 torpedo operators on board suddenly reported
boats five enemy torpedo boats approaching,
Losses Americans: none; North resulting in a blaze of US gunfire and
Vietnamese: c.3 boats destroyed reports that two enemy craft had been
sunk. Later analysis contended that the
Location Gulf of reports were false and no enemy craft
Tonkin, North Vietnam were present. Nonetheless, the incidents
led to retaliatory air attacks on North
The Gulf of Tonkin incident provided Vietnam and persuaded US Congress
a pretext for escalating US involvement to effectively commit to war.
in theVietnam War. On August 2, 1964,
the destroyer USS Maddox was engaged
in intelligence-gathering off the Gulf of

The SEALORDS program ran until THE VIETNAM WAR Jet warfare
1970, when the Brown Water efforts Deck crew on board the carrier Bon Homme Richard
began to wind down, having killed THE VIETNAM WAR OPERATION prepare F-8 Crusader fighter jets for action against
thousands of Viet Cong personnel North Vietnamese aircraft in 1965.
and stemmed the Communist flow ROLLING THUNDER
of supplies to and from Cambodia. of “Yankee Station” based 75 miles
The Riverine War was a dirty, violent Date March 2, 1965– (140 km) off the Gulf of Tonkin.
campaign, but it had played a vital role November 1,1968 Yankee Station consisted of multiple
in the efforts to destroy the Viet Cong. Forces Americans: 600 ships; US aircraft carriers during the Rolling
North Vietnamese: extensive Thunder operations, including Coral
Monitor on patrol Soviet-supplied air defenses Sea, Hancock, Constellation, and Midway.
An American Swift patrol boat converted into Losses Americans: 922 aircraft; By operating in a multi-carrier unit,
an armored monitor gunboat churns slowly North Vietnamese: unknown Yankee Station was able to keep up
past defoliated vegetation during counter- the round-the-clock commitments of
insurgency operations on the Saigon River. RIVERINE OPERATIONS Location Gulf of Tonkin the air war. Its aviators ran terrible risks
and North Vietnam from Soviet-supplied SA-2 Guideline
missiles and vast barrages of conventional
Date 1965–1970 Rolling Thunder was the name of the anti-aircraft fire.There were also some
Location Principally the Mekong River Delta aerial bombing campaign over North horrific offshore accidents, the most
Result US superiority Vietnam, initiated in March 1965 with famous of which resulted from the
the intention of pounding the North accidental firing of a Zuni rocket
COMBATANTS Vietnamese government into submission. aboard USS Forrestal on July 29, 1967. 1918 – PRESENT
A sustained bombing campaign, carried The missile ignited fuel and ordnance,
UNITED STATES VIET CONG out over several years, inflicted huge and subsequent fires and detonations
damage—air force, navy, and Marine killed 134 and destroyed or damaged 64
COMMANDERS Corps aircraft dropped 864,000 tons aircraft. In total, 454 naval aviators and
of bombs—but ultimately failed to many more air force pilots died during
William Westmoreland Local commanders break NorthVietnamese resistance or Operation Rolling Thunder.
convince the government not to aid
FORCES Communist insurgency in the South.

Ships: 258 patrol and Ships: unknown The US Navy and Marine Corps
minesweeping boats, component of Rolling Thunder was
184 monitors and primarily delivered by the carrier aircraft
transports, 25 helicopter
gunships, 15 aircraft in
1969

LOSSES

Men: 5,182 Men: unknown
Ships: unknown Ships: unknown

THE VIETNAM WAR Operation Market Time ran for seven
years along a 1,200 mile (2,000 km)
OPERATION stretch of the South Vietnamese coast.
MARKET TIME It was delivered by Task Force 115, the
Coastal Patrol Force. By 1966 hundreds
Date March 11,1965– of US Navy, Coast Guard, and South
December 1972 Vietnamese Navy craft were involved.
Forces Americans: unknown; The screening operation was organized
North Vietnamese: unknown around nine patrol sectors stretching
Losses Unknown 40 miles (65 km) out to sea. Close to
the shore, US Navy Patrol Gunboats,
Location Coastal armed junks, and Coast Guard Cutters
waters of South Vietnam performed stop-and-search operations.
Further from the coast, larger navy
On February 16, 1965, a US helicopter minesweepers and destroyers intercepted
flying along the coast of central South deep-water traffic. US Navy surveillance
Vietnam spotted a NorthVietnamese aircraft patrolled the waters beyond.
trawler unloading arms and ammunition
at Vung Ro Bay—the first tangible The effect of Market Time on the
evidence that NorthVietnam was using Communist supply lines was profound.
open sea routes to supply Communist Out of 50 North Vietnamese trawlers
insurgents in South Vietnam.The US that attempted the run south between
Navy responded to the incident by 1965 and 1972, US forces captured or
launching Market Time, a major coastal destroyed 49. Communist forces almost
patrol operation designed to cut the entirely abandoned the coastal route in
open–water supply lines between North favor of the inland Ho Chi Minh Trail.
and South Vietnam.

336

US WORLD WAR II AIRCRAFT CARRIER

USS LEXINGTON

THE FIRST AIRCRAFT CARRIER to bear the name Lexington was sunk at the Coral Sea Forward Radar mast Superstructure
in 1942.The name was transferred to a new fleet carrier commissioned in 1943, which flight deck Bridge Flight deck
played a prominent part in the battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf. Lexington
remained in service until 1991, making her the longest serving carrier in the US Navy. Fantail

KNOWN AS THE “BLUE GHOST” because of her modernization in the 1950s. By the time she was Anchor Port elevator Rudder
dark blue paint scheme, Lexington operated some decommissioned in 1991, Lexington was the oldest Forward elevator Superstucture Starboard elevator
80 aircraft during World War II. The ship had the working aircraft carrier in the US Navy. She is
standard layout for a World War II carrier, with now a museum ship at Corpus Christi, Texas. Forward flight deck Port elevator Angled
an island superstructure offset to starboard and Deck overrun flight deck
aircraft taking off and landing along a straight The Blue Ghost
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES flight deck stretching from the stern to the bow. At her permanent mooring in Corpus Christi, Texas, the Forward elevator Port elevator Gallery deck Hangar deck
With the aid of a steam-operated catapult and floodlit shape of the Lexington, affectionately nicknamed
an arrestor cable, aircraft could take off and land the “Blue Ghost,” can be seen from around the bay. Hangar deck Aft engine room
using half the length of the flight deck, leaving Hold Forward engine room Fantail
the rest free for shifting planes up from and
down to the hangars on lifts. If a landing went USS Lexington
wrong, only a crash barrier prevented an aircraft The second Essex-class aircraft carrier to be commissioned, Lexington
piling into planes being marshalled on the deck. is 910 ft (275 m) long. She can carry enough fuel in her tanks to sail
After the war, carriers were designed with a nonstop for a distance of 30,000 miles (50,000 km).
landing deck angled to port, so that if anything
went wrong the landing pilot could accelerate
off and come round for a second try. Lexington
was given an angled flight deck during extensive

Superstructure
The island superstructure is the ship’s command-and-control center. The
radar mast carries six different radar systems as well as radio antennas
and other equipment. Below this, the island houses the bridge, pilot-
house, radar room, flight control center, and other key command areas.

