Kingdoms of Europe - an illustrated encyclopedia

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 583

The most infamous of the sultans
must surely be Ibrahim I

(1640-48). for in a rage he

drowned all the women in his

harem.

Turkey, the Ottoman Empire, at mid-seventeenth century Suleyman II ruled from 1687 to
1691 as the sultan of Turkey. This
is a woodcut of him as he appeared

early in his reign.

Sultan Mehmed IV The wife of Suleyman II
(Mohammed) was the ruler of
Turkey from 1648 to 1687. He

conquered Greece without too

much military effort but his
invasions to the north and
northwest into the Hungary and

Austria territories were stopped by
the Polish general and king, John
III Sobieski

Kara Mustafa, the grand wazir Sultan Suleyman II later in life
wearing the official crown of the
for Mehmud IV, had a
sultans
"brilliant" scheme for the
conquest of the West but was Abdul Hamid I ruled from

defeated by the Polish king 1774 to 1789. In the fashion of
Sobieski at Vienna in 1683, the customs of the ruling
which was the second defeat of
classes, Abdul Hamid was kept
Mehmud IV by King Sobieski in total isolation from society

Therefore, Kara Mustafa was for the first forty-nine years of
beheaded in Belgrade shortly his life to prepare him for the
throne. As a result, when he
thereafter. became the sultan he was at
the least unprepared, and at
King John III Sobieski who was
known as the terror of the Turks the worst, insane. But he ruled
for fifteen years until he died.

584 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY

stagnation and corruption in the Ottoman regime and the long period of preeminent French interest in
brought about the gradual crumbling away of its power. Turkey was initiated by a treaty of friendship between
Although often at war between 1560 and 1800, the Otto- Suleyman I and Francis I of France in 1535. What began
then as voluntary concessions from an empire at the
man Empire was not confronted with sustained massive height of its prowess evolved into the system known as
the capitulations, which in later years was to become a
attacks, such as the earlier Crusades from the west or the major irritant in Ottoman-European relations.
Mongol invasions from the east, and the empire contin-
ued to be a factor of significant importance in European The capitulations granted to certain European powers
power politics. commercial and financial privileges that over a period of

During the reign of Selim II, in the longstanding mari- time were greatly extended. In addition, those residents
time war with Venice, a combined Venetian, Spanish,
and Austrian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet at the of the empire who were under European protection were
Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The European coalition broke subject to European rather than Ottoman law. Although
up, however, and Venice ceded Cyprus to the Turks.
originally confined to foreign residents, rights under the
Under Mehmed IV the empire by 1670 had acquired capitulations were eventually extended to some non-
Muslim citizens of the empire.
Crete and part of the Ukraine. In the Balkans, on the
other hand, three defeats were suffered between 1664 and Capitulatory rights were extended to Great Britain in
1700. Vienna was vainly besieged for the second and last 1579, to Austria in 1615, to Holland in 1680, and to
time in 1683. After a ruinous war against the combined
forces of Austrians, Venetians, Poles, and Russians, Sul- Sweden in 1737. The United States obtained similar
tan Mustafa II was forced to accept the Treaty of Karlo- rights in 1830 by treaty with the Ottoman government
witz in 1699. Under this treaty, the first to be signed by in which the latter undertook to accord the United States
Ottoman Turkey as a defeated power, most of Hungary a status equal to that of the "most favored nation."
was relinquished, along with cessions to Poland and the
cession of Azov to Russia. The events of the eighteenth century showed that the
expansion of the Russian Empire had become the most
Several wars with Austria in the early eighteenth cen- serious external threat to the Ottomans. The dominant
tury further weakened the Ottomans, and war with Russian interest was to secure yearlong access to the sea,
Russia between 1768 and 1774 let to further defeat and that is, warm water ports. Control of the Bosporus Strait,
the important Treaty of Kiigiik Kainarga in 1774. Under and therefore access to the Mediterranean, remained in
this treaty indemnities were exacted, further territories Ottoman hands. Russian actions against the Turks were
were lost to Russia, and free access to Turkish waters by not always successful but increasingly became so as the
Russian ships was granted. Russia also gained certain Russian pressure was maintained. Other European na-
vaguely worded rights of protection over Eastern Ortho-
dox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and these clauses tions in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
were thereafter utilized to justify Russian intervention in actively or inactively supported Russian expansion at the
expense of the Ottoman Empire. By the nineteenth cen-
Ottoman affairs. By 1787 Russia and Austria evinced tury, however, some interests had shifted to limiting the
designs, not then accomplished, of dismembering Otto- growth of Russian power by preserving the faltering Ot-
man Rumelia. In the Treaty of Jassy in 1792, the Otto- toman regime. Great Britain emerged increasingly as the
mans lost all their holdings in the Crimea and southern advocate and protector of what remained of Ottoman
Russia. These reverses and the stress of frequent wars
occasioned extensive civil unrest in Anatolia. The long- territorial integrity.
pampered Janissary corps, having lost its old discipline
and military effectiveness, became instead a focus of po- One of the causes of the decline of the empire was the
litical intrigue and factionalism and was heavily in-
shift of military and technical superiority to the West;
fluenced by the Bektasi dervish order. the gap was increased by the absence of any comparable
developmental experience in the East. The only ideologi-
The Ottoman Empire had for some centuries dealt cal-philosophical system the Ottomans accepted was Is-
with the states of Europe from a position of strength in lam and, under the Ottomans, Islam became ossified and
the gazi spirit of the conquering Islamic offensive. By the ultraconservative. The old administrative system, once
end of the eighteenth century, however, it was clear that fairly efficient, had decayed at all levels into stagnation
the military advantage had shifted to the West because and corruption. As in most Islamic states, the absence of
of economic, technological, and organizational develop- fixed rules of succession to the throne within a dynastic
family led to intense intrigue and factionalism. In the
ments. Nevertheless, Ottomans, secure in the conviction Ottoman realm the practice of fratricide had been legal-

of their own supremacy, had been slow to recognize the ized by ordinance as early as Mehmed II. Upon acces-

shift in power and the reasons for it. sion, some sultans extended this practice to include
nephews, cousins, and other male relatives.
Of the early Ottoman contacts with Europe, those
At the same time, it was desirable to ensure the Otto-
with France were of particular importance. In 1525 the man succession. Hence the system developed about 1603
Ottomans had fought the Austrians as allies of France,
—of confining, or "caging," a chosen successor the oldest

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 585

—son or other male relative in complete luxury but under Egypt that lasted, first under Ottoman and then under

strict political surveillance, cut off from the world and British domination, until 1952.
any effective training for office. In this effete environ-
ment, harem politics and the influence of favorite concu- The first primarily Ottoman crisis to bring about Eu-
bines became a significant element of internal ropean intervention in the nineteenth century was the
factionalism. By the chances of history, not all sultans Greek War of Independence of 1821-29. Russia, France,
were to grow up in this atmosphere of debilitating fan- and Great Britain supported the Greeks; a British and
French fleet destroyed the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at the
tasy, but many did. Abdul Hamid I, for example, was Battle of Navarino Bay in 1827, and Russian armies
advanced into the Balkans to Adrianople. Greek inde-
isolated in this fashion for forty-three years and was pendence was established by the Treaty of Adrianople in
mentally unbalanced when he at last came to the throne. 1829 and the London Convention of 1832.
The system was not conducive to strong sultanic leader-
Mohammed Ali of Egypt had supported the sultan by
ship.
quelling an uprising in Arabia in 1818 and later by sub-
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY stantial aid in the Greek war. Not having been rewarded
AND REFORM EFFORTS for this assistance, in 1831 he invaded Syria with French
backing and pursued the Ottoman forces deep into Ana-
During the nineteenth century the implications of the tolia. The sultan, in desperation, appealed to the Rus-
decline of Ottoman power, the vulnerability and attrac-
tiveness of its vast holdings, the stirrings of nationalism sians, who sent forces. Great Britain and France then
intervened to mediate, and Mohammed Ali was con-
among the minorities of the empire, and the periodic
crises resulting from these and other factors became col- strained to withdraw to Syria; but the price the sultan
lectively known to European diplomatists as "the East- paid for this support was the Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi

ern question." In 1833 Czar Nicholas I of Russia in 1833.

described the Ottoman Empire as "the sick man of Eu- Under this controversial treaty, the Dardanelles
Straits was to be closed by the sultan, on Russian de-
rope." Austria and Russia were rivals for control in the
Balkans, at Ottoman expense. France sought to gain a mand, to naval vessels and troops of other powers. War
position of predominant influence. Great Britain's objec-
tive was to prevent either Russian or French ascendancy with the Egyptian pasha was resumed in 1839, the Otto-
in the Ottoman region, particularly any threat to British
communications with India and the Eastern markets. man forces were again defeated, and Egypt seemed on
The Eastern question was a major and vexing issue
throughout the century and into the next because the the verge of seizing Anatolia. Great Britain once more
empire had become a troublesome anachronism.
intervened; France, having favored Mohammed Ali, ab-
The "sick man," however, was not without a certain
residual toughness that endured almost to the empire's stained. Russia, to break the British-French entente,
demise. From about 1800 to 1839, and particularly dur-
ing the reform period of 1839 to 1878, known as the waived its rights under the Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi and
aligned itself with the British. By the London Conven-
tanzimat (reorganization), specific efforts at political, so-
tion of 1840, Mohammed Ali was forced out of Syria and
Acial, and economic modernization were made. small
compelled to abandon certain other claims, but he was
class of political leaders and intellectuals emerged, made hereditary ruler of Egypt under nominal Ottoman

known as the Young Ottomans, who were competent in sovereignty. In a further protocol of 1841 the sultan
undertook to close the straits to warships of all powers.
European languages and schooled in European thought.
These sought to redirect and reinvigorate imperial The sultan, in fact, had very little to say about any of this
affairs. Several reforming or, at least, moderate sultans complex power play.
stimulated the effort. Although this effort left enduring
The empire was involved in two more major conflicts
influences, it finally foundered.
During the Napoleonic era, from 1796 to 1815, the Awith Russia before the end of the nineteenth century.

Ottomans were pitted against their main European con- French and Russian dispute concerning their respective
tact, the French. Napoleon seized and held Egypt from
1798 to 1801. In the latter year, combined British and rights in the traditional holy places of Palestine led to the
Turkish military operations forced withdrawal of the last
French forces, and the country was ostensibly returned Crimean War of 1854-56, a bloody and costly conflict in

Ato Ottoman sovereignty. period of internal chaos en- which Great Britain, France, Turkey, and Sardinia
fought Russia. The prospect of Austrian entrance on the
sued, until effective control was reestablished in 1 805 by allied side caused Russia to concede, and the Crimean

an Ottoman officer named Mohammed Ali. The sultan War was terminated by the Treaty of Paris of March 30,
then designated Mohammed Ali as pasha of Egypt, and
1856. Under this treaty Russia abandoned its claim to
he began the dynastic line of semi-independent rulers of protection of Christians in the Ottoman realm, re-
nounced rights of intervention in the Balkans, and
agreed to unrestricted-navigation on the Danube under
an international commission. The Bosporus and the
Black Sea were opened to all commercial shipping but
closed to naval ships except for minor Turkish and Rus-
sian coast guard vessels.

