017_The_Economic_DEVELOPMENT_(book4you.org)_165

Table A.I. Continued

Year Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Dominican Republic Uruguay Venezuela Total

1945 70,932 4,962 60,519 19,621 19,936 1.218 8,961 3,515 2,226 4,226 1,607 48,114 1,330 1,546 1,883 13,552 2,523 7,729 15,802 385,481.61
1946 77,266 5,051 66,903 21,301 21,852 1,346 9,762 3,934 2,261 5,006 1,729 51,292 1,445 1,571 2,067 14,074 2,823 8,490 18,833 408,647.85
1947 85,844 5,139 69,268 19,002 22,701 1,602 11,178 4,370 2,844 5,076 1,841 53,041 1,449 1,637 1,797 14,470 3,050 9,082 22,373 422,445.25
1948 90,610 5,250 74,576 22,163 23,346 1,693 9,930 4,968 3,624 5,248 1,880 55,233 1,575 1,540 1,817 14,948 3,011 9,390 24,738 436,164.60
1949 89,380 5,360 79,364 21,685 25,384 1,762 10,791 5,058 3,291 5,741 1,906 58,264 1,546 1,575 2.123 16,076 3,185 9,725 26,073 467,692.94
1950 90,487 5,470 84,172 22,753 25,664 1,834 12,111 5,497 3,387 6,191 1,967 64,028 1,802 1,583 2,088 17,340 3,384 10,090 26,494 495,627.55
1951 94,004 5,856 89,402 23,737 26,464 1,883 13,114 5,609 3,588 6,278 2,055 68,980 1,925 1,569 2,105 18,760 3,719 10,911 29,586 517,660.66
1952 89,273 6,033 96,347 25,092 28,133 2.111 13,563 6,258 3,817 6,408 2,100 71,723 2,251 1,653 2,101 19,930 3,955 10,861 31,740 554,478.78
1953 94,004 5,462 99,418 26,401 29,844 2,432 11,916 6,475 3,918 6,645 2,227 71,920 2,305 1,754 2,210 20,994 4,167 ll,526 33,703 580,258.69
1954 97,885 5,576 110,471 26,512 31,908 2,453 12,521 7,089 4,041 6,767 2,086 79,109 2,520 1,816 2,274 22,348 4,192 12,184 36,949 589,638.97
1955 104,799 5,871 116,464 26,477 33,155 2,736 13,090 7,416 4.215 6,934 2,210 85,832 2,689 1,921 2.444 23,413 4,241 12,348 40,229 632,798.18
1956 107,710 5,522 120,254 26,625 34,500 2,658 14.290 7,663 4,469 7,565 2,311 91,700 2,687 2,022 2,503 24,419 4,146 12,563 44,478 675,234.39
1957 113,290 5,340 130,058 29,420 35,269 2,884 16,349 7,951 4,720 7,992 2,406 98,646 2,914 2,233 2,648 26,068 4,851 12,690 49,643 702,393.48
1958 120,204 5,467 139,968 30,545 36,136 3,242 16,349 8,169 4,769 8,366 2,541 103,893 2,924 2,251 2,812 25,919 5,168 12,233 50,303 725,035.78
1959 112,441 5,449 147,359 30,382 38,747 3,361 14,593 8,559 4,983 8,778 2,601 107,000 2,968 2,395 2,810 26,871 5,513 11,891 54,260 778,273.47
1960 121,296 5,683 161,610 32,385 40,401 3,654 14,752 9,034 5,185 8,992 2,661 I 15,685 3.008 2,539 2,787 30,142 4,828 12,322 56,421 817,630.02
1961 129,908 5,802 178,592 33,934 42,457 3,722 14,963 9,497 5,368 9,379 2,735 121,388 3,234 2,814 2,979 32,368 5,474 12,672 59,277 854,870.73
1962 127,846 6,126 186,745 35,542 44,755 3,925 15,188 9,964 6,010 9,710 2,873 127,059 3,586 3,046 3,078 35,072 5,659 12,380 64,638 893,794.67
1963 124,813 6,542 189,264 37,790 46,226 4,195 15,412 10,174 6,269 10,637 2,966 137,210 3,976 3,306 3,207 36,370 5,671 12,444 69,066 952,610.59
1964 137,670 6,801 196,782 38,631 49,077 4,349 15,650 10,927 6,853 11,130 3,145 153,254 4,441 3,453 3,342 38,770 6,291 12,697 75,790 1,018,318.93
1965 150,285 7,135 202,287 38,944 50,843 4,705 15,888 11,285 7,221 11,615 3,469 163,192 4,864 3,769 3,532 40,683 6,958 12,849 80,236 1,068,158.57
1%6 151,255 7,647 210,019 43,286 53,506 5,033 16,759 11,561 7,738 12,255 3,676 174,503 5,024 4,055 3,585 44,102 7,714 13,280 82,112 1,135,691.98
1967 155,258 8,130 220,140 44,692 55,718 5,318 18,717 12,355 8,158 12,758 3,844 185,445 5,374 4,402 3,901 45,771 8,516 12,735 85,420 1,213,846.77
1968 161,929 8,823 244,741 46,292 59,024 5,768 17,628 12,853 8,423 13,877 4,123 200,532 5,446 4,709 4,037 45,933 9,615 12,938 89,862 1,314,185.07
1969 175,757 9,218 269,060 48,014 62,626 6,085 17,411 13,152 8,716 14,535 4,137 213,213 5,786 5,106 4,215 47,662 10,192 13,723 93,609 1,399,012.82
1970 185,218 9,700 275,667 49,001 66,514 6,541 16,759 14,002 8,976 15,365 4,139 227,970 5,865 5,461 4,434 50,453 10,721 14,369 100,766 1,447,325.65
1971 192,186 10,192 306,936 53,390 70,478 6,985 18,064 14,879 9,322 16,222 4,304 237,480 6,058 5,986 4,687 52,562 11,442 14,387 103,860 1,533,254.86
1972 196,178 11,004 343,582 52,742 75,883 7,556 18,935 17,024 9,892 17,412 4,552 257,637 6,193 6,262 5,001 54,071 12,012 14,163 107,244 1,609,848.64
1973 203,525 11,635 391,577 49,807 80,985 8,139 20,676 21,336 10,373 18,593 4,911 279,302 6,590 6,601 5,376 56,978 12,269 14,215 113,952 1,680,253.47
1974 214,527 11,977 423,507 50,292 85,638 8,590 21,764 22,711 10,927 19,778 4,850 296,369 7,526 6,761 5,833 62,247 12,825 14,662 120,862 1,786,079.76
1975 213,254 12,853 445,391 43,799 87,628 8,770 22,852 23,979 11,246 20,164 4,954 312,999 7,514 6,869 6,253 64,364 13,847 15,521 128,195 1,895,607.24
1976 213,229 13,446 491,071 45,340 91,771 9,254 23,505 26,191 11,814 21,654 5,474 326,266 7,906 6,98! 6,706 65,626 14,440 16,140 139,439 1,908,362.67
1977 226,846 14,114 515,304 49,810 95,588 10,078 24,594 27,902 12,615 23,345 6,042 337,499 8,567 7,059 7,439 65,892 16,329 148,812
1978 219,536 14,404 540,912 53,903 103,684 10,710 26,117 29,741 13,286 24,511 6,647 365,342 7,896 7,751 8,284 66,077 17,188 151,995
1979 234,941 14,423 577,476 58,367 109,261 11,239 26,770 31,318 12,731 25,666 6,957 398,788 5,805 8,099 9,225 69,914 18,249 154,024
1980 238,357 14,225 636,265 63,005 113,727 11,323 26,117 32,855 11,232 26,628 7,003 431,984 6,073 9,331 10,280 73.050 19,344 150,962
1981 225,435 14,357 609,203 66,919 116,316 11,067 28,293 34,150 10,058 26,805 7,181 469,880 6,398 10,190 ll,176 76,276 19,711 150,506

1982 218,314 13,731 614,290 57,826 117,419 10,261 28,946 34,556 9,424 25,854 7,081 466,929 6,346 10,735 11,066 76,437 14,685 17,860 151,533 1,893,293.82
1983 227.291 13,118 596,282 56,205 119,268 10,555 29,777 33,581 9,569 25,194 7,015 447,336 6,639 10,253 10,734 66,791 15,365 16,814 143,021 1,844,808.40
1984 231.,835 13,039 628,482 59,514 123,264 11,402 30,843 34,992 9,697 25,313 7,320 463,485 6,535 10,531 11,064 70,007 15,557 16,631 141,085 1,910,596.72
1985 215,722 12,914 677,825 60,685 127,094 11,484 31,403 36,512 9,756 25,164 7,627 475,505 6,268 11,051 11,503 71,593 15,227 16,876 141,358 1,965,568.37
1986 231.120 12,592 728,592 64,081 134,496 12,120 31,433 37,643 9,775 25,199 7,682 457,655 6,204 11,446 11,504 78,209 15,763 18,371 150,560 2,044,446.17
1987 237,107 12,919 754,280 68,307 141,717 12,697 30,678 35,391 .10,021 26,092 8,145 466,148 6,161 11,239 12,002 84,830 17,358 19,828 155,953 2,ll0,873.96
1988 232,617 13,302 753,822 73,301 147,476 13,133 31,815 39,113 10,209 27,108 8,521 471,954 5,394 9,735 12,765 77,750 17,733 19,827 165,032 2,130,604.91
1989 216,481 13,806 778,281 81,041 152,511 13,877 32.031 39,214 10,307 28,177 8,889 491,768 5,300 9,887 13,505 68,682 18,513 20,045 150,889 2,153,205.05
1990 212,518 14,446 743,765 84,038 159,042 14,370 31,087 40,267 10,805 29,050 8,898 516,692 5,297 10,688 13,923 64,979 17,503 20,105 160,648 2,158,121.00
1991 235,000 15,207 751,426 90,736 162,814 14,696 27,763 42,358 11,191 30,114 9,187 538,508 5,287 11,695 14,267 66,807 17,668 20,816 176,279 2,241,817.81
1992 257,574 15,457 747,368 101,876 169,902 16,041 24,548 42,999 12,036 31,571 9,704 558,049 5,307 12,654 14,755 66,520 19,526 22,468 186,962 2,315,316.34
1993 272,314 16,117 784,139 108,994 179,604 17.230 20,896 43,127 12,923 32,811 10,309 568,934 5,287 13,344 15,332 69,690 20,936 23,065 187,477 2,402,526.10
1994 288,207 16,870 830,0ll 115,215 188,849 18,045 21,045 45,156 13,704 34,134 10,174 594,054 5,463 13,725 15,904 78,625 21,418 24,744 183,072 2,518,414.50
1995 280,007 17,658 865,037 127,460 198,673 18,752 21,563 45,945 14,581 35,823 10,589 557,419 5,786 13,965 16,771 85,394 22,595 24,386 190,307 2,552,7II.I7
19% 295,482 18,429 883,640 136,909 202,758 18,918 23,253 47,049 14,830 36,883 10,968 586,144 6,153 14,357 16,838 87,545 24,206 25,746 189,930 2,640,038.08
1997 319,449 19,341 913,465 145,953 209,713 19,974 23,900 48,955 15,460 38,492 ll,516 625,838 6,397 15,285 17,342 93,554 26,144 27,046 202,031 2,779,852.72
1998 331,748 20,314 913,788 150,668 210,908 21,651 23,938 49,990 16,039 40,415 11,850 657,320 6,635 16,407 17,443 92,938 27,977 28,273 202,625 2,840,925.98
1999 320,517 20,401 916,110 149,522 202,041 23,431 25,419 46,841 16,592 41,969 11,626 682,014 7,101 17,050 17,184 93,788 29,855 27,468 190,527 2,839,458.37
2000 317,988 20,913 955,559 156,234 207,951 23,853 26,923 48,154 16,949 43,484 12,295 726,965 7,393 17,513 16,609 96,555 31,544 27,072 197,552 2,951,506.50
2001 303,969 21,265 968,107 161,510 212,486 24,110 27,780 50,724 17.239 44,498 12,629 726,727 7,611 17,614 16,952 96,762 32,115 26,156 204,257 2,972,511.70
2002 270,853 21,793 993,840 165,038 217,712 24,810 28,176 52,878 17.643 46,218 13,104 732,337 7,669 18,006 16,944 101,620 33,974 23,270 186,169 2,972,052.49
2003 294,788 22,384 1,005,236 171,502 227,753 26,399 29,245 54,769 18,048 47,388 13,699 742,518 7,862 18,763 17,594 105,718 33,888 23,777 171,731 3,033,061.88
2004 321.406 23,318 1,062,658 181,862 238,375 27,523 30,932 59,151 18,382 48,882 14,553 772,308 8,280 20,175 18,322 110,979 34,332 26,587 203,134 3,221,160.28
2005 350,908 24,349 1,096,235 191,973 252,012 29,143 34,397 62,701 19,037 50,475 15,434 797,023 8,634 21,626 18,846 118,555 37,513 28,348 224,094 3,381,304.18
2006 380,616 25,517 1,139,766 200,785 269,509 31,702 38,548 65,138 19,782 53,191 16,460 835,398 8,971 23.470 19,664 127,732 41,516 30,332 246,217 3,574,313.47
2007 413,552 26,682 1,204,361 210,182 289,846 34,173 41,347 66,760 20,542 56,525 17,505 863,215 9,254 26,179 20,993 139,045 45,034 32,632 268,054 3,785,880.59
2008 441,502 28,323 1,266,536 217,880 300,127 35,103 43,050 71,100 20,803 58,380 18,245 876,402 9,509 28,828 22,216 152,617 47,401 35,437 280,871 3,954,329.02
2009 445,255 29,274 1,258,370 214,215 304,484 34,650 43,674 71,357 20,152 58,694 17,857 823,758 9,370 29,749 21,362 153,915 49,038 36,352 271,638 3,893,163.11
2010 486,045 30,482 1,352,620 225,350 317,600 36,096 44,503 73,913 20,439 60,321 18,352 869,067 9,789 31,969 24,470 167,387 52,839 39,430 266,462 4,127,132.87