Whaler MK11 Life rafts
Suspended from the starboard aft edge of the flight Two rigid, puncture-proof life rafts known as Carley
deck, the lightweight 26 ft (8 m) long Mk11 Whaler floats are fixed to the starboard side of the island.
motorboat was used to ferry personnel to shore. It In case of emergency, the lightweight rafts could be
could carry up to 22 passengers. launched simply by casting them into the water.

Pilots are the weapon of this force.
Pilots are the things you have to
nurture. Pilots are the people you
have to tr ain … you have to tr ain
other people to support the pilots.

ADMIRAL MARC MITSCHER, 8DBB6C9:G D; ;6HI 86GG>:G I6H@ ;DG8: *- DC LEXINGTON! &.)&

3-in anti-aircraft gun
Lexington was fitted with a range of light 20-mm
and 40-mm anti-aircraft guns (and several 5-in dual-
purpose guns). Most of the light anti-aircraft guns were
removed during Lexington’s extensive 1955 refit and
replaced with heavier 3-in guns such as this one.

40-mm Bofors anti-aircraft gun
The Bofors 40-mm gun was the US Navy’s standard anti-
aircraft weapon during World War II. Lexington carried
15 Bofors 40-mm quad mounts, each with four guns. Each
quad mount required a crew of 10 men to load and operate it.

Navigation and flag bridges
The windows of the navigation bridge (where the
captain commands the ship) and the flag bridge
(where the admiral commands the fleet) enjoy a
panoramic view over the surrounding area. Above
the navigation bridge the mast bristles with radar.

Catwalks Skyhawk Air defense
Suspended walkways An A-4 Skyhawk Marine aircraft The Mk37 Fire-Control
known as catwalks run on Lexington’s flight deck. The Director, one of several
down the sides of the Skyhawk entered service in air defense radar on
deck, giving the crew 1956 and was the US Navy’s board the carrier, could
a way to move around primary light bomber during the track and respond to
the carrier without early years of the Vietnam War. incoming air threats.
crossing the busy and
dangerous flight decks. Flight deck status lights Warning notice
The carrier flight deck was an A notice on the side of
extremely busy and hazardous the island reminds deck
place to work. The flight deck crews about some of
status lights were used to show the dangers of working
a clear, caution, or warning status on a busy flight deck.
to the flight deck personnel.

Life-raft pods
Each of the barrel-shaped pods suspended off the starboard side of
the flight deck contains a 15-man life raft. In the event of the ship
sinking, hydrostatic devices inside would release the pods from their
mountings and carry them to the surface, inflating the rafts.

below decks Bridge indicators
The bridge is fitted with a range
of instruments, including this wind
speed and direction indicator and
the equipment for the bridge officers
to talk to other areas of the ship.

LEXINGTON HAD A complement of 2,600 officers Navigation bridge
and men, berthed in generally spartan conditions. High in the island superstructure, with slanted
Lexington represented a step forward from earlier windows to reduce the glare, the navigation
carriers in some respects, however, notably the bridge was the main command center of the
comfort of its pilot’s briefing room. Much space ship. The large device in the center of the
below deck was devoted to the stowage of aircraft. bridge is the navigational radar monitor.
The operation of aircraft in the confined space of
a ship inevitably led to accidents, such as gruesome Port engine control panel
encounters between men and propellers. Eight steam boilers powered the ship’s
four Westinghouse steam turbine engines.
Control panels in each of the two engine
rooms were used to control the turbine
pressures and operate the engines.

Pilothouse
Situated behind the bridge, the pilothouse is
where the ship would have been steered and
its speed controlled. In the center of the room
stand the engine order telegraph, helm wheel,
and magnetic compass.

Pilot’s ready room
The air-conditioned ready rooms were where
pilots and air crew were briefed prior to their
missions. Foldaway desks allowed the airmen
to make notes during briefings.

Engine control panel Air Operations room
Numerous dials, switches, and gauges Planning and coordination for flight
were used to indicate the turbine operations took place in the Air Ops
pressures and operate the ship’s engines. room. The plot board listed all the
day’s flying schedules.
Hangar division doors
Heavy hangar doors divided the main hangar Tow truck
into bays, helping to limit the damage from With so many planes to move
fired or explosions within individual bays. around the hangars, tow trucks
Each door section weighs over eight tons. were an indispensable piece of
the ship’s equipment.

339

Surgery room Female berthing
Lexington was equipped with Lexington was the first US Navy
extensive medical facilities. ship to have women serving on
As well as this operating board. A sign at the entrance
room, the ship also had a of the female berthing area
triage emergency room, a indicates the protocol expected
dentist’s office, a diagnostics from male crewmen entering
laboratory, an X-ray room, the women’s living quarters.
and a prosthetics lab.
Captain’s galley
There were separate 1918 – PRESENT
galleys and messes for
the enlisted men and
officers. The captain
had his own galley
which was used to
make meals for the
captain and his guests.

Bed pans Sick bay Admiral’s quarters
This set of bed pans and “piss pots” The sick bay was located below the hangar The rooms reserved for the admiral,
in the ship’s sick bay was designed deck, a common site for accidents. Beds when he was on board, were
with utility in mind. could be raised to make room for stretchers. comfortable but by no means lavish.

Soup kettles Galley ovens Captain’s “at sea” cabin
With more than 2,000 enlisted The ship’s ovens are much larger In addition to a well-appointed stateroom and dining area
men on board, feeding the crew than normal, and there are lots of on the gallery deck, the captain also had a small “at sea
was a 24-hour operation. These them. The size of the ship meant cabin” nearer the bridge. The room is furnished with a small
gigantic soup kettles, like much that feeding the crew was more like bathroom, a table and chair, and a bed with raised sides to
of the kitchen equipment, were feeding a small city than a regular keep the captain from rolling out during rough weather.
made out of stainless steel for ship. The ovens, like the rest of the
ease of cleaning and maintenance. galley, were in constant use. Crew shelter and food service area
Small shelters around the ship provided areas for the
gun crews to relax while remaining close to their guns
in case of emergencies. Though sparsely furnished,
the rooms provided a refuge from bad weather and
a place to unwind and eat in comparative safety.