586 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY

The Ottoman and Russian empires were again major Sultan Selim III tried to V
combatants in the war of 1877-78. The Russian declara- overthrow the powerful
tion was prompted by Turkish repression of nationalist h
Janissaries, but the attempt y
agitation in the Balkans, principally in Bulgaria. After
failed and he was deposed and
initial defeats the Russians, with extensive Romanian assassinated in 1808. He was in
assistance, succeeded in forcing upon the sultan the
Treaty of San Stefano in 1878. The European powers, reign from 1789 to 1807.
particularly Great Britain, did not concur with the harsh
terms imposed by this treaty, and it was revised at the Mahmud II became the next
1878 Congress of Berlin, at which the powers attempted
full-time sultan after the death of
to formulate a final settlement of the Eastern question.
Selim III. He served from 1808
The treaty at the end of the Congress of Berlin gave
Bulgaria independence but returned Thrace to Ottoman to 1839. There was an interim
control. Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro were also
made independent; Bosnia-Hercegovinia was placed un- when Mahmud II"s brother,
der Austrian administration. Cyprus passed to British
control, and Russia made some territorial gains in Bes- Mustafa IV, served as sultan of
sarabia and at the eastern end of the Black Sea. Turkey for a few months before
being assassinated.
During this long period of intrigue, power politics,
and war from 1800 to 1881, the European powers had Sultan Abdulmecid (Abdul
not been so concerned with Russian designs, the Bal- Medjid, 1839-61). His resistance
kans, and the straits as to fail to notice the Ottoman
weakness and vulnerability in its vast North African to Russia's claims to a
territories. Algeria had been invaded by France in 1830 protectorate over Turkish subjects
and made a French possession. In 1881 France similarly
invaded and seized Tunisia, forestalling Italian designs led to the Crimean war.
in that area. Egypt from 1882 onward was controlled by
a British resident agent and consul general, although, as Sultan Abdulaziz acceded to the throne in 1861 and during his reign
in Cyprus, Egypt was still nominally under Ottoman (until 1876) the conditions of the country grew worse. Turkey had to
sovereignty through a peculiar legal fiction agreed to
between Great Britain and the Sublime Porte. declare national bankruptcy. On May 30. 1876. the sultan was discov-

Throughout this long period of external pressure and ered dead in his royal apartments and it was declared officially that he
successive imperial disasters, mitigated only by survival was a "suicide, " but in later years documents were unearthed that show
as a buffer in European politics, the Ottoman govern-
ment had simultaneously been engaged in a sequence of he was assassinated.
efforts aimed at internal reform and reorganization.
These attempts began piecemeal about the start of the

nineteenth century, initially in the interest of military
improvement.

Selim III (1789-1807) is recognized as the first sultan
to undertake serious efforts at modernization and re-

form. He endeavored to reorganize the military forces,

to reimpose discipline on the Janissary corps, and to
initiate reforms in the bureaucracy and provincial gov-

ernment. He was opposed at every turn by the Janissar-

ies, by the Bektasj dervish order, and by corrupt officials.
The Janissary leadership forced Selim III to abdicate and

later murdered him. He was succeeded by his nephew,
Mustafa IV, who canceled every progressive measure

directed by Selim III but was himself dethroned by

forces favoring reform. Mustafa's brother, Mahmud II

(1808-39), was then installed on the throne.

Mahmud II has been called the greatest of the reform-

minded sultans. The emphasis he gave to education and
the study of European languages, always with the pri-
mary objective of military improvements, allowed the

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 587

The last visit of Abdulaziz to the growth of a small, but increasing number of administra-
mosque at Baddsch in 1876 tors, scholars, and diplomats educated in, and ac-
quainted with, Europe. Most notably, however,
When Abdulaziz was deposed on
May 29, 1876, his place was Mahmud destroyed and disestablished the Janissary

taken by Murad V, who reigned corps when it revolted again in 1826, and he outlawed

for only three months before he the Bekta§i dervishes.
was declared insane and deposed
Mahmud's successor, Abdulmecid I (1839-61), inau-
in August.
gurated the tanzimat period of 1839 to 1878 with the
The sultan Abdul Hamid II
Hatt-i Serif of Gulhane (Royal Edict of the Rose Cham-
(1876-1909). The sultan was the ber). This document, which reflected the influence of

brother of Murad V and he Mustafa Resid Pasa, one of the ablest and most enlight-
ened of the reform ministers, promised further reforms,
succeeded to the throne in 1876. an end to corruption and the equality of non-Muslim and
In the following year he gave
Turkey its first Parliament, Muslim subjects. Some legal and organizational changes
which was soon after withdrawn. were implemented, but the momentum of change died
But because it was so sound a
change with the times, it was out in confrontation with conservative inertia.
restored in 1908.
Abdulmecid's inept and weak successor, Abdul-Aziz,
Sultan Abdul Hamid II opening Turkey>'s first Parliament in 1877 who was the first sultan to travel abroad, brought the
Ottoman Empire to the verge of bankruptcy. During his
reign, however, a group of liberals known as the Young
Ottomans emerged among the intellectuals of the em-
pire. Abdul- Aziz was deposed in 1876. Murad V, next in
line, was deposed three months later because of insanity.
His successor, during a thirty-three-year reign of absolu-
tist paranoia, was to acquire the unenviable nicknames
of the Red Sultan and Abdul Hamid the Damned.

Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) came to the throne with

the approval of the liberal reformers of the empire, in-
cluding the influential Midhat Pasa, the father of the first

constitution. On December 23, 1876, Abdul Hamid ac-

cepted and promulgated a constitution modeled on
French and Belgian lines as drafted by a number of
senior political, military, and religious officials. This con-

stitution, in addition to establishing a representative par-

liament, guaranteed religious liberty and freedom of
thought within the law. Islam was recognized, however,
as the state religion, the sultan for the first time was
officially designated as caliph, and all citizens of the

empire were to be known as Ottomans.
Abdul Hamid soon showed that his acceptance of con-

stitutionalism was a temporary tactical expedient, as he

began the assertion and centralization of his own author-

ity. On February 5, 1877, Midhat Pasa was dismissed; he

was exiled and later murdered. The sultan called the

empire's first Parliament in 1877 but, encouraged by an

Ottoman victory over the Russians at Plevna in Decem-

ber 1877, he dissolved the parliament in February 1878.

The tanzimat was ended.
Abdul Hamid acquired a reputation for despotism

throughout Europe. The European powers particularly
disliked his methods of dealing with nationalist currents
among the empire's Christian minorities. The brutal sup-
pression of this kind of movement among the Armenians
in 1894 and 1895, although overshadowed by the far
more extensive massacres of twenty years later, took
about one hundred thousand lives and aroused horror

588 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY

fled to France, where they joined other Turks in conspir-
acies against Abdul Hamid.

Similar groups of officers and students sprang up,

largely outside Constantinople, where the sultan's spy
network was most efficient. Mustafa Kemal organized a

secret vatan (fatherland) society among officers in
Damascus and thereafter a second in Salonika. The va-
tan society merged with another Salonika group, the

Ottoman Society of Liberty. A further merger took place

in September 1907 when the enlarged Salonika group

joined with a Paris organization to form the secret Otto-

man Committee of Union and Progress. This group,
which became known as the Young Turks, sought the

restoration of the 1876 Constitution, other liberalizing

steps, and unification of the diverse elements of the em-

pire into a homogeneous nation.

In July 1908 parts of the army revolted and demanded

the restoration of the constitution. Abdul Hamid, out-

wardly appearing to yield, announced the restoration on

July 24 and ordered the abolition of press censorship, the

The sultan s palace on the Bosphorus as it appeared at the turn of the termination of the intense internal security surveillance,
twentieth century
Aand the release of political prisoners. wave of en-
throughout Europe. Abdul Hamid tended to be suspi-
thusiasm swept the empire, accompanied by demonstra-
cious of those around him; he lived in seclusion under
heavy security in the royal palace, where he mixed his tions of solidarity between Turks and minority groups,

own medical potions and pulled his own teeth. and the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress then
During the reign of Abdul Hamid II, German influ-
engaged openly in its activities. Reactionary forces in the
ence greatly increased. Germany had emerged unified
and victorious from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, capital, encouraged by the sultan, then staged a counter-
and the sultan saw imperial Germany as a more conge-
nial alternative to the previous British and French influ- revolution on April 13, 1909. Abdul Hamid immediately
ence. The Germans were interested in railroad
pardoned the leaders of the counterrevolution and
construction, especially a Berlin-to-Baghdad line, and
formed a new cabinet. The Young Turk leadership re-
won a ninety-nine-year concession from the sultan in
1902. This project exacerbated Anglo-German relations. acted by dispatching forces from Salonika, which retook
The visit of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1898 dramatized Ger-
man interest in the Ottoman realm, especially the kai- the capital and liberated parliament. The legitimizing
ser's declaration that Germany would be its protector.
fetva was secured from the §eyhiilislam, and the Young
Abdul Hamid sought to revive the ideology of pan-
Islam throughout the empire and the Muslim world. Turks deposed Abdul Hamid. His aged and compliant

Jamal al-Din al- Afghani, the advocate of a revived Islam brother was enthroned as Mehmed V (1909-18). Abdul
in which Western technology would be absorbed without
accepting Western philosophy and "moral corruption," Hamid himself was thereafter kept under close confine-
was welcomed from time to time at the capital. This
pan-Islam policy further alarmed and alienated the mi- ment and died at the Beylerbey palace on the Bosporus
norities of the empire and developed no real strength.
in 1918.
THE YOUNG TURKS AND WORLD WAR I
The Young Turk government was subject to a number
The repressive policies of Abdul Hamid fostered disaffec-
tion, especially among those educated in Europe or in the of serious external and internal threats, finally culminat-

westernized schools. Small groups of conspirators devel- ing in World War I. Austria had annexed Bosnia-Her-

oped as successors to the Young Ottomans of several cegovinia immediately after the 1908 revolution, and
decades earlier. The first was the Committee of Union
and Progress, founded in 1 889 by students at the Turkish Bulgaria had secured complete independence. Both ac-

Military Academy. A number of its members eventually tions were accepted by Turkey on the basis of reparations

paid or credited by Austria and Russia. Soon afterward

the Italian government of the time, having already pene-

trated Libya commercially, evinced designs of colonial

annexation. On the pretext that Turkish operations and

influence in the Balkans were hostile to Italy, the Italian

government declared war on September 29, 1911, and,

after a naval bombardment, landed troops on the Libyan

coast at Tripoli on October 3. The Italo-Turkish War

was ended by a treaty on October 18, 1912, in which

Italy gained paramount interest in Libya, the annexation

being later confirmed in the post-World War I settle-

ments.

