The CoESPU Magazine 3-2021

Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units -Sub Iure ad Pacem tuendam Milites paro 3- 2021 The CoESPU
MAGAZINE

The online quarterly Journal of Stability Policing
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THE COESPU COMPOUND MEMORIAL

FOREWORD
Dear Readers,
I am glad to highlight that finally in-presence activities
and lectures restarted at CoESPU at full speed! Indeed betwe-
en July and September, we held in this Center of Excellence
several courses. Namely, the 21st “(enhanced) Comprehensi-
ve Protection of Civilians” course, the 12th “Gender Protection
in Peace Operations” course, the 1st “Child Protection for UN
Police” course and the 3rd “Monitoring, Mentoring, Advising
& Training” course, within the European Union Police and Ci-
vilian Services Training Programme (EUPCST), for a total of
over 60 students coming from 19 different Countries.
In this spirit, that allows us to believe in a complete, even if progressive, return
to the normality, it is with unconcealed pride that I present you the new issue of the
Magazine, which collects contributions from various qualified academics, experienced
practitioners and officials belonging to international organizations. Among the many
contributors, we greet: Naomi Miyashita, Policy Planning Team Leader within the Poli-
cy, Evaluation and Training Division of the United Nations Department of Peace Ope-
rations and Annika Hansen, Head of Analysis at the Center for International Peace
Operations (ZIF) in Berlin, Germany, who highlighted the importance of technology as
a tool to strengthen peacekeeping effectiveness, and as a factor shaping conflict envi-
ronments where peacekeepers are deployed and implications for the United Nations
Police; Lieutenant Colonel David Ellero, NATO Stability Policing Centre of Excellence
Civil-Military Interaction and Gender Focal Point, who wrote a meticulously researched
article highlighting International actors and actions to counter Human Trafficking and
Smuggling of Human Beings; and Sofia Sutera, a researcher at the Human Rights
Centre - University of Padua, intern at CoESPU, who made a thorough analysis of the
obstacles that women face in peace operations and which opportunities they currently
truly have.
Lastly, I am honoured to inform you that, for the first time since we welcomed
interns from various Universities, we are also publishing an article written by Giulia Ra-
mundo, Art History & International Affairs Graduate - Art & Cultural Heritage Advocate,
which underscores the urgent need for international organizations to protect one of the
goods dramatically most affected by war: the Cultural Heritage.
Dear readers, hoping to have provided you also in this issue, food for your thou-

ghts, I wish you a pleasant reading.

BG Giovanni Pietro BARBANO
CoESPU Director

EDITORIAL TEAM

MAGAZINE EDITOR IN CHIEF:

BG. Giovanni Pietro Barbano

MANAGING EDITOR:

CAPT. Lucio De Angelis

DRAFTING, COMPOSITION, GRAPHICS AND EDITING:

CAPT. Lucio De Angelis
CWO Salvatore Camagna
CWO Massimiliano Dimichele
Mr. Denis Rizzotti

IMAGES AND ARTWORK SOURCES:

United Nations,
CoESPU Magazine Team

Cover picture: Salvatore Camagna
Other authors are indicated in single captions

PUBLISHER:

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SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Maureen BROWN
Giorgio CUZZELLI

Andrea DE GUTTRY
Michael DZIEDZIC
Karen J. FINKEBINDER
Oreste FOPPIANI
Nadia GERSPACHER
Edoardo GREPPI
David LIGHTBURN
Paolo MAGRI
Andrea MARGELLETTI
Emanuele Vittorio PARSI
Karla PINHEL RIBEIRO
Bernardo SALA
Dmitry TITOV
Gabriella VENTURINI

The CoESPU Magazine is devoted to the publication of professional concepts and issues, research
and doctrinal products developed by the Carabinieri Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units, in
collaboration with other international research Centers. The Magazine addresses topics of professio-
nal, technical, operational and juridical nature in the field of Stability Policing within Peace Opera-
tions. Based on the core values of ethics, integrity, professionalism and respect for diversity, harmo-
nically inflected and informed by the traditions of over two hundred years of Carabinieri history, the
Magazine fosters Human Rights and gender mainstreaming, while seeking to enhance current police
peacekeeping doctrine and promoting international police peacekeeping interoperability, cognizant
of Lessons Learned and best practises. The CoESPU Magazine is constantly committed to upholding
UN standards, norms, procedures and curricula, while endorsing self-sufficiency of the participating
Police Contributing Countries. Consequently, its editorial policy promotes the principles of represen-
tativeness, responsiveness, and accountability, as well as effectiveness, efficiency, transparency, and
accessibility, to provide the highest professional standards to build trust and legitimacy of beneficiary
Law Enforcement Institutions.

DISCLAIMER: The views expressed in this journal belong to single authors and do not ne-

cessarily reflect the official policy or position of the CoESPU, the UN, The Italian Government, the
Carabinieri or other nominated Institutions. Content is copyrighted where expressly indicated,
but Material belongs to authors themselves. The Center of Excellence for Stabilities Police Units
retains full and exclusive ownership over other magazine contents and original images. Repro-
duction of any part of this magazine without express written permission is strictly prohibited.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME 8

S.T.O.C.: ACTORS AND ACTIONS TO COUNTER HUMAN TRAFFICKING 16

TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER THE ADOPTION 24
OF THE WPS AGENDA 30

WHICH OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN PEACE OPERATIONS 34
36
STABILITY POLICING HUB
38
THE CONTRIBUTION OF SP TO EOD
48
ALUMNI 56
62
IN DEPTH 64
66
THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION OF UN PEACEKEEPING
THE BALKAN HUB: ITALIAN MODEL FOR ANTI-TRAFFICKING OPERATIONS

INTERNSHIP RESEARCH RESULTS

PROTECTION OF CH IN DESTABILIZED AREAS

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

SLEEP AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS

COESPU TRAINING

AROUND THE WORLD

COESPU ONSITE VISITS

EVENTS

“The CoESPU Magazine – the on line Quarterly Journal of Stability Policing” is a stand-alone on line publication.

Printed copies are intended for internal use and shall not be distributed.

Published on www.coespu.org

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- SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME: INT
ACTIONS TO COUNTER HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND

- TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER TH
AGENDA: WHICH OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOM

TERNATIONAL ACTORS AND
D SMUGGLING OF HUMAN BEINGS

HE ADOPTION OF THE WPS
MEN IN PEACE OPERATIONS?

SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME

S.T.O.C.: ACTORS AND ACTIONS TO
COUNTER HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Serious Transnational Organized Agriculture and Rural Development EU citizens to live where they like,
Crime: International Actors and to the Defence industry, Economic work where they like and commute
Actions to Counter Human Traf- and Financial affairs and Compe- freely, effectively carrying on with
ficking and Smuggling of Human tition and so on: there are little or their lives as if the EU as a who-
Beings no aspects of European life which le was their Country. Looking at
are not covered by European po- the Schengen area, which current-
by David Ellero licies, fully or in part. The Union ly includes 26 European countries
has been built on the principles of totalling 420 million people, ap-
Introduction. the free movement of goods, ser- proximately 1.7 million people re-
In one way or another, globali- vices, labour and capital; of equal side in one country while regularly
zation has had an impact on our rights for all citizens before Euro- working in another: this is defini-
lives. The world nowadays is de-
finitely smaller: cheap travel, a “IT SHOULD NOT COME AS A SURPRISE THAT TRAF-
very developed transport infra- FICKING AND SMUGGLING, MORE OFTEN THAN
structure and an unprecedented NOT, BARE A TRANSNATIONAL ANGLE, AND THIS IS
efficiency of the communication WHAT REALLY PROVIDES AN EDGE TO THE CRIMI-
networks, has brought a series of NALS INVOLVED AND MANY (UNNECESSARY) HEA-
positive developments in the day- DACHES TO THE NATIONAL COMPETENT AUTHORI-
to-day life of people world-wide. TIES.”
The best example of a globalized
world is probably the European pean law; of equality among the tely a “new normal”.
Union (EU), which, along with its member-states; and of significant Unfortunately, as it often happens,
shared values, has created a vast financial transfers from richer re- the great benefits and opportuni-
array of rules which commonly ap- gions to poorer ones. These pil- ties offered by globalization have
ply to all its Member States, cove- lars of EU integration, enable most
ring aspects of our day-to-day life
which go, to name but a few, from

8

also benefited – amongst others - it is not uncommon to sit through organized crime: the Protocol to
organised crime, which however presentations on Human Smug- Prevent, Suppress and Punish Traf-
has an edge: whilst, as I explained gling sold under the heading of ficking in Persons, Especially Wo-
above, in many instances the world Human Trafficking: this may seem men and Children; the Protocol
is small and often borderless, dif- as a petty mistake, but unfortuna- against the Smuggling of Migrants
ferent countries still bare different tely it is not, and can bring to very by Land, Sea and Air; and the Pro-
legislations, juridical cultures, lan- dire consequences that are some- tocol against the Illicit Manufactu-
guages and even organisational times under to eyes of everyone, ring of and Trafficking in Firearms,
structures of the competent Law with victims of Human Trafficking their Parts and Components and
Enforcement (LE) authorities. This mistakenly confused with migran- Ammunition. Clearly the first two
in turn has created a “water bed” ts and returned to their country of protocols are topical for this arti-
effect, by which criminals tend to origin, or being incarcerated wi- cle, and are particularly important
displace their activities over nume- thout having been provided the for its purposes because they pro-
rous different countries, exploiting protection foreseen in the main vide a definition of the crime are-
national differences, favourable international legal instruments, as that can then help the reader
legislation, and the fact that LE which advocate for a “victim-cen- to understand the issue at stake.
and judicial authorities, often tied tred” approach to this crime. The  Protocol to Prevent, Suppress
down by complex national caveats
and different competing priorities, Delving into the legal aspects of both and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
struggle to cooperate in a faster crime areas falls outside the scope especially Women and Children,
and more efficient way. of this article, however it is worth defines this serious crime as “(…)
This represents a serious challenge citing the main legal instrumen- the recruitment, transportation,
which is cross cutting to almost all ts which deal with the definitions. transfer, harbouring or receipt of
crime areas, and just by listening The United Nations Convention persons, by means of the threat or
to the news anyone can under- against Transnational Organized use of force or other forms of coer-
stand the concept that, nowadays, Crime (UNTOC), adopted by Ge- cion, of abduction, of fraud, of de-
cases with no international aspects neral Assembly resolution 55/25 ception, of the abuse of power or
are becoming quite rare: the op- of 15 November 2000, and en- of a position of vulnerability or of
posite is true for cases involving tered into force on 29 September the giving or receiving of payments
Organised Crime Groups (OCG) 2003, is the main international in- or benefits to achieve the consent
which are now regularly operating strument in the fight against trans- of a person having control over
across borders and in multiple ju- national organized crime. The another person, for the purpose of
risdictions. Convention is supplemented by exploitation. Exploitation shall in-
Some crimes are particularly likely three Protocols, which target spe- clude, at a minimum, the exploi-
to develop an international di- cific areas and manifestations of tation of the prostitution of others
mension, Human Trafficking and
Smuggling are definitely two good
examples.

Human Trafficking and Human

Smuggling, what is the difference?

Before looking into the actors and
the actions useful to fight these se-
rious crimes, it is important to un-
derline the differences between
the two. Too often, in fact, the two
are mistakenly confused, and even
in the course of high level events

9

SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME

or other forms of sexual exploita- me (UNODC), the Protocol aims • Whilst the purpose of traf-
tion, forced labour or services, sla- at preventing and combating the ficking is always exploitati-
very or practices similar to slavery, smuggling of migrants, as well ve, this is not necessarily part
servitude or the removal of organs as promoting cooperation among of the smuggling process.
(…)”. This is the first global legally States parties, while protecting
binding instrument with an agreed the rights of smuggled migrants Clearly the boundaries set by the
definition on trafficking in persons, and preventing the worst forms of above mentioned definitions are
and has paved the way for harmo- their exploitation which often cha- sometimes blurred, in the sense
nizing national legislations, step- racterize the smuggling process. that often smuggled migrants are
ping-up international cooperation The two definitions can alrea- exploited to pay off their debts and
in investigating and prosecuting dy provide the reader with the end up trafficked, or are victims of
this serious crime, whilst protecting main differences between the- human trafficking from the start,
and assisting victims of trafficking se two serious crimes, which but regard themselves as migran-
in persons, putting their interest can be summarized as follows: ts paying for a service, effectively
at the centre of any intervention. • As for the act itself, whilst traf- not even realizing they are in fact
illegally exploited. The two key le-

arning points to keep
in mind are therefore
that the two crime are-
as are clearly distinct,
and that, for this re-
ason, they require a
very different approa-
ch. For example, whilst
Human Trafficking
routes are important
to know, but not es-
sential (the important
aspect is the exploi-
tation phase rather
than “how” the victim
reached its destina-
tion), Smuggling rou-
tes are indispensable
to plan any succes-
sful counter strategy.

Similarly, the Protocol against the fickers may transport and tran- International actors
Smuggling of Migrants by Land, sfer people even within the
Sea and Air, for the first time pro- same Country, without cros- It should not come as a surpri-
vides an agreed definition of the sing a border, smugglers re- se that trafficking and smug-
crime in a global international in- quire the irregular crossing gling, more often than not, bare
strument, which is “(…) Procure- of an international border; a transnational angle, and this is
ment, in order to obtain, directly • Traffickers will use the means what really provides an edge to
or indirectly, a financial or other listed in the above mentio- the criminals involved and many
material benefit, of the illegal en- ned definition, which normal- (unnecessary) headaches to the
try of a person into a State Party ly include deception or one national competent authorities.
of which the person is not a na- or more elements of coercion, There are so many different aspects
tional or a permanent resident whilst smugglers will have ef- to the fight against these two se-
(…)”. In the words of the United fectively been asked to pro- rious crimes, ranging from traffi-
Nations Office on Drugs and Cri- vide a service, albeit illicit; cking victims’ protection, to pre-

10

vention and prosecution, asylum advise on the favourite option. Actions to counter Human Traffi-
seeking legislation, migration laws I would like, however, to provide a cking and Smuggling of Human
and all the human rights, safety brief explanation of the issue at sta- Beings
and logistic burdens that are under ke here: if this article is about actors
the eyes of the world when masses and actions, I would in fact focus on As I mentioned, the actions here
of migrants desperately attempt to the latter and then let the reader fi- are looking at the LE side of the
reach their country of destination. gure out, with some hints from my- fight against these serious cri-
For this reason, listing them all self, who to approach when faced mes, but being the two very diffe-
and providing a brief explanation with an international investigation rent from one another, the actions
of their portfolio would require a on either of these serious crimes. also may differ in some aspects.
book to be written rather than an Because of the target audience One essential aspect which is com-
article, I therefore invite all those of the magazine, I will clearly fo- mon between the two, however, is
interested to visit the websites of cus on international LE coopera- the need to cooperate transnatio-
the main international organisa- tion, reminding the first, however, nally. International organisations
tions which can be easily found on that smuggled migrants and vi- such as Interpol1, Europol2, Selec3,
the internet. Furthermore, many ctims of human trafficking should Afripol4, Ameripol5, Frontex6, to
countries have an international always be placed at the centre of name but a few (and in no parti-
cooperation cell, normally at mi- any effective strategy, especial- cular order of importance), are di-
nisterial level, which provides assi- ly in the case of trafficking, with rectly involved in supporting, each
stance to those in need to establish a clear primacy over the investi- within their remit, and providing a
a channel of cooperation to pro- gation itself, which should never value which is linked to their spe-
gress an investigation, and may harm the interest of the victim.