340 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

the falklands war

ARGENTINA LAUNCHED A MILITARY campaign to invade and occupy frigates.A submarine force was sent to keep the Argentinian navy away from
South Georgia and the Falkland Islands, disputed British possessions an “exclusion zone” around the islands.As the task force drew closer to the
in the South Atlantic, on March 19, 1982. The British opted to Falklands in early May, both sides suffered naval losses.The aging Argentinian
retake the islands by military force, which it achieved by mid-June.The cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by a submarine while the Royal Navy lost a
British victory was made possible by the rapid deployment of a naval task destroyer to air attack from land-based aircraft. On May 21 British troops
force across 8,000 miles (12,900 km) of Atlantic Ocean.The task force landed at San Carlos, but air attacks intensified.Argentinian forces on the
consisted of two small carriers, Hermes and Invincible, operating Harrier jump- Falklands surrendered on June 14, but it proved a close-run conflict. British
jets, and ships carrying troops and equipment, screened by destroyers and losses were high, with 15 ships either sunk or badly damaged.

The sinking of HMS Antelope
On May 24, while on air defense duty at the
entrance to San Carlos Water, the British
frigate HMS Antelope was attacked and
sunk by two Argentine A-4 Skyhawk jets.

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES landings at san carlos water

THE FALKLANDS WAR The landing of British troops on the The naval forces, however, were still was strafed; and the Leander Class
Falklands began on May 21, initiating fighting for their lives.Argentinian air frigate Argonaut was crippled in the
SAN CARLOS LANDINGS the most intensive phase of the air-sea attacks began two hours after first light water by multiple bomb strikes.Worse
conflict.The Royal Navy positioned on May 21, the principal attackers still, the Type 21 frigate Ardent was hit
Date May 21–25, 1982 its destroyers and frigates in Falkland being Skyhawk and Mirage fighters by two 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs and
Location San Carlos Water, off East Falkland Island Sound to intercept air attacks with their flying low-level bombing and strafing sank.The only compensation was that
Result British victory missile defenses, while the carriers runs from bases on the Argentine the Argentine air force had lost 16
Hermes and Invincible, operating far mainland.The British ships replied aircraft during the first day’s fighting,
COMBATANTS to the east for fear of Exocet missile with machine gun and cannon fire, as an unsustainable daily loss.
attack, flew off Sea Harriers to provide well as numerous Sea Slug, Sea Cat,
BRITAIN ARGENTINA a combat air patrol.The amphibious and Sea Wolf missiles—although many It was the beginning of a difficult
assault began at dawn with 4,000 men of the missiles suffered technical week for the British naval forces
COMMANDERS being landed by a variety of amphibious failures.The County-Class destroyer around San Carlos Water.The frigate
ships around San Carlos bay.Within 24 Antrim was hit by a dud bomb that Antelope was sunk on May 24 and on
hours the beachhead had been secured knocked out her surface-to-air missile May 25 the destroyer Coventry and
and the land campaign had begun. systems; the Type 22 frigate Brilliant frigate Broadsword were attacked by
waves of A-4 Skyhawks in Falkland

John “Sandy” Ernesto Crespo,

Woodward Juan Lombardo

FORCES I was two decks down and could see no way out. The
smoke was suffocating and the doors were blocked
Ships: c.100 vessels Aircraft: c.110 attack by fire. I was calm and prepared to die.
aircraft
CAPTAIN DAVID HART DYKE! 9:H8G>7>C< I=: H>C@>C< D; I=: =BH COVENTRY DC B6N '*! &.-'
LOSSES

Ships: 1 destroyer, 2 Aircraft: 103
frigates, 1 container ship Men: unknown
Men: 53

THE FALKLANDS WAR 341

1932–PRESENT THE FALKLANDS WAR Silent hunter
HMS Conqueror is the only nuclear-powered
john “sandy” SINKING OF THE submarine to have sunk an enemy ship using
BELGRANO torpedoes, and one of only two to have sunk
woodward an enemy warship since World War II.
Date May 2, 1982
SENIOR COMMANDER OF Forces British: 1 submarine; safe from attack.The British
THE SOUTH ATLANTIC TASK FORCE Argentine: 1 cruiser authorities, however, decided that
Losses British: none; the Belgrano did pose a serious
After joining the Royal Navy at the age Argentine: 1 cruiser threat to the British Task Force.
of just 13, John “Sandy”Woodward spent It was directing aircraft attack
most of his early career on submarines, Location South of Falkland missions and carried a powerful
where he gained his first command, the Islands, South Atlantic array of long-range and anti-
submarine Warspite, in 1969. Promoted aircraft guns. On May 2 the
to rear admiral in 1981, the following The sinking of the Argentine cruiser order came from London that
year he was given command of the General Belgrano remains one of the the Belgrano was to be sunk.The
British Task Force sent to the Falklands. most controversial incidents of the tool for this job was the nuclear-
Woodward received a knighthood for Falklands War. By April 30, when the powered submarine Conqueror,
his service during the war, finishing his Belgrano’s presence was first registered which had been shadowing the
career as a full admiral. by British surveillance, the Royal Navy enemy cruiser since April 30.
had established a circular exclusion When she received the order to
zone around the Falkland Islands with attack, Conqueror closed to firing 800 lb (364 kg) of Torpex explosive,
a radius of 230 miles (370 km).The range at 3:57 p.m. on May 2, firing hit the cruiser and detonated, ripping
Belgrano, accompanied by two Argentine three Mark 8 mod 4 torpedoes.These open her hull and killing around 275
destroyers, was actually 40 miles (64 were old, unguided weapons compared men.Within 20 minutes the Belgrano’s
km) outside this exclusion zone and to the modern Tigerfish homing crew were abandoning ship; many men
might therefore have been considered torpedoes the Conquerer also had on would float in the South Atlantic for
board at the time, but there were some several days, some surviving, some not.
Mark 8 torpedo concerns about the Tigerfish’s reliability. In total 321 men out of the Belgrano’s
Despite carrying modern Mark 24 Tigerfish Two of the torpedoes, each carrying crew of 1,000 died in the attack.
torpedoes, HMS Conqueror opted to use
the much older but more reliable Mark 8
torpedo to attack the ARA Belgrano.