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 589

Mehmed V was the last sultan of a year. The Turkish forces were expanded to fifty-two
divisions, or about eight hundred thousand men and,
any consequence, and he ruled fighting on far-distant fronts, tied up at least 1 million
from 1 909 to 1918. but under the Allied troops for most of the war.
tight control of the Young Turk
During the 1914-1915 winter, against the advice of
revolutionists.
German general Otto Liman von Sanders, Enver under-
Pressure from the Balkans and not defeat in Libya had
took an unsuccessful campaign against Russia in the
forced the Turkish concession. The Christian states of Caucasus. During this campaign some assistance was
given to the Russians by Armenians of eastern Anatolia.
the Balkans, aided and abetted by both Russia and Italy,
A combined British and French naval assault, com-
wished to prevent the Young Turk revolution from suc-
mencing on March 18, 1915, to force the Dardanelles
ceeding to the point where a rejuvenated Ottoman Em- was inconclusive, and British troops were landed on
April 26 on the Gallipoli Peninsula. In the campaign
pire might regain its old position west of the Bosporus. that ensued, Turkish forces were initially under Liman
von Sanders. Toward the end, command passed to Colo-
In March 1912 Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria formed a nel Mustafa Kemal, who directed five divisions in con-
taining and driving the invasion forces back to the
secret alliance and on October 17, 1912, the alliance beaches, from which they were then withdrawn com-
mencing on December 19, 1915. Constantinople was
declared war and attacked. Turkish forces were defeated,
thus secured for the rest of the war. This great success
and in the settlements of December 3, 1912, and May 30, heartened the Turkish spirit, and Mustafa Kemal, the

1913, the empire lost all of its European holdings, includ- successful Turkish commander, became known as pasha.
To the south the Ottoman army in Iraq defeated and
ing Thrace. Albania had successfully proclaimed its in-
took the surrender on April 26, 1916, of a British-Indian
dependence on November 12. These disasters led to invasion force. The British mounted a new invasion,

Ainternal political change. faction called the Liberal however, and in March 1917 took Baghdad and drove
the Ottoman forces out of Mesopotamia. In eastern Ana-
Union had formed a government in July 1912. This tolia, Russian armies won a series of battles that carried

regime was overthrown in January 1913 in a coup engi- their control west to Erzincan by July 1916. Mustafa

neered by Enver Bey, thereafter Enver Pasa, and the Kemal was then given command of the eastern front and

most authoritarian elements of the Young Turk move- took up a successful counteroffensive that checked the
Russian advance and began rolling it back. By the end
ment gained full control of 1917 Turkish forces had retaken most of eastern Ana-
tolia. The revolution of November 7, 1917, in Russia
The Balkan allies fell to fighting among themselves in took that country out of the war. Its new government
concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918,
the Second Balkan War, commencing on June 29, 1913. under which Turkey regained its eastern provinces.

Taking advantage of this situation, Turkish forces scored Sharif Husayn bin Ali, the sultan's appointed prince
of Mecca and the Hejaz region of western Arabia, had
a number of tactical victories, and in a new series of launched the Arab revolt on June 5, 1916, supported by
British supplies and naval forces as well as British advis-
settlements between August 10, 1913, and March 14, ers with the Arab forces. Of these advisers, T. E. Law-
rence was to become best known. Aqaba was taken, and
1914, regained Thrace and reestablished the western in October 1917 the British launched an offensive across
Sinai into Palestine. Jerusalem was taken on December
boundary at the Maritsa River, where it was ultimately 9, 1917. Arab and British forces, after hard fighting
against the Turkish Fourth Army, entered Damascus on
to remain. October 1, 1918. Late in the campaign, Mustafa Kemal
had succeeded Liman von Sanders in command of Turk-
The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of ish forces in Syria and withdrew them successfully
northward through the Taurus Mountains and back intc
Austria on June 28, 1914, proved to be the spark, rela-
Turkey.
tively unimportant in itself, that set off World War I.
Turkish resistance was now exhausted. Early in Octo-
Between August 1 and August 4 war was declared, and ber 1918 the central figures of the Young Turk leader-

operations commenced between the Allied powers of — —ship Enver, Talat, and Cemal fled to Germany.

France, Russia, and Great Britain on the one side and Sultan Mehmed V died in July 1918 and was succeeded

the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary

on the other. Ottoman Turkey remained officially neu-

tral for about three months. On August 3, however,

general mobilization of the armed forces was ordered; on

the previous day Enver had concluded a secret treaty of

alliance with Germany.

Despite the debilitated state of the Ottoman Empire,

its contribution to the cause of the Central Powers dur-

ing the next four years of war was enormous. Turkish

troops fought well, the government did not collapse, and

the Ottoman effort outlasted that of imperial Russia by

590 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY

by Mehmed VI. The new sultan and the remaining gov- pendent, but control of the other Arab provinces was
divided among Great Britain, France, and Italy; all
ernment apparatus were compelled to sue for peace, and Turkish external claims were annulled. The sultan's rep-
Ottoman representatives signed the Allied-directed ar- resentatives signed the treaty on August 10, 1920,
mistice at Mudros on October 30, 1918. thereby further discrediting the Ottoman government.
Although the external dispositions finally took place
STRUGGLE FOR
generally as stated in this treaty, the Treaty of Sevres, as
THE NEW TURKISH STATE such, was never enforced, for events in Anatolia ren-
dered it unworkable.
The future of Turkey was dark when the Turks signed
the armistice at Mudros. None of the victorious powers While the diplomats bargained, a Turkish nationalist
was interested in the Ottoman Empire except to dismem- movement was organized, and the war for independence
ber it. Bolshevik Russia was, in its own interest, opposed was launched, with Mustafa Kemal as leader. Kemal
to the western European plans for postwar settlement had been sent by the Ottoman government to central
with the remnant Ottoman state but was unable to pre-
vent them. British, French, and Italian troops occupied —Anatolia as inspector general ostensibly to supervise
Istanbul, as Constantinople was now known to all Turks.
The compliant sultan dismissed nationalist-minded min- the demobilization of Turkish forces and the disposition
isters and formed a government with ministers willing to of supplies but, more particularly, to get him out of the
implement Allied demands without question.
capital. Upon his arrival at Samsun on May 19, 1919, he
A number of secret inter- Allied agreements concluded proceeded to rally men to the nationalist cause. Support

during World War I so divided the Ottoman Empire that grew in all sectors of the population as a result of the
foreign invasion. Resistance gradually moved from guer-
Turkey would have been reduced to northern Anatolia. rilla warfare to the full-fledged military campaigns of
Other arrangements, such as the Sykes-Picot agreement 1920, 1921, and 1922.

of May 16, 1916, between Great Britain and France, Negotiations continued between the nationalists and
the Ottoman government but without avail. Kemal re-
concerned the disposition of the Arab provinces of the signed from the army when relieved of his duties; com-
empire, in which were included the present-day states of munication between the capital and Anatolia was later
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. The British had cut. The naming of a chief minister sympathetic to the
promised Izmir (Smyrna) to the Greeks in the negotia- nationalist cause, Ali Reza Pasa, had brought a brief
tions that preceded the Greek entry into the war in July improvement, and a parliament, which met in January
1920, approved the National Pact. Such developments
1917. brought about reinforced Allied occupation of the capi-
tal and the seizure of public buildings on March 16.
On March 29, 1919, Italian troops had landed in their Numerous national leaders were sent to Malta for deten-
tion. Reza fell from power, and Parliament was dis-
intended area of occupation, and Greece soon gained the missed on April 11. That same day the $eyhiilislam
issued afetva that proclaimed that the killing of nation-
authorization of the Supreme Allied War Council to
alist rebels was a religious duty; on May 1 1 Kemal and
land troops at Izmir. These landings, commencing on
other nationalist leaders were sentenced to death in ab-
May 15, 1919, were followed by further advances to the
sentia.
northeast with the apparent intent of annexing large
The actions of the Ottoman government brought
areas. The Greek landing was an important factor in quick response from the nationalists. Parliament was
summoned to Ankara, and that city became the national-
stimulating Turkish national resistance. Turkish public
opinion, after the sufferings of war, did not react in- ist headquarters. On April 24, 1920, the nationalists es-
tensely against the loss of the external provinces, but the
invasion of the homeland itself aroused fierce resent- tablished the Turkish Grand National Assembly;
ment. Mustafa Kemal was elected president of this body. Nu-
merous religious leaders in Anatolia asserted that the
The Allied victory terms were worked out by the inter- fetva of the $eyhiilislam was invalid because it had been
ested parties at San Remo in April 1920. These terms issued under duress. The Law of Fundamental Organiza-
were embodied in the Treaty of Sevres, which, as pre- tion (also known as the Organic Law) was passed on
sented to the Ottoman government in June 1920, was an
extremely severe document. Turkey was reduced to January 20, 1921, proclaiming that sovereignty belonged
northern Anatolia and Constantinople, the sultan was
placed under European protective custody, the straits to the nation and was exercised for it by the Grand
were placed under a European commission (without a National Assembly.
Turkish member), the remainder of European Turkey
was given to Greece, an autonomous Kurdish state and The nationalist military campaign of 1920 against the
an independent Armenia were created, and the empire Greek invaders had been at best a draw, but the national-
was demilitarized. Italy and France had zones in south- ist cause was then strengthened by a series of military
ern Turkey. The Arab Kingdom of Hejaz became inde- victories in 1921. Ismet Pasa (who was later to take his