TableA.2. Latin America: Per capita GDP (intemationall990 Geary-Khamis dollars)

Year Costa El Dominican

1870 Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Rica Cuba Ecuador Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Republic Uruguay Venezuela Total
1871
1872 1,468 694 1,320 676 1,065 651 840 2,106 570 790
1873 694 1,303 679 1,161 882 2,104 577
1874 1,635 718 1,380 683 976 895 2,542 584
1875 1,638 697 1,450 686 1,591 1,093 890 2,512 591
1876 1,769 707 1,368 690 1,319 835 2,236 596
1877 1,643 7I8 1,459 693 1,195 594 1,415 774 1,876 606
1878 1,671 691 1.422 697 1,698 606 1,301 759 2,033 616
1879 1,604 672 1,356 700 1,531 618 1,432 755 2,050 626
1880 1,594 704 1,417 704 1,971 631 1,441 751 2,171 637
1881 1,950 710 1,608 707 2,212 643 1,573 582 1,882 647
1882 2,116 677 1,781 711 2,464 656 531 2,011 677
1883 2,187 683 1,816 714 530 1,866 707
1884 2,449 699 1,939 718 528 2,009 739
1885 2,366 680 1,923 721 554 2,315 772
1886 2,410 726 1,913 725 575 2,245 811
1887 2,647 675 1,829 729 573 2,482 822
1888 2,690 697 1,880 732 556 2,519 834
1889 2,416 650 1,984 728 554 2,190 846
1890 2,278 626 1,879 725 563 2,625 858
1891 2,667 634 1,902 721 569 2,333 869
1892 2,766 694 2,012 718 566 2,074 867
1893 3,117 737 2,148 714 564 2.212 864
1894 3,378 639 2,077 710 546 2,216 862
1895 3,586 544 2,152 707 541 2,354 860
1896 2,823 544 2,090 703 523 2,567 857
1897 2,974 645 2,208 700 521 2,481 850
1898 3,395 585 2,193 696 553 2,554 843
1899 2,875 577 2,118 693 597 2,408 837
1900 3,006 590 2,346 689 628 2,173 830
1901 2,835 579 2,332 686 654 2,184 824
1902 3,122 557 2,245 683 680 2,143 821
1903 3,330 609 2,274 679 721 2,157 791
1904 3,630 639 2,346 676 751 2,485 844
1905 628 2,189 672 792 2,526 895
618 2,341 669 808 2,550 853
621 2,312 666 857 2,255 832

1906 3,671 634 2,465 671 1,596 2,107 669 1,089 1,193 1,312 1,539 1,224 1,696 914 2,447 767 1559
1907 3,610 707 2,566 702 1,527 1,835 683 1,074 1,296 1,290 1,611 1,270 1,569 959 2,663 756 1956
1908 3,816 623 2,807 728 1,662 1,981 703 1,110 1,211 1,348 1,592 1,145 1,559 965 2,872 797 1993
1909 3,860 675 2,789 751 1,501 2,128 724 1,138 1,318 1,290 1,622 1,226 1,612 969 2,856 814
1910 3,988 710 3,070 779 1,680 1,981 746 1,189 1,410 1,176 1,635 1,279 1,608 973 3,029 827
1911 3,909 697 2,954 802 1,637 1,898 768 1,081 1,369 1,369 1,648 1,412 1,605 982 2,856 869
1912 4,073 753 3,037 826 1.771 1,981 792 1,249 1.369 1,334 1,659 1,209 1,003 3,388 887
1913 3,962 758 3,058 845 1,608 2,327 815 1,082 1,443 1,449 1,672 1,215 1.024 3,197 1,010
1914 3,446 720 2,555 861 1,657 2,139 832 1,232 1,460 1,594 1,684 1,539 1,005 2,564 870
1915 3,385 737 2,445 883 1,555 2,411 848 1,216 1,613 1,544 1,696 1,694 1,078 2,386 885
1916 3,226 743 2,963 911 1,598 2,652 857 1,221 1,665 1,610 1,709 1,369 1,175 2,423 826
1917 2,911 778 2,992 930 1,548 1,877 865 1,080 1,519 1,611 1,722 1,263 1,203 2,625 952
1918 3,389 746 2,994 963 1,397 1,656 874 1,294 1,414 1,734 1,136 1,195 2,731 936
1919 3,451 827 2,538 1,022 1,632 1,740 891 962 1,273 1,300 1,747 1,409 1.220 3,028 864
1920 3,624 890 2,833 1,071 1,412 2,013 909 1,077 1,418 1,247 1,760 1,261 1,216 2,583 1,024
1921 3,622 890 2,425 !,110 1,501 1,227 918 1,098 1,605 1,169 1,772 1,246 1,247 2,657 1,052
1922 3,794 932 2,482 1,161 1,573 1,824 927 1,193 2,162 1,167 1,786 1,334 2,973 1.068
1923 4,067 966 2,952 1,211 1,771 2,306 937 1,151 2,069 1,095 1,819 965 1,404 3,062 1,215
1924 4,232 946 3,133 1,254 1,844 2,118 946 1,244 2,086 1,138 1,762 1,019 1,512 3,281 1,384
1925 4,090 931 3,226 1,296 1,835 1,835 956 1,142 2,304 1,149 1,842 1,041 1,528 3,079 1,756
1926 4,168 931 2,917 1,392 1,733 1,635 965 1,210 2,571 1,195 1,922 1,245 1,657 3,282 2,084
1927 4,336 979 2,824 1,487 1,910 1,719 994 1,298 2,649 1,172 1,810 1,328 1,660 3,668 2,298
1928 4,478 1,070 3,410 1,564 1,659 1,814 1,024 1,255 2,625 1,045 1,793 1,436 1,740 3,773 2,527
1929 4,557 1,051 3,536 1,589 1,631 1,688 1,055 1,339 1,720 1,038 1,696 1,351 1,892 3,716 2,813
1930 4,257 968 2,925 1,544 1,434 1,551 1.065 1,443 1,633 1,036 1,562 1,448 1.650 4,155 2,809
1931 3,873 928 2,269 1,489 1,278 1,044 1,345 1,586 1,401 1,492 3,381 2,230
1932 3,675 941 1,887 1,556 1,007 1,023 1,325 1,412 3,087 2,102
1933 3,779 994 2,289 1,611 1,069 1,023 1,449 1,545 2,657 2,262
1934 4,012 1,055 2,717 1,679 1,232 1,023 1,520 1,726 3,111 2,376
1935 4,122 1,062 2,826 1,686 1,412 1,023 1,603 1,858 3,241 2,507
1936 4,082 1,141 2,914 1.740 1,620 1,033 1.707 1,916 3,341 2,700
1937 4,305 1,155 3,255 1,732 1.833 1,044 1.734 1,910 3,344 3,029
1938 4,249 !,179 3,235 1,808 1,398 1,054 1,732 1,909 3,551 3,200
1939 4,328 1,166 3,243 1,873 1,453 1,065 1,794 1,889 3,566 3,302
1940 4,342 1,154 3,312 1,868 1,24!_ 1,109 1,788 1,895 3,536 3,081
1941 4,491 1,207 3,214 1,854 1,647 1,091 1,882 1,865 3,557 2,953
1942 4,470 1,136 3,301 1,814 1,361 1,113 1,962 1,792 3,224 2,515
1943 4,364 1,264 3,332 1,778 1,485 1,222 1,981 1,790 3,217 2,668
1944 4,778 1,280 3,332 1,853 1,680 1,207 2,085 1,910 3,578 3,194

(continued)

Table A.2. Continued

Costa El Dominican

Year Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Rica Cuba Ecuador Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Republic Uruguay Venezuela Total