11

SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME

cific mandate. The same goes for sactions in numerous countries (I action that must be taken when

all those LE Liaison Officers posted witnessed twelve in a single case facing serious and organised cri-

throughout the world. The need to I encountered years ago), and me of a transnational nature is

cooperate is essential, and is sel- this often causes the issue to be international police cooperation.

f-explanatory, but just for the sake labelled as “too difficult to take Whilst bilateral cooperation has

of simplicity, it’s easy to imagine care of” and just not investigated. many merits and often gets the job

the case of a LE officer stumbling Bilateral cooperation is simply not done, the complexity and scale of

across a possible trafficking victim sophisticated enough, and the current cases, due to the progres-

in the course of an investigation: simple exchange of information if sive globalization of organised

very often the victim itself is unawa- often obsolete. What is needed is crime, makes it indispensable to

re of being a victim. Thinking of a an in-depth analysis of the data step up the fight and cooperate

detection at a border crossing, it emerging from on-going cases, in an integrated and efficient way.

could well be the victim has been taken care of at international level.

provided with a fake contract of Agencies such as Europol are well What about NATO

employment, and when asked, is placed in the international scene to

genuinely thinking of a legitimate do this, especially because all data Whilst organisations such as the

job as a server, secretary or dan- collected across all crime areas fal- ones listed above have the fight

cer. The victim “AGENCIES SUCH AS EUROPOL ARE WELL PLACED against serious and
may be accom- IN THE INTERNATIONAL SCENE TO DO THIS, ESPE- organised crime as
panied, as it a core responsibili-
often happens, CIALLY BECAUSE ALL DATA COLLECTED ACROSS ALL ty, others have not
by a suspect in- such a primary role.
volved in the CRIME AREAS FALLING WITHIN ITS MANDATE END UP Writing from the
case. How will IN THE SAME ANALYTICAL DATABASE, WHICH CAN NATO Stability
the investigator Poli-
THEREFORE BE USED AS A UNIQUE PLATFORM TO cing Centre of Excel-
be able to detect MAKE SENSE OF THIS LARGE VOLUME OF ENTITIES.” lence, I find it inte-
the trafficking resting to highlight

case, if not cooperating with LE ling within its mandate end up in what NATO is doing at the moment,

from the source and/or transit the same analytical database, whi- and whether the latter should acti-

countries? Clearly this is a sim- ch can therefore be used as a uni- vely pursue a more prominent role.

plification, but assuming not all que platform to make sense of this Conflict has clear linkages with

readers are trafficking experts, it large volume of entities. Another both crime areas, as it constitu-

should answer the question on example can be the telephonic tes a “push factor” for those who

the “business need” to cooperate. data linked to all those facilitating actively seek a better and secure

The situation however is much migration, which normally counts life outside their country of ori-

more complex than this, and just hundreds of thousands of entities gin, and fall easily for decepti-

thinking of the investigation side connected to dozens of countries ve offers, but also a “pull factor”

(adding victim protection clearly (which normally reflect the smug- for those who are driven to are-

adds complexity, and therefore will gling routes followed by the mi- as where they are trafficked into

not be covered in this article), it is grants) in a single case: no single sexual or labour exploitation.

easy to imagine how many coun- country can make this intelligence In the field of fighting Migrant

tries may be involved at the same operational on its own, but combi- Smuggling, NATO definitely plays

time in a single case. Just by analy- ning it through analysis provided by an important role, also in coope-

sing the financial transactions that a dedicated platform may support ration with the EU, as clearly sta-

certain key individuals are con- investigators in “making sense” of ted in the 2018 Joint Declaration

nected to (middlemen, “passeu- the data, identifying useful investi- on EU-NATO Cooperation. As an

rs” or any other offender involved gative leads and prioritising them example, during his visit to Gree-

in the process) may prove extre- over other less remunerative ones. ce in October 2019, NATO Secre-

mely challenging. A single indi- To summarize what I have attemp- tary General underlined that NA-

vidual can be connected to tran- ted to explain, the most important TO’s presence in the Aegean helps

12

counter illegal human smuggling ty Policing has been identified by lity brings a typical LE dimension
by providing real-time information NATO since 1998, when a Multi- in a Theatre of Operations since
to coastguards, and by helping to national Specialized Unit (MSU) it implies an executive mandate,
address the instability and violence was deployed to Bosnia Herzego- and is a precious tool in the hands
at the root of the migrant crisis by vina within the NATO Stabilization of the Mission’s Commander.
working with partners in the Middle Force (SFOR), the Alliance has de- This is very important for the pur-
East and North Africa. The contri- fined it in a NATO Doctrine fairly pose of this article, because, espe-
bution of NATO from this point of recently, in 2016, with its “Allied cially in the case of replacement
view, although not focussed on the Joint Doctrine for Stability Policing” missions, Stability Policing may be
investigation side of Human Smug- (AJP-3.22). This doctrinal docu- the only asset available in theatre
gling, is clear and self-explanatory. ment defines it as “police related to investigate these serious crimes,
In the field of Human Trafficking, activities intended to reinforce or which are both listed as tasks un-
however, the role is more difficult temporarily replace the indigenous der annex A of the above-men-
to define. Let us not forget that police in order to contribute to the tioned doctrine, and to offer an
trafficking is a form of modern day
slavery, but very often needs to be restoration and/or upholding of indispensable support to LE wor-
investigated thoroughly to be de- the public order and security, rule ld-wide. As an example, who, in
tected. As an organisation, NATO of law, and the protection of hu- fact, would a European LE Agen-
is firmly committed to address man rights”. Whether Stability Po- cy contact if, debriefing a suspect,
Human Trafficking, and has a ze- licing is employed in a reinforce- a series of contacts would lead to
ro-tolerance policy in place, which ment mission, which may consist a Country which is lacking fun-
was endorsed at the Istanbul Sum- in monitoring, mentoring, advising ctioning LE, but is a theatre where
mit in June 2004. The policy, which and training as well as reforming NATO Troops are deployed? Stabi-
is currently under review, commits and partnering Indigenous Police lity Policing would be the obvious
NATO member countries and other Forces (IPF) to improve their per- solution, either taking the burden
troop-contributing nations parti- formance, or in a temporary re- on its shoulders, or acting as a
cipating in NATO-led operations placement mission, this capabi- “bridge” with what is left by the lo-
to reinforce efforts to prevent and
combat such serious crime. Whilst
NATO is not a primary responder
on Human Trafficking, its role could
go two ways: the Alliance could
continue “not fuelling” this serious
crime, by, for example, keep tho-
roughly reviewing its supply chains
to ensure no victim of human traf-
ficking is exploited to provide ser-
vices, and keeping forbidding its
troops to engage with victims of
trafficking for sexual exploitation,
or the Alliance could take a more
active role and “fight” against this
serious crime by, for example, in-
vestigating it with the use of de-
dicated assets. And this however
brings us to the next paragraph.

What about Stability Policing

Although the need for Stabili-

13

SERIOUS TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME

cal competent authorities. Given merous jurisdictions. When these
that war, civil unrest, poverty and jurisdictions happen to be located
a lack of perspectives are all cle- in prohibitive areas of the world, it
ar push factors for both trafficking may be that a NATO Mission is in
and smuggling, it is highly likely fact endowed with the task of sub-
that the countries of origin will be stituting or reinforce the IPF: in this
subject of international assistance case the Alliance could prove that,
missions. When the situation on the not only through its “zero toleran-
ground is prohibitive, NATO would ce” policy it does not wish to fuel
most likely be the instrument of first crime, but that it can take an acti-
choice to stabilize the area, hen- ve part in fighting it, also offering
ce the important role that may be itself as a reliable partner for LE
played by Stability Policing assets. Agencies in the countries of desti-
nation, wishing to identify contacts
Conclusions in the countries of origin or transit.

This article is titled “Serious Trans- Disclaimer: this paper is a product of the
national Organized Crime: In- NATO Stability Policing Centre of Excellen-
ternational actors and actions to ce and its content does not reflect NATO
counter Human Trafficking and policies or positions, nor represent NATO
Smuggling of Human Beings”, I in any way, but only the NSPCoE or au-
therefore made an effort to define thor(s) depending on the circumstances.
both, highlighting differences and
similarities, identified the business
need behind international coope-
ration as well as some of the ac-
tors that may play a role in curbing
these crimes, and provided some
easy-to-understand examples of
what kind of challenges LE may
face. I then moved on and, wor-
king out of the NATO Stability Po-
licing Centre of Excellence, tried to
find a role, if any for the Alliance
as a whole and for Stability Poli-
cing as a specific capability. The
main conclusion is, therefore, that
in this globalized world no single
country can face these forms of
crime in isolation, and must coo-
perate effectively to find globalized
solutions to globalized challenges.
This is followed by a second con-
clusion, which is that, thankfully,
the international environment pro-
vides for a series of organisations
that support investigators faced
with the difficult task of progressing
transnational cases, often linked to
thousands of entities located in nu-

14

465132...... 1 www.interpol.int
2 www.europol.europa.eu
3 www.selec.org
4 https://afripol.africa-union.org/
5 www.ameripol.org
6 www.frontex.europa.eu

PICTURES:
-https://news.unl.edu/sites/default/files/me-
dia/20201001-humantrafficking-nt.jpg
-https://www.kttn.com/wp-content/uplo-
ads/2021/05/Human-Trafficking.jpeg
-https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-cri-
me/human-trafficking/@@images/image
-https://miro.medium.com/max/2000/1*z-
S4iAytSZM6aRTm0xBUjlQ.jpeg
-https://ukhumanrightsblog.com/wp-content/
uploads/2021/02/Trafficking-512x240-1.jpg
-https://goachronicle.com/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2021/08/shutter-
stock_756194956-1024x731-1.jpg

David Ellero
Lt. Col. - Italian Carabinieri

NATO SP CoE Civil-Military Inte-
raction and Gender Focal Point.

15

TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER THE
ADOPTION OF THE WPS AGENDA

WHICH OPPORTUNITIES
FOR WOMEN IN PEACE OPERATIONS

Two Decades and a Pandemic te what is known as the Women, viduals would be enrolled” (Ghit-
after the Adoption of the WPS Peace and Security (WPS) Agenda. toni, Lehouck and Watson 2018,
Agenda: which Opportunities for In particular, UNSCR 1325 “urges 5). In 1995, the Secretary-General
Women in Peace Operations? all actors to increase the partici- proclaimed the goal of reaching
pation of women and incorporate gender parity in all “field mission
by Sofia Sutera gender perspectives in all United and mission replacements po-
Nations peace and security efforts” sts” and in 2000 the UN Depart-
More than two decades have as stressed by the Office of the Spe- ment of Peacekeeping Operations
cial Adviser on Gender Issues and (DPKO)2 adopted the Windhoek
passed since the adoption of the Advancement of Women (OSAGI)1, Declaration and the Namibia Plan
United Nations Security Coun- recognizing the importance of wo- of Action, with the purpose of in-
cil resolution (UNSCR) 1325 on men’s equal participation and full creasing gender equality and gen-
the 31 of October 2000, whi- involvement. It is fundamental, der balance in peacekeeping by
ch asserted the important role though, to consider that gender im- means of measures targeting re-
of women in peace and security balance has always been a chronic cruitment, training and leadership
processes (ranging from the pre- issue in UN peacekeeping opera- opportunities (Ghittoni, Lehouck
vention and resolution of conflicts, tions. Already during the UN De- and Watson 2018, 5-6). Further, in
peace negotiations, peace-buil- cade of Women (1975-1985), the the same year the UN’s pledge to
ding, peacekeeping, to humani- UN’s recruitment procedures for gender equality was marked by the
tarian response and post-confli- peacekeeping operations were put adoption of UNSCR 1325, the first
ct reconstruction). Together with under examination as they were to look explicitly at the intercon-
the subsequent UNSCRs 1820, considered to be biased towards nections among women, peace
1888, 1889, 1960, 2106, 2122, men Accordingly, the UN Mission and security and expressly reque-
2242, 2467, and 2493, the last in Namibia (1989) was characteri- sting more uniformed women in
two adopted in 2019, this land- sed by the commitment to a fairer peacekeeping operations (PKOs).
mark resolution came to constitu- recruitment process, through whi- Still, even if in 2006 member sta-
ch “only the most competent indi- tes were required by the DPKO

16

to “double the number of female is larger in the police than in the more effectively reach out to and
service uniformed peacekeepers armed forces (Ghittoni, Lehouck interact with civilians in the host
every year for the next few years” and Watson 2018, 5-6). As of country, as they appear less threa-
and the UN endorsed a Policy Di- 2018 the percentage of deployed tening and more accessible to af-
rective on Gender Equality in Pe- military women was approxima- fected populations”. Thus, even if
acekeeping Operations, in 2009, tely 4% and that of deployed po- this study acknowledges that “wo-
at the doorstep of the 10th anni- lice women approximately 10% men’s professional competence
versary of UNSCR 1325, the to- (Ghittoni, Lehouck and Watson extends beyond these areas”, wo-
tal number of female peacekee- 2018, 7). In the last decade, ove- men are actually praised for the
pers was just around 1% (Ghittoni, rall, the proportion of female po- added value that they can bring to
Lehouck and Watson 2018, 5-6). lice and military peacekeepers PKOs outcomes (Coomaraswamy
Aiming at increasing the number fluctuated between 2% and 4% for 2015, 141). Similar arguments
of female police officers in PKOs to military personnel and between are utilised in order to depict the
20% by 2014 the UN Police intro- 6% and 10% for police personnel. “positive impact” of women in the
duced a Global Effort initiative and Whereas this can be connected police component of missions (Co-
in 2015 UNSCR 2242, part of the to the low numbers of female mi- omaraswamy 2015, 143). Accor-
WPS Agenda, called upon “the Se- litary and police personnel at the dingly, Member States are encou-
cretary-General to initiate, in col- national level there is a variety of raged to consider measures such
laboration with Member States, a challenges and barriers to unifor- as adopting a gender balance
revised strategy, within existing re- med women deploying to PKOs. premium or comparable benefits
sources, to double the numbers of In this sense, the global study on the to increase the number of women
women in military and police con-
tingents of UN peacekeeping ope- “UNSCR 1325 “URGES ALL ACTORS TO INCREASE
rations over the next five years”. In THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN AND INCORPORA-
his 2017 Report on WPS, the Se- TE GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN ALL UNITED NATIONS
cretary-General requested his “le- PEACE AND SECURITY EFFORTS”
adership group to take measures
to address the structural barriers implementation of UNSCR 13253, (Coomaraswamy 2015, 142).
that limit women’s meaningful released in 2015, underlines “the Still, the very DPO recognizes that
participation in both the unifor- key role of female peacekeepers” there are structural gender nor-
med and civilian components of by identifying them as “a criti- ms, power dynamics, patriarchal
peacekeeping” (Ghittoni, Lehouck cal factor contributing to mission structures and value systems po-
and Watson 2018, 6) and in 2018 success” who broaden the range sing a significant barrier to the
DPKO declared that troop and po- of skills and capacities among all successful implementation of WPS
lice contributing countries (T/PCCs) categories of personnel, enhance commitments, a situation currently
would lose some of their alloca- the operational effectiveness of all aggravated by the “disruptive for-
ted places if they were not going tasks, and improve the mission’s ce of COVID-19 pandemic which
to reach the target of 15% women image, accessibility and credibi- is exacerbating existing gender
deployed in the position of mili- lity vis-à-vis the local population. inequalities” (DPO 2020, 8). Fur-
tary observers and staff officers. Women peacekeepers also impro- ther, it acknowledges the critica-
It is critical to observe that the ve targeted outreach to women in lities connected to the very con-
number of women in the police host communities. This is crucial struction of this agenda, namely
is higher than the one in the mi- for various reasons, including ca- its framing mostly in terms of a
litary. This seems to be connected pitalizing on women’s familiarity protection lens and the fact that
to the fact that there are more wo- with local protection strategies that the security sector is male domina-
men in national police forces than affect women, and on their capa- ted (DPO 2020, 21). Indeed, the
in the armed forces. Also, in some city to provide early warning, but second WPS resolution, UNSCR
countries women are not allowed also “drive strong civil-military co- 1888 (2009), attests that in or-
in combat units, so that the pool ordination, and together with civi- der to arrive to the consolidation
of women eligible for deployment lian and police counterparts, can of peace it is essential to promote