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 591

name from the battles) defeated the Greeks twice at the capital on March 16, 1920. The essence of the latter
statement was the abolition of the Ottoman Empire. Sul-
Inonu, about twenty miles west of Eski§ehir, once in
tan Mehmed VI, evacuated by a British naval vessel on
January and later in April. The Turkish army, under the
personal leadership of Kemal with Ismet as second in November 17, 1922, fled to exile on Malta. His cousin,
command, decisively defeated the Greeks at the twenty- Abdulmecid, was named caliph.
day battle of the Sakarya River starting on August 24,
1921. Kemal was thereafter awarded the title of gazi by Turkey was the only power defeated in World War I
the Grand National Assembly.
to negotiate with the Allies as an equal and to influence
An improvement of Turkey's diplomatic situation ac- the provisions of the peace treaty, ismet was the chief
Turkish negotiator at the Lausanne Conference that
companied these decisive military victories. Treaties opened on November 21, 1922. The National Pact of
granting Turkish claims in the east and setting the 1919 was the basis of the Turkish negotiating position;
boundary essentially as it remained in 1973 were signed its provisions were, in fact, recognized in the treaty con-
on March 16 and October 13, 1921, with the Soviet cluded by Turkey on July 24, 1923, with Great Britain,
Union, the first European power to recognize the nation- France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia.
alists. Turkish forces in eastern Anatolia by midsummer The United States participated in the conference but,
had disestablished the nascent Armenian republic. Im- because it had never been at war with Turkey, did not
pressed by the viability of the nationalist government,
both France and Italy withdrew from southern Turkey sign the treaty.
by the end of October 1921.
The Treaty of Lausanne recognized the present-day
The final drive against the Greeks began in August territory of Turkey with two exceptions: the Mosul area
and the Hatay district, sometimes referred to as the san-
1922; the last battle, referred to in Turkish sources as the jak of Alexandretta, which included the port of isken-
derun, or Alexandretta. The Mosul boundary with Iraq
Battle of the Commander in Chief, was launched on was settled by a League of Nations initiative in 1926, and
August 30. The Greek forces were again defeated and tskenderun was added to Turkey on July 23, 1939, by
forced to evacuate, and on September 9 the Turks moved disposition of France in its capacity as League of Nations
into Izmir. The Turkish army then turned its attention mandatory power for Syria. Detailed provisions regu-
lated the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits, which
to Thrace, where the British barred the way. After care- were to be open to merchant vessels at all times. In
peacetime, or if Turkey should be neutral in war, war-
ful negotiation, the Armistice of Mundanya on October
ships could pass the straits within certain limitations. If
11, 1922, averted a clash with the British and returned Turkey were at war, it could close the straits to all but
to the Turks control of Thrace as far as the historic line neutral warships. General supervisory powers were
of the Maritsa River. given to the Straits Commission under the League of
Nations. Represented on the commission were Turkey as
At the end of October 1922 the Allies invited both the president and the other signatories of the treaty plus the
Ankara and the Istanbul governments to a conference at
Lausanne, but Kemal was determined that the national- Soviet Union and Bulgaria. The straits area was to be
ist government should be the only spokesman for Tur-
key. The action of the Allies prompted a resolution by demilitarized.
the Grand National Assembly on November 1, 1922,
that separated the offices of sultan and caliph and abol- The capitulations and the Council of Administration
ished the former. The assembly further stated on No- of the Ottoman Public Debt, which infringed upon the
vember 4, 1922, that the Istanbul government had ceased
to be the government of Turkey when the Allies seized sovereignty of Turkey, were abolished. Turkey, however,
assumed 40 percent of the Ottoman debt, the remainder
The president, Kemal Ataturk,
who was the first leader to serve being apportioned among other former Ottoman territo-
in place of the sultanate in 1923, ries. The Treaty of Lausanne reaffirmed the equality of
Muslim and non-Muslim Turkish nationals. In a sepa-
served until 1938.
rate treaty, concluded on January 30, 1923, Turkey and
A 1957 stamp commemorating Greece agreed to a mandatory exchange of their respec-
tive Greek and Turkish minorities with the exception of
the 400th anniversary of the some Greeks in Constantinople and Turks in western
opening of the Mosque of Thrace. Massive population exchanges were then carried
Suleyman I in Istanbul
(Constantinople) out.

On October 13, 1923, the Grand National Assembly

declared Ankara to be the capital of the country and on
October 29 proclaimed the Republic of Turkey, with
Mustafa Kemal as president. The Ottomans and the em-
pire were gone, and the modern state of Turkey was

born.

? 1

592 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY
THE ROYAL SOVEREIGNS OF THE BYZANTINE
AND 01[TOMAN EMPIRES, AND THE SULTANATES OF TURKEY

Reign Title Ruler Birth Death Relationship

379-395 1 mperoi 1 BYZANTINE EMPIRE 395 1 ather of Arcadius
(West, 394) Son of Theodosius I
395-408 THEODOSIAN DYNASTY 408 Son of Arcadius
408-450 Emperor 450
Emperor Theodosius I ( the Great) 346? Brother-in-law of Theodosius II
450-457 457 Grandson of Leo I
457^474 Emperor Arcadius 378 474 Father of Leo II
474^474 Emperor Theodosius II 401 474 Son-in-law of Leo II
474-491 Emperor 491
491-518 Emperor THRACIAN DYNASTY 518 Nephew of Justin I
Emperor Nephew of Justinian I
518-527 Marcianus 392 527
527-565 Emperor Leo I the Great 401 565 Son-in-law of Tiberius II
565-578 Emperor Leo II 578
578-582 Emperor Zeno 426 582 Son of Heraclius
582-602 Emperor Anastasius I 430 602 Son of Heraclius
602-610 Emperor 610 Son of Constantine III
Emperor JUSTINIAN DYNASTY Son of Constans II
610-641 641 Son of Constantine IV
641-641 Emperor Justin I 450 641
641- Emperor Justinian I 483 Son of Leo III
641-668 Co regent 668
668-685 Emperor Justin II 685 Son of Constantine V
685-695 Emperor 711
695-698 Emperor Tiberius II Constantinus 540 705 Son of Irene
698-705 Emperor Maurice 705
705-711 Emperor Son-in-law of Nicephorus I
711-713 Emperor Phocas 721
713-716 Emperor 718 Son of Michael II
716-717 Emperor HERACLIAN DYNASTY Mother of Michael III
Emperor 741 Son of Theophilus
717-741 Heraclius 575 775
741-775 Emperor Constantine III 612 780 Son of Michael III
775-780 Emperor Heracleonas 614 803 Son of Leo VI
780-790 Emperor Constans II 630 797 Stepfather of Constantine VII
780-797 Empress (Regent) Constantine IV 648 803 Son of Constantine VII
797-802 Emperor Justinian II 669 811
802-811 Empress 811 Son of Romanus II
811-811 Emperor Leontius 845
811-813 Emperor Tiberius III Apsimar 820
813-820 Emperor
Emperor Justinian II (rethroned) 829
820-829 842
829-842 Emperor Philippicus 867
842-857 Emperor 867
842-867 Empress (Regent) Anastasius II
Emperor Theodosius III 886
867-886 912
886-912 Emperor ISAURIAN DYNASTY 959
913-919 Emperor 948
919-944 Emperor Leo III, the Isaurian 680
944-959 Emperor (Regent) 718 963
959-963 Emperor Constantine V 750 969
963-969 Emperor 752 976
969-976 Emperor Leo IV 770 1025
976-1025 Emperor Irene, wife of Leo IV 752
Emperor Constantine VI

Irene
Nicephorus I
Stauracius
Michael I

Leo V, the Armenian

AMORIAN DYNASTY

Michael II
Theophilus
Theodora
Michael III

MACEDONIAN DYNASTY

Basil 1 the Macedonian 813
Leo VI 866
Constantine VII 905
Romanus I
Constantine VII 939
Romanus II 912
Nicephorus II 929
John I Zimisces 958

Basil 11

THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY 593

Reign Title Ruler Birth Death Relationship

1025-1028 Emperor Constantine VIII 960 1028 Son of Romanus II
1041-1042 Emperor Nephew of Michael IV
1042-1055 Emperor Michael V 1000 1055
1055-1056 Empress 980 1056 Son-in-law of Constantine VIII
1056-1057 Emperor Constantine IX Daughter of Constantine VIII
1057-1059 Emperor Theodora 1061
Son of Constantine X
Michael VI 1067
Isaac I Comnenus 1071 Nephew of Isaac I
Son of Alexius I Comnenus
DUCAS DYNASTY 1081 Son of John II Comnenus
Son of Manuel I Comnenus
1059-1067 Emperor Constantine X Ducas 1007 1118 Grandson of Alexius I Comnenus
1067-1071 Emperor Romanus IV 1143
1071-1078 Emperor 1180 Brother of Isaac II Angelus
1078-1081 Emperor Michael VII 1183 Son of Isaac II Angelus
1185
Nicephorus III Botaniates Son of Baldwin V, count of
1204 Hainaut
COMNENUS DYNASTY 1210
1204 Brother of Baldwin I
1081-1118 Emperor Alexius I Comnenus 1048 1204 Brother-in-law of Baldwin I
1118-1143 Emperor John II Comnenus 1088 Wife of Peter
1143-1180 Emperor Manuel I Comnenus 1 1 20 1205 Son of Peter
1180-1183 Emperor 1168 Brother of Robert
1183-1185 Emperor Alexius II 1110 1216
Andronicus I 1217 Son-in-law of Alexius III
1185-1195 Emperor 1220 Son-in-law of Theodore I Lascaris
1195-1203 Emperor ANGELUS DYNASTY 1228 Son of John III Ducas
1203-1204 Emperor 1273 Son of Theodore II Lascaris
1204-1204 Emperor Isaac II Angelus
Alexius III 1222
1204-1205 Emperor Alexius IV 1254
1258
1205-1216 Emperor Alexius V 1269
1216-1217 Emperor 1282
1217-1219 Empress (Regent) Baldwin I LATIN EMPERORS
1219-1228 Emperor
1228-1261 Emperor Henry 1171
1 1 74
1206-1222 Emperor Peter
1222-1254 Emperor 1217
1254-1258 Emperor Yolande
1258-1261 Emperor Robert
1259-1261 Regent Baldwin II

LASCARIS DYNASTY

Theodore I Lascaris 1193
John III Ducas 1221
Theodore II Lascaris 1250
John IV Lascaris 1234
Michael Palaeologus

PALAEOLOGUS DYNASTY

1261-1282 Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus

1282-1328 Emperor Andronicus II 1260 1332 Son of Michael VIII Palaeologus
Grandson of Andronicus II
1328-1341 Emperor Andronicus III 1296 1341 Son of Andronicus III
1341-1347 Emperor 1332 1391
John V Palaeologus Son of John V Palaeologus

1347-1355 Emperor John VI Cantacuzene 1292 1383 Son of John V Palaeologus

1376-1379 Emperor (Rival) Andronicus IV 1385 Son of Andronicus IV

1379-1391 Emperor JohnV Son of Manuel II Palaeologus
Son of Manuel II Palaeologus
1391-1425 Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus 1350 1425

1391-1412 Emperor John VII 1360 1412

(Coregent)

1425-1448 Emperor John VIII 1390 1448

1448-1453 Emperor Constantine XI 1403 1453

—1453 The Eastern Roman Empire ends with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

1288-1324 Emu- Osman I (Ottoman) 1259 1324
1324-1360 Sultan Orhan (Orkhan) 1279 1360
1360-1389 Sultan 1319 1389
Murat I (Murad) (Amurath)