1945 4,546 1,800 1,284 3,552 1,894 1,587 1,829 1,181 1,274 1,624 1,256 2,060 1,377 2,044 1,514 1,948 1,071 3,635 3,757 2442
1946 4,868 1,811 1,386 3,786 2,026 1,729 1,950 1,289 1,280 1,878 1,320 2,134 1,449 2,085 1,625 1,989 1,164 3,944 4,350 2518
1947 5,311 1,822 1,402 3,316 2,055 2,001 2,184 1,392 1,592 1,852 1,373 2,145 1,408 2,129 1,381 2,010 1,220 4,166 5,007 2531
1948 5,480 1,840 1,474 3,798 2,Q63 2,059 1,898 1,539 1,995 1,864 1,371 2,170 1,500 1,959 1,365 2,042 1,167 4,255 5,334 2542
1949 5,267 1,857 1,533 3,652 2,189 2,087 2,017 1,524 1,782 1,979 1,350 2,225 1,430 1,965 1,558 2,159 1,196 4,350 5,405 2651
1950 5,204 2,045 1,544 3,755 2,161 1,930 2,108 1,607 1,739 1,955 1,353 2,283 1,564 1,854 1,419 2,289 1,230 4,501 5,310 2732
1951 5,293 2,146 1,588 3,844 2,165 1,923 2,241 1,606 1.798 1,926 1,374 2,391 1,626 1,794 1,393 2,415 1,308 4,821 5,698 2775
1952 4,925 2,167 1,660 3,982 2,237 2,091 2,273 1,747 1,866 1,911 1,364 2,414 1,846 1,844 1,356 2,502 1,345 4,747 5,872 2890
1953 5,085 1,923 1,662 4,100 2,305 2,334 1,957 1,761 1,865 1,928 1,406 2,348 1,834 1,908 1,390 2,569 1,370 4,977 5,988 2942
1954 5,195 1,922 1,792 4,026 2,394 2,280 2,015 1,877 1,872 1,910 1,279 2,504 1,945 1,924 1,395 2,665 1,333 5,196 6,303 2907
1955 5,460 1,981 1,834 3,929 2,416 2,463 2,065 1,912 1,899 1,904 1,315 2,633 2,0[[ 1,981 1,461 2,720 1,304 5,199 6,593 3033
1956 5,512 1,824 1,838 3,859 2,441 2,315 2,209 1,922 1,956 2,021 1,335 2,725 1,947 2,029 1,458 2,763 1,233 5,221 7,005 3147
1957 5,697 1,726 1,931 4,162 2,423 2,430 2,479 1,941 2.008 2,079 1,348 2,839 2,044 2,178 1,504 2,872 1,395 5,200 7,513 3182
1958 5,943 1,729 2,019 4,216 2,410 2,642 2,434 1,939 1,969 2,118 1,381 2,894 1,985 2,133 1,555 2,779 1,438 4,944 7,319 3193
1959 5,468 1,686 2,065 4,090 2,508 2,650 2.129 1,975 1,996 2,164 1,370 2,886 1,952 2,205 1,514 2,803 1,484 4,741 7,594 3332
1960 5,803 1,721 2,199 4,253 2,539 2,783 2,113 2,026 2,015 2,158 1,359 3,021 1,916 2,272 1,463 3,058 1,259 4,849 7,601 3405
1961 6,115 1,718 2,359 4,346 2,589 2,739 2,112 2,069 2,024 2,191 1,352 3,071 1,998 2,446 1,523 3,192 1,383 4,924 7,691 3465
1962 5,924 1,774 2,393 4,437 2,648 2,789 2,108 2,108 2,198 2,208 1,374 3,114 2,150 2,573 1,533 3,360 1,386 4,750 8,081 3528
1963 5,695 1,853 2,354 4,601 2,654 2,879 2,093 2,090 2,224 2,355 1,372 3,257 2,314 2,710 1,555 3,385 1,348 4,716 8,323 3663
1964 6,186 1,884 2,376 4,590 2,735 2,885 2,070 2,179 2,356 2,399 1,409 3,524 2,508 2,750 1,578 3,505 1,451 4,758 8,812 3816
1965 6,651 1,931 2,375 4,521 2,751 3,022 2,048 2,184 2,402 2,437 1,508 3,636 2,663 2,914 1,624 3,574 1,559 4,765 9,008 3902
1966 6,597 2,023 2,399 4,916 2,813 3,136 2,113 2,172 2,484 2,502 1,553 3,766 2,668 3,046 1,605 3,767 1,680 4,874 8,913 4045
1967 6,677 2,101 2,450 4,971 2,845 3,218 2,315 2,253 2,524 2,536 1,582 3,876 2,768 3,211 1,700 3,801 1,804 4,630 8,974 4216
1968 6,866 2,228 2,654 5,045 2,929 3,394 2,142 2,274 2,511 2,686 1,653 4,061 2,720 3,334 1,713 3,709 1,982 4,663 9,141 4451
1969 7,345 2,274 2,845 5,132 3,024 3,485 2,082 2,259 2,508 2,738 1,616 4,184 2,801 3,514 1,743 3,743 2,046 4,909 9,217 4623
1970 7,623 2,336 2,843 5,140 3,128 3,650 1,975 2,335 2,500 2,817 1,573 4,335 2,752 3,654 1,787 3,853 2,097 5,111 9,596 4668
1971 7,783 2,396 3,089 5,500 3,233 3,802 2,098 2,409 2,519 2,894 1,591 4,375 2,754 3,893 1,843 3,903 2,183 5,100 9,558 4827
1972 7,811 2,524 3,376 5,339 3,400 4,020 2,159 2,677 2,599 3,022 1,636 4,598 2,728 3,963 1,919 3,904 2,236 5,016 9,536 4949
1973 7,966 2,604 3,758 4,957 3,546 4,230 2,313 3,258 2,653 3,140 1,715 4,831 2,813 4,Q68 2,015 4,001 2,231 5,034 9,788 5045
1974 8,256 2,616 3,970 4,925 3,665 4,362 2,394 3,370 2,723 3,251 1,645 4,972 3,113 4,057 2,134 4,252 5,189 10,029
1975 8,074 2,740 4,077 4,222 3,665 4,345 2,476 3,456 2,735 3,229 1,631 5,100 3,014 4,017 2,231 4,277 5,479 10,279
1976 7,948 2,798 4,390 4,307 3,750 4,467 2,512 3,668 2,804 3,381 1,747 5,168 3,074 3,978 2,333 4,244 5,674 10,797
1977 8,329 2,868 4,499 4,666 3,817 4,737 2,596 3,797 2,923 3,557 1,869 5,199 3,231 3,923 2,523 4,146 5,708 11,124
1978 7,941 2,858 4,612 4,981 4,047 4,898 2,729 3,933 3,011 3,645 1,992 5,479 2,888 4,203 2,737 4,048 5,969 10,974

1979 8,372 2,796 4,810 5,320 4,169 5,002 2,775 4,027 2,827 3,726 2,020 5,829 2,061 4,286 2,968 4,171 2,277 6,295 10,754 5241
1980 8,367 2,695 5,178 5,660 4,244 4,902 2,724 4,109 2,454 3,772 1,971 6,164 2,095 4,824 3,218 4,248 2,403 6,630 10,213 5441
1981 7,794 2,660 4,844 5,920 4,246 4,660 2,933 4,155 2,173 3,704 1,959 6,556 2,147 5,149 3,399 4,327 2,451 6,714 9,887 5358
1982 7,434 2,491 4,773 5,036 4,194 4,201 2,977 4,091 2,021 3,485 1,873 6,378 2,072 5,305 3,268 4,231 2,439 6,044 9,681 5203
1983 7,622 2,329 4,528 4,817 4,170 4,203 3,034 3,871 2,041 3,312 1,799 5,988 2,112 4,957 3,077 3,610 2,497 5,654 8,893 4963
1984 7,658 2,267 4,668 5,019 4,220 4,415 3,113 3,928 2,055 3,247 1,821 6,084 2,026 4,981 3,079 3,697 2,476 5,557 5034
1985 7,020 2,197 4,929 5,034 4,261 4,327 3,141 3,995 2,050 3,151 1,841 6,123 1,896 5,117 3,[[0 3,695 2,373 5,601 8,543 5075
1986 7,411 2,095 5,192 5,227 4,418 4,446 3,116 4,016 2,030 3,082 1,800 5,784 1,835 5,190 3,024 3,946 2,407 6,059 8,334 5175
1987 7,491 2,102 5,271 5,479 4,561 4,535 3,009 3,682 2,056 3,118 1,853 5,787 1,783 4,993 3,067 4,185 2,599 6,499 8,641 5241
1988 7,243 2,117 5,169 5,780 4,653 4,569 3,086 3,971 2,066 3,166 1,882 5,757 1,529 4,237 3,173 3,752 2,603 6,458 8,713 5190
1989 6,645 2,148 5,240 6,281 4,718 4,703 3,075 3,888 2,055 3,216 1,907 5,895 1,471 4,217 3,268 3,245 2,665 6,489 8,980 5148
1990 6,433 2,197 4,920 6,401 4,826 4,747 2,957 3,903 2,119 3,240 1,857 6,085 1,437 4,466 3,281 3,008 2,471 6,465 8,002 5067
1991 7,017 2,261 4,888 6,789 4,847 4,736 2,621 4,015 2,163 3,282 1,865 6,229 1,401 4,788 3,277 3,033 2,447 6,648 8,313 5170
1992 7,589 2,247 4,784 7,484 4,964 5,045 2,302 3,987 2,290 3,362 1,917 6,340 1,372 5,075 3,305 2,962 2,653 7,123 8,910 5247
1993 7,918 2,289 4,942 7,862 5,151 5,288 1,948 3,916 2,421 3,413 1,983 6,348 1,333 5,244 3,352 3,046 2,792 7,257 9,239 5352
1994 8,274 2,341 5,151 8,166 5,318 5,407 1,952 4,019 2,531 3,469 1,908 6,512 1,345 5,284 3,395 3,377 2,804 7,732 9,Q63 5516
1995 7,940 2,394 5,287 8,888 5,495 5,483 1,990 4,013 2,660 3,558 1,938 6,005 1,394 5,270 3,498 3,606 2,904 7,568 8,662 5500
1996 8,280 2,440 5,318 9,406 5,510 5,395 2,136 4,040 2,679 3,580 1,961 6,205 1,453 5,308 3,433 3,639 3,056 7,936 8,818 5596
1997 8,849 2,500 5,414 9,887 5,600 5,554 2,187 4,136 2,770 3,652 2,014 6,508 1,482 5,540 3,459 3,831 3,243 8.280 8,623 5798
1998 9,087 2,564 5,335 10,072 5,537 5,871 2,183 4,160 2,853 3,748 2,028 6,719 1,510 5,829 3,405 3,751 3,410 8,601 8,991 5833
1999 8,684 2,514 5,269 9,869 5,216 6,204 2,311 3,842 2,933 3,803 1,949 6,862 1,588 5,940 3,284 3,733 3,578 8,311 8,844 5742
2000 8,526 2,517 5,416 10,185 5,282 6,175 2,440 3,896 2,979 3,849 2,018 7,214 1,627 5,985 3,110 3,793 3,718 8,159 8,158 5883
2001 8,Q68 2,501 5,407 10,405 5,313 6,112 2,511 4,051 3,015 3,844 2,030 7,134 1,651 5,907 3,110 3,752 3,723 7,868 8,302 5844
2002 7,120 2,506 5,471 10,514 5,360 6,165 2,541 4,171 3,073 3,895 2,064 7,127 1,641 5,929 3,046 3,892 3,875 7,000 8,427 5767
2003 7,677 2,516 5,455 10,808 5,523 6,436 2,632 4,270 3,!34 3,896 2,[[5 7,171 1,661 6,065 3,102 4,001 3,804 7,157 7,543 5811
2004 8,292 2,564 5,686 11,340 5,697 6,588 2,779 4,560 3,182 3,920 2,203 7,401 1,727 6,406 3,168 4,151 3,794 8,007 6,835 6095
2005 8,968 2,620 5,786 11,846 5,938 6,852 3,087 4,780 3,282 3,949 2,290 7,570 1,778 6,750 3,198 4,383 4,082 8,535 7,945 6318
2006 9,632 2,689 5,936 12,263 6,266 7,323 3,457 4,911 3,397 4,059 2,394 7,851 1,823 7,203 3,275 4,667 4,451 9,113 8,616 6595
2007 10,363 2,754 6,191 12,707 6,651 7,760 3,708 4,980 3,513 4,209 2,495 8,022 1,856 7,904 3,433 5,022 4,758 9,781 9,308 6897
2008 10,952 2,872 6,447 13,040 6,787 7,865 3,861 5,186 3,542 4,241 2,549 8,059 1,882 8,560 3,568 5,450 4,939 10,590 9,967 7118
2009 10,935 2,918 6,347 12,696 6,787 7,663 3,917 5,151 3,415 4,160 2,445 7,498 1,831 8,693 3,371 5,435 5,041 10,828 10,213 6931
2010 11,820 2,987 6,762 13,229 6,982 7,876 3,997 5,278 3,447 4,172 2,464 7,832 1,889 9,198 3,819 5,844 5,361 11,706 9,718 7272
9,434

Table A.3. Latin America: Volatility of GDP, GDP of "relevant world" (trading partners), and terms ()f trade, 1870-2008

Trend volatility Volatility of the cyclical component Total volatility

1870- 1914- 1945- 1980- TOTAL 1870- 1914- 1945- 1980- TOTAL 1870- 1914- 1945- 1980- TOTAL
1913 1944 1980 2008 1913 1944 1980 2008 1913 1944 1980 2008