17

TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER THE
ADOPTION OF THE WPS AGENDA

the equal and full participation of fic needs of female ex-comba- pers, in January 2020, there were
women, thus the text proceeds by tants during the process of de- 5284 uniformed women actively
welcoming the inclusion of wo- mobilizing and reintegration into deployed, namely 6.4 percent of
men in peacekeeping missions in civilian life; helping make the pe- military and police personnel (Bal-
civil, military and police functions, acekeeping force approachable dwin and Taylor 2020, 2). It is, thus,
and recognizing that women and to women in the community; in- especially important to look at the
children affected by armed confli- terviewing survivors of gender-ba- quality of women’s participation.
ct may feel more secure working sed violence; mentoring female Looking at the continuous occur-
with and reporting abuse to wo- cadets at police and military aca- rence in the first landmark WPS re-
men in peacekeeping missions, demies; interacting with women solution and in the following ones
and that the presence of women in societies where women are of the formula “women’s leader-
peacekeepers may encourage lo- prohibited from speaking to men; ship and participation”, it is pivotal
cal women to participate in the na- • the presence of to understand how much this ac-
tional armed and security forces, women peacekeepers can also: claimed women’s leadership and
thereby helping to build a securi- help to reduce conflict and con- participation is concretely and ef-
ty sector that is accessible and re- frontation; improve access and fectively exercised in the context
sponsive to all, especially women. support for local women; provi- of peace operations. Indeed, this
Agenda has a transformative po-
As observed, the UN has justi- de role models for women in the tential directed at creating inclusi-
fied women’s inclusion in pe- community; provide a greater sen- ve and democratic societies where
acekeeping by means of diffe- se of security to local populations, gender inequality can be replaced
rent reasons mostly focused on including women and children; by gender justice. If UNSCR 1325
the concept of military effective- and broaden the skill set available is to be “a historic watershed po-
ness, thence in terms of success within a peacekeeping mission. litical framework” for sustainable
for the peacekeeping mission it- (Karim and Beardsley 2017, 46- peace, it is necessary, though, that
self. In fact, the UN stresses that: 48; see also Karim and Henry women’s agency, voice, and capa-
• female peaceke- 2018, 396 and Dufour 2020, 108). cities are actually included in pea-
epers act as role models in the Similar arguments have been used ce and security4 (WILPF undated).
local environment, inspiring wo- in 2014 in the document “Forward First of all, it is essential to consi-
men and girls in often male-do- Looking Gender Strategy (2014- der both quantitative and qualitati-
minated societies to push for 2018)” published by DPKO and the ve participation; seen that “women
their own rights and for par- Department of Field Support (DFS). have a right to deploy in any role
ticipation in peace processes; Overall, even if the numbers are for which they are trained and that
• -the increased re- very low in relative terms, in ab- is commensurate with their rank
cruitment of women is critical for: solute terms, while between 1957 and experience, including at the
empowering women in the host and 1989, only twenty uniformed leadership level”, the UN Women’s
community; addressing speci- women served as UN peacekee- Elise Initiative Fund offers a finan-
cial premium to T/PCCs for “gen-
der-strong units.” These are mili-
tary battalions and formed police
units (FPUs) which include women
in all roles and exceed the numeri-
cal targets set by the UN by at least
5 percent while also ensuring that
all unit members receive gender-e-
quity training and that the T/PCC
has provided “adequate equip-
ment and other materiel to ensure
parity of deployment conditions for
women and men peacekeepers”

18

(Baldwin and Taylor 2020, 5). In ported that the major argumen- deployment of uniformed women
this sense, on the military side, a ts employed in order to support in PKOs, in six main categories: (1)
practice which has been used in an increase in the participation of equal access to opportunities, (2)
order to foster women’s integra- uniformed women in PKOs are: deployment criteria, (3) the wor-
tion has been that of establishing operational effectiveness, namely king environment, (4) family con-
female engagement teams (FETs), the possibility of reaching out to straints, (5) equal treatment during
namely tactical sub-sub-units di- the civilians, reducing negative ef- deployment, and (6) career-ad-
rected at gathering information fects of PKOs and ensuring the le- vancement opportunities (Ghitto-
and gaining access to the local gitimacy of PKOs; the capacity to ni, Lehouck and Watson 2018, 2).
populations, especially addressing support the implementation of the Indeed, for instance, uniformed
their gendered needs. Still, they provisions of the WPS Agenda and women denounced the fact of ma-
exemplify only one possible role women’s equal right to serve. On king use of equipment designed for
for women in PKOs and they are the other hand, they outlined diffe- “standard” (i.e. masculine) body
not meant to be a strategy to rea- rent barriers concretely hampering types which is not safe for them, a
ch numerical targets (Baldwin and the deployment of uniformed wo- condition hindering their participa-
Taylor 2020, 6). On the police side, men in PKOs: 1) a lack of informa- tion to the mission. They also gave
most police deployed with the UN tion on deployment opportunities, account of limited or unequal ac-
are part of an FPU, commodations
that are characte- “AIMING AT INCREASING THE NUMBER OF FEMALE PO- and access to
rized by dedicated LICE OFFICERS IN PKOS TO 20% BY 2014 THE UN POLI- health services.
training structures
CE INTRODUCED A GLOBAL EFFORT INITIATIVE AND IN Another central
and gender main- 2015 UNSCR 2242, PART OF THE WPS AGENDA, CALLED concern was
streaming strate- that the stan-
gies and practices.5 UPON “THE SECRETARY-GENERAL TO INITIATE, IN COL- dards for their
Thanks to signifi- LABORATION WITH MEMBER STATES, A REVISED STRA- performance
cant recruiting ef- TEGY, WITHIN EXISTING RESOURCES, TO DOUBLE THE were perceived
forts, such as the
NUMBERS OF WOMEN IN MILITARY AND POLICE CON- to be higher for
aforementioned TINGENTS OF UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS OVER them than for
2009 “Global Ef- THE NEXT FIVE YEARS”. their male col-
leagues (Bal-
fort”, the number

of women has regularly increa- 2) corruption in deployment se- dwin and Taylor 2020, 8). Still, a
sed, especially in the police, still lection, 3) the fact that women are particularly important obstacle to
as with military peacekeepers, wo- seen as needing protection rather women’s effective participation to
men police are usually considered than as potential protectors by se- PKOs is the existence of a gende-
and praised for their contributions nior leaders, 4) the years of reque- red protection norm, according to
that relate to other women, such sted experience for deployment, 5) which women are in need of pro-
as activities celebrating Interna- physical fitness tests, 6) UN mini- tection. This norm is likey to impact
tional Women’s Day and enga- mum criteria for deployment, 7) less police officers, who are more
gement with women and children ostracism within training cohorts, often deployed as individuals and
(Baldwin and Taylor 2020, 7-8). 8) inadequate accommodation, who are part of an institution with
Ghittoni, Lehouck and Watson facilities and equipment, 9) lack of a quite different function than na-
examined all this data in their ba- specific medical care, 10) lack of tional militaries, where they inte-
seline study for the development of adequate family-friendly policies, ract more regularly with local po-
the Elsie Initiative, which is aimed 11) sexual and gender-based ha- pulations. Still, the existence of this
at developing innovative measures rassment , 12) unequal opportu- gendered protection norm, overall
in order to “move from slow, in- nities on deployment and missed in society and specifically in the
cremental progress to transforma- opportunities at home, 13) unrea- police and the military, which “puts
tional change regarding women’s sonable expectations and 14) lack those protected, paradigmatically
meaningful participation in peace of support networks. The study, women and children, in a subor-
operations”6. These scholars re- thence, identified 14 barriers to the dinate position of dependence and

19

TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER THE
ADOPTION OF THE WPS AGENDA

obedience” to a masculine protec- thin missions (Baldwin and Taylor litary” (Vermeij 2020, 9). Accor-
tor (Young 2003, 2) and the recur- 2020, 14), as a matter of fact, the ding to the study of Vermeij (2020,
rence of sexual exploitation and research conducted by Vermeij 10-11), the conclusion is, thus,
abuse (SEA) in PKOs (Karim and (2020, 12), depicts a culture of si- that “[a] woman in the military is
Beardsley 2016; Nordås and Ru- lence, caused by the fear of nega- either called a slut or a lesbian,
stad 2013), makes it it improbable tive consequences for bringing up no matter what she does. A mili-
for female peacekeepers to really a complaint, including retaliation, tary woman is never just a soldier,
have an impact within the culture negative career repercussions, and she will always have a label
of peacekeeping (Simić 2010). The stigmatization and ostracization. put on her”, not only she is con-
most problematic aspect, indeed, Indeed, the perception that there is tinuously seen as a woman, ra-
is that several uniformed women an absence of accountability in pe- ther than a professional, but also,
revealed to be more worried about ace operations brings to the spre- in the words of a female soldier,
their safety within military camps ad of discrimination, inappropriate “we are not supposed to be girly,
and bases rather than while being behaviour and sexual harassment but we have to endure the fact that
on the battlefield or on patrol. In and assault, in an environment we are girls” (Vermeij 2020, 11).
fact, according to the statistics, which is made even more com- Therefore, we can
both men and women confront a plex by its peculiar characteristic reflect on the fact that:
high risk of sexual assault by their as multicultural and by the tenden- Being a minority in a mili-
colleagues while on deployment. cy to put women in “traditional- tary environment means that:
Additionally, many countries do ly female” roles related to gen- • Youhavetofendforyourself;
not properly and comprehensively der and protection, regardless of • You have to be hyper
report cases of harassment and as- their qualifications (Vermeij 2020, alert to stigmas and pro-
sault in their militaries (Baldwin and 7). In fact, women are often ap- ve that you do not fit them;
Taylor 2020, 9). Indeed, in their re- pointed as gender and protection • It is hard to speak up,
search Karim and Beardsley found advisers, even when they are not whether on general issues or on
out that sexual and gender-ba- trained to perform such tasks, minority-specific issues or stigmas;
sed harassment was indicated as whereas “being a woman does • You have to face pe-
the second most relevant factor to not make you a gender expert” ople who overtly discrimina-
restrain women from deploying (Vermeij 2020, 15). Further, there te on the basis of gender; and
(Baldwin and Taylor 2020, 10). is a “culture of shaming mothers • You have to face pe-
Thus, various taboos, stigmas and who deploy”, that results in a ople who say offensi-
barriers interfere with the effective “mother’s guilt” (Vermeij 2020, 4). ve things” (Vermeij 2020, 5).
participation of women in PKOs. In this sense, the push to deploy In addition, women’s careers op-
As observed, they extend from the more women to UN peace opera- portunities are impacted by spe-
“role models” perspective accor- tions put them in a difficult posi- cific additional factors, such as:
ding to which women share com- tion (Vermeij 2020, 7) and clearly • Women are judged for
mon motivations and ideologies shows a paradoxical framework not following gender roles.
and “will place their gender identi- where “some military women may • Because of the assumption
ty and solidarity with other women be prioritized for deployment be- that women will follow gender ro-
above all other motivating factors” cause of their sex, others are de- les, they are not offered deployment
(Baldwin and Taylor 2020, 13), to nied international deployments for opportunities, which are critical to
accommodations, health resour- the same reason” (Vermeij 2020, career advancement in the military.
ces, protection equipment and ba- 8), a construction which, as men- • Women who are succes-
sic expectations in terms of physi- tioned above, is even worse for sful in the military are accused
cal and mental safety, which must mothers who “face a culture of of having used sexual influen-
actually be seen as leadership fai- shame” where “are given the con- ce to achieve this or are critici-
lures constituting a violation of a tradictory message that if they are zed by other women and men;
women’s right to deploy. Conse- mothers, they should stay home, • Women are not offered the
quently, it is necessary to give pri- but also that they need to deploy same training opportunities as men;
ority to examining the culture wi- to maintain their career in the mi- • Women are disincentivized

20

from having a military career, taking that women do not have agency
in their own safety and protection
the actions required to make that and thus need to be protected”.
As a matter of fact, there is a fu-
career successful, and deploying; sion of the two and quite different
groups of women and children, an
• Career opportuni- act which “simultaneously infantili-
zes women and negates the com-
ties are judged according to plexity of children’s issues”, while
completely excluding men from
male performance standards”. the analysis (Baldwin and Taylor
2020, 11). In this context, sexual
(Vermeij 2020, 10). harassment is often presented as
“just one of those things women
As a matter of fact, both in the mi- have to accept because they are
in the military” (Vermeij 2020,
litary and police, women confront 11-12) in a culture of silence whi-
ch is protected by a looming fear
many obstacles: practical difficul- of negative consequences in case
of reporting (Vermeij 2020, 12).
ties but also restrictions such as
Conclusions
being confined in the base and Therefore, as already mentioned,
although the WPS Agenda has
not allowed to patrol because been triumphantly celebrated as a
feminist victory in the war against
they are not considered for their war, being seen as a “landmark
resolution” representing a “new,
specific professionality but in a daring, and ambitious strategy for
anti-war feminists” (Cohn et al.
stereotypical fashion as in need 2004, 130) and, indeed, it has un-
deniably given a major contribute
of protection, moreover, as alre- to the mainstreaming of gender in men solely in terms of victims who
peace and security processes and need the paternalistic protection
ady stressed, sexual harassment discussions, it has also been stron- offered by the international com-
gly criticised for representing wo- munity (Ní Aoláin and Valji 2019,
is a major problem (Baldwin and men as “victims to protect” rather 55). As Shepherd (2011, 506) un-
than “agents of change”. In this derlines, in UNSCR 1325 women
Taylor 2020, 1). Indeed, for in- framework, the WPS Agenda, whi- are mostly described as “fragile,
ch is meant to present a holistic ap- passive and in need of protection”,
stance female peacekeepers in the proach to security comprehending which is especially problema-
four main pillars: Participation, tic taking into consideration that
UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) in Conflict Prevention, Protection and “victims are rendered vulnerable
Relief and Recovery (WILPF 2013, through their very construction
2012 denounced that they were 5), has been questioned for being as victims” (Åse 2019, 280).
primarily centred on the pillar of Moreover, discussions about incre-
required to stay in the base and protection. This focus is characte- asing the number of women in this
rized by a global rhetoric about “male-dominated peacekeeping
could not interact with personnel victimhood and protection which system” focus almost only on the
offers an understanding of wo- “added value” of women, so that
from other units or the host popu- the burden is always on women
to prove their worth (Baldwin and
lation, moreover they experienced Taylor 2020, 12). Thus, it is ne-
cessary to consider transformative
sexual harassment and discrimina- possibilities in UN peacekeeping
and the UN’s goals around wo-
tion (Karim and Beardsley 2017). men’s participation, both quanti-
tative and qualitative, and to root
It is also important to consider the them in concrete data. Even if peace
operations often require quick and
strong overlap between the WPS decisive action, empirical backing
is necessary to fight “essentialist”
and the protection of civilians understandings of men and wo-
men, such as the standard descrip-
(POC) agendas, also in terms of tion of women in military and po-