594 THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES AND TURKEY

Reign Title Ruler Birth Death

1389-1402 Sultan Bayezit I (Lightning) (Bajazet) 1347 1402
1402-1413 Interregnum
Bayezit's sons Suleman and Musa 1387 1421
1413-1421 Sultan 1404 1451
fought for the sultanate. 1430 1481
1421-1444 Sultan 1404 1451
Mehmet I (Mohammed I) 1430 1481
1444-1446 Sultan 1447 1513
Murat II (Murad II) 1467 1520
1446-1451 Sultan Mehmet II (Mohammed) 1497 1566
Murat II (Murad II) 1524 1574
1451-1481 Sultan Mehmet II (Mohammed) 1546 1595
Bayezit II (Bajazet) 1566 1603
1481-1512 Sultan Selim I (The Grim) 1589 1617
SQIeyman I (Suleiman) 1591 1630
1512-1520 Sultan Selim II 1604 1622
Murat III (Murad) 1591 1630
1520-1566 Sultan Mehmet III (Mohammed) 1609 1640
Ahmet I (Ahmed) (Achmet) 1615 1648
1566-1574 Sultan Mustafa I (Mustapha) 1636 1687
1641 1691
1574-1595 Sultan Osman II (Young Osman) 1642 1695
1664 1704
1595-1603 Sultan Mustafa I 1673 1736
Murat IV (Murad) 1696 1754
1603-1617 Sultan Ibrahim I 1697 1757
1717 1774
1617-1618 Sultan Mehmet IV (Mohammed) 1725 1780
SQIeyman II (Suleiman) 1761 1808
1618-1622 Sultan Ahmet II (Ahmed) 1779 1808
1785 1839
1622-1623 Sultan Mustafa II 1823 1861
1830 1876
1623-1640 Sultan Ahmet III (Ahmed) 1840 1904
Mahmut I (Mahmud) 1842 1918
1640-1648 Sultan Osman III 1844 1918
1861 1936
1648-1687 Sultan Mustafa III
AbdQlhamit I (Abdul-Hamid I)
1687-1691 Sultan
Selim III
1691-1695 Sultan
Mustafa IV
1695-1703 Sultan
Mahmut II (Malmud)
1703-1730 Sultan
AbdUlmecit I (Abdul-Medjid)
1730-1754 Sultan AbdOlaziz (Abdul-Aziz)

1754-1757 Sultan Murat V

1757-1774 Sultan AbdQlhamit II (Abdul-Hamid)

1774-1789 Sultan Mehmet V (Mohammed)

1789-1807 Sultan Mehmet VI (Mohammed)

1807-1808 Sultan

1808-1839 Sultan

1839-1861 Sultan

1861-1876 Sultan

1876-1876 Sultan

1876-1909 Sultan

1909-1918 Sultan

1918-1922 Sultan

1922 Ottoman Sultanate abolished

1923 Republi c of Turkey established

SELJUK EMPIRE

(The Seljuk Empire included w hat is now Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria)

1037-1063 Grand Sultan Tughrul Beg
1063-1073 Grand Sultan Alp Arslan
1073-1092 Grand Sultan Malik Shah
1092-1104 Grand Sultan Barkiarok
1104-1116 Grand Sultan
1116-1157 Grand Sultan Mohammed

Sandjar

1157-1092- Divided into four separate states

1092-1106 Sultan SULTANS OF RUM (ROME)
1107-1117 Sultan
1117-1156 Sultan Kilidy Arslan I
1156-1193 Sultan Malik Shah
1193-1211 Sultan
1211-1222 Sultan Masoud I
1222-1237 Sultan
1247-1261 Sultan Kilidy Arslan II
1261-1267 Sultan Khaikhosru II
1267-1276 Sultan Azeddin Kaikus I
1276-1283 Sultan Alaeddin Kaikobad
1283-1307 Sultan Azeddin Kaikus II
Kilidy Arslan HI
Kaikhosru HI

Masoud II

Alladdin

Appeerndix

A

OITl OfTA Dcinicl

Adriatic S.Q '' In antiquity the Albanians formed part of the Thraco-
Illyrian and Epirot tribes that inhabited the whole of the
B»4i ^ \ peninsula between the Danube River and the Aegean
Sea. Until 168 B.C. the northern and central part of pre-
M—u«w«W Alport 3 • FCI sent-day Albania comprised parts of the kingdom of
Illyria, whose capital was Shkoder. The Illyrian King-
»^i«.
dom was conquered by the Romans in 168-167 b.c , and
/r* SBJ thereafter it was a Roman colony until ad. 395, when
the Roman Empire was split into East and West, Albania
"vLOIEj
becoming part of the Byzantine Empire.
^^^ GREECE
Under the Roman Empire, Albania served as a key
10 10 <» recruiting area for the Roman legions and a main outlet

Mi] to the East. The present port of Durres (the ancient
Durrachium) became the western terminum of Via Eg-
10 10 natia, an actual extension of Via Appia, by which the

Ionian S«a Roman legions marched to the East. It was during the
Roman rule that Christianity was introduced into Al-
19
bania.
|
From the fifth century to the advent of the Ottoman
Albania
Turks in the Balkans in the fourteenth century, invasions
The modern Albanians call their country Shqiperia and from the north and east, especially by the Huns, the
Bulgarians, and the Slavs, thinned the indigenous Il-
themselves Shqipetare. In antiquity the Albanians were lyrian population and drove it along the mountainous
Adriatic coastal regions. During the Crusades in the
known as Illyrians, and in the Middle Ages they came twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Albania became a thor-
to be called Arbereshe or Arbeneshe, and their country oughfare for the crusading armies, which used the port
Arberia or Arbenia. The present European forms, Al- of Durres as a bridgehead. By this time the Venetian
bania and Albanians, are derived from the names Ar- Republic had obtained commercial privileges in Al-
banoi and Albanoi or Arbaniti, which appeared in the banian towns and, after the Fourth Crusade (1204), it
received nominal control over Albania and Epirus and
eleventh century. took actual possession of Durres and the surrounding
areas. In the middle of the thirteenth century Albania
fell under the domination of the kings of Naples, and in
1272 armies of Charles I of Anjou crossed the Adriatic
and occupied Durres. Thereupon, Charles I issued a
decree calling himself Rex Albaniae and creating Reg-

num Albaniae (the kingdom of Albania), which lasted

for nearly a century.
In the period after the defeat of the Serbs by the Otto-

595

596 THE KINGDOM OF ALBANIA

man Turks in 1389 in the battle of Kosovo, most of Russia. The sultan, however, becoming alarmed at the
Albania was divided into a number of principalities un- damage Ali Pasha was doing to the unity of the empire,
der the control of native tribal chieftains, most of whom sent his armies to surround him in Yannina, where he
was captured and decapitated in 1822.
were subsequently forced into submission by the invad-
Under the Turks, Albania remained in complete stag-
ing Turks. Some of these chieftains, however, were al- nation and, when the Turks were expelled from the Bal-
lowed their independence under Turkish suzerainty. One kans in 1912, they left it in about the same condition they
of the most noted of these was John Kastrioti of Kruje, had found it. The Albanian highlanders, especially in the
a region northeast of Tirana, whose four sons were taken north, were never fully subjected, and their tribal orga-
hostage by the sultan to be trained in the Ottoman ser- nizations were left intact. Turkish suzerainty affected
vice. The youngest of these, Gjergj, was destined to win them only to the extent that it isolated them from the

fame throughout Europe and to be immortalized as the world. Thus, they preserved their medieval laws, tradi-
national hero of his country. Gjergj (b. 1403) soon won
the sultan's favor, distinguished himself in the Turkish tions, and customs. As a result, Western civilization and
army, converted to Islam, and was bestowed the title of development did not begin to penetrate Albania in any
Skander Bey (Lord Alexander), which, in Albanian, meaningful way until it became independent in 1912.
became Skanderbeg or Skenderbey.
In the summer and fall of 1 9 1 2, while Serbia, Bulgaria,
In 1443 Hungarian King Hunyadi routed at Nish the
sultan's armies, in which Skanderbeg held command; Montenegro, and Greece, prodded by Russia, were wag-
Skanderbeg fled to his native land and seized from the ing war against Turkey, the Albanians staged a series of
Turks his father's fortress at Kruje. His defection and revolts and began to agitate for the creation of an autono-
reconversion to Christianity and the creation in 1444 of
the League of Albanian Princes, with himself as its head, mous and neutral Albania. Accordingly, a group of Al-
banian patriots, led by Ismail Qemal bey Vlora, a
enraged the Ottomans, who began a series of intense member of the Turkish Parliament, proclaimed Al-
bania's independence at Vlore on November 28, 1912,
campaigns that lasted until Skanderbeg's natural death and organized an Albanian provisional government.
in 1468. In his wars against the Turks, Skanderbeg was Supported by Austria and Italy, Albania's independence
aided by the kings of Naples and the popes, one of whom, was recognized on December 12, 1912, by the London
Pope Nicholas V, named him Champion of Christian-
dom. Conference of Ambassadors, but its boundaries were to
be determined later. In March 1913 agreement was
Skanderbeg's death did not end Albania's resistance to reached on the northern frontiers, assigning Shkoder to
the Turks; however, they gradually extended their con- Albania but giving Kosovo and Metohija (Kosmet), in-
quests in Albania and in time defeated both the local habited then chiefly by Albanians, to Serbia. This fron-
tier demarcation was very similar to the frontiers
chieftains and the Venetians, who controlled some of the between Yugoslavia and Albania as they existed in 1970.
coastal towns. The Turkish occupation of the country
The boundaries in the south were more difficult to
resulted in a great exodus of Albanians to southern Italy delineate because Greece laid claim to most of southern
and Sicily, where they preserved their language, cus- Albania, which the Greeks call northern Epirus. The
toms, and Eastern Orthodox religion. Conference of Ambassadors appointed a special commis-
sion to draw the demarcation line on ethnographic bases
One of the most significant consequences of Ottoman and in December 1913 drafted the Protocol of Florence,
which assigned the region to Albania. The 1913 bounda-
rule of Albania was the conversion to Islam of over ries in the south, like those in the north, were almost the
two-thirds of the population. As the political and eco- same as those that existed between Greece and Albania
nomic basis of the Ottoman Empire was not nationality in 1970. The Albania that emerged from the Conference
but religion, this conversion created a new group of Mus- of Ambassadors was a truncated one; as many Albanians
were left out of the new state as were included in it.
lim Albanian bureaucrats, who not only ruled Albanian
The Conference of Ambassadors also drafted a consti-
provinces for the sultans but also served in important tution for the new state, which was proclaimed as an
autonomous principality, sovereign, and under the guar-
posts as pashas (governors) in many parts of the empire.
antees of the Great Powers; created an International
A number of them became viziers (prime ministers), and Control Commission to control the country's adminis-
one, Mohammed Ali Pasha, at the beginning of the nine-
tration and budget; and selected as ruler the German
teenth century founded an Egyptian Dynasty that lasted
Prince William of Wied. Prince William arrived in
until the 1950s.
March 1914 but had to flee the country six months later
Some of the Albanian beys and pashas, especially in because of the outbreak of World War I and the difficul-
the lowlands, became almost independent rulers of their ties caused by the unruly feudal beys. As a consequence,
principalities. One of these, Ali Pasha Tepelena, known Albania's independence came to an end, and for the next
in history as the Lion of Yannina, whose principality at

the beginning of the nineteenth century consisted of the
whole area from the Gulf of Arta to Montenegro, by
1803 had assumed absolute power and negotiated di-
rectly with Napoleon and the rulers of Great Britain and