Total GDP 3.0% 2.6% 1.3% 3.1% 2.9% 5.6% 3.3% 2.7% 3.8% 4.1% 8.6% 5.9% 4.1% 6.9% 6.9%
Argentina 1.4% 1.4% 1.7% 1.1% 2.3% 4.3% 3.1% 1.8% 2.4% 3.1% 5.6% 4.5% 3.5% 3.5% 5.4%
Brazil 1.8% 3.5% 1.8% 2.6% 2.6% 3.2% 8.3% 3.5% 3.1% 4.8% 5.0% 11.9% 5.3% 5.6% 7.4%
Chile 1.3% 1.5% 0.6% 1.4% 1.7% 0.5% 1.9% 1.3% 13% 1.3% 1.8% 3.3% 1.9% 2.7% 2.9%
Colombia 2.2% 1.4% 1.7% 2.4% 5.3% 2.8% 2.2% 3.5% 7.5% 4.2% 4.0% 5.9%
Costa Rica 7.0% 4.2% 2.2% 4.5% 4.6% 8.3% 10.5% 4.5% 3.4% 7.0% 15.3% 14.7% 6.7% 7.9% 11.6%
Cuba 1.5% 2.7% 3.3% 2.7% 5.0% 4.6% 1.9% 4.0% 6.5% 7.2% 5.2% 6.7%
El Salvador 1.4% 5.2% 1.6% 1.7% 3.1% 2.5% 8.6% 2.4% 1.1% 4.8% 3.9% 13.8% 4.0% 2.8% 7.9%
Guatemala 3.4% 1.6% !.3% 2.4% 4.7% 2.5% 1.4% 3.0% 8.1% 4.0% 2.7% 5.4%
Honduras 1.7% 2.6% 0.7% 1.2% 2.5% 1.1% 2.8% 1.6% 2.2% 2.3% 2.9% 5.4% 2.3% 3.5% 4.8%
Mexico 2.4% 3.4% 3.6% 3.2% 3.7% 6.2% 8.1% 4.6% 24% 5.3% 8.6% 11.5% 8.3% 5.6% 9.0%
Nicaragua 1.7% 2.3% 1.3% 3.1% 2.4% 2.6% 4.1% 1.8% 4.2% 3.2% 4.3% 6.4% 3.1% 7.3% 5.6%
Peru 2.4% 3.0% 1.9% 2.9% 2.6% 3.8% 6.1% 1.9% 3.7% 4.9% 6.2% 9.1% 3.8% 6.6% 7.4%
Uruguay 6.0% 3.5% 2.9% 4.3% 7.0% 2.2% 3.8% 4.1% 13.0% 5.7% 6.7% 8.4%
Venezuela 3.1% 1.8% 2.4% 2.9% 5.6% 2.7% 2.6% 3.9% 1.2% 8.7% 4.6% 5.1% 6.8%
Arithmetic 3.2%
average 2.2%
2.2%
Relevant world (trading partners) 0.0%
4.8%
Argentina 0.5% 1.6% 0.8% 0.6% 1.3% 0.7% 24% 1.5% 1.1% 1.6% 0.0% 4.1% 2.3% 1.7% 3.0%
Brazil 1.2% 2.9% 3.0% 1.1% 2.4% 2.0% 4.2% 3.8% 0.9% 3.0% 0.0% 7.1% 6.8% 2.0% 5.3%
Chile 0.8% 4.0% 1.9% 0.4% 2.2% 1.4% 4.8% 3.0% 0.9% 2.8% 0.0% 8.7% 4.9% 1.3% 5.0%
Colombia 0.6% 4.4% 1.9% 0.5% 2.3% 1.6% 5.3% 3.0% 0.8% 3.0% 3.6% 9.7% 4.9% 1.4% 5.4%
Costa Rica 1.6% 4.8% 2.0% 0.5% 2.9% 3.2% 5.7% 3.2% 0.9% 3.6% 0.0% 10.5% 5.2% 1.5% 6.6%
Cuba 4.2% 2.5% 0.6% 2.8% 5.3% 3.2% 0.8% 3.5% 9.4% 5.7% 1.5% 6.3%
El Salvador 0.8% 5.0% 2.0% 0.5% 3.0% 2.8% 6.5% 3.2% 0.9% 4.0% 11.5% 5.2% 1.5% 7.0%
Guatemala 4.6% 2.1% 0.5% 2.9% 5.8% 3.3% 0.9% 3.7% 10.3% 5.4% 1.4% 6.6%
Honduras 5.0% 1.9% 0.5% 2.9% 5.8% 3.1% 1.0% 3.6% 10.8% 4.9% 1.5% 6.5%
Mexico 4.0% 1.9% 0.6% 2.5% 5.2% 3.1% 1.0% 3.4% 9.2% 5.0% 1.5% 5.9%
Nicaragua 5.0% 2.0% 0.5% 3.0% 5.9% 3.2% 0.8% 3.7% 10.9% 5.2% 1.2% 6.7%

Peru 0.5% 3.9% 1.9% 0.4% 2.3% 1.3% 5.3% 3.0% 0.9% 3.3% 1.8% 9.2% 4.9% 1.3% 5.6%
Uruguay 0.7% 2.2% 0.8% 0.8% 1.4% 1.3% 2.8% 1.0% 1.3% 1.7% 2.1% 5.0% 1.8% 2.1% 3.1%
Venezuela 0.5% 4.2% 1.9% 0.5% 2.5% 2.3% 4.7% 3.0% 0.9% 3.2% 2.8% 8.9% 4.9% 1.4% 5.7%
Arithmetic 0.8% 4.0% 1.9% 0.6% 2.5% 1.8% 5.0% 2.9% 0.9% 3.2% 1.7% 9.0% 4.8% 1.5% 5.6%
average
Terms of trade 2.5% 3.9% 3.1% 2.0% 3.1% 3.7% 6.8% 4.0% 4.3% 4.7% 6.2% 10.7% 7.1% 6.3% 7.8%
Argentina 6.6% 4.6% 3.1% 2.3% 4.9% 8.9% 11.9% 4.0% 5.0% 8.0% 15.5% 16.5% 7.1% 7.3% 12.9%
Brazil 4.1% 5.5% 5.3% 4.5% 5.0% 6.5% 9.6% 9.8% 8.3% 8.4% 10.6% 15.1% 15.1% 12.7% 13.5%
Chile 6.6% 4.7% 3.1% 3.9% 5.1% 11.1% 12.1% 4.0% 7.0% 9.2% 17.7% 16.7% 7.0% 10.9% 14.2%
Colombia 5.9% 6.3% 2.7% 5.5% 8.0% 7.2% 7.2% 12.2% 14.3% 9.9% 12.7%
Costa Rica 2.4% 4.7% 3.1% 1.9% 3.3% 6.2% 6.2% 4.0% 2.0% 6.3% 0.0% 14.8% 7.1% 3.8%
Cuba 6.2% 6.9% 3.3% 6.0% 10.2% 10.4% 11.2% 12.9% 8.6% 23.8% 17.3% 14.5% 9.6%
El Salvador 2.6% 8.5% 6.7% 3.7% 6.7% 4.6% 17.6% 7.9% 12.5% 11.4% 0.0% 22.8% 14.6% 16.2% 18.9%
Guatemala 63% 2.4% 4.9% 4.5% 14.3% 6.3% 9.1% 10.1% 0.0% 21.1% 8.6% 14.0% 18.1%
Honduras 1.8% 1.7% 3.3% 3.8% 3.0% 4.8% 14.7% 4.2% 6.0% 5.3% 0.0% 7.5% 9.8% 14.6%
Mexico 2.3% 9.4% 14.7% 6.2% 10.9% 5.9% 45.4% 15.0% 30.2% 7.2% 8.6% 60.1% 21.2%
Nicaragua 1.0% 2.7% 3.0% 3.6% 2.9% 4.1% 6.8% 4.0% 7.8% 5.7% 0.0% 21.8% 7.0% 11.4% 8.4%
Peru 3.3% 6.2% 3.1% 3.7% 4.1% 6.2% 12.4% 4.0% 6.8% 6.6% 6.6% 7.1% 10.6% 41.1%
Uruguay 5.1% 3.1% 8.9% 5.9% 4.0% 13.1% 7.7% 8.1% 9.3% 7.1% 22.0%
Venezuela 5.4% 4.8% 4.0% 5.1% 6.7% 8.6% 8.2% 9.6% 5.1% 15.7% 13.4% 12.2% 8.6%
Arithmetic 9.5% 6.1% 10.5% 10.7%
average 5.4% 15.7% 13.6%
10.3% 14.6%

TableA.4. Latin America: Historical human development indices, 1900-2000

Latin

Costa El Dominican Latin America

Year Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Rica Cuba Ecuador Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Republic Uruguay Venezuela America (7)

RI1 0.135 0.174 0.054 0.091 0.065 0.112 0.127 0.175 0.067 0.050 0.077 0.062 0.050 0.171 0.135 0.118 0.105 0.152 0.051 0.209 0.071
1900 0.176 0.193 0.065 0.112 0.078 0.127 0.131 0.199 0.074 0.058 0.097 0.080 0.070 0215 0.145 0.143 0.136 0.180 0.056 0.252 0.090
1910 0.198 0.216 0.075 0.127 0.094 0.151 0.185 0.302 0.091 0.087 0.091 0.101 0.086 0273 0.167 0.196 0.172 0.175 0.068 0.310 0.103
1920 0.236 0.219 0.084 0.159 0.120 0.173 0.201 0.304 0.120 0.107 0.099 0.099 0.108 0.338 0.196 0.251 0.220 0.212 0.105 0.332 0.119
1930 0.259 0.245 0.100 0.189 0.144 0215 0.217 0.317 0.144 0.130 0.114 0.122 0.139 0.348 0.263 0.293 0.246 0.229 0.130 0.366 0.137
1940 0.306 0.279 0.130 0.239 0.183 0.258 0.271 0.371 0.180 0.162 0.159 0.163 0.177 0.399 0.281 0.287 0.294 0.278 0.206 0.421 0.174
1950 0.340 0.180 0.282 0.218 0.315 0.306 0.200 0210 0.195 0.208 0.194 0.476 0.286 0.327 0.356 0.304 0.275 0.216
1960 0.394 0.217 0.338 0.241 0.341 0.305 0.224 0.232 0.210 0.272 0.195 0.332 0.402 0.325 0.377 0.260
1970 0.430 0.287 0.386 0.305 0.389 0.371 0.257 0.267 0.224 0.342 0.223 0.372 0.416 0.319
1980 0.402 0.332 0.429 0.330 0.435 0.298 0.301 0.262 0.371 0.259 0.387 0.377 0.342
1990 0.455 0.363 0.517 0.354 0.413 0.435 0.402 0.377
2000 0.530 0.422 0.590 0.404 0.450 0.507 0.440 0.428
2010

RI2

1900 0.063 0.086 0.024 0.041 0.030 0.052 0.060 0.087 0.030 0.023 0.036 0.028 0.023 0.087 0.066 0.056 0.050 0.076 0.023 0.109 0.033
1910 0.084 0.096 0.029 0.050 0.035 0.060 0.063 0.102 0.033 0.026 0.046 0.037 0.032 0.117 0.073 0.069 0.067 0.091 0.026 0.!36 0.042
1920 0.097 0.109 0.034 0.058 0.043 0.074 0.094 0.165 0.042 0.040 0.043 0.047 0.040 0.154 0.087 0.099 0.089 0.089 0.031 0.174 0.049
1930 0.119 0.115 0.038 0.074 0.056 0.087 0.107 0.172 0.057 0.051 0.047 0.047 0.051 0202 0.107 0.133 0.118 0.107 0.049 0.195 0.057
1940 0.133 0.133 0.046 0.090 0.068 0.113 0.122 0.183 0.070 0.064 0.056 0.058 0.069 0.216 0.150 0.163 0.!38 0.121 0.062 0.220 0.066
1950 0.163 0.156 0.062 0.120 0.090 0.141 0.160 0.227 0.091 0.081 0.082 0.082 0.091 0.255 0.165 0.168 0.164 0.156 0.103 0.267 0.087
1960 0.188 0.091 0.148 0.113 0.181 0.186 0.102 0.109 0.105 0.109 0.103 0.314 0.170 0.198 0.211 0.175 0.146 0.114
1970 0.223 0.112 0.187 0.127 0.208 0.194 0.122 0.127 0.119 0.148 0.109 0.206 0.259 0.190 0.212 0.142
1980 0253 0.153 0228 0.170 0.240 0.248 0.146 0.149 0.127 0.197 0.130 0222 0243 0.181
1990 0.242 0.186 0.270 0.188 0.283 0.174 0.177 0.159 0.225 0.163 0.238 0.222 0.202
2000 0.279 0.210 0.333 0.207 0.259 0.275 0.245 0.229
2010 0.340 0.259 0.409 0.243 0.300 0.336 0.274 0.274
RI3
1900 0271 0.159 0.194 0.183 0.150 0.326 0.148 0.179
1910 0.326 0.181 0.220 0.211 0.185 0.357 0.159 0.211

----- -------------

1920 0.375 0.394 0.197 0.256 0.237 0.259 0.382 0.168 0.125 0.186 0.228 0.!24 0.380 0.313 0.261 0.266 0.361 0.181 0.415 0.240
1930 0.429 0.407 0.217 0.317 0.278 0.293 0.295 0.419 0.182 0.132 0.224 0.231 0.166 0.457 0.345 0.304 0.329 0.389 0.218 0.470 0.267
1940 0.469 0.439 0249 0.366 0.320 0.343 0.320 0.554 0.221 0.180 0.225 0.274 0.207 0.515 0.393 0.386 0.401 0.437 0.260 0.531 0.302
1950 0.528 0.468 0.304 0.448 0.392 0.382 0.399 0.565 0.272 0235 0.238 0.346 0.250 0.596 0.441 0.469 0.460 0.499 0.354 0.579 0.363
1960 0.572 0.508 0.386 0.513 0.451 0.435 0.434 0.589 0.315 0.280 0.274 0.412 0.307 0.625 0.513 0.533 0.512 0.535 0.432 0.615 0.427
1970 0.616 0.554 0.436 0.586 0.473 0.487 0.476 0.638 0.373 0.326 0.368 0.492 0.359 0.666 0.546 0.568 0.553 0.564 0.555 0.667 0.481
1980 0.657 0.496 0.652 0.556 0.553 0.550 0.417 0.393 0.428 0.566 0.420 0.709 0.563 0.612 0.610 0.604 0.604 0.540
1990 0.657 0.583 0.703 0.581 0.603 0.608 0.484 0.452 0.469 0.616 0.461 0.619 0.674 0.633 0.576 0.590
2000 0.692 0.621 0.749 0.609 0.643 0.637 0.523 0.498 0.489 0.656 0.512 0.669 0.615 0.627
2010 0.739 0.681 0.798 0.647 0.676 0.685 0.571 0.550 0.545 0.699 0.575 0.709 0.651 0.675

Relative Index I (RII): Arithmetic mean ofGDP per capita, life expectmcy, and education indices (GDPPCL LEI. EI).
Relative Index 2 (RI2): Arithmetic mean ofGDP per capita index and the index with convex function for life expectancy at birth and education (GDPPCI. LEI-con, EI-con).
Relative Index 3 (RI3): Arithmetic mean of 1ogGDPpc index, life expectancy, and education indices (GDPPCI. LEI. EI).