the justifications employed to incre-

ase the number of women in peace

operations. Even if the POC agen-

da is formulated as gender-neutral

still women are typically described

as victims and men as perpetrators

of violence, further, together with

emphasizing women’s victimhood,

this agenda overstresses conflict

related sexual violence (CRSV), as

the same WPS does (Baldwin and

Taylor 2020, 10). In the same di-

rection also goes the continuous

grouping of “women and children”

which brings to the homogeniza-

tion of all women in one category,

but also to “the reductive view

21

TWO DECADES AND A PANDEMIC AFTER THE
ADOPTION OF THE WPS AGENDA

lice contingents as role models for means of zero-tolerance policies which should actively “promote
local women. As Nina Wilén affir- and accessible, reliable and confi- gender equality in strategic, ope-
ms, it is necessary to “transform dential systems to report and deal rational, and tactical engagements
gender-biased institutions without with discriminatory and sexuali- within their organization, including
reinforcing gender stereotypes.” zed behaviour, comprising racism, a focus on diversity and inclusive-
(Baldwin and Taylor 2020, 13). sexual harassment and assault. In ness as core defence values and
It is possible to consider that this addition, predeployment trainings operational imperatives” (Vermeji
very narrow construction of women and training-of-trainers courses 2020, 25). In this sense, for exam-
can be related to the very interna- need to address unconscious bias ple, different national peaceke-
tional legal system, in fact,
looking for instance at the and barriers (Vermeji 2020, 25). eping training centres have
structure of international hu- The very DPO, cannot focus so- adopted quotas to ensure 50-
manitarian law, it is possible lely on the value of “employing 50 male/female participation
to notice that the four 1949 women in roles only women can in their courses, such as at the
Geneva Conventions and do, such as female engagement”, UN Military Expert on Mission
the two Additional Protocols but it should emphasize their role (UNMEM) course at the Finnish
represent women in terms in terms of the operational effecti- Defence Forces International
of the “regard” or “consi- veness of missions while making it Centre (FINCENT) and the UN
deration due to women on clear that women need to be em- Staff Officers Course (UNSOC)
account of their sex”, repre- ployed in terms of a “meaningful at the Swedish Armed Forces
senting women only for their participation”, not just in quanti- International Centre (SWE-
peculiar weakness, at the tative terms (Vermeij 2020, 28). DINT) (Vermeij 2020, 24).
physical and psychological This, though, it is primarily a fun-
level, and resulting peculiar damental task for the leadership, PICTURES:
need of protection, and for -https://ukraine.un.org/en/admin/structure/
their sexual and reproductive unct_static_tag/51
capacity. Even sexual violen- -https://twitter.com/unwomenafrica/sta-
ce is addressed only in terms tus/1164517988617412611
of the honour of the women - h t t p s : / / t w i t t e r. c o m / To i l y K u r b a n o v / s t a -
involved, which show that tus/1442516074281553926/photo/1
women are not considered -https://namati.org/resources/womens-ri-
as autonomous subjects but ghts-review-25-years-after-beijing/
as the property of the men - h t t p s : / / w w w. b e h a n c e . n e t / g a l -
they are dependent on. lery/91105943/Poster-for-UN-Women-Oran-
Still, different measures ge-The-World?tracking_source=search
could be implemented in or-
der to bring to an increase in wo-
men’s leadership and participation
such as the use of communication
strategies directly targeting military
women within national security for-
ces in order to increase awareness
of deployment opportunities (Ver-
meij 2020, 8). Moreover, women
could be supported by mentoring
programs or women networks
(Vermeij 2020, 22). It is, though,
paramount to improve standards
of behaviour and accountability wi-
thin national defence structures, by

22

note https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/ sexual violence in peacekeeping operations”,
files/dpo_policy_brief_women_transforming_ International Peacekeeping 17 (2): 188-199
1 See https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osa- peace_in_peacekeeping_contexts_final.pdf [8 Vermeij, L. (2020) Woman First, Soldier Se-
gi/wps/. Sep 2021] cond: Taboos and Stigmas Facing Military
2 Which was created in 1992 as the Depart- Dufour, F. (2020) “The Realities of ‘Reality’ Women in UN Peace Operations, Internatio-
ment of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) - Part IV: The Reality Behind Achieving Wor- nal Peace Institute, October 2020, Available:
when Boutros Boutros-Ghali became Secre- ld Peace” (April 5, 2020). Available: https:// h t t p s : / / w w w. i p i n s t . o r g / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o -
tary-General of the United Nations. It was papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ ads/2020/10/2010_Taboos-and-Stigmas-Fa-
renamed Department of Peace Operations id=3572685 [8 Sep 2021] c i n g- M i l i t a r y-Wo m e n - i n - U N - Pe a c e - O p e r a -
(DPO) on 1 January 2019 during a reorgani- Ghittoni, M., Lehouck, L. and Watson, C. tions.pdf [8 Sep 2021]
zation of the UN’s peace and security system. (2018) Elsie Initiative for Women in Peace WILPF (undated), The resolutions, Available:
3 See https://wps.unwomen.org/ Operations. Baseline Study. July 2018. Ge- http://www.peacewomen.org/why-WPS/solu-
4 See also: https://www.peacewomen.org/ neva: DCAF, Available: https://www.dcaf.ch/ tions/resolutions [8 Sep 2021]
why-WPS/solutions and https://www.pea- sites/default/files/publications/documents/ WILPF, (2013) Women, Peace and Security.
cewomen.org/why-WPS/solutions/resolutions Elsie_GenderReport_2018_Final.pdf [8 Sep National Action Plan Development Toolkit, Pe-
5 In 2007 India deployed the first ever all-fe- 2021] aceWomen of Women’s International League
male FPU to Liberia. Karim, S. and Beardsley, K. (2016) “Explaining for Peace and Freedom, Available: https://
6 See Global Affairs Canada, Backgrounder: Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Peacekee- www.peacewomen.org/assets/file/national_
The Elsie Initiative on Women in Peace Ope- ping Missions: The Role of Female Peaceke- action_plan_development_toolkit.pdf (8 Sep
rations, Government of Canada, March 2018, epers and Gender Equality in Contributing 2021)
available at: Countries”, Journal of Peace Research 53, Young, I.M. (2003) “The Logic of Masculinist
https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/ no.1 (January 2016): 100-115 Protection: Reflections on the Current Security
news/2018/03/the-elsie-initiative-on-wo- Karim, S., and Beardsley, K. (2017) Equal op- State” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and
men-in-peace-operations.html. See also: UN portunity peacekeeping: women, peace, and Society 29(1): 1-25
Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office, “Elsie Initiative security in post-conflict states. Oxford: Oxford
for Uniformed Women in Peace Operations,” University Press Sofia Sutera
available at http://mptf.undp.org/factsheet/ Karim, S. and Henry, M. (2018) “Gender and
fund/EIF00 Peacekeeping”, In: Ní Aoláin, F., Cahn, N., Human Rights Centre “Antonio
Haynes, D. F. and Valji, N. (eds.), The Oxford Papisca”
References Handbook of Gender and Conflict, Oxford: University of Padua
Oxford University Press, 390-402
Baldwin, G. and Taylor, S. (2020) Uniformed Ní Aoláin, F. and Valji, N. (2019) “Scholar-
Women in Peace Operations: Challenging ly debates and contested meanings of WPS”,
Assumptions and Transforming Approaches, In: Davies, S.E. and True, J. (eds.) The Oxford
International Peace Institute, Issue Brief, June Handbook of Women, Peace, and Security,
2020, Available: https://www.ipinst.org/ Oxford: Oxford University Press, 53-62
wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2006-Unifor- Nordås, R. and Rustad, S.C.A. (2013) “Sexual
med-Women-in-Peace-Operations.pdf [8 Sep exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers:
2021] Understanding variation”, International Inte-
Cohn, C., Kinsella, H., and Gibbings, S. (2004) ractions 39 (4): 587-600
“Women, peace and security resolution 1325”, OSAGI (undated), Landmark resolution on
International Feminist Journal of Politics 6 Women, Peace and Security, Available: ht-
(1):130-140 tps://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/wps/
Coomaraswamy, R. (2015) Preventing Confli- [8 Sep 2021]
ct, Transforming Justice, Securing the Peace: Shepherd, L.J. (2011) “Sex, security and
A Global Study on the Implementation of Uni- superhero(in)es: From 1325 to 1820 and
ted Nations Security Council resolution 1325, beyond”, International Feminist Journal of Po-
UN Women, October 2015, Available: https:// litics 13(4): 504-521
www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/ Simić, O. (2010) “Does the presence of wo-
UNW-GLOBAL-STUDY-1325-2015%20(1).pdf men really matter? Towards combating male
[8 Sep 2021]
DPO 2020, Policy Brief: Women Transforming
Peace in Peacekeeping Contexts, Available:

23

STABILITY POLICING HUB

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SP TO EOD

The Contribution of Stability Po- However it is not only the use of may effectively support the EOD
licing to Explosive Ordnance Di- IEDs by NATO adversaries that capability, and contribute to NA-
sposal has to be dealt with but also the TO’s desired end state both in the-
presence of unexploded explosi- atre of operations by preserving
by José Antonio Lorenzo Quiroz ve ordnances (UXO3) which often the host nation population from
appear in the field in the after- the EOD effects, as well as throu-
During the last decades warfi- math of a conflict that have to gh the thorough collection and
be managed, securing the local handling of evidence, which can
ghting and conflicts have shifted population and own forces un- serve in judicial procedures either
into a grey area where the thre- til EOD units render safe an area. locally or abroad at a later stage.
sholds of conflict are blurry, the Likewise occurs with remnants of The notion of stability policing wi-
enemies are more and more diffi- war, small arms, and ammuni- thin NATO has been defined by
cult to distinguish, and the battles tions, abandoned and unexplo- NATO as being “Police-related acti-
have become asymmetrically fou- ded ordnances that may be loca- vities intended to reinforce or tem-
ght. An example can be seen du- ted and which suppose a threat porarily replace indigenous police
ring the more recent conflicts in Iraq to the local population and that forces in order to contribute to the
and Afghanistan, where the strate- could easily find their way to the restoration and/or upholding of
gic and effective use of improvised illegal market. These issues must the public order and security, rule
explosive devices (IED1) by terro- be addresses through disarma- of law, and the protection of hu-
rists and insurgents has triggered ment, demobilization and reinte- man rights.”5 These activities are to
within NATO Allies the reaction of gration (DDR) efforts ensuring that be conducted in the course of an
their explosive ordnance disposal these elements will not end in the operation in fragile states, before,
(EOD2) capabilities which necessa- hands of criminal organisations during and post conflict/crisis with
rily evolved to tackle or at least mi- or terrorist / insurgent networks. the aim of establishing a SASE.6
tigate this phenomenon by counte- While establishing a safe and se- In this regard and relating to the
ring, neutralising and the technical cure environment (SASE)4 NATO SP contribution to EOD, some SP
exploitation (TE) of the device. Stability Policing (SP) capability units deployed may have the ca-

24

pability to perform EOD activities cordon and by controlling relevant evidence (fibres, soil, vegetation),
autonomously; however, this is a entry points, preventing access to CCTV footage, witness statemen-
most unlikely scenario. In practi- non-authorised personnel. Autho- ts, victims identification. Sketches
ce EOD will be carried out by rised entry should be fully identi- and photography / video footage
specialised EOD units, military fied and through a secure entry/ of the crime scene should be recor-
engineering (MILENG), and sup- exit corridor; indeed, it is essen- ded. The identification and loca-
ported by force protection (FP), tial that the crime scene remains tion of evidence which is recovered
medical support, electronic war- as untouched as possible, in or- should be labelled and tagged, as
fare (EW), military working dogs der to avoid its “contamination”.8 well as the identification of who
(MWD), logistics, weapon intelli- While awaiting the arrival of the and where each piece of eviden-
gence teams (WITs), boarding te- specialised EOD operators, the ce was recovered. By the same
ams, military search, mine cle- SP elements should redirect traffic token, the chain of custody re-
arance measures (MCM), CBRN and select a safe rendezvous point cords should be crystal-clear and
defence, military police (MP), com- and inform the relevant parties. maintained for all recovered items.
munications, and of course by SP.7 Furthermore, any witness should Types of evidence that may be
In the field, it is highly probable be identified and debriefed ta- found could include remains of
that SP elements at some point king notes of the information ac- safety fuses, remains of detona-
come across an explosive device, quired. Upon its arrival, the EOD tors, wires, fragments of contai-
inter alia, either during a ners, frag-
patrols, attending a pu- “THE NOTION OF STABILITY POLICING WITHIN NATO ments of
blic security incident, a HAS BEEN DEFINED BY NATO AS BEING “POLICE-RE- batteries,
search and seizure mis- LATED ACTIVITIES INTENDED TO REINFORCE OR TEM- s a m p l e s
sion, surveillance acti- of explo-
vities, during the course PORARILY REPLACE INDIGENOUS POLICE FORCES IN sives, just
of a criminal investiga- ORDER TO CONTRIBUTE TO THE RESTORATION AND/ to name
tion, whilst providing se- OR UPHOLDING OF THE PUBLIC ORDER AND SECURI- a few.
curity to a critical site,
TY, RULE OF LAW, AND THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN T h r o u g h
during a counter-ter- RIGHTS.”
rorism or organised biometric

analysis
crime operation, or during the specialised element is to be ful- fingerprints or DNA samples may
course of community policing ly briefed on the incident and on be retrieved, a technical analy-
duties, to mention but a few… the content of witness statements. sis of the structure of the explosi-
As first responders it is critical for Likewise, witnesses are to be ac- ve device may lead to identifying
SP to take a series of measures to cessible to EOD specialists too, for the bomb maker, etc… The mate-
ensure the safety of the population the latter require the best pictu- rial used to fabricate the IED may
whilst not disregarding their own re possible of the blast/incident. lead us to know if it was fabrica-
personal safety. Moreover, de- The UXO/IED device (or suspected ted locally or not, if the support of
pending whether the operational device) is only to be manipulated an external supplier was neces-
environment is permissive or not, by specialised EOD operators. sary in order to obtain the compo-
SP can take immediate measures. Only upon neutralising the devi- nents. In general terms, this may
These can include but are not limi- ce and rendering the area safe, provide us with a wider picture of
ted to confirming the presence of should the crime scene examina- our adversaries’ criminal network
the UXO or the IED, clearing and tion begin. This should include the and enable to pursue this network
evacuating the danger area of per- thorough examination and detai- through law enforcement efforts.
sonnel and casualties, reporting led recording of the crime scene to In the case of the appearance of an
the incident through their chain of search and collect evidence, which UXO it is of interest to the investiga-
command providing as much and can include biological evidence, tion to determine if it is attributable
detailed description of the UXO/ latent print evidence (fingerprin- to our adversary, if it is considered
IED as possible, securing the in- ts, palm / foot prints etc..), shoe- as prohibited by the “Convention
cident area through an effective prints, tire track evidence, trace on Prohibitions or Restrictions on