THE FALKLANDS WAR WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY 1918 – PRESENT

SINKING OF THE modern air defense systems
SHEFFIELD
Hostile aircraft armed with anti-ship missiles are one
Date May 4–10,1982 of the most potent threats to modern warships. As a
Forces English: 1 destroyer; response, navies tend to use three levels of onboard
Argentine: 2 aircraft air defense technology. First are the electronic
Losses English: 1 destroyer; countermeasures (ECM) suites dedicated to jamming
Argentine: none missile homing systems, or the radar systems of the
attack aircraft themselves. ECM might include chaff
Sound. Broadsword was hit by a bomb Location Off Port and radar-jamming equipment, but these pose no
that failed to explode; Coventry was not Stanley, Falkland Islands real danger to the aircraft itself. The second level is
so lucky.The destroyer was hit by three more aggressive, and consists of automated missile
bombs, two of which exploded.The On May 4, the British Type 42 or gun defense systems. These are linked to fire-
operations room was devastated, killing guided-missile destroyer HMS Sheffield control systems that can automatically acquire the
or injuring most senior officers. was on defensive station off the targets and fire either a guided missile or, in the
Another victim was the transport ship Falkland Islands when her aging radar case of gun systems like the US Phalanx, deliver
Atlantic Conveyor, sunk by an Exocet systems picked up what appeared to be hails of radar-aimed cannon
missile that ironically had been inbound missiles, although no launch or machine-gun fire. The
diverted from its original warship aircraft were detected.Two Exocet final, and most basic, level
target by the successful use of chaff. anti-ship missiles had however been of air defense is provided
launched by Argentine Super Etendard by optically aimed machine
Nonetheless, May 25 proved to be aircraft, and only a few seconds after guns and cannon. Even the most
something of a turning point for the their detection, one of the missiles modern vessels often have pintle mounts
British ships around the Falklands.With struck the HMS Sheffield amidships. for machine-guns dotted around the
the Argentine air force unable to sustain The missile started a raging fire that ship’s rails, and these can provide a
its daily losses, British forces were able could not be extinguished because of last-ditch method of air defense.
to establish a degree of air superiority the destruction of many of the ship’s
over San Carlos Water. The Harrier fire-control systems in the initial Phalanx anti-missile system
jets performed outstandingly, shooting impact. Eventually the captain gave the The US Navy’s Phalanx close-in
down 32 aircraft for the loss of five of order for the ship to be abandoned— weapon system (CIWS) uses an
their own—none in air-to-air combat. 21 men had been killed.The stricken automated radar and fire-control
Thereafter the Argentine air force was ship was towed out to sea and scuttled system to track incoming anti-
able to make only brief assaults, though on May 10.The sinking of the Sheffield ship missiles and destroy them
it would claim many more British lives was the first major loss for the British with its M61 Vulcan cannon.
during the attack on the landing ship Task Force around the Falklands—and
Sir Galahad at Port Fitzroy on June 8. the first Royal Navy vessel to be sunk
in battle for almost 40 years.

342 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

regional conflicts

ALTHOUGH MOST CONFLICTS since 1945 have been largely restricted systems and electronic countermeasures in actual combat situations. In this
to land warfare, the “war in peace” has nonetheless featured some capacity they often had a formative role in the development of naval weaponry
major regional naval engagements. Significant naval actions by the major Western and Soviet bloc powers.The diversity of postwar
occured, for example, around the troubled Middle Eastern region during regional naval engagements has also been impressive, and has ranged from
the Arab-Israeli wars of the 1960s and 70s, and in the waters around the gunboat missile actions through to well-organized suicide bombings and
Indian subcontinent during the later decade.The navies involved in these carrier aircraft attacks. Sheer cost has limited the capacity of many regional
engagements have not been the world’s largest by any means, but in many powers to maintain navies in recent years, but investment in modern weapons
cases they were pioneers in testing out modern ship-versus-ship weapon technology has enabled them to remain a potent threat to far larger forces.

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES ARAB-ISRAELI WARS On October 21, 1967, the Eilat The Eilat was the first ship
was on a routine patrol of the Sinai to be sunk in battle by a
SINKING OF THE EILAT coastline, which took her some 15 ship-launched anti-ship
miles (25 km) from the Egyptian city missile. It was a huge blow to
Date October 21, 1967 of Port Said, when she suddenly came the Israeli navy and led to a
Forces Israelis: 1 destroyer; under attack from an Egyptian Komar- major review of Israeli naval
Egyptians: 2 missile boats class missile boat. The boat fired a strategy. The resulting focus
Losses Israelis: 1 destroyer; Russian-built SS-N-2 Styx anti-ship on fast, missile-armed boats
Egyptians: none missile that struck the Eilat, destroying and missile countermeasures
her communications and powerplant. would reap major benefits
Location Off Egyptian The Eilat was attacked again 90 minutes for the Israeli navy six years
coastline, near Port Said later, receiving another missile strike later at Latakia.
that caused her magazine to detonate.
Prior to her sale to Israel in 1955, the The crew abandoned ship, but many Styx anti-ship missile
Eilat had seen service in World War II were wounded in the water when one A fast missile boat launches a Soviet
as the British Z-Class destroyer HMS of the ship’s depth charges exploded. SS-N-2 Styx missile of the type that
Zealous. Renamed Eilat, she enjoyed a A total of 47 Israeli sailors were killed. sunk the Israeli destroyer INS Eilat.
long operational record, including the
sinking of two Egyptian vessels.

the battle of latakia

The battle of Latakia was a milestone On October 6, Egyptian forces launched boats, Israeli commanders decided ship missiles, but since the Israeli
in postwar naval engagements—never a surprise eastward thrust across the Suez to mount a preemptive naval strike, Gabriel—which had yet to be used in
before had anti-ship missiles and missile- Canal against Israeli forces in the Sinai. sending six Saar-class corvettes to draw battle—had only half the range of the
jamming technology been pitted against Syria made a simultaneous attack from the Syrian missile boats out of their Styx, the crews would have to rely on
one another in open combat.The the north across the Golan Heights. In harbor at Latakia and destroy them. newly developed, and still unproven,
context of the battle was the opening an attempt to check the potential threat The Syrian vessels posed a realistic threat electronic countermeasures (ECM).
actions of the 1973 Yom Kippur War. to Israeli ships from Syrian missile to Israeli shipping.They were armed These consisted of two principal
with the same SS-N-2 Styx anti-ship elements: chaff dispensers to fill the
Israeli missile boat missiles that had sunk the Israeli air with metallic strips, clouding
A group of Saar 4-class Israeli destroyer Eilat in 1967.The Israeli the incoming missile’s target picture;
missile boats of the type used warships were also armed with anti- and jamming systems designed to
at Latakia. The side of one of confuse the missile’s tracking system.
the Gabriel missile launchers At Latakia both systems would be tested
is just visible at the stern. for the first time against real threats.