On the indices, see Table 1.9.
Sour= Bertola. Hernandez, and Siniscalchi (2011).



Index

References such as "138-9" indicate (not necessarily continuous) discussion of a topic across a
range of pages. Wherever possible in the case of topics with many references (but not in the case
of cited authors), these have either been divided into sub-topics or only the most significant
discussions of the topic are listed. Because the entire volume is about "Latin America" and
"economic development", the use of these terms (and certain others occurring throughout the
work) as entry points has been restricted. Information will be found under the corresponding
detailed topics.

abolition of slavery 11, 50, 72-5, 79, 102, average land prices 107, 117
108,260 Ayacucho 53-4

Acemoglu, D. 44-5 balance of payments 30, 127, 141, 144, 150,
activism 153, 215

financial 134 crises 19-20, 157, 161-3, 177, 189, 199
macroeconomic 147-53 banking 21, 124, 129, 135
Africa 3, 10-11, 54-5, 82, 88-9, 117, 155
Afro-American societies 12, 139 crises 19-21
aggregate demand 152-3 state 131
agrarian reforms 46, 162, 196-7, 221, 260 banks
agricultural frontier 31, 82, 89, 103, 106, central 134, 154, 184, 233
development 148-9, 164, 219
115-16, 181 Baring crisis 20, 96, 123, 134
agricultural goods/products 10-11, 24-7, Bauer, A. 106, 111, 113-14, 118
Belgium 60, 142
89-91, 147, 181, 229, 231 Berges, A. R. 35, 175-6, 179, 191
agricultural output 150, 179 biases
agricultural productivity 28, 179 anti-agriculture 216
agriculture 10, 27, 124-5, 160-l, 179, anti-export 179, 181, 216, 223, 264
technological 253
181,241 Bielschowsky, R. 159-60
temperate-zone 12-13, 88 birth rates 178-9, 248, 257
traditional 192 Bolivia 13-15, 34, 38, 261
tropica,l 13, 88, 115, 231 1810-70 56, 58,64,67, 72,74
Altimir, 0. 193, 208, 213 1870-1929 83, 86, 95, 109, 112-13, 118,
Andean Community 72, 134, 157,220-1,229
Andean Group 160, 165 127-8
Andrews, G. D. 58, 73-4 1930-70 143-4, 146, 148, 169-72, 174-5,
annual growth rates 6, 60, 139, 174, 198, 241
anti-agriculture bias 179, 216 187-8, 196
anti-export bias 179, 181, 216, 223, 264 1970 on 214, 221, 227-8, 237-9, 241,
Argentina 9, 13-15, 17, 19-20, 23,
247-9,251-3
34-5,38 statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294,
1810-70 56-9,62,63-4,74,76,78-9
1870-1929 82-6,93-7,100-1,110-12, 297-8
booms 20,25,87,231,235,247-8,262
119-20, 122-3, 126-9
1930-70 144-8, 150-2, 161-2, 166-72, economic 173, 247, 254, 265
export 85, 99
174-5, 183-6, 188-94 oil 96,102,192,262
1970 on 204, 221, 227-9, 232-3, 236-9, sugar 58, 115
Bourbon reforms 49-51, 54-5
243-5, 249-53 Brady Plan 208, 210
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 Brazil 9-10, 12-15, 17, 19, 34, 260-2, 265
Asia 8, 11, 18, 82, 84, 88-9, 122 1810-70 48-50,56,58-9,62,65-6,
Astorga, P. 33, 35, 165, 175-6, 179, 191
Atlantic coast 77-8, 115 74-5, 79
Australasia 94, 132, 263 1870-1929 83-7,93-7,100-3,109-12,
Australia 2, 5, 15, 27, 35, 103, 122
authoritarian governments/regimes 81, 114-15, 119-20, 126-32
1930-70 142, 146-52, 156-8, 166-75, 177,
102-3, 263
automotive industry 157, 215, 226, 244 183-90, 192-6

302 Index

Brazil (cont.) coercion 45, 52, 135
1970 on 216-17, 221, 227-9, 233, 236-9, coffee 11, 27, 50, 66, 88-9, 96, 105
241-7,251-5
North-eastern 94, 114 prices 91, 142
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 coffee industry 66, 89, 115
Colombia 9, 11-16, 19, 23-4, 29, 34, 260-3
Buenos Aires 57, 63-4, 75, 107, 129, 134
Bulmer-Thomas, V. 54, 59, 88, 95, 108, 1810-70 50,56-62,63,66-7,69,74-6
1870-1929 83, 86-7,,93-102, 104-6,
112, 128
business cycles 17-18, 20, 130, 152, 198, 109-15, 123, 125-8

234, 262 1930-70 142, 145-52, 157-8, 166-72,
174-5, 177-80, 192-6
campesinos 84, 105-7, 113-15, 118, 196
communities 52, 111, 113, 118 1970 on 200, 224, 227-8, 231-3, 237-9,
241-7,249-52
Canada 2, 5, 15,76,84-5, 88,122
capital 44, 47, 121, 124, 129, 208, 240 statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8
colonial economies 49-50, 53, 57-8, 64,
flows 17-18,20,22,28, 77,117,140
foreign 102, 119, 123-4, 263 83, 103
goods 157, 159, 168, 173, 253
human 33,36,38-40,79,110-11,122,246 colonial period/era 7, 9, 45-6, 55-7, 63-5,
inflows 18, 78, 123, 219 72-3, 78-9
markets 2, 54, 155, 188, 205
legacy 50-3
international 202-3, 234 colonial powers 10, 31, 45-6, 49, 51, 70, 74
capitalism 8, 49, 73-4, 102, 190 colonial societies 10, 53, 55, 74
colonies 10, 38, 48-53, 67, 74, 116, 142
peripheral 49, 107, 135 colonization 1, 7, 45
Caracas 77 commodities 10-11, 18, 25, 27, 91, 160-1,
C<irdenas, E. 65, 133, 137-8, 154, 157
Cardoso, C. F. S. 10-11, 45, 49, 71, 107 225-8
Caribbean 17, 32, 90, 108, 122, 124, 127
Cartagena Consensus 210 commodity-export-led growth 81, 83, 85, 87,
Catholic Church see Church 147-8, 183, 263
Central America 90, 151-2, 165-6, 200,
era of 147-8, 177, 183
226-7,229,248-50 model 188, 200, 263
Central American Common Market 160, commodity exports 8, 22, 31, 39, 77, 109, 156
commodity lottery 54, 60, 64, 77, 87
164-5,220,229 commodity prices 18,25-6, 91, 127, 140, 154,
central banks 134, 154, 184, 233
change 205-6
high 182, 203, 265
structural 9, 28, 40, 44, 155, 189-90 real 26, 91, 205
technological 17, 28, 46, 48-9, 79, competition 10, 79, 87, 135, 203, 231
international 79, 87
135-6, 160 competitive imports 165, 184, 190
chemicals 164, 170, 182 competitiveness l, 11, 33, 87, 110, 244
Chile 9,13-15, 19,23,29, 34,38 complementarity 10, 253
conflicts 49, 65, 69, 98, 103, 108, 115
1810-70 50, 53, 56, 58-9, 62, 63, 79 civil see civil wars
1870-1929 83-4,99-101,105-6,114, international 69-70, 72, 82, 103
political 63, 127
118-21, 126-9, 132-4 social 199, 202, 263
conservatives 37, 65, 71
1930-70 145-6, 148-52, 166-72, 177-80, consumer goods 129-30
183-6, 192-4, 196 convergence 3,16-17,28,220,253,261-4
truncated 16-17, 189, 261, 264
1970 on 211,213-16,218-20,227-9, convex functions 35, 41, 43
236-9,243-4,251-3 copper 88-90,145,167,219,231
Cordoba 57,63,107
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 Cornia, G. A. 247, 253-4
China 25, 28, 84, 110, 229, 231, 245 corporatist model 195-6
Church 49, 51-2, 70-2, 106 Costa Rica 9, 12-16, 19, 23, 34, 38, 260-3
cinchona bark 66, 87 1810-70 56,58,63
cities 31-2, 70, 77, 114, 128-9, 194, 196 1870-1929 83, 86, 95, 105, 109, 112, 134
civil conflicts 69, 102 1930-70 146, 148-52, 158, 178, 188, 192,
civil wars 53, 63, 65, 69, 71, 102, 178
climate 1, 64, 66 194-6

temperate 12, 87 1970 on 201, 211, 223-4, 227-9, 237-8,
tropical 10, 50, 88 243-9, 251-3
coasts 12-13, 66, 75-9, 92, 94
statistical annex 287-8, 290, 295-6
Coatsworth, J. H. 45, 54, 58-9, 65, 79,

128, 132

Index 303

costs 27, 39, 53, 76-7, 94, 154, 164 developed countries/world/economies 1-2,
labor 66, 253 6-8, 10-11, 16-17, 31, 35-6, 41-3
social 211, 213
transport 89, 129-30, 154 development
economic 2, 17, 28, 30, 32, 38-9, 159
Council for Mutual Economic and environment 30-2
Assistance 24, 161 export-led 30, 157
financial 134, 188-9, 236
countercyclical policies 152, 219, 235-6 human 2, 32-3,41,44,264,266
credit 149, 164, 181, 204, 208, 235-6 paradigms 258, 261, 263
crises 20-2, 144-5, 149, 152-3, 204-5, paths 2, 12,51,63, 78,94,98
technological I, 10, 30, 191, 244-5, 266
207-12,219-20
balance of payments 19-20, 157, 161-3, development banks 148-9, 157, 164, 188,
208, 219
177, 189, 199
banking 19-21 Devlin, R. 20, 203-4, 208, 210, 213
Baring 20, 96, 123, 134 Diaz, Porfirio 65, 71, 96, 103-4, 133
currency 21 Diaz-Alejandro, C. F. 20, 87, 141, 149-50,207
debt see debt crises direct investments 123-4
definitions 21
economic 21, 47 foreign 165, 167, 203-4, 216, 231, 235, 239
financial see financial crises distribution
major 223, 258, 262
political 186, 211 income 44, 47, 116-17, 121-2, 193-4,
solvency 210 254-5,259-62
crops 31, 66, 129, 142, 181
export 31, 56, 105-6, 119, 147 wealth 44, 47, 116, 121, 159, 260
Cuba 9,12-16,19-20,23-5,34,36,260-2 diversification 31, 127, 139, 149, 226-7
1810-70 48,53-4,56, 58-9,62,63,74-6
1870-1929 83-6,93-7,99-100,108-10, exports 66, 160, 264
production 11, 123, 134
112, 114-15, 126-8 diversity I, 72, 215, 219-20
1930-70 141-9, 154, 156, 161-2, 173-4, domestic economic activities 129, 137
domestic economies 127, 136, 235
176-81, 183 domestic financial crises 204, 218, 265
1970 on 216-17, 227, 229, 234,236, domestic financial markets 134, 204, 218
domestic markets 11-12,60,61-3,66, 130,
241,249
Revolution 16, 154, 162 138-40, 150
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 economic performance 98-102
currencies 21, 27, 104, 127, 147, 149-50, 161 dominant elites 73, 190
customs duties 79, 127, 132 Dominican Republic 9, 13-15, 34, 38
1810-70 56,58,63,69-70,74
de-industrialization 46, 240 1870-1929 83, 95, 112, 128
debt crises 20, 174-5, 189-91, 198-9, 202, 1930-70 143-4, 148, 158, 161, 166, 169,