25

STABILITY POLICING HUB

the Use of Certain Conventional the diminishing of the credibility of terinsurgent operations. Terrorists
Weapons Which May Be Deemed governments / international orga- and insurgents have also used the-
to Be Excessively Injurious or to nisations10. However, probably the se weapons to fix NATO or local
Have Indiscriminate Effects” and most important reason may be a forces to an area before other for-
if there may be issues of accoun- combination of the above summed ms of attacks were carried out (am-
tability for breaches of internatio- to the fact that their calculated use bushes, sniper attacks, etc. …).12
nal humanitarian law and laws of can tip the balance in an asymme- In order to counter the use of IEDs,
armed conflict. These should be tric war and requires NATO to un- NATO Allies have engaged and
investigated and documented for dergo vast efforts to restore stability. enhanced WITs for TE13 efforts to
possible legal procedures.
Likewise the origin of the During the wars in Iraq and Afgha- produce technical intelli-
UXO may permit NATO to nistan, the use of IEDs has been so gence (TECHINT)14. The-
discover hidden alliances, effective for terrorists and insurgen- se WITs are defined for
for example a state may be ts that it comes as no surprise that C-IED15 purposes as a
supplying certain weaponry they have been called “weapons of pool of specialists who in-
to another state (or non-sta- strategic influence”.11 For the du- vestigate IED events when
te armed group) in confli- ration of these conflicts, IEDs have tasked. Their main task is
ct in an effort of support, been strategically used by terrorist to gather, analyse, colla-
whilst publically it denies and insurgents to block NATO or te and distribute technical
these actions. A discovery local forces from in an area and/ and tactical intelligence
of this nature could justi- or preventing their advance in a and forensic potential evi-
fy a diplomatic intervention determined direction during coun- dence for exploitation. To
against the concerned state do so the WIT capabilities
(embargo, sanctions, et si- are structured on various
milia) aimed at deterring it levels, ranging from on the
from supporting an oppo- scene, in theatre technical
nent in an ongoing conflict. / tactical level to an out
The above-mentioned of theatre with advanced
actions above can be car- technical analysis and in-
ried out by SP elements in trusive exploitation. 16WITs
support of EOD capabili- allow NATO to direct its
ties and are of vital impor- efforts not only against the
tance as they ensure the device but also against the
admissibility of the battle- IED network (i.e. the op-
field evidence (BE)9 retrie- ponents’ capabilities). 17
ved in future legal proce- In this regard, NATO SP
dures, either within the area can contribute with spe-
of operations or abroad. cialised assets for forensi-
Despite being amongst the oldest cs and biometric activities
type of weapons, during recent within these WITs as well as further
conflicts the use of IEDs by ter- exploiting available TECHINT to de-
rorist or insurgents has become velop law enforcement intelligence
more and more frequent. There (LEINT).18 Through the use of fo-
are many explanations of why this rensic science techniques it is pos-
choice of weaponry. These reasons sible to identify actors that otherwi-
could range from their cost-effecti- se are indistinguishable from the
veness, accessibility, their strategic general population. TECHINT &
role (limits mobility of security for- LEINT permit network analysis whi-
ces), the psychological effect pro- ch provides information on bomb
duced on the population, and or designers / makers – triggermen
and also identifies techniques and

26

materiel. This could then lead to trials against, and the prosecution Cooperation Initiative and eligi-

the identification of suppliers, fi- of foreign terrorist fighters, inclu- ble G5 Sahel partner Countries.

nancers, trainers, leaders, and of ding returnees and relocators” All of these multilateral efforts sha-

patterns and trends, and serve as which was held in Madrid on 11- re the common objective of establi-

forensic evidence as it establishes 12 June 2019.22 Once again, it shing a set of best practices to

the linkage between persons, pla- was pointed out that the domi- ensure that BE is handled in accor-

ces, things and events. All in all, nant key to a successful prosecu- dance with international standards

this allows NATO decision makers tion in any jurisdiction is the avai- in order to guarantee its admissi-

to take timely resolutions and the lability of admissible evidence. bility in future legal proceedings.

provision of countermeasures and/ In an attempt to secure the ad- EOD incidents and their exploita-

or supports the targeting of these missibility of BE in legal procedu- tion are an utmost valuable sour-

networks through law enforcement res, the United Nations Security ce of BE and LEINT in the area of

apparatuses, thus enabling the re- Council Counter-terrorism Com- counter-terrorism, thus the impor-

establishment of the rule of law by mittee Executive Directorate has tance of emphasizing this issue

backing prosecutions and conse- set a series of guidelines, which throughout the whole of this paper.

quently strengthening the overall were published in 2019, provi- NATO Supreme Headquarters

Security Sector Reform’s efforts.19 ding military personnel deployed Allied Powers in Europe (SHA-

However not only is this LEINT va- under a UN mandate with di- PE) and INTERPOL’s cooperation

luable in the theatre of operations rection in the collection of BE.23 goes beyond, having signing of

but also abroad, as it is also ne- From the Alliance’s perspective, a memorandum of understan-

cessary to manage ding in De-

at the domestic level “AS FIRST RESPONDERS IT IS CRITICAL FOR SP TO TAKE cember 2020,
emerging threats, by which a
which are origina- A SERIES OF MEASURES TO ENSURE THE SAFETY OF THE framework
ted by the return of POPULATION WHILST NOT DISREGARDING THEIR OWN for coopera-
foreign terrorist fi- PERSONAL SAFETY. MOREOVER, DEPENDING WHETHER tion between
ghters (FTFs)20. The
THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT IS PERMISSIVE OR both organi-
matter of the retur- NOT, SP CAN TAKE IMMEDIATE MEASURES.”
sations is set.

ning FTFs has been As a conse-

addressed by the United Nations BE has become one of its current quence, this will include the sha-

Security Council in various reso- counter-terrorism priority areas of ring of information on non-mi-

lutions21 and many nations have work and NATO has approved TE litary illegal activities including

already adapted their domestic and a BE policy in 202024. Further- terrorism-related activities.

legislation to comply with these more NATO has offered Battlefield An example of this information sha-

UNSC Resolutions. The measures Evidence Collection training pro- ring could be INTERPOL’s Project

that have been implemented aim grammes in conjunction with Inter- “Watchmaker”, a programme whi-

at facilitating information exchan- national Criminal Police Organiza- ch uses fingerprints retrieved from

ge and collaboration between na- tion (INTERPOL) and the European IED components, weapons and

tions and organisations. However Union at the NATO Stability Poli- smartphones to help identify, lo-

the admittance of BE in natio- cing Centre of Excellence (NATO cate and arrest terrorists. This pro-

nal proceedings is not always a SP COE) in Vicenza (Italy), where gramme will facilitate the data flow

straight forward issue as it is not more than a hundred Iraqi officers from the NATO Military/SP forces

always available or admissible. received this training during the on the ground to the relevant hot-

In this sense there is a need to period of 2019/2020. Currently, spots via official police channels.

have a close co-operation betwe- thanks to a US grant and under The “MI-LEX” project (also led by

en civilian and military authorities NATO International Staff’s aegis, Interpol), which aims at delive-

to secure the BE and make it avai- four further iterations are planned ring military-police information

lable for court procedures. This to be conducted during 2021/22 to exchange, declassifying informa-

was highlighted during the “wor- train MoD/MoI personnel from the tion for investigative and prosecu-

kshop on the conduct of criminal Mediterranean Dialogue, Istanbul tion purposes, whilst ensuring the

27

STABILITY POLICING HUB

chain of custody and respecting activities SP can cut the supply of ch can later be admissible in legal
data protection is also of high im- weaponry for home-made explo- proceedings and serve as well
portance as it has been pointed sives for terrorist and insurgents, for tactical / operational leads.
out in the “EUROJUST Memoran- whilst at the same time preventing NATO SP has the capabilities to
dum of Battlefield Evidence.”25 the arms trafficking of these rem- contribute both to TE and BE col-
This very report highlights that nants of war. Thus all contributing lection as it counts on experts in
the use of BE in national jurisdi- to the establishment of a SASE. forensic and biometrical sciences
ctions has increased in the past The main focus of this paper has experienced in dealing with legal
years, rendering successful con- been to the role of NATO SP in a proceeding and with providing
victions. However, it is to be no- substitution (replacement) mission timely support to their chain of
ted that, although the use of BE is with full executive powers; however, command during ongoing ope-
not excluded under national laws, NATO SP role is not only limited to rations. These have been iden-
its admissibility is subject to gua- this. It has already been described tified as key areas in modern
ranteeing the right to a fair trial, above that the NATO SP COE is day conflicts both for operatio-
the respect of human rights in its carrying out efforts to deliver to re- nal matters in the battlefield or
obtainment, chain of custody and levant stakeholders training in BE; judicial procedures in courtro-
continuity, just to list a few condi- this is directly linked to crime scene oms be it domestically or abroad.
tions that must be met. In this sen- management and a crucial part to As seen, efforts carried out by SP
se, NATO SP provides a unique ca- EOD/IED incident management. in the area of DDR contribute to
pability as it counts with specially Additionally, during a strengthe- establishing a SASE and additio-
trained and experienced assets in ning (reinforcement) mission SP nally prevent or pursue arms traf-
complex investigations, which can can orientate its activities towards ficking and proliferation throu-
ensure the correct handling of BE providing training to prepare the gh law enforcement instruments.
derived from EOD exploitation to local law enforcement agencies to Stability Policing is without a doubt
secure its admissibility in both lo- operate in an EOD/IED environ- an added value to EOD/IED in-
cal and national legal procedures. ment, whilst simultaneously provi- cident management and can in-
A further area in which NATO SP ding mentoring, advising, and trai- crease the likelihood of success
can contribute to EOD efforts al- ning in the conduct of the activities in the achievement of the mission
though in an indirect manner is described throughout this article mandate by contributing to ad-
through its cyber capability as it (crime scene management, BE col- dress the grey area of conflicts
can monitor this domain to de- lection, TE, law enforcement intel- though law enforcement mecha-
tect contacts between the network ligence and exploitation), enabling nisms, whilst supporting local law
and suppliers SP elements can local law enforcement bodies to enforcement bodies in becoming
also carry out open source intel- combat the EOD/IED network autonomous. This in turn impro-
ligence (OSINT) on social media through law enforcement activities. ves governance and alternati-
by recognising, tracking and mo- In summary, in many cases NATO ve livelihoods, thus tremendously
nitoring threat networks, tracking SP will be the first responder, the supporting the Alliance in winning
of cyber activity, IT communica- SP element may have the capabi- public support and the battle of
tions, geolocation, media mo- lity to accomplish the handling of narratives as well as contributing
nitoring (video, audio, etc…).26 the EOD/IED incidents in an auto- to long-term peace and stability.
SP also plays an important role in nomous manner, or as more likely
any DDR process too, by safeguar- the case, it will contribute by han- PICTURES:
ding the surrendering of weapons, dling the crime scene, preserving
their registration, weapons tracing, and securing the area to prevent -NATO SP CoE
and dynamic surveillance of sto- further casualties, the tampering
rage sites, securing destruction si- or contamination of evidence. Disclaimer: this paper is a product of the
tes, advising and training of host Furthermore, SP can contribute NATO Stability Policing Centre of Excellen-
nation law enforcement bodies as by leading the crime scene inve- ce and its content does not reflect NATO
well as of former combatants for stigation, obtaining and registe- policies or positions, nor represent NATO
their reintegration. Through these ring and exploiting evidence whi- in any way, but only the NSPCoE or au-
thor(s) depending on the circumstances.

28

1. 1 IED: “A device placed or fabricated operational value from collected data, Reference
in an improvised manner incorporating information, materiel and materials”
destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic 14. 14 TECHNICAL INTELLIGENCE: “Intelli- AC/342-WP(2020)0001 (INV), NATO Battle-
field Evidence Policy.
or incendiary chemicals and designed to gence concerning foreign technological AC/343-WP(2020)0001-REV1,
destroy, incapacitate, harass or distract.” developments, and the performance
NATO agreed term. and operational capabilities of foreign NATO Technical Exploitation Policy.
2 EOD: “The detection, accessing, EUROJUST “Eurojust Memorandum
2. materiel, which have or may eventually on Battlefield Evidence” Sept. 2020.
uncovering, identification, mitigation, have a practical application for military
rendering safe, recovery, exploitation purposes.” NATO agreed term Memorandum of Understanding betwe-
15 C-IED: “The collective efforts en SHAPE and Interpol, December 2020.
and final disposal of explosive ordnance, 15. to NATO ACIEDP-02 NATO Wea-
regardless of condition.” NATO agreed defeat an improvised explosive device
term system by attacking networks, defeating pons Intelligence (WIT) Capabilities.
3 UXO: “Explosive ordnance that has NATO AEODP-13 Allied EOD Publication.
3. devices and preparing a force.” NATO EOD Roles, Responsibilities, Capabilities And
been primed, fuzed, armed or otherwise agreed term
prepared for action, and that has been 16. 16 NATO ACIEDP-02 NATO Weapons Incident Procedures When Operating With
Non EOD Trained Agencies And Personnel.
fired, dropped, launched, projected or Intelligence (WIT) Capabilities NATO AJP-3.15 Allied Joint Doctrine for
placed in such a manner as to cause 17. 17 NATO AJP-3.15 Allied Joint Publica-
harm to operations, installations, person- tion for Countering Improvised Explosive Countering Improvised Explosive Device
NATO AJP-3.22 Allied Joint
nel or material and remains unexploded Device Doctrine for Stability Policing
either by malfunction or manufacturing 18. 18 NATO ATP-103 Reinforcement and
defect or for any other cause.” NATO Replacement of Indigenous Police NATO AJP-3.4.5 Allied Joint Doctri-
ne for the Military Contribution to
agreed term Forces, Lexicon (Draft). Law enforce- Stabilization and Reconstruction.
4. 4 SASE: “The surroundings and condi- ment intelligence (LEINT): “The product
tions that are sufficiently protective for resulting from the directed collection NATO ATP-103 Reinforcement and Repla-
cement of Indigenous Police Forces (Draft)
long-term security and stability to deve- and processing of law enforcement NATO ATP-3.18.1 Allied Tactical Publi-
lop and where the population is served information regarding the environment
by a functional, legitimate, self-sustai- and the capabilities and intentions of cation for Explosive Ordnance Disposal.
NSO NATO Term database
ning and resilient government.” NATO actors, in order to identify threats and PIERRECLAUDENOLIN(CANADA)SPECIALRAP-
agreed term offer opportunities for exploitation by
5. 5 NATO AJP-3.22 Allied Joint Doctrine decision-makers” PORTEUR “Countering the Afghan Insurgency:
19 “Understanding Low-Tech Threats, High-Tech Solutions”. 2011
for Stability Policing 19. the Enemy. The Thomas B Smith & Marc Tranchemontagne
6. 6 NATO AJP-3.22 Allied Joint Doctrine Enduring Value of Technical and Forensic
for Stability Policing; AJP-3.4.5 Allied Exploitation”. 2014, Thomas B Smith & “Understanding the Enemy. The Enduring Value
of Technical and Forensic Exploitation”. 2014.
Joint Doctrine for the Military Contribu- Marc Tranchemontagne UN SC CT Executive Directorate “Guidelines to
tion to Stabilization and Reconstruction 20. 20 Foreign Terrorist Fighter: “individuals
7. 7 NATO ATP-3.18.1 Allied Tactical Publi- who travel to a State other than their facilitate the uses and admissibility as evidence
in national criminal courts of information col-
cation for Explosive Ordnance Disposal State of residence or nationality for the lected, handled, preserved and shared by the
8. 8 NATO AEODP-13 Allied EOD Publi- purpose of perpetration, planning or
cation. EOD Roles, Responsibilities, preparation of or participation in, terro- military to prosecute terrorist offences”, 2019.
UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001)
Capabilities and Incident Procedures rist acts or providing or receiving terrorist UNSC Resolution 2178 (2014)
When Operating With Non EOD Trained training, including in connection with
Agencies And Personnel armed conflict.” UN Security Council UNSC Resolution 2396 (2017)
9 There is no agreed definition for batt- UNSC Resolution 71/19 (2016)
9. Resolution 2178 UNSC Resolutions 2322 (2016)
lefield evidence, however for the NATO 21. 21 UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001), UNSC
defines for the purpose of the drafting Resolution 2178 (2014), UNSC Resolu-
of its BE Policy as: “the information or tion 71/19 (2016), UNSC Resolutions
material derived from NATO opera- 2322 (2016), UNSC Resolution 2396
tions, missions and activities, shared or (2017)
transferred to support law enforcement 22. 22 Co-organised by the Council of
purposes and legal proceedings for Europe, the Ministry of Justice and the
Allies, Partners and/or Host Nations.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Spain.
AC/342-WP(2020)0001 (INV), NATO 23. 23 “Guidelines to facilitate the uses and
Battlefield Evidence Policy admissibility as evidence in national
10. 10 NATO AJP-3.15 Allied Joint Publica- criminal courts of information collected,
tion for Countering Improvised Explosive handled, preserved and shared by the
Device military to prosecute terrorist offences”,
11. 11 “Understanding the Enemy. The UN SC CT Executive Directorate. 2019
Enduring Value of Technical and Forensic 24. 24 AC/342-WP (2020)0001 (INV), NATO
Exploitation”. 2014, Thomas B Smith & Battlefield Evidence Policy. AC/343-WP
Marc Tranchemontagne (2020)0001-REV1, NATO Technical
12. 12 “Countering the Afghan Insurgency: Exploitation Policy.
Low-Tech Threats, High-Tech Solutions”. 25. 25 “Eurojust Memorandum on Battlefield
PIERRE CLAUDE NOLIN (CANADA) SPE- Evidence,” EUROJUST. Sept. 2020.
CIAL RAPPORTEUR - 2011 26. 26 NATO AJP-3.15 Allied Joint Publica- José Antonio Lorenzo Quiroz
13. 13 NATO AIntP-10 defines Technical tion for Countering Improvised Explosive MSGT (Spanish Guardia Civil)
exploitation as: “A process using scienti- Device NATO SP CoE - Standardization
fic methods and tools to derive data and and Interoperability Staff Assi-
information of potential intelligence or stant