MISSILE DUEL

Contact was made quickly as the six
Israeli missile boats approached Latakia.
An offshore Syrian P-4 torpedo boat
was picked up on radar, and the Israeli
corvette Hanit moved to engage her,
sinking the boat with long-range gunfire.
Assuming that the Syrian torpedo boat
had reported their presence off Latakia,
the Israeli boats waited for new threats
to emerge.The radar soon threw up
another contact, a Syrian T-43
minesweeper to the northeast.This
time Reshef peeled off to deal with her,
hitting the ship with a Gabriel missile at
a range of 11 miles (18 km). Reshef
rejoined the main group, now coming
within Styx missile range of Latakia.

At this point the Syrians responded
in earnest.Three Syrian missile boats

REGIONAL CONFLICTS 343

WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY

Anti-ship missiles and missile defense

Although anti-ship missiles were trialed to some degree during ship-launched missile systems plus, in many cases, electronic Sea Sparrow
World War II, it was only during the late 1950s and 1960s that they countermeasures (ECM) to combat enemy missile threats. Among Fitted on board many US and
began to challenge gunnery as the primary weapon of combat vessels. the more effective anti-ship missiles developed in the 1980s, the NATO warships, the RIM-7
Pioneering missiles such as the SS-N-2 Styx proved their worth in Exocet gained particular notoriety in its air-launched form during Sea Sparrow is a lightweight,
action, most notably sinking the Israeli destroyer Eilat in 1967, and the Falklands War. Most such missiles use active radar or infrared radar-guided missile system
homing systems, and some of the longer-range examples can hit targets used to provide point defense
inspired the US Navy to develop its own Harpoon missile well over 62 miles (100 km) away. Even terrorist units have used against air attack, incoming
during the 1970s. By the 1980s all major world missiles against ships—in 2006 a Hezbollah unit hit and damaged an missiles, or small surface craft.
navies had equipped themselves with Israeli corvette with a Chinese-made C-802 missile.

Excocet MM38 ship-launched missile
The French-built Exocet missile is designed to target
large warships—the Type-42 destroyer HMS Sheffield
was sunk by an Exocet during the Falklands War.

(two Komar class and one Osa class) INDO-PAKISTAN WAR SRI LANKAN CIVIL WAR on October 20, 2006, the Sri Lankan 1918 – PRESENT
moved out from harbor and fired their navy destroyed nine rebel boats and
Styx missiles, well beyond the range of 1971 INDO- SRI LANKA AND reportedly killed over 170 Tamil Tiger
the Gabriels.As the missiles approached insurgents.The Sea Tigers have an
the Israelis deployed their jamming PAKISTAN WAR THE SEA TIGERS advanced structure and logistical
systems and chaff—both worked, and network. Freighters are used to bring
the missiles splashed harmlessly into the Date December 3–16, 1971 Date 1984–present in supplies, which are transferred to
sea.The Israelis now closed to range, and Forces Indians: c.100 ships; Forces Sri Lankans: c.50 combat, shore in the fast patrol boats.They
a missile exchange ensued in which all Pakistanis: c.40 ships support, and patrol vessels in also have their own version of Special
three Syrian boats were destroyed. Losses Indians: 1 frigate; 2008; Sea Tigers: unknown Forces—frogmen using rebreather
Pakistanis: 1 destroyer, Losses Sri Lankans: 30 gunboats, apparatus have made attacks on
ARAB-ISRAELI WARS 1 minesweeper, 1 submarine, 1 freighter; Sea Tigers: unknown shipping, in one case sinking a freighter
4 patrol boats at the Kankesanturai naval base.With
Location Off coast of Location Off coast of these capabilities, the Sea Tigers are
East Pakistan and Karachi Sri Lanka likely to be a thorn in the side of the
Sri Lankan navy for years to come.
The two week-war between India and The Sea Tigers are the naval element
THE BATTLE OF LATAKIA Pakistan over the separatist movement of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam,
that led to the creation of Bangladesh, or Tamil Tigers, an insurgency force
Date October 7, 1973 featured some of the largest naval conducting a longstanding war aimed
Location Off the port of Latakia, Syria engagements seen in Asia since World at creating a separatist Tamil state in
Result Israeli victory War II.The priority for the Indian navy northern Sri Lanka.The naval force
was to stop the flow of supplies between was founded in the mid-1980s, and
COMBATANTS East and West Pakistan.The Indian went on to specialize in speedboat
aircraft carrier Vikrant was dispatched suicide attacks, fast patrol boat assaults,
ISRAEL SYRIA to blockade the port of Chittagong in and small-scale amphibious landings.
East Pakistan, its Sea Hawk aircraft In these tactics they have been notably
COMMANDERS seriously damaging the harbor facilities. successful—at the time of writing the
The Pakistani submarine Ghazi, sent Sea Tigers have sunk over 30 Sri
Benjamin Telem Fuad Abu Zikry to oppose the Vikrant, was sunk, Lankan gunboats and one freighter.
possibly by Indian depth charges. On They have also proved elusive
FORCES December 3, India launched a night- opponents—following an operation,
time attack on Karachi harbor in West the small craft are generally brought
Ships: 6 missile boats Ships: 3 missile boats, Pakistan, sinking a destroyer and ashore and hidden in the jungle on
1 torpedo boat, 1 crippling several other vessels. trailers.They have experienced
minesweeper setbacks, however. In one engagement
The short conflict confirmed the
LOSSES superiority of the Indian navy. India lost Sea Tiger suicide vessel
only one major vessel, the former Sea Tiger suicide soldiers—known as Black Tigers—
Men: none Men: unknown British frigate Khukri, torpedoed by ride a patrol boat through shallow waters near the
Ships: none Ships: 3 missile boats, a Pakistani submarine, and largely rebel-controlled town of Mullathivu in 2005.
1 torpedo boat, 1 achieved its goal of a naval blockade.
minesweeper

344 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

middle east and terrorism

SINCE THE END of World War II the Middle East has been both attacks on NewYork in September 2001 and the subsequent US-led “War on
a flashpoint for conventional conflicts and a breeding ground for Terror,” tensions in the Middle East remained high.The invasion of Taliban-
terrorism. Much of the impulse for this has derived from the controlled Afghanistan and the ongoing conflict in Iraq mean that foreign
particular political and historical conditions in the region—questions of land, troops continue to be deployed throughout the region. In all these conflicts,
oil, nationhood, and religion.The other great catalyst for war has been the the waters of the Gulf have been a critical battle zone. Controlling the
relations between Iraq and the wider world.The Iran-Iraq War led to around shipping lanes through this vital oil-producing region remains essential,
one million deaths in the 1980s, and generated many of the political hence the United States Navy still maintains a forceful presence in the region,
conditions that led to the Gulf War of 1990–91. Following the terrorist guarding against terrorist and conventional foe alike.