THE KINGDOM OF ALBANIA 597

four years the country served as a battleground for the King Zog I
warring powers.
Zogu and after September 1, 1928, as Zog I, king of the
At the end of World War I Albania was occupied by Albanians, brought political stability and developed a
national political consciousness that had been unprece-
the Allied armies, mostly Italian and French. The Secret dented in Albanian history. To secure his position both
Treaty of London, concluded in 1915 and published by internally and externally, he concluded in 1926 and 1927
the Russian Bolsheviks after the October 1917 Revolu- bilateral treaties with Italy, providing for mutual support
in maintaining the territorial status quo and establishing
tion, provided for the partition of nearly all Albania a defensive alliance between the two countries. These
two treaties, however, assured Italian penetration of Al-
among Italy, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. Another bania, particularly in the military and economic spheres.
accord, known as the Tittoni-Venizelos Agreement, con-
King Zog ruled as a moderate dictator, his monarchy
cluded between Italy and Greece in 1919, also called for being a combination of despotism and reform. He pro-
the dismemberment of Albania. At the 1919-20 Paris hibited political parties but was lenient to his opponents
Peace Conference Greece laid claim to southern Al-
bania; Serbia and Montenegro, to the northern part; and unless they actually threatened to overthrow his rule, as
Italy, to the port of Vlore and surrounding areas. But happened in 1932, 1935, and 1937. But even during these
open revolts, he showed a good deal of leniency and
President Woodrow Wilson's principle of self-determi-
executed only a few ringleaders. He effected some sub-
nation and his personal insistence on the restoration of
an independent Albania saved the country from parti- stantial reforms both in the administration and in soci-
ety, particularly outlawing the traditional vendetta and
tion. In the summer of 1920 an Albanian partisan army carrying of arms, of which the Albanians were very fond.
The most significant contribution of Zog's fourteen-year
drove the Italians from Vlore, and the Italian govern- rule, the longest since the time of Skanderbeg, was the
ment recognized Albania's independence. development of a truly national consciousness and an
identity of the people with the state, although not neces-
From 1920 to 1924 there was political freedom in the sarily with the monarchy, and the gradual breakdown of
the traditional tribal and clan systems.
Acountry along with extreme political strife. group of
In April 1938 Zog married Geraldine Apponyi, a
statesmen and politicians, mostly from the old Turkish Hungarian countess with an American mother. Italian
bureaucracy, attempted to lay the foundation of a mod-
ern state, but there was a bitter struggle between the old foreign minister Count Ciano was the best man. On Cia-
conservative landlords and Western educated or inspired
no's return to Italy from the wedding, he proposed to his
liberals. The landowners, led by Ahmet Zogu, advocated father-in-law, Benito Mussolini, Fascist dictator of Italy,
the annexation of Albania. The following year, on April
the continuance of feudal tenure and opposed social and 7, 1939, Ciano's suggestion was consummated. Italian
economic reforms, especially agrarian reforms. The lib- forces invaded Albania on that day, forcing Zog to flee
erals, led by Bishop Fan S. Noli, a Harvard University the country, never to return. In the next few months
rapid steps were taken to unite Albania with Italy under
graduate who had founded the Albanian Autocephalous the crown of King Vittorio Emanuele III and to impose
Orthodox Church in Boston in 1908 and had returned to a regime similar to that of Fascist Italy. Albania as an
independent state disappeared.
Albania in 1920, favored the establishment of a Western-

type democracy. The country was torn by political strug-
gles and rapid changes of government revealed

considerable political instability.
In June 1924 the liberals staged a successful coup

against the conservative landlords, forcing their leader,

Ahmet Zogu, to flee to Yugoslavia, and formed a new

government under Bishop Noli. But Noli was too radical

to command the support of the disparate coalition that

had ousted Zogu. Internally he proposed radical
agrarian reforms, the purging and reduction of the bu-
reaucracy, and the establishment of a truly democratic
regime. In foreign affairs he extended recognition to the
Soviet Union, a move that alienated some of his support-

ers at home and alarmed some neighboring states. As a

consequence, Zogu, having secured foreign support, led

an army from Yugoslavia and in December 1924 entered
the capital city of Tirana and became ruler of the coun-
try. Bishop Noli and his closest supporters fled abroad;
some eventually went to Moscow, and others fell under
Communist influence in western capitals.

Zogu's rule in the 1925-39 period, first as President

B

The Principality of Andorra

ft An agreement (the Pareage) between the count of Foix

^ MNCI (French) and the bishop of Seo de Urgel (Spanish) in
1278 to recognize each other as co-princes of the Andor-
ran valleys gave the small state what has been its political
form and territorial extent continuously to the present
day. Over the years, the title on the French side passed
to the kings of Navarre, then to the kings of France, and

is now held by the presidents of France.

Napoleon declared Andorra a republic in 1806, but
today the country is referred to as a principality.

In its mountain fastness, Andorra has existed outside
the mainstream of the major historical events of Europe.

ii

«..». |n,Jfc|

ANDORRA 1

^c # N*.on«l Cartel ^/ ^rinruiat

mm b'Aniorra

.... ^Bwfci Jnq ImomI
\
i• 5;

TA^ geographical location of Andorra between France and Spain

Jlrmripai ('mu

:

Andorra, located high in the Pyrenees between France i'Anftnrra
and Spain, is one of Europe's smallest nations. I

Most of Andorra's rugged terrain consists of gorges, f tmm
narrow valleys, and denies, surrounded by high moun-
tain peaks rising over nine thousand feet (2,743 m.) $}rinri»at
above sea level.
fc'AiWra
It is said that Charlemagne drove the Moors from the
territory that is now Andorra in 806, and local legend —Earlier Bishops of Urgel coprinces.

maintains that he personally thanked the mountaineers

for their assistance to his armies. The Andorran national

anthem says, "The great Charlemagne, my father, has
delivered me from the Arabs. ..."

598

THE PRINCIPALITY OF ANDORRA French President Georges i 599
Pompidou was the coprince in
In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry has from 1969 to 1974.
propelled it into the twentieth century.
is elected every two years by the Andorran citizens in
Vestiges of its long history remain in the form of a
number of twelfth-century Romanesque churches. Most each parish. Women were granted equal suffrage in April

notable among these are the Chapel of Sant Miquel d'En- 1970.

golasters, in Les Escaldes, and the church in Santa PRINCIPAL GOVERNMENT
Coloma. The countryside is also dotted with Roman-
esque bridges. OFFICIALS (AS OF MAY 1981)

The president of France and the bishop of Seo de —Co-prince Francois Mitterrand, president of France
—Co-prince Juan Marti Alanis, bishop of Seo de Urgel,
Urgel (Spain), as co-princes, are charged with the con-
duct of foreign affairs, defense, and the judicial system. Spain
Andorra pays annual tribute of nine hundred sixty francs
($196) to France and four hundred sixty pesetas ($6) to

Spain. The co-princes are represented in Andorra by
veguers (designated representatives) and battles (magis-

trates).

No formal constitution has been written for the coun-

try, although administrative statutes were passed in 1748

Aand 1763. Plan of Reform, passed in 1866, established

the present governmental system, which has evolved into
a ruling General Council of twenty-four members (four

—from each of the six parishes Andorra, Canillo, En-

camp, La Massana, Ordino, and Sant Julia). Members of
the council serve four-year terms, and half of the council

c

The Royal Dynasties of Bohemia

S\MfAST Gf»*ANY laus II was proclaimed king of Poland. In 1306, Wences-
laus III, king of Poland and Hungary, the only son of
x: Wenceslaus II, was assassinated and the Premyslid
Dynasty ended.
\
John of Luxemburg, who was married to Elizabeth
V
ffDMAl ^ (Eliska), the second daughter of Wenceslaus II, claimed
. the crown and this started the Luxemburg Dynasty,
which lasted until 1526, when King Louis died while
umuic Of y retreating from the Battle of Mohacs, August 29, 1526.
GERMAN* _^' v. ,*-' The crown was then claimed by Archduke Ferdinand of
Austria by virtue of the hereditary rights invested in his
j a us mi a wife, Anne, King Louis's sister, and the Habsburg
Dynasty ruled from then (1526) until 1918, when
Czechoslovakia in its modern selling, but showing the territories of Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia.
Bohemia. Moravia, and Slovakia

The Czechoslovakian Republic consists of Bohemia,

Moravia and Silesia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia (Carpatho-

Ukraine). In March 1939 a German protectorate was

established over Bohemia and Moravia, as well as Slo-

vakia, which had meanwhile declared its independence.

Ruthenia was incorporated into Hungary. In 1945, after King Svatopluk
King Vratislav I
World War II, these territories were returned to Czecho-

slovakia, except for Ruthenia, which was ceded to

Russia.

In its early history, the Slavs, dominated by the Ce-

chove (Czechs) started to penetrate into Bohemia by the King Wenceslaus II

admiddle of the first century The East Slav leader,

Mojmir I, began the consolidation of the Great
Moravian Empire which, under Svatopluk (869-94), ap-
proximated what is now Czechoslovakia consisting of
Saxony, southern Poland, and eastern Hungary (Pan-

nonia). The empire was destroyed by the Magyars in 907.
(Slovakia passed under Hungarian rule until 1918, when

it became a part of Czechoslovakia.) The center of power
in the area shifted to Bohemia when the Premyslid fam-

ily united the tribes by the end of the tenth century.

In 1029 Moravia was attached to Bohemia, and Vra-

tislav (Vaclav) II was made the first king in 1088. By the

thirteenth century, under Ottakar II, the Premyslid

Dynasty had taken control of most of Austria. Wences-

600

THE ROYAL DYNASTIES OF BOHEMIA 601
THE ROYAL SOVEREIGNS OF THE DYNASTIES OF BOHEMIA

Reign Title PREMYSLID DYNASTY Birth Death

871-894 Count Ruler 1397 1230
894-895 Count 1440 1253
895-912 Duke Borivoj I 1420 1278
912-926 Duke Spithnjew I 1440 1305
926-928 Regent Spithnjew I 1456 1306
928-935 Duke Vratislav I 1506 1335
935-967 Duke Drahomire, von Stoder 1503
967-999 Duke Wenceslaus (Wenzel, the Holy) 1596 1346
999-1003 Duke Boleslaus I (Boleslav) 1378
1003-1035 Duke Boleslaus II 1419
1035-1055 Duke Boleslaus III 1437
1055-1061 Duke Vladivoj of Poland 1439
1061-1092 Duke Bretislav I 1457
1092-1100 Duke Spithnjew II 1471
1100-1107 Duke Vratislav II (king, 1088) 1490
1107-1109 Duke Bretislav II 1516
1109-1125 Duke Borivoj II 1526
1125-1140 Duke Swartopluk 1564
1140-1158 Duke Ladislas I 1632
1158-1173 King Sobjislaw
1197-1230 King Ladislas II
1230-1253 King Ladislas II
1253-1278 King Ottokar I
1278-1305 King Wenceslaus II (Wenzel)
1305-1306 King Ottokar II
1307-1310 King Wenceslaus II
Wenceslaus III
1310-1346 King
1346-1378 King Henry
1378-1419 King
1419-1437 King LUXEMBURG DYNASTY
1437-1439 King
1440-1457 King John the Blind
1458-1471 King Charles
1469-1471 Rival King Wenceslaus IV
1471-1516 King Sigismund of Hungary
1516-1526 King Albert of Austria
1526-1564 King Ladislas Posthumus
1619-1620 King George of Podebrad
Matthias of Hungary

Ladislas II (Vladislav)
Louis
Ferdinand I of Austria

VFrederick of the Palatinate

—

D

The Principality of Liechtenstein

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA area became a direct fief of the Holy Roman Empire of
the German nation in 1396.
LIECHTENSTEIN
The Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein was estab-
The geographical location of Liechtenstein between Switzerland and lished in its present form in 1719 when the princely
House of Liechtenstein, in order to maintain a seat in the
Austria Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, purchased the
territory and gave its name to the principality. Liechten-
The Principality of Liechtenstein is located in central stein was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine
Europe between Switzerland and Austria, in the Alps during the Napoleonic period and later became a mem-
mountain range which runs east and west through the ber of the German Confederation until its dissolution in

southern half of Switzerland. One-third of the country 1866.
lies in the upper Rhine Valley; the rest is mountainous.
Although it had been politically independent since
Because of its strategic location on a north-south/east- 1815, Liechtenstein joined in a customs union with the
west crossroads in central Europe, Liechtenstein has Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1852. It abrogated this
been permanently inhabited since the Neolithic age. treaty with Austria in 1918. The principality remained
Recorded inhabitants include the Celts, then the Ro- neutral in both world wars.