29

ALUMNI



ALUMNI

32

DEPUTY DIRECTOR’S CORNER

Greetings,

It is the time of the year where the daylight hours get shorter and the weather be-
gins to chill, it is a time I look forward to each year – the days we welcome our stu-
dents, interns, and staff back to CoESPU.
I hope that everyone had a great summer holiday enjoying time with family, friends
and loved ones. As we enjoyed our time to travel, I kept our esteemed Alumni,
currently serving in support of international Peacekeeping missions, on my mind. I
wish you continued success on your missions and a safe trip home when the time
arrives.
This Academic year is full of unique educational opportunities. Academic Year 21-
22, is the second year for the internship program, CoESPU will host approximately
26 interns over the course of the year covering a variety of disciplines. Additional-
ly, CoESPU will host over 10 United Nation courses and several workshops.
Finally, I am pleased to share, due to the success of the tutor program we will con-
tinue to grow the opportunities for Alumni to return to CoESPU and contribute in
building, maintaining and developing the didactic interaction among the student,
while working closely with our staff.
I look forward to greeting you on the CoESPU campus du-
ring this Academic year.

COL HazelettColonel Rebecca Hazelett

Rebecca D. Hazelett

Col. - US Army MP
CoESPU Deputy Director

33

IN DEPTH

THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
OF UN PEACEKEEPING

The Digital Transformation of pers and protection of civilians, evolving threats and opportuni-
UN Peacekeeping: what does it and allow for safer and more ef- ties, and that can rely upon tools
mean for UN Police? fective peacekeeping missions”. and resources for the responsible
The Open Debate highlighted the use and development of digital
by Annika Hansen & resounding interest of UN Mem- technologies. There are at least
Naomi Miyashita ber States in technology, both as three areas with direct implica-
a tool to strengthen peacekeeping tions for UN Police – through the
In August, United Nations Se- effectiveness, and as a factor sha- UN Secretariat, police contribu-
ping conflict environments where ting countries (PCCs) and poli-
cretary-General António Guter-
res launched the Strategy for the “UN POLICE NEEDS TO DEVELOP A FULLER UNDERSTAN-
Digital Transformation of UN Pe- DING OF THE TECHNOLOGIES’ POTENTIAL AND APPLI-
acekeeping at the UN Security CATION. DATA PROTECTION AND PRIVACY SHOULD BE
Council, where he underscored COVERED BY DOCTRINE AND TRAINING TO ENSURE
that “new technologies have gre- THAT UN POLICE EXERCISE THE UTMOST RIGOR IN DATA
at potential, if managed respon- MANAGEMENT.”
sibly, to enable safer, harm-free,
and more effective operations.” peacekeepers are deployed. But ce peacekeepers on the ground.
For its part, the Security Council, what are the implications for the First, the strategy is an opportunity
in a Presidential Statement adop- United Nations Police (UNPOL)? for UN Police to enhance the im-
ted at the debate, encouraged The digital transformation strategy plementation of their current man-
“exploring available and future envisions peacekeeping missions dated tasks by applying a techno-
technologies and best practices that are guided by timely, inte- logy lens throughout. This means
that can contribute towards the grated information, and operated adapting and updating police pe-
safety and security of peacekee- by a tech-aware and data-literate acekeeping doctrine, developing
workforce that horizon-scans for new guidelines and training on

34

the use of emerging technologies and violence. Expertise in these ping Symposium in South Africa
in UN police peacekeeping, such areas would enable UN Police to (2022). This ambitious but indi-
as databases and platforms, au- deliver capacity-building support, spensable agenda will ensure that
tomated analysis tools or mobile which may include support to the UN peacekeeping remains an ef-
applications, and identifying rele- digital protection of sensitive na- fective and valuable peace and
vant best practice. UN Police clo- tional data or infrastructure, or security tool for the 21st century.
sely engage with host communities investigation of cyber incidents at UN Police will be a central piece
and are a central contributor to the request of host-state autho- of the puzzle as we go forward.
the mission’s common operatio- rities. For this, impartiality will be
nal picture. Technology tools will key to the credibility of UN Police Annika Hansen
increasingly be integral to inform work in these areas. This can be
planning and decision-making, reinforced by upholding the prin- Head of Analysis at the Center
notably on protection of civilians. ciples outlined in the digital tran- for International Peace Opera-
For these tools to benefit core tasks, sformation strategy, including tions (ZIF)
such as support to community-o- inclusion, transparency, and ap-
riented policing and the protection plying a do-no-harm approach. Naomi Miyashita
of civilians, UN Police needs to de- Third, an important overarching
velop a fuller understanding of the objective of the strategy is to cre- Policy Planning Team Leader
technologies’ potential and appli- ate a level playing field between within the Policy, Evaluation and
cation. Data protection and privacy the technology “haves” and “have Training Division of the United
should be covered by doctrine and nots” amongst troop and police Nations Department of Peace
training to ensure that UN Police contributors, but also between pe- Operations
exercise the utmost rigor in data acekeepers and host-states. The
management. Data protection and strategy encourages a multi-sta-
privacy standards also apply to keholder, partnerships-driven ap-
building the capacity of host-state proach between Member States,
police, as we know from support international organisations, civil
to the Crime Data Analysis Lab in society and the technology sector.
South Sudan, fingerprint analysis Understanding where gaps may
in Mali, and forensics in the Cen- exist, and developing capacity-bu-
tral African Republic and Mali. ilding partnerships with or betwe-
Second, UN Police needs to pre- en police-contributing countries
pare for the conflict theatres of to- will be critical in enabling a pea-
morrow and can do so by learning cekeeping workforce with the re-
and drawing from national poli- quisite digital skills. Interoperability
cing doctrine and practice. Con- between digital technology platfor-
flict settings will increasingly be ms and tools will be essential for
characterized by new lethal and these tools to contribute to more
non-lethal weapons technologies, effective mandate implementation.
cybercrime, and online informa- As the UN Secretariat embarks
tion disorder. UN Police should on the digital transformation of
incorporate more specialised ca- peacekeeping, several concrete
pacities in areas such as cyber in- opportunities to galvanise diver-
telligence gathering techniques, se stakeholder support lie ahead:
forensic cyber security capabilities, the Peacekeeping Ministerial Me-
and cybersecurity. Monitoring and eting in Seoul, Republic of Korea
tracking online content, including (December 2021); the United Na-
in collaboration with host-state tions Chiefs of Police Summit in
police, will be critical to under- New York (June 2022); and the
standing the potential for unrest next Partnerships for Peacekee-

35

IN DEPTH

THE BALKAN HUB: ITALIAN MODEL
FOR ANTI-TRAFFICKING OPERATIONS

The Balkan Hub: the Italian Mo- national criminal groups involved every flux of migrants from the
del for Anti-trafficking Opera- in smuggling and human traffi- others on ethnical bases, which
tions and its Anthropological Ele- cking. All this area is a hub from showed that every criminal group
ments routes which start in Afghanistan, works in a different way, from the
Pakistan, Iran, Bangladesh, Tur- recruitment of the victims to the
by Desirée Pangerc key, South-East Asia and, espe- modalities through which they se-
cially after 2015, North Africa. gregate them, once enslaved. But
Globalization, migrations and The connection between organi- who are the victims of human traffi-
zed crime and human trafficking cking? According to article 3 of the
security issues are strictly con-
nected but, if we can consider glo- “THE ITALIAN MODEL WORKED GREAT, THROUGH
balization and migration as “total CARRYING ON SUCCESSFUL ANTI-TRAFFICKING
social facts” - as we say in anthro- OPERATIONS IN THE BALKANS AND IN ITALY. A PA-
pology - because every element or RADIGMATIC EXAMPLE IS OPERATION “ORIENTE 1”,
representation of the economic, THE FIRST ANTI-TRAFFICKING OPERATION WHICH
social, political, cultural and reli- APPLIED THE ITALIAN MODEL.”
gious aspects are involved in this
human experience, we have to un- was deeply investigated by the Ita- UN Protocol to Prevent Suppress
derline also the “dark side” of this lian Anti-mafia Prosecutor, Nico- and Punish Human Trafficking,
duo. Especially from the 90s then- la Maria Pace and his team, who they are recruited, transported,
ceforth, we have been observing a created the so-called “Italian mo- transferred, harboured by means
continuous increase of two crimi- del” and its application to combat of the threat or use of force in diffe-
nal phenomena linked to forced this crime against humanity. This rent ways, so the trafficked people
and illegal migrations: smuggling successful model is characterized are in a clear position of vulnerabi-
of migrants and human trafficking. by four anthropological aspects. lity, or in an asymmetrical relation-
The Western Balkans must be con- First of all, the differentiation of ship, with the criminal group even
sidered as a net in which migrants’
fluxes can be channeled by trans-

36

if, at the beginning, there can be rary sell of minors (called also remain a constant problem and
agreed a sort of consensus betwe- “minors in leasing”); human or- it must be considered a priority in
en the exploited and the exploiters. gans trade; illegal adoptions; the security and political agenda.
The second anthropological aspect forced marriages; begging and
is the analysis of the transnatio- money laundering connected PICTURES:
nality of the so-called “New Ma- to the previous illicit activities. -https://www.eunews.it/2021/01/18/
fias”. Jean Ziegler, a Swiss socio- The Italian model worked gre- bosnia-the-balkan-route-europe-is-be-
logist, compares the structure of at, through carrying on successful coming-the-intensive-care-for-human-ri-
the criminal organizations to the anti-trafficking operations in the ghts/140903
one of transnational holdings and Balkans and in Italy. A paradigma- -https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.
it/2015/08/28/migranti-esplode-la-rotta-bal-
shows that they are characteri- tic example is Operation “Oriente canica-ue-lha-sottovalutata-e-le-mafie-pro-
zed by a financial and capitali- 1”, the first anti-trafficking opera- sperano/1988888/
stic structure whose parameters tion which applied the Italian mo-
are the maximization of the profit del. During 2000 and the years be- References
and productivity, plus a sort of mi- fore, the investigators were able to
litary hierarchy, which means that dismantle a traffic of about 5,000 Boissevain J. (1974) Friends of friends. Networ-
they are based on an authorita- Chinese people, mainly man, in ks, Manipulators and Coalitions. Oxford: Oxford
rian method in order to establish a less than nine months, thanks to Basil Blackwell.
command/obedience relationship. the discovery of a coalition betwe- Miloševska T. and Pangerc D. (2015) “The links
The third point highlights the trans- en Xu Bailing, a Chinese boss li- between women trafficking and organized crime
nationality of these “New Mafias”, ving in Trieste, and Josip Loncaric, in the post-Yugoslav societies”, in: Secu-
by underlining the possibility to a Croatian mafioso who was in rity Dialogues, Vol. 6. N. 2-1, 187-201.
form coalitions- temporary allian- charge to let this illegal flux to pass Pangerc D. (2012/a) “Relazioni asimmetriche
ces created in order to reach the the Balkan borders till the entry tra trafficante e trafficato: un’indagine antropo-
country of destination, through points of Gorizia and Trieste. Some logica”, in Profiling – I profili dell’abuso, Scien-
some agreement with minor crimi- of these trafficked people were cal- ze Forensi, http://www.onap-profiling.org/
nal groups in the countries of transit led “special loads” because they archives/2190, anno 3, n.3, settembre 2012.
(in this case, the Balkan platform). were destined to the organ trade. Pangerc D. (2012) Il traffico degli invisibili. Mi-
The final socio-anthropologi- From those years onwards, the grazioni illegali lungo le rotte balcaniche. Roma:
cal element is the division of the Balkan route has evolved and it Bonanno Editore.
phenomenon of human traffi- is still evolving, changing some Spiezia F., Frezza F. and Pace N.M. (2002) Il
cking into sub-phenomena, such countries of transit, some countries traffico e lo sfruttamento di esseri umani - Primo
as trafficking in women and mi- of origin and the number and the commento alla legge di modifi-
nors for sexual exploitation; traffi- ethnicity of irregular migrants but ca alla normativa in materia di im-
cking in men, women and minor the two scourges of human traffi- migrazione e asilo. Milano: Giuffrè.
for labour exploitation; tempo- cking and smuggling of migrants U .N . (2000) C o n v e n t i o n a g a i n s t T
ransnationalOrganized Crime,
h t t p s : / / w w w. u n o d c . o r g / u n o d c /
en/organized-crime/intro/UN-
TOC.html (visited on 15.03.2018).
Ziegler J. (1998) Les seigneurs du crime – Les
nouvelles mafias contre la démocratie. SEUIL.