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES OPERATION PRAYING MANTIS the hull.The mines were identified from WITNESS TO WAR
their serial numbers as Iranian.With the
PRAYING MANTIS United States committed to keeping the Commander Bud Langston
Gulf navigable for Kuwaiti oil tankers,
Date April 18, 1988 a strong US reaction was inevitable. A-6 INTRUDER PILOT DURING THE ATTACK ON IRANIAN FRIGATE SABALAN
Forces Americans: 10 ships; OPERATION PRAYING MANTIS
Iranians: 13 ships US RETALIATION
Losses Americans: 1 helicopter; “My bombardier-navigator was looking at this (Iranian ship) on our
Iranians: 3 speedboats, 1 frigate, The American response was codenamed forward looking infrared and it certainly matched the silhouette that
2 oil platforms damaged Operation Praying Mantis. Commanded we’re looking for. So we made a high speed dive right down to on
by Rear-Admiral Anthony A. Less, top of the water a couple miles behind the ship and as we approached
Location Praying Mantis had as its main objective the ship opened fire on us and that gave a pretty good idea it wasn’t
Persian Gulf the destruction of Iranian oil platforms a friendly ... she clearly had the number of the Sabalan and tracers
in the Gulf by amphibiously deployed were going over the canopy from its anti-aircraft guns and shoulder
On April 14, 1988, the US Perry class US Marine and SEAL units. As a by-
frigate Samuel B. Roberts was patrolling product, it was hoped that this would fired weapons and rounds were going off all around the canopy.”
the Gulf waters off Qatar when it draw Iranian warships into the Gulf
spotted three naval mines in the water. waters, where they could be destroyed and Sirri oil platforms. Resistance was missiles.The Iranians now committed
In its attempt to evade the devices the by the US surface vessels plus carrier first crushed by naval gunfire, then their most significant naval vessels—the
ship hit a fourth mine that detonated, Marines were dropped by helicopter frigates Sahand and Sabalan. Sahand went
injuring 10 and blowing open the side of aircraft flying from onto the platforms, where they placed first, but was intercepted by aircraft and
the Enterprise. demolition charges and left. destroyed by three Harpoon missiles and
four laser-guided bombs.The Sabalan
The attack was The Iranian navy responded in force. was crippled by a single bomb dropped
launched on April It sent out a group of armed Boghammar down its funnel; the US aircraft and
18 when two units speedboats, though three of these were ships then left it dead in the water.
of destroyers, quickly sunk by bombing runs from US
frigates, and A-6E Intruder aircraft.A Kaman-class Operation Praying Mantis, the largest
amphibious ships fast attack craft was similarly despatched US military engagement since the end
assaulted the Sassan by Harpoon missiles and naval gunfire. of World War II, dealt a major blow to
Two Iranian F-4 fighters made a run at the Iranian navy and to Iranian pride.
Sassan oil platform the guided-missile cruiser Wainwright, US losses amounted to two men killed
US Marines inspect an anti- but were scared off when Wainwright in a helicopter crash, an unusually light
aircraft gun on one of the replied with Standard surface-to-air toll for such a high-risk mission.
two Iranian oil platforms
destroyed during Operation
Praying Mantis.

WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY

mark 45 gun

Although naval cannon have been largely superceded by guided

missiles as the primary anti-ship and anti-aircraft defense on modern

warships, the fully-automated Mark 45 proves that there is still a role

for a fast and accurate lightweight naval gun. First developed in the

1960s by BAE Systems, the 5-in Mark 45 has gone on to become the

principal lightweight naval gun of the US Navy and several other

navies worldwide. Aboard US ships the Mark 45 is controlled by the

Mark 86 Gun Fire Control System or the Mark 160 Gun Computing

System, both of which give rapid automated target acquisition and fire

control. The gun is fed by an automatic loading system that can fuel

automatic rates of fire of up to 20 rounds per minute, and the gun can

engage naval, land, or even (with air burst shells) aerial targets.

Although most Mark 45s have a range of about 15 miles

(24 km), the latest Mod 4 version has a greater velocity Lightweight naval artillery

and, with advanced rocket-assisted, satellite-guided The guided-missile destroyer
ammunition, a range of up to 71 miles (115 km). The USS Forrest Sherman fires a
qualities of the Mark 45 will doubtless keep it in rocket-assisted 5-in shell from
service for many more years to come. her Mk-45 Mod-4 gun during
exercises in the Atlantic.

345

Shore bombardment
The USS Wisconsin fires one
of her nine 16-in guns at
an Iraqi shore target during
Operation Desert Storm.