—mans, and later a Germanic tribe the Alemanni Based on the constitution of October 1921, the Princi-
pality of Liechtenstein is a hereditary constitutional
whose descendants now inhabit the principality. The monarchy. The prince is head of the House of Liechten-
stein and thereby chief of state. All legislation must have
his concurrence; he is also empowered to dissolve the
Diet (parliament).

The highest executive authority of the principality is
a five-member Collegial Board (cabinet). Its chairman is
the head of government (prime minister), who is ap-

pointed to this position by the prince after being

proposed by the Diet from among the members of the
majority party. The deputy head of government is also

appointed by the prince after being proposed by the Diet.

By tradition he is a member of the minority political

party.

The three remaining members of the Collegial Board,
called government councilors, are elected by the Diet
and appointed by the prince.

The Diet is a unicameral body composed of fifteen
members. They are elected by direct male suffrage for

four-year terms. Women are not eligible to vote or run

for office.

In 1977 Liechtenstein had an estimated population of

602

THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN 603

24,700, with an annual growth rate of about 2.3 percent. Prince Francis Joseph II and Princess Georgina. Prince Francis Joseph
Although the population density for the country as a II. a grandson of Emperor Francis Joseph ofAustria-Hungary, became
whole is more than 398 people per square mile, about the ruler of Liechtenstein on July 26, 1938. He is the first head of a
one-fourth of the people live at Vaduz, the capital. Most ruling family to live permanently in Vaduz in Liechtenstein s history as
of the remainder live in ten other communities in the a sovereign state. The prince was seventy-four years of age in 1980.
Rhine Valley. The social structure of the principality is
similar to that found in other modern industrialized
Western communities of equal size, except for the sur-
vival of the aristocratic ruling family, the House of

Liechtenstein.

19 12 19 6 2

5 JAHHI

LI E( HTENSTEINISCHE BRIEF M\RKEN

I U B I L A I MSBBIEFM kBKENAUSSTELLUN G

VADUZ 4 4UGU12. Sl l 96 2

August 12, 1962, the fiftieth anniversary ofLiechtenstein, stamp honors
the three rulers during the period. Left to right: John II (1858-1929),
Francis I (1929-38), and Francis Joseph II from 1938.

THE SOVEREIGNS OF LIECHTENSTEIN

Reign Title Ruler

1699-1712 Prince John Adam
1712-1718 Prince
1718-1721 Prince Joseph Wenzel
1721-1732 Prince Antony Florian
1732-1748 Prince John Joseph
1748-1772 Prince John Charles
1772-1781 Prince Joseph Wenzel
1781-1805 Prince Francis Joseph I
1805-1836 Prince Alois Joseph I
1836-1858 Prince John Joseph I
1858-1929 Prince Alois Joseph II
1929-1938 Prince John II
1938- Prince Francis I de Paula
Francis Joseph II

604 THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN
IMAI

Stamps commemorating the marriage of Crown Prince Hans Adam von e
H'
Liechtenstein and Countess Marie Aglae Kinsky. June 29, 1967

—

E

The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg

r V- li FEDERAL REPUBLIC burg. The country considers its year of independence to

V* be 1839.
/*- l ^uAjmttouiifi
By the Treaty of London in 1867, Luxemburg was
LuxtmlMiirjSy recognized as an independent state and was guaranteed
its perpetual neutrality. After being overrun by Germany
| in both world wars, Luxemburg formally abandoned
neutrality in 1949 by becoming a charter member of
FRANCE
NATO.
Luxemburg is geographically located with Belgium to her west, the
Federal Republic of Germany to the east, and France to the south. The present sovereign, Grande Duke Jean, succeeded
his mother, Grand Duchess Charlotte, on November 12,
Luxemburg is located in Western Europe, bordered by 1964, when she voluntarily abdicated after a forty-five-
France, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Belgium.
The northern half of the country is largely a continuation year reign.
of the Belgian Ardennes and is heavily forested and
slightly mountainous. The Lorraine Plateau extends Luxemburg has a parliamentary form of government
from France into the southern part of Luxemburg, cre- with a constitutional monarchy. Under the Constitution
of 1 868, as amended, the grand duke is the chief of state.
ating an open, rolling countryside (average elevation Executive power is exercised by the grand duke and the
one thousand feet, or three hundred meters). The Our, Council of Government (cabinet), which consists of a
Sure, and Moselle rivers form the north-south frontier president of the government (prime minister) and several
between Luxemburg and Germany. other ministers. The prime minister is the leader of the
political party or coalition of parties which has the most
In 1815, after four hundred years of domination by
seats in the Parliament.
various European nations, Luxemburg was made a
grand duchy by the Congress of Vienna. It was granted Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Depu-
political autonomy in 1839 under King William I of the
Netherlands, who was also the grand duke of Luxem- Aties, elected directly to five-year terms. second body in

the Parliament is the Council of State, largely composed
of elder statesmen and appointed by the grand duke. It

John the Blind, count of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, who fell in the
Battle ofCrecy on August 26, 1346, is considered by historians as the

first recognized ruler of Luxemburg. He reigned from 1310 to 1346.

605

606 THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG

exercises some of the functions of an upper house but can major parties: the Christian Socialists (PCS), the Social-
be overridden by the Chamber of Deputies. ists (POSL), and the Democrats (PD).

The law is codi6ed, as in France and Belgium, and is From the period immediately following World War I
a composite of local practice, legal tradition, and foreign until 1974, the PCS had always been the dominant part-
systems (French, Belgian, and German). The apex of the ner in governing coalitions. The PCS is Roman Catholic-
judicial system is the Superior Court whose judges are oriented and is in many ways comparable to the

appointed by the grand duke. Christian Democratic parties of other West European
Under the Constitution of 1868, as amended, Luxem- countries. It enjoys widely based popular support among
farmers, conservative groups, and Catholic labor circles.
burg is a parliamentary democracy which for many years
has been ruled by a combination of two of the three It is relatively "internationalist" in outlook.

The royal crest; its motto is Grand-Duchess Josephine-Charlotte
that of John the Blinds coat of and Grand-Duke Jean. The ruler,
arms: ich dien. grand-duke. Jean, was born on
January 5. 1921. and succeeded
his mother. Grand-Duchess

Charlotte, in J 964.

kv\wi
F

The Principality of Monaco

Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. The prince of
Monaco was an absolute ruler until a constitution was
promulgated in 1911.

On July 17, 1918, a treaty was signed providing for

limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty es-
tablished that Monacan policy would be aligned with
French political, military, naval, and economic interests.

Prince Rainier III, the present ruler of Monaco,
acceded to the throne following the death of his grandfa-
ther, Prince Louis II, in 1949. Prince Albert, the heir
apparent, was born in 1958.

A new constitution, proclaimed on December 17,

A 1974 stamp commemorating the first twenty-five years of Prince
Rainier Ill's reign. He succeeded his grandfather, Louis II, in 1949.

Detailed map of Monaco 1949 1974

The Principality of Monaco is the second smallest inde- i jV'.^ iri i j.

pendent state in the world, after the Vatican City. It is lOoo
located on the Mediterranean Sea nine miles (14 km.)
from Nice, France, and is surrounded on three sides by ;•**

France. Monaco is traditionally divided into three sec- MONACO
tions: Monaco- Ville, the old city situated on a rocky
promontory extending into the Mediterranean; La Con- RAI N I ER 111
damine, the section along the port; and Monte Carlo, the
new city and principal residential and resort area. Font- PRINCE DE MONACO
vieille, the industrial area in La Condamine, is often

considered a fourth section.
Monaco's population in 1975 was 25,000, with an an-

nual growth rate of about 0.9 percent. Monaco- Ville has

about 1,685 inhabitants.

Founded in 1215 as a colony of Genoa (Italy,) Monaco
has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1419,
except when it fell under French rule during the years of

the French Revolution and the First Empire. Designated
a protectorate of Sardinia during 1815-60 by the Treaty
of Vienna, Monaco's sovereignty was recognized by the

607

608 THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO

commimotAiot jfuq*

I RM\IF K III
PRINCE SOUVM* s OF MONACO

AVEC

GR*CE - PATRICIA KELLY

VIL

ro NAc %i t, .{ %u.

A First Day cover commemorating the marriage of Prince Rainier III approved, the ordinances must be submitted to the
and the famous American movie star, Grace Patricia Kelly, April 19, prince within eighty days for his signature, which makes
them legally enforceable. If he does not express opposi-
1956. tion within ten days of submission, they become valid.

1962, abolished capital punishment and provided for Judicial power is in the hands of the prince, but ac-
female suffrage and the establishment of a Supreme Tri- cording to the constitution, he delegates full powers of
bunal to guarantee fundamental liberties. exercise to the courts and the Supreme Tribunal, the
highest judicial authority. The Supreme Tribunal is com-
Monaco has been governed as a constitutional monar- posed of five chief members and two assistant judges.
chy since 1911 with a prince as chief of state. The execu-
Named by the prince on the basis of nominations by the
tive branch consists of a minister of state (head of
government), assisted by a three-member Council of National Council and other governmental bodies, the
Government (cabinet). The minister of state (a French justices on the Supreme Tribunal constitute a court of
citizen traditionally appointed by the prince for a three- last resort, resolve jurisdictional conflicts, and supply the
National Council with interpretations on the constitu-
year term from among several senior French civil ser- tionality of proposed legislation. Monaco's legal system
is based on French codes.
vants nominated by the French government) is
A stamp honoring Princess Grace,
responsible for foreign relations. As the representative of and one for the princess and
the prince, he also directs the executive services, com-
mands the public police, and presides (with a casting family (February 1. 1965)
vote) over the Council of Government. The three mem-
bers of the latter body are responsible for finance and
national economy, internal affairs, and public works and

social affairs.