Desirée Pangerc
Anthropology and Episte-
mology of Complexity (CELS
University - Padua)

37

INTERNSHIP RESEARCH RESULTS

PROTECTION OF CH IN
DESTABILIZED AREAS

The Protection of Cultural Herita- intrinsic to human identity; it is them of their history and me-
ge in Destabilized Areas a signifier of human identity – mory (Turku 4). After all, what is
and as culture is represented by cultural heritage if not anything
by Giulia Ramundo “things,” these same things, or that is understood to make a
better cultural objects are percei- culture what it is – “the forms
Introduction ved as signifier of one’s identity of expression that consciously
(Ori 460). This distinctive emo- determine and identify it” (Shapiro
Culture, as a broad idea, is one tional connection that links one’s 96)?
identity to their cultural objects
of the key aspects that distingui- is exactly the reason why cul- Cultural heritage has always
shes us from other species and, tural heritage has a great va- been a target of war. In fact, the-
therefore, makes us human. Pu- lue for people. At the same time, re are various indications that
shing this point forward, everyo- however, this fundamentally im- ancient civilizations conceived
ne having to do with discussions portant aspect of cultural heri- the destruction of the enemy’s
about culture, as well as everyo- tage has made it a main target cultural heritage as an essential
ne at least in the Western wor- during warfare – the intentional component of a successful mi-
ld, “have agreed to a worldview damage, destruction, or plun- litary campaign – “Ultimately,
in which culture has come to der of cultural heritage is, in fact, the destruction and looting of
be represented as and by “thin- a strategy of war to prosecu- cultural objects served to show
gs” (Handler 215). Culture is te and eventually wipe out a pe- to the defeated peoples the loss
ople in the long term, depriving of their political, cultural, and

38

religious freedom and emphasi- However, Adolf Hitler (along the latter’s identity peaked du-
zed the conqueror’s might and with Hermann Göring) surpas- ring the Third Reich when it
cultural dominance” (Turku 30). sed Napoleon’s collecting desires became known simply as “Lady in
Surprisingly enough, the Old plundering European cultural Gold” (Kelley 112). It was exact-
Testament is one of the ear- heritage in what is remembe- ly during World War 2 that the
liest sources indicating ancient red as the rape of Europa – “the Monuments Men (the Allies’ Mo-
civilization’s usage of cultural he- greatest displacement of art in hi- numents, Fine Arts, and Archi-
ritage in wartime. For instan- story” (Turku 34). This widespre- ves program) were called into life

ce, Psalm 137 – and cultural he-
recounts the “CULTURAL HERITAGE HAS ALWAYS BEEN A TARGET ritage protection
enslavement of has become in-
the Jewish peo- OF WAR. IN FACT, THERE ARE VARIOUS INDICATIONS creasingly impor-
ple in Babylon THAT ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS CONCEIVED THE DE- tant ever since.
as well as the STRUCTION OF THE ENEMY’S CULTURAL HERITAGE Yet, intentional

destruction and AS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF A SUCCESSFUL damage to cul-
pillage of the tural heritage in
Temple of So- MILITARY CAMPAIGN.” armed conflicts

lomon in 586 BCE – and this ad and systematic plunder was continues today with ISIS making
story inspired Giuseppe Ver- first and foremost part of a big- of it a primary target of its con-
di’s Nabucco as well as the ger plan of annihilating the Jews duct of war in Syria and Iraq,
renowned chorus piece of classi- by depriving them of their own where the latter “has conducted a
cal music Va Pensiero (Turku 35). identity (Ori 462). As a matter systemic cultural cleansing
Niccolò Machiavelli recounts a of fact, the Nazis classified any through its destruction of chur-
similar story in The Prince discus- work of art associated with Jewish ches, shrines, ancient sites, and
sing the Roman conquest of Car- culture as degenerate – this in- books” to ultimately era-
thage, Capua and Numantia cluded much of modern art, but se the identity of the people
and claiming that complete an- also works that depicted Jewish in those regions (Turku 11).
nihilation of those cities was the subjects, like Rembrandt’s The
only secure strategy to control Jewish Bride and Klimt’s The Por- The Problem
them and avoid potential re- trait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (Ori These events have heighte-
volts (Machiavelli 42). The Ita- 462). The symbolic erasure of ned awareness among scholars

lian writer explains further that,

“memories of their past free-

doms would help them unify

and rebel against the occupying

force” (Turku 30). According

to Livy, after seizing valuable

objects, the Romans destroyed

Carthage and strewed salt on the

soil to impede that flora or bu-

ildings might have risen again

(Turku 33). Jumping to France

in the 1790s, Napoleon Bona-

parte formalized the plunder of

Italian art from public and pri-

vate hands with a series of tre-

aties and the renowned Treaty of

Tolentino, which “gave the Fren-

ch a free hand to take any ar-

twork they wished” (Turku 34).

39

INTERNSHIP RESEARCH RESULTS

This inevitably brings me back to the lack of cultural awareness among these components – these same troops that, once deployed, have legal
obligations on cultural heritage protection when on the ground. So, how to best safeguard cultural heritage in destabilized areas?
Complying with these legal obligations is only possible if the personnel is adequately educated. For this reason, cultural awareness programs need
to be included in pre-deployment trainings.

and institutions like NATO, for tural backgrounds. These dif- of George Floyd in Minneapolis

example, that protecting cultu- ferences of outlook and culture is banned in most of Europe (Ber-

ral property during armed con- imply differences of approach, ger and Noack). Exploring fur-

flicts is a key element for mission attitude, and point of view, in- ther the differences between the

success. This statement leads to deed. However, the equipment, United States and European coun-

the assumption that all person- training, hierarchical structure, tries, while American police of-

nel should have, therefore, basic and internal rules of procedures ficers are armed, police officers

capabilities to react on cultural of each police or armed force, in Norway, Finland, Iceland,

heritage when on the ground. are cultural expressions too. This and United Kingdom, for instan-

Unfortunately, this is rarely the aspect is often overlooked even ce, are usually unarmed and

case. There is an overall lack of though it is one that makes a allowed to use guns only in stri-

awareness about the significan- substantial difference within ctly exceptional circumstances

ce of cultural heritage (and about the framework of stability poli- because of their philosophy of

its potential for mission success) cing activities. Think about how policing by consent – believing

among UN and NATO person- politics tactics differ around the that “police should not gain their

nel operating on the ground for world, or just among different de- power by instilling fear in the

the very fact that peacekeeping mocracies. population but rather, should

components are contributed from gain legitimacy and authority

over 100 countries and have, For example, the knee-on-neck by maintaining the respect and

therefore, inherently different cul- restraint that caused the death approval of the public” (Godin).

40

Regarding the legal framework, to identify for their familiar cha- Because of the emotional con-
the European Convention on racteristics, but there is a lot nection that links one’s identity
Human Rights permits police of cultural heritage that is less to their cultural objects, cultural
forces to use deadly force only recognizable. An example heritage is not only significant
when “absolutely necessary” among many might graveyards in itself, but also in relation to
(Berger and Noack). On the in Afghanistan, which are simply its human dimension. For this
other hand, US police forces made of unorganized heaps reason, in 2011, the Human Ri-
are allowed when these have a of earth with litter across the ghts Council adopted a report
“reasonable belief” their lives are field and no fence. How could on cultural rights stressing that
in danger (Berger and Noack). foreigners ever imagine this is “the need to preserve/safe-
These differing principles imply something sacred for locals? guard cultural heritage is a hu-
that a police shooting might be Now, imagine a group of foreign man rights issue” (Human Rights
legitimate in the United States, soldiers unknowingly marching Council).
yet not according to the stricter on this piece of land – how
European standards (Berger and would Afghani react? And what As we have already seen, exam-
Noack). ples from
consequences would these mili- the past
Also within tary forces face for their action? as well as
Even if accidental, damage and more recent
the European destruction of cultural heritage conflicts
may result in a risk for anyone: stress that
Union, some for the locals and their identity this fun-
as a people, first off; for the glo- damen-
countries have bal community, since we would tal aspect
lose something that cannot be of cultural
firmer rules repaired or recovered; and, fi- heritage
nally, for the mission itself. often ma-
compared to kes it a key
(a) A risk for the locals and their target du-
others – but the identity as a people ring war for
Case study: The Yugoslav War purposes
aim of this di- and the Reconstruction of the Mo- of eth-
star Bridge
scussion was to nic cleansing, or better era-
dication of the other. In the-
highlight how se terms, the devasting cultural
loss during the war in former Yu-
differences in goslavia is a representative case,
since the State comprehended
mentality and 9000 UNESCO-registered land-
marks within its territory (Kel-
internal rules of ler 2015). Many of these,
particularly places of worship,
procedures were systematically damaged or
destroyed with the intention to
inevitably af- achieve an “ethnically pure” sta-
te (Turku 36). In Bosnia and Her-
fect actions. In light of this, a funda- zegovina, 1200 mosques, 150
churches, 4 synagogues, and
mental problem of peacekeeping more than 1000 other cultu-
ral institutions were specifically
operations is exactly that the-

se people with different attitu-

des and expectations are to be

deployed in destabilized coun-

tries with other different cultures

and customs, and whose locals

have different attitu-

des and expectations.

A Risk for Anyone
Without specific trainings, pe-
acekeepers may have a hard
time trying to identify cultural
heritage, first off. Churches, mo-
sques, synagogues, and other re-
ligious sites are relatively easy

41

INTERNSHIP RESEARCH RESULTS

targeted to remove any indi- tely destroyed (Turku 76). Using empathy, tolerance, inclusion,
cation of a multicultural past a metaphor, the destruction of
(Howard, Elliot, and Prohov 3). collective memories affects the and compassion” (Turku 187). In-
The human aspect of such phe- collective identity of a people
nomena is stressed by the Cze- or nation in the same way that deed, this invites to a reflection
ch novelist Milan Kundera, who lobotomy alters the memory and
claims that “[t]he first step in li- personality of an individual (Tur- on the reconstruction of de-
quidating a people is to erase its ku 76). Cultural heritage is a
memory. Destroy its books, its signifier and identifier of the- stroyed cultural heritage. Going
culture, its history” (Kundera se collective memories and hi-
159). Targeting cultural herita- stories – through it, a people or back to the Yugoslav war, the
ge means targeting history and nation narrates its history and
memory – and this inevitably role in the world, effectively com- Croatian Ministry of Culture no-
challenges group survival. These municating “its shared norms,
two aspects embodied in cultural common sufferings, old glories, ted that, “[t]he construction of
heritage are the core of any and authenticating experien-
identity, and are to be transmit- ces” (Turku 77). Having said that, the heritage is an input of the
ted from one generation to the since shared memories and hi-
other in order to construct a so- stories guarantee the continued present into the past: a neces-
cial continuum that ultimately existence of collective identities,
guarantees unity through the “at the core of a collective group sary intervention conditioned by
reaffirmation of a collective iden- identity lies the ability to tran-
tity (Turku 76). Émile Durkheim smit its historical record and a violent interruption of historic
introduced the idea which has experience from one genera-
become a fundamental rule in so- tion to the other” (Turku 78). continuity” (Howard, Elliot, and
ciology, that of considering “so- In conjunction with this discour-
cial facts as things” (Durkheim se, cultural heritage is thought Prohov 3). In 1998, UNESCO

established an international

committee of experts to oversee

the reconstruction of the Old Bri-

dge and areas of the Old City

of Mostar – outstanding exam-

ples of multicultural urban sett-

lements that today serve as

“symbol[s] of reconciliation, in-

ternational co-operation and

of the coexistence of diverse

cultural, ethnic and religious

communities” (UNESCO).

(b) A risk for the global commu-
nity
Case study: Babylon / Iraq 2003

Large scale destruction of cul-
tural heritage also results as a
loss for the entire world. The
Convention for the Protection
of Cultural Property in the Event
of Armed Conflict of May 14,
1954 (hereinafter “Hague 1954”)
provides an international no-
tion of a universal interest in
“cultural heritage of all man-
kind” apart from any national
interest. The language of the
Preamble is impressive in itself:

60). In light of this, identity to play a role in peacebuilding • Being convinced that damage
may be perceived as an actual processes – in fact, it may be to cultural property belonging
thing that can be created, used to “reinforce social va- to any people whatsoever me-
transformed, and ultima- lues that facilitate understating, ans damage to the cultural heri-
tage of all mankind, since each
people makes its contribution

42

to the culture of the world; rent factor during peacekeeping heritage site of Babylon, Iraq.
• Considering that the preser- missions is that of unintentionally
altering or destroying cultural, (c) A risk for the mission itself
vation of the cultural herita- historical, or scientific eviden- Highlight: Strategic considerations
ge is of great importance ce. In 2003, US Marines set up a
for all peoples of the world camp along the ancient site of Once again, the protection of cul-
and that it is important that Babylon, Iraq, to prevent loo-
this heritage should receive ting of archeological remains – tural heritage is central for pe-
international protection.... “Defensive barriers were filled
acekeeping missions is central
with material from the site, con-
The influential Stan- taining archaeological remains for a number of rea-
like pottery sherds. To make the
ford law professor site suitable for accommodating sons. Among those, the-
troops, supplies and transport
John Henry Mer- means, parts of the site were co- re are strategic conside-
vered with gravel originating el-
ryman notices that sewhere, mixing archaeological rations to be taken into
remains” (CCOE 17). This ope-
the Preamble states ration, therefore, resulted in account – strategically,
the destruction and loss of
also that “each people something irreplaceable: the in fact, UN and NATO

makes its contribution personnel operating on

to the culture of the the ground should take

World.” Indeed, some into consideration that

cultural objects have their mission mandates

little importance if may involve stabiliza-

none beyond their tion and nation-building

borders – the scho- operations, ma-

lar, in fact, talks king of cultural he-

of the Liberty Bell as ritage protection

a thing whose cul- crucial for mission suc-

tural importance is cess. Apart from its

entirely specific to human dimension, cul-

the United States, tural heritage may be

“Would the rest of a key source of income

the world be cultu- for the host country after

rally impoverished conflict.

by [its] destruction” Another strate-

(Merryman 837)? gic consideration is

Maybe not, yet it is dif- that destruction of

ficult to really distingui- or unrespectable

sh objects of regional behavior towards

from those of global cultural heritage may

interest. For in- result in an escalation of

stance, the Liber- violence caused by local

ty Bell is an icon of a great resentment and public

event in Western history, the outrage (Cunliffe, Fox, and Sto-

American Revolution – Can ne). In 2003, US militaries incor-

we really say it rings only for porated the City of Ur into their

Americans (Merryman 837)? base and, while protecting the

However, this discussion deve- heritage site, used the Ziggurat

lops further with a reflection on for ceremonies and guided tours.

the issue of saving irreplaceable When the militaries denied the

cultural heritage – and on how local archeological inspector ac-

the loss of something irreplace- cess to the archeological site,

able is inevitably a loss for the tension inevitably grew between

global community. A recur- US forces and Iraqis (Rush 28).