207-8,232-6 174-5
external 19, 21, 208 1970 on 216, 220, 223-4, 237-9, 243,
debt defaults 123, 144, 147, 153-4, 208, 262
debt servicing 137, 140, 145 246-7,249-52
debtor countries 155, 262 statistical annex 287-8, 290
debts 78,106,123,145,149,155,207-8 Dye, A. 69, 71, 104
external 21, 140, 144-5, 149, 155, 202, 207 dynamic economic growth 104, 223
war 78, 145
deficits 187, 217, 233 early industrialization 129, 132
fiscal 186,189,202,204,214,220 East Asia 2, 20, 190, 202, 211, 225-6, 255-6
public-sector 134, 149 ECLAC see Economic Commission for Latin
trade 22, 28, 51, 147, 168, 200, 231
deflation 20, 25, 60, 91, 133, 142, 145 America and the Caribbean
deforestation 32 economic activity 18, 32, 66, 77, 83, 103, 188
demand components 28, 245 economic booms see booms
demographic dependency ratio 238-9, 249 Economic Commission for Latin America and
demographic dividend 238, 249
demographic transition 179, 248-9 the Caribbean (ECLAC) 143-4,
demographics 83-5 see also population 159-62,164-5,200-1,207-9,217-20,
Depression, Great 8, 20, 24, 32, 138-41, 244-7
economic distances 75, 81, 90
149,208 economic growth see growth
devaluations 127, 133, 149, 184, 205, 213 economic instability 18, 190, 258, 263
economic liberalism 214, 263
economic liberalization 215, 219, 263
economic performance 2, 8, 18, 37, 46, 54, 63

304 Index

economic performance (cont.) Western 140, 156, 161, 232, 259
demographics 83-5 European Economic Community 141, 161
domestic markets 98-102 European immigrants 38, 108, 110
exports 85-94 European powers 6, 49, 55, 140-1
GDP and per capita GDP 94-8 exchange controls 141, 204 see also foreign
overview 82-102
exchange
economic policies 25, 123, 131-4, 141, 152, exchange rates 133, 141, 150, 183-4, 211,
168, 183
215-16,241
economic rents 39, 136, 183 flexible 167, 236
economic slowdown 117, 205 multiple 141, 147, 164, 167
economic transformations, social real 28, 66, 133, 184, 211, 236
export booms 85, 99
effects 245-57 export capacities 85, 87
economic volatility 17-18, 69 export coefficients 61-3, 99, 148, 222
Ecuador 12-15, 38 export crops 31, 56, 105-6, 119, 147
export diversification 66, 160, 264
1810-70 56, 58,67, 74 export earnings 91, 118, 144, 153, 210
1870-1929 83,86,94-5,106,112,114,125 export growth 25, 60, 63, 85, 99, 130, 223
1930-70 143, 146, 148, 152, 168-72, rates 59-60, 183, 223
Export-Import Bank 153-4, 161
174-5, 178 export incentives 166-7
1970 on 221, 224, 227-8, 231-3, 237-9, export-led development 30, 157
export-led growth 85, 104, 138, 216
241, 251-3 see also commodity-export-led growth
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294, 297-8 export performance 57, 60, 87, 98
education 33, 35-43, 51-2, 137, 157,260, export pessimism 161, 165
export products 105, 108, 139, 244
264-7 export promotion 28, 127, 156, 165, 202, 223
higher 37,52,254-5 export sectors 66, 72, 82, 98-9, 129-30,
and human capital 33-40
levels of 33, 35-6, 39-41, 122 242, 264
primary 37-9,254-5 commodity 130, 133, 263
public 37-8 traditional 181, 189-90
secondary 38, 254 export structures 11, 223, 226-7, 229
systems 37-9,46, 52, 129, 191, 194,259-60 exporters 132, 142, 165, 167, 183
tertiary see higher education commodity 28, 156, 231
Eichengreen, B. 147, 155 service 227, 229
El Salvador 13-15, 19, 23, 34, 38 exports 22,28-30, 58-60, 61-6, 98-9, 141-5,
1810-70 56
1870-1929 83,85-6,95,112,125,127-8 165-7
1930-70 146, 151-2, 158, 166, 169-71, commodity 8, 22, 31, 39, 77, 109, 156
economic performance 85-94
175, 180 expansion of 127, 132, 223
1970 on 201,217, 227-9, 237-8, 243, ofgoods 148,166,223,225-7,229
major 135, 168
246-7,251-2 of manufactures 24, 170, 183, 226, 229,
statistical annex 287-8, 290, 295-6
elasticities 242-3
income 27-9, 99, 101 natural-resource-intensive 231, 236
price 161 new 66, 184
trade 30 oil 102,222-3
elites 37,44-5, 53, 69-71, 81, 105-6, 118-19
dominant 73, 190 per capita 58-60, 61-3, 85, 89, 110
local 45, 49, 52, 64, 73, 79 purchasing power 142-5, 209
employment 121, 152, 191, 250, 252, 257 service 227, 229
formal 192, 194-5, 211, 245, 250, 252, sugar 145, 149
total 22, 58, 65, 87, 90, 181, 183
256-7 world 24, 88, 183
informal 191, 211, 250, 252, 257
urban 191-2, 252 young independent republics 57-62
energy transition 31-2 external debts 21, 140, 144-5, 149, 155,
Entre Rlos 57, 63-4
envrronment 50,69-70 202,207
and development 30-2 coefficients 205, 210-11
equity 46-7, 197, 260, 262 crises 19, 21, 208
improved 46-7 external financing 20, 22, 127, 140-2, 202-4,
social 218-20, 261, 266
Euro-American societies 11-12 235,264-5
Europe 45,50-2,76, 78,84, 111,161

Index 305

official 211 rates 17, 29, 65, 101, 234
private 165, 189, 202, 210 non-agricultural 186, 188, 219
external openness 166, 236 per capita 6, 32-3,41-3, 61-3, 94-9, 117,
external shocks 127, 140-7, 150, 152-3, 162,
177-8
199, 235 young independent republics 61-7

FDI see foreign drrect investment Gelman, J. 9, 54, 57,61-3
Ffrench-Davis, R. 182, 204, 208, 219
financial activism 134 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade see
financial crises 19-20, 140, 210-11, 236, 263 GATT

domestic/national 204, 218, 235-6, Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) 162
238,265
geography 1, 75,77,80,258
international 20, 219, 235 Germany 33,42-3,111,125-6,131,140,142
financial development 134, 188-9, 236
financial institutions 21, 134, 147, 157, 188, Glade, W. 102, 104-6, 109
globalization 7, 44, 46, 75, 81, 259
204, 236
financial liberalization 236, 253 first wave of 7-8, 18, 24-5, 46, 121-2,
financial markets 189, 219
262, 264
domestic 134, 204, 218 second wave of 139
financial sectors 188-9, 211, 219 gold 20, 50,66,88, 127,141,152-3
financial services 82, 176, 229, 241 golden age 8, 16, 161, 173, 175, 190, 259
financial systems 204, 210, 236 goods 11,27,31, 77-8,105-6,222-3,225-7
Findlay, R. 75-7 agricultural 10-11, 24-7, 89-91, 147, 181,
First World War 25, 84-5, 90-1, 96, 123-4,
229, 231
140-2,261-2 capital 157, 159, 168, 173, 253
fiscal deficits 186, 189, 202, 204, 214, 220 consumer 129-30
fiscal policies 149, 153, 181, 236 exports of 148, 166, 223, 225-7, 229
Fishlow, A. 159, 199 intermediate 130, 157, 164
Fitzgerald, V. 33, 35, 175-6, 179, 191, 201 public 51
flexible exchange rates 167, 236 tropical 25, 88-9
food 31, 171, 182-3 Great Britain see United Kingdom
Great Depression 8, 20, 24, 32, 138-41,
prices 233
forced labor 11, 26, 72, 109 149,208
foreign capital 102, 119, 123-7, 263 Great Recession 235-6, 247
foreign direct investment (FDI) 165, 167, growth 44-5, 103-4, 129-33, 148-50, 154-7,

203-4,216,231,235,239 175-7, 198-202
foreign exchange 154, 156-7, 161-2, 167, economic 2-3, 44-5, 148-50, 156-7,

218,232 175-7,234-5,238-9
foreign investment 78, 119, 123-4, 127, 135, engines of 50, 85, 178
export 25,60, 63,85,99,130,223
167,231-2 export-led 85, 104, 138
drrect see foreign direct investment GDP 29, 65, 94, 96, 101, 136, 243
foreign trade 78, 124, 153 pace of 7, 60, 65, 127, 261
formal employment 192, 194-5, 211, 245, paths 8, 96, 103
population see population growth
250,252,256-7 productivity 175, 189, 239
France 33,42-3,49, 53,60, 111,124-6 rapid 50, 77,96, 104,108,189,242-3
Frankema, E. 35, 38-9, 45, 114, 122, rates 6, 9, 17-19, 29, 44, 96, 99

193-4, 196 annual 6, 60, 139, 174, 198, 241
free trade 55, 60, 66, 132 export 59-60,183,223
GDP 17, 29, 65, 101,234
agreements 216, 220-1 population 55-6, 84, 91, 98, 179, 248
zones/areas 220, 225, 244 real 99, 223
Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) 220 slow 45, 139, 175, 177, 181, 223, 262
spurts/surges 17, 66, 81, 235, 261
Garda, N. 191-2, 252 and state-led industrialization 173-9
Gasparini, L. 247, 253-4 strong 16, 54, 57, 59, 229, 262
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and trends 22, 50, 179, 250
volatility 17, 96, 262
Trade) 140, 161, 216 guano 31,64-5, 77,87,89,133
GDP 94-8, 163, 186-7, 200-1, 207, Guatemala 13-15, 19, 23, 34, 38
1810-70 56, 58,67, 72
232-3,255 1870-1929 83,85-6,95,103,109,
convergence and divergence in per capita
112-13, 125
GDP 3-7
growth 29,65,94,96, 101,136,243

306 Index

Guatemala (cont.) income levels 7, 9, 12, 16-17, 27-8, 46, I
1930-70 146-7, 150-2, 158, 166, 169-71, 117-18
175-6, 178 i
1970 on 217, 224, 227-8, 237-8, 241-3, per capita 6-8, 12, 17, 36, 39, 50, 61-3
246-9,251-2 incomes 36, 44, 116, 121-2, 129-30, 159, 196 r
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 inconvertibility 127, 161 I
independence 6-9,47-50,53-5,65-7,70,
haciendas 12, 53, 64-5, 72, 105, 113-15, 118
Halperin, T. 54, 67, 69, 72, 78, 102, 106 74-5, 102-4
health battle for 53-4
wars of 53-4, 60, 61-4, 66-7, 69, 72, 74
indicators 255-6 indigenous communities 12, 46, 50-2, 70, 72,
public 41, 254-5
services 157, 197 107, 113-14
Hernandez, M. 33-4, 36, 43, 298 indigenous populations 31, 53, 113
high-income countries 9, 17, 88
high-technology manufactures 225-6 large 72, 109, 111
high-technology products 225, 229 industrial output 131, 240
higher education 37-8, 52, 2547 6 industrial policies 216, 244
highlands 12, 57, 92, 113-15 Industrial Revolution 7, 18, 31, 45-6, 48,
Hirschman, A. 0. 156, 174, 199
historical human development indices 33, 55,66
second 76-7, 263
41-3 industrialization 11, 127-31, 147-8, 155-7,
Honduras 13-15,19,23,34,38
159-60, 170, 189-90
1810-70 56 early 129, 132
1870-1929 83, 86, 95, 112, 125, 127-8 import-substitution 138, 156, 258
1930-70 144, 146, 151-2, 158, 166, levels of 129, 133
policies 24, 139, 160, 165, 193
169, 171 processes 46, 129-30, 156-7, 168, 176-7,
1970 on 223-4, 227-8, 236-9, 241, 243,
189-91,263-4
246-9,251-3 state-led 138-9, 155, 159-62, 163-5,
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8
human capital 33, 36, 38-40, 79, 110-11, 183-5,193-5,200-2
industrialized countries/economies/
122,246
formation 44-5 world 152, 173, 190-2, 205, 210,
human development 2, 32-3, 41, 44, 264, 266 232-4,259
indices 191, 211, 255 inequalities 38-40, 44-7, 52-3, 116-20, 122,
193-4,260-1
historical 33, 41, 43 and development 258-62
shift to 32-43 income 44, 262
inter-regional 61, 120
IMF (International Monetary Fund) 24, 141, levels of inequality 9, 40, 44, 46, 53,
153,163-4,184-5,202,212-13 117-23, 194
sharp 46, 211
immigration 1, 40, 45, 84, 108, 115-16, 135-6 social 52, 190, 266
European 11, 38, 56, 108, 110, 115 structural 118-19
rates 84-5 inflation 133,184-6,189,211,216,233,265
high 20, 184, 186, 189
import demand 29, 99, 101, 161 rates 184-5, 205, 211-12, 233
import substitution 138, 148, 150, 156-7, 160, runaway 127, 233, 265
informal employment 191, 211, 250, 252, 257
164-5, 170 infrastructure 51, 77, 133, 137, 164-5
import-substitution industrialization 138, transport 82, 150, 176, 181
innovation systems, national 173-4, 189, 241
156,258 innovations 18, 40, 48, 71, 135, 219-20, 245
imports 28-30, 99, 129-30, 144-5, 147, instability 67, 69-70, 123, 184, 207, 236, 258
economic 18, 190, 258, 263
154, 181 political 7, 44, 69, 104
competitive 165, 184, 190 institution-building 81, 220, 261, 266
real 142, 144-5 institutional continuity and change 67-75
total 90, 131 institutional factors 51, 77-8, 121, 194
incentives 91, 133, 164, 244 institutional instability 65, 69, 71, 104, 263
export 166-7 institutional stability 70, 103-4
tax 164, 167, 225 integration 16, 63, 77, 79, 121, 130, 150
income distribution 40, 44, 47, 116-23, into world economy 16, 22-5, 222-32
market 7, 44
193-4,254-5,259-62
income elasticities 27-9, 99, 101
income gap 16-17, 261
income inequality 44, 262