FIRST GULF WAR 1918 – PRESENT

the first gulf war

THE FIRST GULF WAR The Gulf War of 1990–91 was a massive You’d fly along the road, looking
naval operation as well as a major air for something. It was unbelievable,
Date August 2,1990–April 11, 1991 and land campaign.At the time of the number of targets available.
Location The Gulf, Red Sea, Kuwait, and Iraq Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait
Result Coalition victory on August 2, 1990, the US Navy, Royal CAPTAIN ANDREW HALL! B6G>C: 6K"-7 =6GG>:G E>ADI 9JG>C< ;>GHI <JA; L6G
Navy, Saudi Arabia, and others already
COMBATANTS had significant naval assets on station.
Once Operation Desert Shield—the
US-LED COALITION IRAQ Coalition operation for the protection
of Saudi Arabia—was implemented, the
COMMANDERS naval presence expanded enormously. On January 17, 1991, Desert Shield attacks. In total, US Navy and Marine
turned into Operation Desert Storm, Corps pilots flew some 30,000 sorties
Stanley R. Arthur Saddam Hussein The US had to provide naval logistics and the shooting war began with a heavy, from the US carriers during the war.
Norman Schwartzkopf for a swelling land army—during the prolonged air attack on Iraq’s forces and
first six months of Desert Shield sealift infrastructure. Desert Storm opened DENOUEMENT
FORCES accounted for over 2 million tons of with naval vessels launching Tomahawk
supplies shipped ashore.Two carrier cruise missiles at key targets throughout Out at sea there were skirmishes with
Ships: c.150 combat and Ships: c.80 military battlegroups (centered on Eisenhower Iraq, destroying much of Saddam’s Iraqi craft. Lynx helicopters from Royal
logistical ships, including vessels, mostly gunboats and Independence) were on station by command-and-control structure.The Navy vessels destroyed 15 Iraqi vessels,
6 US carrier battlegroups and missile boats August 8, providing huge offshore air carrier groups in the Gulf and Red Sea including minesweepers and patrol boats,
capability. Four more carrier battlegroups then contributed naval and Marine air using anti-ship missiles. US vessels
LOSSES and several surface warfare battlegroups assets to the Coalition air campaign, wrecked Iraqi positions atop several oil
would soon join them, including two destroying vast amounts of Iraqi platforms, while naval aircraft took out
Men: 64 US Marines and Men: unknown battleships (Wisconsin and Missouri).The military material and killing many Iraqi minelayers.When the land offensive
US Navy personnel Ships: unknown Coalition also enforced a naval embargo, thousands of Iraqi troops. Navy E6-AB opened, not only did Coalition marine
Ships: none resulting in hundreds of stop-and-search forces take leading roles, but US naval
operations in Gulf waters: by January Prowler ECM aircraft also played units conducted simulated amphibious
Sea Skua anti-ship missile 1991 the US Navy had conducted 6,221 a critical role in jamming Iraqi landings off the Kuwaiti coast to hold
The British Sea Skua radar-guided anti-ship challenges and 749 boardings. air defenses to open a the attention of Iraqi coastal troops, who
missile was first used in the Falklands War. door for strike aircraft were actually being outflanked from

A total of 26 missiles were fired behind.The US battleships
during the First Gulf War, delivered huge offshore
sinking 11 Iraqi vessels. bombardments. By
February 27, offensive
operations had effectively
ceased and Kuwait was
back in Kuwaiti hands.

346 POSTWAR CONFLICTS

ATTACK ON USS COLE system.The Middle East was a Waterline blast sailing through the Gulf and diverted to
potentially dangerous part of the world A gaping 35 ft (10.6 m) hole mars the side of provide medical and engineering aid.
ATTACK ON for the ship and its crew, but Aden was USS Cole. The ship was carried back to the US A force of US Marines arrived shortly
classed as a relatively safe harbor.The for repairs aboard a heavy transport ship. afterward to provide additional security.
THE USS COLE ship had been refuelling for some
50 minutes when, at 11:18 a.m., The explosion ripped open the port The bombing was planned by the
Date October 12, 2000 a speedboat made an approach to the side of the Cole; its force was Al-Qaeda terrorist group and carried out
Forces Americans: 1 destroyer; port side of the destroyer, piloted by directed into the galley area, where by operatives most likely acting with the
terrorists: 1 suicide boat two men.The vessel seemed to present many men where lining up to eat, support of Sudanese officials.The US
Losses Americans: 1 destroyer no threat; indeed, many of the US killing 17 and injuring another 39. Navy subsequently changed its rules of
damaged; terrorists: 1 suicide sailors thought that it was the local engagement—which had prevented the
boat sunk garbage collection boat.Yet on board AFTERMATH ship’s guards firing on the approaching
the speedboat was a large boat—to protect US vessels from similar
Location Port of quantity of explosives, Although the keel of the vessel attacks. Nonetheless, the bombing was
Aden, Yemen which the suicide was not significantly damaged, water a grim reminder of the vulnerability
bombers then poured into the ship through the open of modern warships, however well
On October 12, 2000, the Arleigh detonated hull, and it took the whole day to defended against conventional attack, to
Burke-class guided-missile destroyer against the bring the flooding under control. The small vessels posing as non-combatants.
USS Cole made a routine refueling side of first naval assistance to the Cole came
stop in Aden Harbor,Yemen.The Cole the ship. in from the Royal Navy Type-23
was a very new addition to the US frigate HMS Marlborough, which was
Navy arsenal. She had been launched
in 1996 and was equipped with the USS Cole limps home
latest Aegis integrated guided weapons The damaged destroyer is towed out
of Aden by a Military Sealift Command
CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES tug before returning to the United
States for repairs lasting 14 months.

“WAR ON TERROR” the early part of the campaign, therefore, aviation combat elements to support its example, deployed Marine helicopters
air support was almost exclusively ground forces on operations, deploying from the amphibious assault ships Peleliu
INVASION OF provided by US Navy and Marine Corps from FOBs established since the invasion. and Boxer.The US Navy and USMC
AFGHANISTAN aviation operating from carrier battle continue to provide support operations
groups in the Gulf.The attack sorties US Marine and Navy aircraft were to ground troops, particularly as the
Date 2001– ran in over Pakistan (Iran was, and also integral to the invasion itself.The US Marine Corps has been so heavily
Forces Coalition forces: remains, prohibited airspace) to bomb Marine Corps force that established in demand for the ground fighting.
unknown; Afghans: none enemy bunkers and positions, the great the first strategic base in Afghanistan, for
Losses Coalition forces: none; distance to the inland target leaving scant
Afghans: none time for loitering over the target.
Only once the US Air Force began
Location Persian Gulf deploying heavy bombers to Diego
and Afghanistan Garcia, a British overseas territory in
the Indian Ocean, did responsibility for
The invasion of Afghanistan by US, UK, the attacks become shared.Today the
and Coalition forces in 2001—named US Marine Corps (USMC) deploys
Operation Enduring Freedom—
presented significant problems in terms 9-11 Let’s Roll
of air support.Afghanistan is a land- Crew members assemble on the deck of amphibious
locked country with no substantial assault ship USS Belleau Wood to remember the
infrastructure, hence there was little in September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York,
the way of Forward Operating Bases the catalyst for the invasion of Afghanistan.
(FOBs) for Allied aircraft. For much of