These developments also have a

43

INTERNSHIP RESEARCH RESULTS

significant impact on public opi- civilian, and police. This edu- lenges during pre-deployment
nion and, consequently, on the cational goal can be fulfilled training exercises is also key. In
legitimacy of a conflict – deeply in various ways – yet cultural 2018, NATO successfully introdu-
damaging the reputation of the awareness programs and trai- ced a cultural heritage scenario
mission and of the institution nings are fundamental to under- in its Trident Jaguar, an opera-
itself: UN and NATO, for instan- stand the history and the cultural tional exercise that testes per-
ce. A shining example of the con- heritage of the countries of sonnel’s military capacity and
sequences of bad publicity may deployment. These, inde- promptness
(CCOE 30).
be the looting of the Bagh- ed, may take various forms. The addition of a CP scenario to
dad museum, Iraq. In 2003, Surprisingly enough, case stu- NATO exercise Trident Jaguar
US militaries were active in the dies highlight that playing cards in 2018 was highly successful.
surroundings of the museum and videogames on cultural Trident Jaguar was a joint he-
when local staff left – but failed to heritage protection are incredible adquarters operational exerci-
safeguard the institution. In the exercises to gain specific know- se testing the Alliance’s military
following days, the
capacity and re-
building was emp-
tied of its collection, “CULTURAL HERITAGE IS NOT ONLY SIGNIFICANT IN adiness. Chal-
and the majori- lenges involving
ty of these looted ITSELF, BUT ALSO IN RELATION TO ITS HUMAN DI- cultural heritage
MENSION.”
encompassed
objects have
activities such as
not been recovered yet ledge during pre-deployment “assisting the host nation with
(CCOE 9). In this case, ar- trainings. Various organizations, a museum evacuation, establi-
med forces could prevent the in fact, have been active in pro- shing coalition command and
looting, but they did not – ine- ducing archaeology awareness control arrangements, and pro-
vitably causing public outrage playing cards for military per- tecting a world heritage site
and damage to the reputation of sonnel – in 2007, over 150,000 implicated in joint combat
the mission itself. 18 years after, decks were distributed for missions operations. This implied a risk ma-
US army is still criticized for this in Iraq as well as for missions in nagement exercise and combi-
failure by academic literature Egypt and Afghanistan later on. ned planning of kinetic targeting
and news articles. Each card contains a different and a post-combat return of full

Policy Recommendations educational message, and the control to the host nation” (CCOE
uniforms of peacekeepers were 30). This exercise highlighted
Protection of cultural heritage specifically designed to fit a that the general ability and re-
is, indeed, a key aspect of pe- soldier pocket card (Rush 87). sponsiveness needed to succes-
acekeeping operations – yet a 10 years later, two retired US sfully handle issues related to
challenging one. When on the Navy Commanders introduced cultural
heritage nee-
ground, peacekeepers have the “culturalrecon,” a video game ded to be improved.
legal obligation to respect and aimed at educating US military

safeguard the cultural heritage personnel on the basic principles Conclusion
of the host country, but how to of cultural heritage protection The protection of cultural pro-
best safeguard cultural heritage – “In an interactive format, the perty during armed conflicts is a
in destabilized areas? This que- game requires the player to key element for mission success
stion inevitably refers to pre-de- identify cultural heritage sites, – yet, as we have seen, there
ployment trainings, during which stop looters and gain respect of is an overall lack of awareness
a spirit of respect for the cultu- the local population. The player about the significance of cultural
ral and cultural heritage of host has weapons, but in order to heritage among UN and NATO
countries should be promoted win, he/she must resist the personnel operating on the
among, not exclusively the mi- urge to use them” (CCOE 29). ground for specific reasons
litary personnel, but among Apart from that, rehearsing cul- concerning their diverse cultu-
the three components: military, tural heritage protection chal- ral backgrounds. These inter-

44

national institutions are now Sources and Further Reading •• 80, no. 4 (1986): 831–53.
expending a great deal of ef- NATO SPS Programme (2017).
fort on closing this gap. Indeed, • Berger, Miriam and Rick Noack. “From Ori Soltes. “Cultural Plunder and Restitu-
guns to neck restraint: how police tactics tion and Human Identity, 15 J. Marshall
the first step must be including differ around the world,” The Washin- Rev. Intell. Prop. L. 460 (2016).” The

cultural awareness program- gton Post, April 22, 2021. www.wa- John Marshall Review of Intellectual
Property Law 15, no. 3 (2016).
mes in pre-deployment trainings. shingtonpost.com/world/2020/06/06/ • Rush, Laurie W. Cultural Property as a
guns-neck-restraint-how-police-tactic-
sdiffer- around-world/ Force Multiplier: Implementation for
• Developing the abilities of re- • Burbridge, David J. “The Integration of all Phases of Military Operation (NATO
cognizing, describing, and re- Cultural Property Protection into NATO 2017).
Environmental Protection Policy: An • Rush, Laurie W. “The Importance of
porting cultural heritage in the Training Cultural Property Protection –
Example of Good Practice” (2017) Legal An Example from the US Army” (2017)
Gazette 38.
area of interest relates to the • Blue Shield International, ‘Exercise Tri- • Legal Gazette 38.
trainings and education of civi- dent Jaguar 2018 report’ (2018). Russell D. Howard, Marc D. Elliot, and
lian, military, and police com- • Civil-Military Cooperation Centre of
Jonathan R. Prohov, IS and Cultural
Genocide: Antiquities Traf cking in the
ponents prior to any operation. Excellence (CCOE). “Cultural Property Terrorist State, (MacDill Air Force Base:
• Providing clear guidelines on • Protection Makes Sense,” 2020. Joint Special Operations University Press,
Cunliffe, Emma, Paul Fox, and Peter Sto- 2016).
ne, ‘The Protection of Cultural Property Shapiro, Daniel. “Repatriation: A Modest
how members of the compo- in the Event of Armed Conflict: Unne- • Proposal.” New York University Journal
nents should behave whenen- cessary Distraction or Mission-Relevant

countering cultural heritage in Priority?’ NATO Open Publications 2 (4) of International Law and Politics 31,
(1998): 95–108.
various circumstances should • (2018). • Turku, Helga. The Destruction of Cultural
be taught and practiced. Durkheim, Émile. The Rules of Sociolo- Property as a Weapon of War: Isis in
gical Method, ed. Steven Lukes, trans.
• Including activities related to W. D. Halls. New York: The Free Press, Syria and Iraq. Cham: Springer Interna-
tional Publishing, 2018.
the protection of cultural he- • 1982. • UNESCO. “Old Bridge Area of the Old
ritage into the predeployment Godin, Mélissa. “What the US can City of Mostar.” https://whc.unesco.org/
learn from countries where cops don’t en/list/946/
carry guns,” Time, June 19, 2020. time. UNESCO Military Manual (2016).
exercise setting to practice re- com/5854986/police-reform-defund-u- •
al-world scenarios like a si- narmed-guns/
tuation involving a mission • Hague Convention for the Protection of
Cultural Property in the Event of Armed
taking place close to an ar- Con ict, pmbl., May 14, 1954, 249 UNTS
cheological site, for example. 215 (hereafter “Hague 1954”).
Handler, Richard. “On Having a Culture:
• Nationalism and the Preservation of

Quebec’s Patrimoine,” in Stocking,
George W. Jr. History of Anthropology,
Volume 3: Objects and Others: Essays on
Museums and Material Culture (Wiscon-
sin: The University of Wisconsin Press,
1985): 192- 217.
• Human Rights Council, Report of the In-
dependent Expert in the Field of Cultural
Rights, Farida Shaheed, Human Rights
Council Seventeenth session Agenda
item 3, March 21, 2011
PICTURES: • Keller, Andrew. “Documenting ISIL’s An-

-Hadrian’s Gate, Palmyra. Fernando Arias via tiquities Tracking: Corresponding Visuals
to the Remarks,” U.S. Department of
The Guardian State, September 29, 2015
Kelley, Susanne. “Perceptions of Jewish
-A member of the NATO Mission Resolute Sup- • Female Bodies through Gustav Klimt and
port talks to local children in front of the Blue Peter Altenberg.” Imaginations: Journal
Mosque, Mazar-e-Sharif, Afghanistan, 2019. of Cross-Cultural Media Studies 3, no. 1

Bundeswehr / Oliver Pieper via CCOE • (2012): 109– 22.
-Mostar Bridge Kundera, Milan. The Book of Laughter
and Forgetting. New York: Knopf Press,
https://www.sarajevotimes.com/wp-content/ • 1981.
Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. G &
uploads/2020/06/jump-old-bridge.jpg DMEDIA, 2016. Giulia Ramundo
Merryman, John Henry. “Two Ways of
-U.S. Army soldiers tour through the rebuilt ru- • Art History & International Affairs
ins of 4,000-year-old Babylon, Iraq, on Oct. Thinking About Cultural Property.” The Graduate, Art & Cultural Heritage
Advocate
20, 2004. John Moore / AP via NBC news American Journal of International Law

45

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING



HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

SLEEP AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS

Sleep and Cognitive Functions ned enough experimental support in part, from ionic current chan-
to convince a preponderance of
by Davide Perego sleep researchers. What we know ges within neurons and, to a les-
certainly is that sleep is essential
Sleep is a complex physiological for many vital functions including ser extent, some types of glia.
development, energy conserva-
process that is regulated globally, tion, brain waste clearance, mo- Electrical brain activity is measure
regionally, and locally by both cel- dulation of immune responses,
lular and molecular mechanisms. cognition, performance, vigilance, by a specific device able to con-
It occurs to some extent in all ani- disease, and psychological state.
mals, although sleep expression in vert electrical signals in wave::
lower animals may be co-extensive What is the sleep
with rest. In the human beings oc- The classic definition of sleep is electroencephalogram (EEG).
cupies one third of the life. Sleep generally based upon physio-
regulation plays an intrinsic part logical characteristics observed EEG signals are largely the product
in many behavioral and physio- in mammals including reduced
logical functions. A considerable body movement and electromyo- of synchronized synaptic currents
number of hypothetical functions graphic activity, reduced re-
of sleep have been proposed, sponsiveness to external stimuli, generated by the apical dendri-
but none of the hypotheses un- closed eyes, reduced breathing
der active consideration has gai- rates, and altered body posi- tes of pyramidal neurons. Never-
tion and brain wave architecture.
Electrical brain activity occurs, theless, intrinsic membrane pro-

perties, neuronal firing, and glial

activity likely also contribute to the

EEG signals. EEG frequency bands

provide essential information of

how brain regions, cells, and

molecules regulate wakefulness,

sleep states, and display dysfun-

ction due to related pathologies.

Moreover these wave happen in a

specific part of the sleep: in a part

of the sleep there is a unique phe-

48

notype characterized by rapid eye and Company, Publishers (2000). gher cognitive functions have been
fluctuation movement, muscle ato- relatively less sensitive to sleep
nia (with the exception of muscles Cognitive Functions and Sleep loss, possibly due to a higher level
that control eye movements, the he- The importance of sleep for lear- of engagement and compensatory
art, and diaphragm), and a rapid ning and memory has been abun- effort, a large body of literature
low voltage EEG, categorized as
REMS: Rapid Eyes Movement Sleep.
The other state identified as NO-
REM (Non Rapid Eyes Movement
Sleep), which is characterized by
slow and high voltage EEG, and
reduced heart rate and blood
pressure; it is divided into three
sub states. Human sleep cycles
between NREMS and REMS for
approximately 90 minutes for
about four to five times during
the night in an ultradian cycle1. 

Typically, human sleep is deeper in describes the consequences of sle-
ep deprivation on sustained atten-
the beginning of sleep and REMS dantly documented in animals and tion and other executive functions,
humans, and virtually everyone procedural and episodic memory
encompasses a greater propor- can attest to that when is deprived formation, and consolidation,
of sleep is in difficult to learn or as well as insight and creativity.
tion of the sleep cycle as sleep to remember something. In re- The effects of one night’s total sleep
cent years the neurophysiological deprivation were examined using
persists. It’s important to remem- mechanisms underlying the en- the Wilkinson vigilance task and
coding of experience and its con- four 10 min duration performance
ber that every vital function in the solidation into long-term memory tests. A repeated measures desi-
have been increasingly elucidated. gn was used in which eight male
mammalian is regulated by cycles, In experimental task, sleep depri- subjects experienced one night of
vation generally results in a pro- sleep loss, the order of sleep loss
and the sleep is not far behind. gressive degradation of the per- being balanced across subjects.
formance during extended tasks The four short duration perfor-
This is a basic rule when we need (fatigue effect) exacerbated by sle- mance tests consisted of choice re-
ep loss. While tasks involving hi- action time, simple reaction time,
to take a care every disease. short-term memory, and a mo-
tor task, handwriting. The results
Physiological parame- confirm the effects of one night’s
sleep deprivation on the vigilance
ters, of the human circadian task and also show that perfor-
mance on the two reaction time
rhythm (“biological clock”) tests was significantly impaired by
the loss of sleep, but not at such
The Body Clock Guide to Better a high level as for the vigilance.
Health” by Michael Smolensky The short-term memory test failed
and Lynne Lamberg; Henry Holt to show any adverse effects of sle-
ep loss and similarly for the han-

49

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

dwriting. The experiment shows Other studies have confirmed the total sleep deprivation showed that
that two portable and brief (10 finding that impairment in PVT te- the latter resulted in disproportio-
min) performance tests are sensiti- sting increases in proportion to the nately large waking neurobehavio-
ve indices of sleep loss and should degree of sleep deprivation: Van ral and sleep delta power respon-
be particularly useful for assessing Dongen, Maislin, Mullington, and ses relative to how much sleep was
levels of alertness in the field 2. Dinges studied the effects of chro- lost. The conclusions of this study
nic restriction of sleep periods to 4 showed that chronic restriction of
In another experiment3 stu- h or 6 h per night over 14 consecu- sleep to 6 h or less per night pro-
dying reaction time over 7 days tive days obtaining results in signi- duced cognitive performance defi-
of variable degrees of sleep re- ficant cumulative, dose-dependent cits equivalent to up to 2 nights of
striction, sleep deprivation was deficits in cognitive performance total sleep deprivation, it appears
shown to correlate with longer on all tasks. Subjective sleepiness that even relatively moderate sle-
reaction time on PVT testing. ratings showed an acute response ep restriction can seriously impair
Longer reaction times were noted
after only one night of to sleep restriction but only small waking neurobehavioral
sleep restriction (2 h of further increases on subsequent functions in healthy adults.
sleep reduction) compa- days, and did not significantly diffe- Sleepiness ratings suggest
red to volunteers slee- rentiate the 6 h and 4 h conditions. that subjects were largely
ping on average 8.5 h. Polysomnographic variables and unaware of these increasing
Performance continued delta power in the non-REM sleep cognitive deficits, which may
to diminish with each EEG-a putative marker of sleep explain why the impact of
subsequent day and was homeostasis--displayed an acute chronic sleep restriction on
directly correlated with response to sleep restriction with waking cognitive functions
the degree of sleep re- negligible further changes across is often assumed to be be-
striction. In the groups the 14 restricted nights. Compari- nign. Physiological sleep
allowed to sleep for a son of chronic sleep restriction to responses to chronic restri-
maximum of 7 and 5 h, ction did not mirror waking
vigilance deficit stabilized neurobehavioral responses,
after 5 nights, whereas in but cumulative wakeful-
participants sleeping 3 h ness in excess of a 15.84
or less, vigilance conti- h predicted performance
nued to deteriorate in a lapses across all four expe-
linear fashion showing a rimental conditions. This
twofold decrease com- suggests that sleep debt
pared to the control is perhaps best understo-
group at the end of the od as resulting in additio-
sleep restriction phase. nal wakefulness that has a
After three nights with 8 neurobiological “cost” whi-
h spent in bed, none of ch accumulates over time4.
the sleep restriction groups retur- In a verbal learning task, the pre-
ned to their baseline reaction ti- frontal cortex and parietal cortex
mes, suggesting that recovery from were more activated after acute
even mild sleep de-privation may sleep deprivation. Interestingly,
last several days. This experiment activation of the prefrontal cortex
also suggests that there may be an was positively correlated with the
adaptive mechanism to mild and degree of subjective sleepiness,
moderate chronic sleep deprivation whereas activation in the parietal
(7 and 5 h groups) that may be in- cortex was positively associated
sufficient to maintain performance with the preservation of near-nor-
levels in situations of severe chro- mal verbal learning. These pat-
nic sleep deprivation (3 h group). terns of increase and decrease

50