Index 307

regional 156, 160, 162, 164, 183, 190, 221 concentration of 39, 52, 116, 119,
Inter-American Development Bank 38, 122,200

153-4, 162 prices 106-7, 117, 119, 121
inter-regional inequalities 61, 120 public 49, 70, 72, 104-5
interest rates 155, 164, 167, 188, 203-6, landowners 44, 73, 116, 122
large 39, 70, 72, 105-6, 111, 118, 132
215,235 Latin American manifesto 160, 214
real 204-6 legacies 7, 50-1, 67, 79, 194, 199
intermediate goods 130, 157, 164 Levitsky, S. 221
international capital markets 202-3, 234 Lewis, F. D. 11, 26, 131
international competition 79, 87 liberal reforms 45, 49, 77, 79, 106, 109, 119
international conflicts 69-70, 72, 82, 103 processes 45, 119
international crises 20, 147, 205 young independent republics 70-3
international division oflabor 24, 160 liberalism 138, 156
international economy 11, 18, 49, 60, 78, economic 214, 263
political 214, 263
136-7, 160 liberalization 165, 194,215,218,223,227,236
international financial markets 190, 199, 207 destructive effects 243
international markets 2, 27, 103, 106, 113, economic 215, 219, 263
financial 236, 253
117,242-3 trade 54,215-16,220-2,244,253
International Monetary Fund see IMF Libor 203, 205-6
international reserves 141, 154, 162-3, 235 life expectancy 7, 33, 35, 40-3, 110, 122, 298
international technology transfer and Lindert, P. H. 36, 39
linen 88
innovation 135-6 living standards 1, 32-3, 40-1, 89, 99, 119
international trade 18, 49, 90, 120, 138, Llopis, E. 54
loans 145,149,163,203,205
148, 161 local economies 98, 118
intraregional markets 222, 231 local elites 45, 49, 52, 64, 73, 79
intraregional migration 192, 232 local markets 64, 72, 105, 170, 240
intraregional trade 165, 183, 223, 229
investment Londono, J. L. 193, 195

foreign 78, 119, 123, 127, 135, 167, 231-2 lost decade 198-9, 223, 233, 240-1, 245-6,
rates 200, 213, 245 258-9,261-2
investments 27, 39, 123-5, 164-5, 167, 231,
lost half-decade 221, 223, 232-3
244-5 low-technology manufactures 226, 229
direct 123-4
IR2 index 41, 43 macroeconomic activism 147-53
Italy 60, 66 macroeconomic adjustments 147, 208, 213
macroeconomic discipline 199-200, 215,
job creation 191, 240, 250, 253
264-5
Korean War 157, 161, 163 macroeconomic instability 261-5
macroeconomic performance 232-45
labor 18, 89, 108-9, 113, 121, 196-7, 239-40 macroeconomic policies 18, 149, 152, 233,
costs 66, 253
forced 11, 26, 72, 109 235-6
international division of 24, 160 countercyclical 152, 219
markets 12, 72, 75, 88, 107-16,247,249-50 Maddison, A. 3, 7, 24, 56, 60-1, 83, 175
modern 108-9 manufactures 2, 24-5, 130, 133, 183,
mobile 108-9
mobility 108-10, 121 228-9,231
productivity 175, 238-9 exports of 24, 170, 183, 226, 229, 242-3
relations 11, 45, 107, 111 high-technology 225-6
skilled 47, 194, 253 low-technology 226, 229
slave 11, 45, 50, 52-3, 56, 61, 66 mid-technology 226-7
supply 2, 18, 89, 108, 113, 118, 248-9 natural-resource-based 22, 225-7
surplus 179, 192, 194, 260 manufacturing 25, 82, 125, 129, 168, 170, 250
wage 79, 108-9 maquila industries 226, 240, 242, 250
marginal lands 105-6
land 50-2, 70, 72-3, 103-7, 113-16, 118-19, Marichal, C. 20, 54, 78, 123, 134, 144, 155
121-2 market economies 199-200
market forces 44, 46, 121, 215
marginal 105-6 market integration 7, 44
markets 51, 72, 79, 81, 104-7, 136
ownership 45, 52, 73, 111, 114, 118-19,

121-2

308 Index

market reforms 46, 159, 168, 214, 253, 258-9, new 73, 79

264-5 nationalization 155, 167, 176-7, 219, 221
period of 239, 244, 259, 264-6 natural-resource-based manufactures 22,
theory and practice 213-21
225-7

market shares 88-9, 134, 203 natural-resource-intensive exports 231, 236
marketing 119, 181, 240 natural resources 1, 11, 18, 30-2, 40, 117-18,
markets 26-7, 50, 88-91, 141-2, 198-9,
132-3

213-15, 231 endowments 2, 30-1, 39-40, 45, 51, 87, 266
capital 2, 54, 155, 188, 205 net resource transfer 202-3, 231-2, 234
domestic 11-12, 60, 61-3, 98-9, 130, new-settlement countries 27, 57
New Zealand 35, 122
138-40, 150
export 77, 142, 229 Nicaragua 13-15, 19, 23, 34, 38, 261
global 2, 203, 231 1810-70 56

international 2, 27, 103, 106, 113, 117, 1870-1929 83,85-6,95,112,125,128
242-3 1930-70 144,146,151-2,156,169-71,178,

financial 190, 199, 207 187-8
intraregional 222, 231 1970 on 201, 211, 216, 227-8, 241-3,

labor 12, 72, 75, 88,109-10,247,249-50 246-9,251-2
land 51, 72, 79, 81, 104-7, 136 statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8
local 64, 72, 105, 170, 240 nitrates 11, 31, 87-9, 103, 133
non-agricultural GDP 186, 188, 219
us 90,136,154,226,240

world 88, 99, 133, 142, 145, 148, 183 North American Free Trade Agreement
meat 11, 27, 50, 88-9 (NAFTA) 220, 243
MERCOSUR 220, 229-30

Mesa-Lago, C. 178, 195 official external financing 211
metals 26, 78, 91 oil 25, 32, 89-90, 124, 129, 150, 170
Mexico 7, 9, 12-15, 17, 19, 34, 261-2
booms 96, 102, 192, 262

1810-70 50, 52-4, 56-62, 63, 65, 70-2, exports 102, 222-3
76-9 open economies 219, 223, 244

1870-1929 83,90,92-101,103-6,109-14, open regionalism 219-20

123-5, 127-34 openness 222-3, 235

1930-70 139-40, 148-52, 154, 157-8, external 166, 236

165-72, 174-7, 179-80, 183-6, 192-6 output

1970 on 216, 219-20, 223-4, 227-9, 231, agricultural 150, 179
237-45,249-54 industrial 131, 240
ownership 40, 46, 72, 121-2
northern 105, 114, 261 land 45, 52, 73, 111, 114, 118-19, 121-2
Revolution 96, 104 structures 70, 81, 114
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8
mid-sized countries 139, 165

mid-technology manufactures 226-7 Palma, G. 133, 182, 204, 208, 239-40, 242
middle class 3, 116, 129, 195, 259 Panama 9, 13-16, 34, 38, 262-3
migration 83-4, 232 see also immigration
1810-70 58, 67, 76
flows 85, 136, 232 1870-1929 83-4,90,94-5,108,112,
intraregional 192, 232
126, 128
minimum wages 221, 255 1930-70 141, 143, 148, 158, 174-5,
mining 10-13, 31~2,88-9, 104-5,118-19,
178, 192

123-5, 133 1970 on 211, 217, 223-4, 227-9, 236-8,
products 25, 85, 89, 231 246-7,249-52
mobile labor 108-9
mobility 107-8 Canal 84, 108
labor 108-10, 121
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294, 297-8
Paraguay 13-15, 34

modern services 11, 176, 194, 242 1810-70 56, 58,67, 74
money supply 127, 141, 149, 154 1870-1929 83, 86, 95, 112, 125, 128
monopolies 11, 27, 49, 51, 114, 118 1930-70 143,148,158, 171-2,174-5,
Morley, S. 215, 253
185, 187-8

multiple exchange rates 141, 147, 164, 167 1970 on 217, 223-4, 227-9, 237-9, 241,
Munoz, 0. 182, 204, 208 243,247-52

NAFTA {North American Free Trade statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294, 297-8
Agreement) 220, 243 per capita exports 58-60, 61-3, 85, 89, 110
per capita GDP 6, 32-3, 41-3, 61-3, 94-9,
nation states 70-l, 77, 80, 82
117,177-8

Index 309

growth 6, 61, 99 production 10-11, 24-5, 53-4, 87-9, 104-6,
per capita incomes 6-8, 12, 17, 36, 39, 133-5, 225

50,61-3 agricultural 181, 241
Perez Brignoli, H. 10-11, 45, 49, 71, 107 capacity 31, 154, 243
performance coffee 89, 96
diversification 11, 123, 134
economic 2, 8, 18, 37, 46, 54, 63 domestic 130, 133
export 57, 60, 87, 98 for domestic market, young independent
young independent republics 54-67
peripheral capitalism 49, 107, 135 republics 61-7
peripheral regions 49, 54, 259 industrial 24, 151
periphery 28, 38, 51, 87, 127, 152 processes 10,32,48,109,225,240
Peru 9,12-15,19, 23,34,38,43 sectors 27, 40, 51, 64, 119, 139, 244
1810-70 50,53, 56,58-60,64-5,72,74 structure 2, 12, 18, 32, 54, 82, 87
1870-1929 83-4,86-7,97-8,100-1,
and diversification 127-31
108-9, 112-15, 132-4 productivity 22, 28, 44, 63, 66, 110, 239-40
1930-70 139, 142, 151-2, 165-72, 174-5,
agricultural 28, 179
179-80, 195-6 growth 175, 189, 239
1970 on 210-11, 214, 227-8, 236-8, 241, labor 175, 238-9
levels 110, 240, 264
243-4,246-7 total factor 175-6, 239
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8 products 10-11,27, 50-l, 66, 129, 181-2,
plantations 53, 72, 84, 87, 114-15
policymakers 161,173,217,219,264-5 226-7
political conflicts 63, 127 agricultural 10-11, 24, 90, 231, 254
political instability 7, 44, 69, 104 export 105,108,139,244
political liberalism 214, 263 high-technology 225, 229
political movements 198-9, 220, 233 mining 25, 85, 89, 231
political power 39-40, 44, 46, 69-71, 102 property rights 44-5, 51, 70, 72, 74, 103, 137
political processes 55, 70 protectionism 24, 64, 78, 90, 115, 129, 131-3
political stability 18, 102-3 public education 37-8
Pombaline reforms 49-51, 54-5 public goods 51
population 4-6, 11, 39-41, 52-3, 83-5, public lands 49, 70, 72, 104-5
public-sector deficits 134, 149
96, 256-7 public-sector finances 127, 187
density 45, 57 public spending 152, 186, 216, 218, 233,
explosion 8, 139, 248
growth 6-8,30,55-6,65,84-5,91,108-9 235, 265
social 218, 246-7, 255
rates 55-6, 84, 91, 98, 178-9, 248 public utilities 124, 127, 154, 167, 176,
total 53, 56~7, 59, 84, 94, 139, 179
young independent republics 55-7 218-19,242
Porcile, G. 17, 28, 107, 110, 136, 241 purchasing power 91, 142-3, 145, 208
post-war period 154-6, 162, 183-4, 205
poverty 1, 193, 248, 264 of exports 142-5, 209
levels/rates 193, 211, 245, 247-9, 258
poverty reduction 193, 248, 259, 266 quantitative import restrictions 199, 215
Prados de Ia Escosura, L. 33, 35, 41, 54,
railways 31,48, 76-7,79,91-2,94,123-5
117, 193-4 ranches 104-5, 116
Prebisch, R. 28, 159-60 raw materials 24, 31, 78, 81, 204
Prebisch-Singer thesis 25, 27 re-commoditization 226, 231
prices 3, 18, 25, 27, 91, 141-2, 168 real commodity prices 26, 91, 205
real exchange rates 28, 66, 133, 184, 211, 236
commodity 18, 25, 127, 140, 154, 161, 205 real growth rates 99, 223
constant 60,85,91,175,201,241 real imports 142, 144-5
controls 154, 218 real interest rates 204-6
elasticities 161 real prices 25, 91, 142, 204, 231
international 89, 115, 145 real wages 40, 47, 109, 121, 211
land 106-7, 117, 119, 121 recessions 65, 144, 198, 205, 207, 231-2,
real 25, 91, 142, 204, 231
relative 27, 90, 120, 147, 162 235-6
primary education 37-9, 254-5 Great Recession 235-6, 247
private external financing 165, 189, 202, 210 worldwide 20, 198, 222-3, 229
private sector 124, 149, 164, 193, 201, reconstruction 161-2
recovery 7,64,98, 142,144-5,156,208
218,245 and macroeconomic activism 147-53
privatization 49, 215, 218-19, 239