MIDDLE EAST AND TERRORISM 347

“WAR ON TERROR’ centered around the carriers Kitty WEAPONS AND TECHNOLOGY 1918 – PRESENT
Hawk, Constellation, Theodore Roosevelt,
INVASION OF IRAQ Abraham Lincoln, and Harry S.Truman. ship-launched cruise missiles
The aviation striking power of these
Date March 20–April 11, 2003 carrier groups was truly enormous, and The development of cruise missiles that track to a target in a sustained, guided
Forces Americans: 115 ships; F-18 Hornets, F-14 Tomcats, and US flight pattern began during World War II on both sides of the Allied-Axis divide,
British: 22 ships; Iraqis: unknown Marine Corps AV-8B Harriers provided but was refined to operational level during the postwar period. The Regulus was
Losses Coalition forces: close-air support for the advancing the first US ship-launched version. It had a range of 575 miles (926 km) and could
unknown; Iraqis: unknown troops.The Constellation carrier group be launched from both submarines and surface vessels. Regulus was deployed between
alone flew more than 1,500 sorties 1955 and 1964. In the 1970s and 80s the world caught up with US advances and a
Location Persian Gulf, during Operation Iraqi Freedom – as wide range of ship-launched cruise missiles emerged in other world navies, such as
Red Sea, and Iraq the US operations were codenamed – the SS-N-12 (USSR) and the HY-2
during which it dropped more than 1 Haiyang (China). The most famous
In many ways the invasion of Iraq in million lb (450,000 kg) of ordnance. of all the cruise missiles, however,
2003 was very different than the war Tomahawk-armed destroyers within remains the Tomahawk, used to
conducted against Saddam Hussein’s the group (including Bunker Hill) fired powerful effect during both the
forces in 1991. Instead of repeating the a total of 408 cruise missiles. 1991 and 2003 Persian Gulf
first Gulf War’s prolonged air campaign Wars. Based on this success,
as preparation for the ground assault, SUPPORT MISSIONS new generations of long-range
the second war against Iraq saw a near cruise missiles have recently
simultaneous launch of air and ground Allied warships also provided offshore entered service with many
assets, with land forces making a direct, gunnery platforms for missions on land. navies, including Pakistan,
fast strike toward the Iraqi capital For example, the Royal Navy warships India, France, and Russia.
Baghdad. Nonetheless, as with the 1991 HMS Richmond, Marlborough, and
conflict, it was the US Navy that fired Chatham, and HMAS Anzac delivered Tomahawk cruise missile
the opening shots. bombardments in support of British A subsonic Tomahawk missile
Royal Marine and USMC assaults on is fired from an armored box
At 5:15 a.m. on March 20, 2003, the Al-Faw peninsula, a critical southern launcher during Operation
the Ticonderoga-class destroyer USS action that included the capture of Umm Desert Storm.
Bunker Hill fired the first of many US Qasr, the only deep-water port in Iraq.
Navy Tomahawk missiles targeted at Regulus cruise missile
command-and-control centers and Baghdad was finally secured in the The turbojet-powered
political targets deep in Iraq. Shortly first week of April 2003, after what supersonic Regulus was the
afterward, US and UK ground forces appeared to be a vigorously successful US Navy’s main strategic
attacked Iraq from across the Kuwaiti operation.The post-invasion conflict, nuclear deterrent during the
border.The US forces, with a large however, far exceeded the worst early days of the Cold War.
Marine Corps spearhead, would strike expectations in terms of fighting, and
up to Baghdad, while British troops US Marine and Navy air assets remain
took responsibility for securing Basra, on call to deliver strikes in support of
Iraq’s second city. counter-insurgency operations.

SHOCK AND AWE US Carrier Strike Group
Nuclear-powered supercarrier George Washington
The order of battle of the coalition’s is accompanied by ships from her strike group
naval contingent was formidable. during their deployment in the Gulf in support
The US Navy element alone (by far of Operation Iraqi Freedom in June 2004.
the biggest portion) ran to 115 ships,
including five carrier battle groups

348

AMERICAN ARLEIGH BURKE-CLASS DESTROYER

USS Donald cook

THE ARLEIGH BURKE-CLASS guided-missile destroyer Donald Cook, named for a Tripod mast
Marine hero of theVietnam War, was launched in 1997. Deployed in Operation Iraqi
Freedom in March 2003 as part of the Battle Group led by the carrier Harry STruman, Fire-control radar Pilothouse
she was among the first ships to launch Tomahawk cruise missiles against targets in Iraq. Mk45 gun
Phalanx Close-In
Weapon System

THE FIRST ARLEIGH BURKE-CLASS destroyer fires anti-aircraft missiles, anti-submarine missiles, Shaft-driven propeller Aft deckhouse Sonar array
was commissioned in 1991. Donald Cook belongs missiles for destroying other surface ships, and Rudder Forward deckhouse
to Flight II, incorporating significant advances cruise missiles for strike operations against land
in armament and electronics. The ship is packed targets. The destroyer does not have the covered Torpedo tubes Harpoon missile
with diverse weaponry, giving her what the US helicopter hangar fitted to later ships in the class, launchers
Navy calls “multi-mission offensive and defensive but a launch-pad allows an attack helicopter to be Mk45 gun
capabilities.” The Mk41 vertical launch system embarked. Survivability is a key concept in the
Phalanx Close-In
destroyer’s design and equipment. The Weapon System
Arleigh Burke-class were among the

CARRIERS, SUBMARINES, AND MISSILES first ships to incorporate elements of

“stealth” technology, with buried

funnels and rounded shapes to reduce Helicopter Mk6 Rigid Anchor
the ship’s radar profile, as well as launch-pad inflatable boat windlass
features to suppress infrared emissions.
They were also the first American all- Missile Vertical Missile Vertical
steel warships. Replacing the aluminum Launch System Launch System

superstructure with steel was meant to USS Donald Cook
reduce damage in case of a missile hit. Donald Cook is the 25th Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer to
The destroyer has a crew of 30 officers be built for the US Navy. Despite being classed as a destroyer, Donald
and more than 300 enlisted personnel. Cook is over 150m (500ft) in length and displaces 8,400 tons when full,
making her similar in size to many World War II cruisers.

Stealth warship These destroyers … are a special class of ships,
The USS Donald Cook and her fellow
Arleigh Burke-class destroyers are
among the most advanced surface
combatants in service today.

the class of Arleigh Burke. Admiral Burke was the

inspiration for these ships. They were meant to be

feared and fast, the very attributes that earned

their namesake the nickname “31-Knot Burke.”

PRESIDENT BILL CLINTON! HE::8= 6I I=: ;JC:G6A H:GK>8: D; 69B>G6A 6GA:><= 7JG@:! &..+

Landing indicator lights
A system of lights helps to guide
the helicopter in to land. A green
light indicates a good approach,
amber caution, and red that the
helicopter is too low. Two flashing
red lights tell the pilot to abort.

Helicopter landing-pad
Donald Cook can embark and
refuel an SH-60 Seahawk helicopter,
providing search and attack
capabilities as well as an effective
way to move cargo and personnel.

Torpedo tubes
Two sets of Mk32 triple torpedo
tubes can be used to target
submarines. The system fires the
torpedoes using compressed air
from a flask at the rear of tubes.