310 Index

redistribution 46, 70, 118 Siniscalchi, S. 33, 36, 43
reform processes 46, 57, 214-15, 221, skilled labor 47, 194, 253

241-2,247 slave-based economies 63, 78, 96, 98
slave labor 11, 45, 50, 52-3, 56, 61, 66
reforms 49-50, 52,69-72,79, 195-6,214-15, slave trade 66, 74, 85
218-20 slavery 47, 51, 79, 81, 109, 119, 139

agrarian 46, 162, 196-7, 221,260 abolition 11, 50, 72-5, 79, 102, 108, 260
economic 220, 250 slaves 46, 52-3, 66, 73, 75, 98, 118
liberal 45, 49, 70, 72, 77, 79, 106
former 99, 114-15
market 46, 159, 168, 213-14,253, 258-9, social conflicts 199, 202, 263
264-5 social costs 211, 213
social democratic model 195-6
social 138, 160 social development 9, 44, 139, 156, 198
structural 213, 219, 253
and state-led industrialization 191-7
regional integration 156, 160, 162, 164, 183, social effects of economic
190, 221
transformations 245-57
regionalism, open 219-20 social equity 218-20, 261, 266
Reimers, F. 37-9 social indicators 110, 246
Reinhart, C. M. 18, 20-1 social inequality 52, 190, 266
remittances 232, 235 social policies 41, 218-19, 254-7, 296
rents 110, 132-3, 137, 266 social reforms 138, 160

economic 39, 136, 183 social relations 73, 79, 108, 121, 197
reserves 88, 127, 154, 163 social security 246, 252, 254, 257

international 141, 154, 162-3, 235 coverage 195,252,256-7
systems 191, 195, 257
resource endowments 2, 30-1, 39-40, 45, 51, social services 51, 195, 218, 246, 248
87, 266 social spending 220, 233, 246, 255
public 218,246-7,255
resources 10, 18, 31-3, 52, 88, 121, 245
allocation of 44, 168 social structures 3, 37, 52-3, 57, 115-16, 160
Sokoloff, K. L. 10, 39, 55, 58
natural 1, 11, 18, 30-2, 40, 117-18, 132-3 solvency crisis 210
net transfer of 202-3, 231-2, 234
Rio de Ia Plata 53-4, 67 Southern Cone 16, 177-9, 184-6, 189-96,
199-200,260-2,264-5
Rodriguez, J. L. 28, 159, 178, 218
Spain 10,49, 52-3,60,232,245
Rogoff, K. 20-1 specialization 2, 22, 24, 121, 226-7,

Ros, J. 65, 104, 249 229, 231
stability
Rosenthal, G. 159-60
rubber 11,31,87-9 institutional 70, 103-4
political 18, 102-3
ru1es of the game 127, 141, 152-3 stagnation 8, 41, 63, 65-6, 177, 223
runaway inflation 127, 233, 265 Stallings, B. 20, 144-5, 214, 250
rural areas 46-7, 65, 72, 103, 121-2, state
banking 131
196-7, 260
intervention 156, 159, 191, 200, 214,
Salvador see EI Salvador 216-17
Sanchez Santir6, E. 52, 54, 57, 60, 65
Sao Pau1o 89, 103, 115, 120, 142 strengthening of 102-4
schools see education state-led industrialization 8, 138-97, 200-2,

Scobie, J. 128-9 204,213-14,242,255

second Industrial Revolution 76-7, 263 agriculture, exports, and macroeconomic
Second World War 8, 24, 38, 138-9, 141-2, imbalances 179-89

161-2, 173-4 economic and social performance
impact 153-5 during 173-89

services 2, 11, 129, 144, 212-13,225, 227-9 era of 207, 215
exports 227, 229 external shocks 140-7
financial 82, 176,229,241 and growth 173-9
modern 11, 176, 194, 242
social 51, 195, 218, 246, 248 impact of Second World War 153-5
transport 164, 229, 239 key events, ideas and institutions 155-62
model 130, 132, 189, 199, 264
servitude 46-7, 52, 79 see also slavery overall economic balance 189-91
shocks 18, 147, 154, 204-5, 207, 262
phases and varying experiences 162-73
external 127,140,150,152-3,162,199,202 and social development 191-7
first oil 165, 168, 177, 189
macroeconomic 138
trade 142, 144-5
silver 88, 113, 123, 127, 133

Index 311

state-owned enterprises 137, 164, 167, 170, world 24, 77, 85, 140, 161-2, 183, 202
186, 188, 218-19 traditional export sectors 181, 189-90
trans-Latins 222, 231, 239
steam engines 48, 75-6 transition to new era 136-7
steamboats 75-6 transport 27, 46, 48-9,75-7, 130-1, 228,
strategic sectors 149, 162, 164
structural change 9, 28, 40, 44, 155, 189-90 241-2
structural inequality 118-19 costs 89, 129-30, 154
structural reforms 213, 219, 253 infrastructure 82, 150, 176, 181
sugar 50,66,89, 119,129,140,154 services 164,229,239
tropical agriculture 13, 88, 115, 231
exports 145, 149 tropical climate 10, 50, 88
industry 65-6,90,103,115,178 tropical goods 25, 88-9
Sunkel, 0. 10, 160, 219 truncated convergence 17, 189,261,264
surplus labor 179,192,194,260 and volatility 16-22
Suzigan, W. 130-1 typologies 1, 12, 27, 53, 56, 83, 140
Szekely, M. 193, 195, 247 for analysis of Latin American

tariffs 132-3, 145, 164, 215, 253, 263 countries 9-16
tax incentives 164, 167, 225
tax revenues 64, 132-3 underemployment 191-2
tax structure 131, 201, 216 UNDP see United Nations Development
taxes 50, 53, 73, 81, 132, 186, 220-1
·technological advances 40, 67, 75, 115, 190 Programme
technological biases 253 unemployment 195,238,250,252,256
technological capabilities 50, 240 United Kingdom 33, 42-3, 60, 110-11, 123-4,
technological change 17, 28, 46, 48-9, 79,
131, 141
135-6, 160 United Nations 124, 144-5, 182
technological development 1, 10, 30, 191, United Nations Conference on Trade and

244-5,266 Development (UNCTAD) 159
technology policies 181, 217,219 United Nations Development Programme
technology transfer 1, 117, 135-6
Teitel, S. 170 (UNDP) 33, 41
temperate-zone agriculture 12-13, 88 United States 76-7, 124, 140-2, 144-5,
temperate zones 11, 27, 50, 56-7, 87-9,
147-51, 153-6, 159-62
91, 116 markets 90, 136, 154, 226, 240
terms of trade 19, 22, 25, 28,90-2, 142, 144-5 unskilled workers 117, 253-4
urban areas 65, 114, 136, 248
trends 25-8 urban employment 191-2, 252
volatility 19 urban population 139, 179
textiles 24, 79, 130-1, 150, 161, 170-1, 226-7 urbanization 31, 38, 46, 127-30, 179,
TFP see total factor productivity
Thorp,R. 33,90,137-8,141,153,160,165 192, 248
Thousand Days War 104, 127 level of 128, 179
Tokman, V. 191-2, 252 process 197, 248
total exports 22, 58, 65, 87, 90, 181, 183 Uruguay 9,13-14,19-20,23,34-5,38,107
total factor productivity (TFP) 175-6, 239 1810-70 56-8,62,67, 74,78
1870-1929 82-4,86,93-5,99-101,107,
total imports 90, 131
total population 53, 56-7,59,84, 94, 139, 179 119-20, 122-3
trade 22,25,28,48-51,64-6,90-2,144-5 1930-70 146-8, 150-2, 161-2, 168-70,

agreements 144, 149, 220 174-5, 177-8, 187-8, 191-4
balance 11, 28-30, 99, 144, 200-l, 209 1970 on 201, 221, 237-9, 241, 243-4,
deficits 22, 28, 51, 147, 168, 200, 231
246-7,249-53
elasticities 30 statistical annex 295-6
flows 79, 225, 229 Uthoff, A. 252, 257
foreign 78, 124, 153 utilities, public 124, 127, 154, 167, 176,
free ss;6o,66, 132
international 18, 49, 90, 120, 138, 148, 161 218-19,242
intraregional 165, 183, 223, 229
liberalization 54, 215-16, 220-2, 244, 253 Valdes, A. 181. 213, 241
Valencia, F. 210-11,236
policy 181, 184 Venezuela 9, 12-15, 17, 19,29-30,34,261-2
shocks 142, 144-5
slave 66, 74, 85 1810-70 56,58-9, 62,63,67, 74
specialization 2, 231 1870-1929 83,85-6,90,95-7,99-101,

103, 112
1930-70 144-6, 148, 150-2, 165-72,

179-80, 183-5, 192, 194-6

312 Index

Venezuela (cont.) wheat 27, 88, 103
1970 on 221-5, 227-8, 231-3, 236-9,
241-3,246-7,249-53 Williamson, J. G. 44, 54, 76, 79, 84, 92-3,
statistical annex 287-8, 290-2, 294-8
110-ll
violence 67, 69, 75, 200, 256 women 37, 179, 248
volatility 66, 90, 200, 204, 236 wool 11, 64, 88-90, 105
workers 26, 39-40, 107-8, 114-15, 175, 238,
determinants 19
economic 17-18,69 255-6
economic growth 17, 262 unskilled ll7, 253-4
ofGDP 19 workforce 39, 98, 107-8, ll1, 113, 115, 179
levelof 17-19 mobile 108-9
terms of trade 19 World Bank 17, 154, 159,207, 218-19, 221,
and truncated convergence 16-22
242-3
wage gap 253-4 world economy 1-3, 16-17, 21-2, 27-9,49,
wage labor 79,108-9
wage laborers 113-14, 116, 122 160, 198
wage levels 108-10, 117 integration into 222-32
wages 66, 109, ll5, 117-18, 121-2, 186, 194 world exports 24, 88, 183
world markets 88, 99, 133, 142, 145,
minimum 22l, 255
real 40, 47, 109, 121, 211 148, 183
Wall Street 123-4, 140, 144 world regions 31, 67, 116, 258
war debts 78, 145 world trade 24, 77, 85, 140, 161-2, 183, 202
wars 52-3,90-1,103-4,123-4,153-5, World Trade Organization (WTO) 216, 220

162-3, 177 young independent republics 48-9, 51, 53, 57,
civil 63,65, 71,104,123,178,186 59,63,65
of independence 53-4, 60, 61-4, 66-7, 69,
abolition of slavery 73-5
72,74 consolidation process 67-70
Korean 157, 161, 163 exports 57-62
Thousand Days 104, 127 GDP and production for domestic
Washington Consensus 214, 221
water 30, 129, 176, 255 market 62-7
wealth 3, 44-7, 53, 55, 105, 108, llO geography, technology, and
concentration of 39, 46
distribution 44, 47, 116-23, 159, 260 commerce 75-9
welfare states 44, 46, 195, 257 institutional continuity and change 67-75
liberal reforms 70-3
performance 54-67
population 55-7
reference point for comparison 55