Under the 1962 constitution the prince shares his
power with the unicameral National Council. The eigh-
teen members of this legislative body are elected for
five-year terms by universal adult suffrage from a list of
names given to the voters. Should the prince decide to
dissolve the National Council, new elections must be

held within three months. Usually meeting twice annu-
ally, the council votes on the budget and endorses laws
proposed by the Prince.

Ordinances passed by the National Council are de-
bated in the Council of Government, as are the ministe-
rial decrees signed by the minister of state. Once

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO 609

IW^WW

A sampling offormer rulers of Monaco. Top, left to right: Seigneur

Charles II (1581-89), Prince Antoine I (1701-31). Center, left to right:
Princess Louise-Hippolyte, daughter ofAntoine I, (1731); Prince James
I, husband of Louise-Hippolyte, (1731-33); and bottom, left to right:
Prince Honore III, son of Louise-Hippolyte and James I (1733-95);
Prince Albert I (1889-1922).

Princess Grace, left, and her son. Prince Albert, right, pay a state visit

UNto the United Nations Headquarters in New York City in 1978.

Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, center, is their official greeter.

it j IM In

j 1
1
————
ij

••
•

Kj| Bj^1Ai^'i rlW
at ^^H

^^^^^^Kr

^^^^ ^M

Christian Names

of the European Monarch:

English Danish Dutch French German Italian Spanish

Albert Albrekt Albert Albert Albrecht Alberto Alberto
Charles Carl Karel Charles Karl Carlo Carlos
Joris Georges Giorgio Jorge
George Georg Georg Eduardo
Edward Edvard Edward Edouard Eduard Francesco Eduardo
Frans Franz Federico
Francis Frans Francois Enrico Francisco
Frederick Frederik Frederik Frederic Friedrich Federigo
Henrik Hendrik Henri Heinrich Giacomo Enrique
Henry Jacob Jacob Jacques Jaime
James Johan Jean Jakob Giovanni Juan
John Hans Lodewijk Louis Johann Lodovivo Luis
Louis Ludvig Paulus Paul Ludwig Paolo Pablo
Pierre Paul Pedro
Paul Paul Pieter Philippe Peter Pietro Filipe
Peter Peter Philip Guillaume Philipp Filippo Guillermo
Philip Wilhelm
William Filip Willem Guglielmo

Vilhjelm

610

1

n,adex

Aba Samuel, King of Hungary, 297 349 Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor, 244,
Abdallah, Amir of Cordova, 348 Achatius Bocskai, Prince of
263, 281, 284, 297, 511, 601
Abdelaziz, Moorish Amir, 348 Transylvania, 298
Ada, Countess of Holland, 409 Albert III, Duke of Austria, 281
Abd el-Moulmin, Sultan of Almohade, Adalbert, Margrave of Franconia, 28 Albert IV, Duke of Austria, 281
Adaloald, King of the Lombards, 47 Albert VI, Duke of Austria, 281
349 Adils, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Albert of Mecklenburg, King of

Abder Rahman I, Amir of Cordova, Adolf of Nassau, Holy Roman Sweden, 449, 481

321, 348 Emperor, 263 Albinus, Roman Emperor, 46
Adolphus Frederick, King of Sweden,
Abder Rahman II, Amir of Cordova, Alboin, King of the Lombards, 30, 32,
462, 481 47
348
Aemilianus, Roman Emperor, 46 Alcasim, Caliph of Cordova, 348
Abder Rahman III, Caliph of
Agilulf, King of the Lombards, 32, 47 Aleksandr Nevsky, Grand Duke of
Cordova, 321, 348 Agne, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Ahmet I (Achmet), Sultan of the Valdimir, 505
Abder Rahman IV, Caliph of Aleksei, Emperor of Russia, 483, 487,
Ottoman Empire, 594
Cordova, 348 Ahmet II, Sultan of the Ottoman 488, 489, 505
Alexander, King of Greece, 563, 564,
Abder Rahman V, Caliph of Cordova, Empire, 594
571
348 Ahmet III, Sultan of the Ottoman
Abderraman of Gafeki, Moorish Alexander, King of Poland, 511, 522
Empire, 594 Alexander (the Good), Prince of
Amir, 321, 348
Abdulaziz, Sultan of the Ottoman Aimone of Spoleto, King of Croatia, Moldavia, 535
Alexander I, King of Macedonia, 571
Empire, 586, 587, 594 316 Alexander I, King of Serbia, 305, 308,
Abdulhamit I, Sultan of the Ottoman Aistulf, King of the Lombards, 47
316
Empire, 583, 585, 594 Alaeddin Kaikobad, Sultan of Rum, Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia,

Abdulhamit II (the Red Sultan; the 594 310-313, 316, 530, 547
Damned), Sultan of the Ottoman Alanis, Juan Marti, Co-Prince of Alexander I (the Blessed), Emperor of

Empire, 587-588, 594 Andorra, 599 Russia, 113, 114, 216,463,492,
Abdulmecit I (Abdul-Medjid), Sultan Alaric, Chief of the Visigoths, 29, 55, 496-498, 505, 518
Alexander II, King of Macedonia, 571
of the Ottoman Empire, 585, 586, 232, 348, 559 Alexander II, (the Liberator),
587, 594 Albert, King of Saxony, 264 Emperor of Russia, 492, 498-499,
Abel, King of Denmark, 430 500, 505
Abou Abdilehi (Boabdil), King of Albert I, Holy Roman Emperor, 243, Alexander III (the Czar-Peacemaker),
Granada, 326, 327, 349 Emperor of Russia, 426, 492, 500,
Abou Malik, Sultan of Almohade, 349 263, 281 505
Abou-Said, King of Granada, 349
Abou Yacoub, Sultan of Almohade, Albert I, King of Belgium, 220, 340,
375-376, 377, 378, 382

Albert I, Prince of Monaco, 609

611

612 366 INDEX
Alfonso IV, (the Monk), King of
Alexander III (the Great), King of Andrew II, King of Hungary, 286,
Macedonia, 414, 552, 555, Leon, 350
556-558, 571, 573 297
Alfonso V (Africano), King of
Alexander IV, King of Macedonia, Andrew III, King of Hungary, 288,
Portugal, 360, 361, 366
571 297
Alexander V, King of Macedonia, 571 Alfonso V (the Magnanimous), King
Alexander Ghica, Prince of Walachia, Andrey, Grand Duke of Valdimir, 505
of Aragon, 351 Andrey Bogolyubski, Grand Duke of
535
Alexander John I Cuza, Prince of Alfonso V (the Noble), King of Leon, Valdimir, 505
Andronicus I, Emperor of Byzantium,
Romania, 359, 536 350
Alexander Joseph of Battenberg, Alfonso VI, King of Leon and Castile, 593

Prince of Bulgaria, 543, 551 350, 355, 356 Andronicus II, Emperor of
Alexander Karadjordjevic, Prince of Alfonso VI, King of Portugal, 362, Byzantium, 593

Serbia, 303, 304, 316 367 Andronicus III, Emperor of
Alexander Moruzi, Prince of Alfonso VII (the Emperor), King of Byzantium, 593

Moldavia, 535 Leon and Castile, 350, 356 Andronicus IV (Rival), Emperor of
Alfonso VIII, King of Castile, 350 Byzantium, 593
Alexander of Tver, Grand Duke of
Alfonso X (of Castile), Holy Roman Anna, Empress of Russia, 493, 505
Valdimir, 505 Anna Leopoldovna, Regent of Russia,
Emperor, 263, 350
Alexander Severus, Roman Emperor, Alfonso XI, King of Castile, 350 493
Alfonso XII, King of Spain, 325, 339, Anne, Queen of England, 103, 201,
24-25, 46, 52
Alexander Sutu, Prince of Walachia, 341, 347, 351 203-205, 212, 239

535 Alfonso XIII, King of Spain, 220, Anne of Austria, Regent of France,
Alexander Ypsilanti, Prince of 339, 340, 341-342, 347, 351
99, 100, 126
Walachia, 528, 535 Alfred (the Great), King of England,
Alexandru Lapusneaunu, Prince of 65, 131-134, 228, 412 Anthemius, Roman Emperor, of the

Moldavia, 535 Alhor, Moorish Amir, 348 West, 47
Ali bin Hamoud, Caliph of Cordova, Anthony, King of Saxony, 264
Alexius I Comnenus, Emperor of Anthony Florian, Prince of
Byzantium, 577, 593 348
Ali bin Yousouf, Sultan of Leichtenstein, 603
Alexius II, Emperor of Byzantium, Antigonus II Gonatas, King of
593 Almoravide, 349
Ali Pasha Tepelena (the Lion of Macedonia, 571
Alexius III, Emperor of Byzantium, Antigonus III Gonatas, King of
Yannina), Pasha of Yannina, 596
593 Macedonia, 571
Alexius IV, Emperor of Byzantium, Alladdin, Sultan of Rum, 594 Antigonus III Doson, King of

593 Alois Joseph I, Prince of Macedonia, 571
Alexius V, Emperor of Byzantium, Liechtenstein, 603 Antoine I, Prince of Monaco, 609

593 Alois Joseph II, Prince of Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor,
Alf, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Liechtenstein, 603
Alfonso I, King of Portugal, 356, 359, 21-22, 46, 129
Alp Arslan, Grand Sultan of the
366 Antonio, King of Portugal, 367
Alfonso I (the Catholic), King of Seljuk Empire, 577, 594 Antony, King of Navarre, 90, 92
Alrek, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Anund Jacob, King of Sweden, 448
Asturias, 349
Alfonso I (the Fighter), King of Amadeo I of Savoy, King of Spain Arcadius, Roman Emperor, of the

Navarre, 351 338-339, 351 East, 28, 29, 47
Alfonso II, King of Navarre, 351 Amalaric, King of the Visigoths, 348 Archelaus, King of Macedonia, 571
Alfonso II (the Chaste), King of Ambiorix, Chief of the Eburones, 369, Aribert I, King of the Lombards, 47
Aribert II, King of the Lombards, 47
Asturias, 349 382 Arioald, King of the Lombards, 47
Alfonso II (the Fat), King of Aristodemus, King of Sparta, 554
Amyntas I, King of Macedonia, 571
Portugal, 366 Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, 571 Arminus (Hermann), German
Alfonso III, King of Aragon, 351 Amyntas III, King of Macedonia, 571
Alfonso III, King of Portugal, 356, Anastasius I, Emperor of Byzantium, Chiefton, 232
Arnold, Count of Holland, 409
366 592 Arnuff I (Arnold), Count of Flanders,
Alfonso III (the Great), King of Anastasius II, Emperor of Byzantium,
370, 382
Asturias, 349 592 ArnufT I (the Elder), Count of
Alfonso IV, King of Aragon, 351
Alfonso IV, King of Portugal, 357, Ancus Marcius, Mythical King, 46 Flanders, 370, 382
Andrew, Prince of Transylvania, 298 ArnufT II (the Younger), Count of
Andrew I, King of Hungary, 297
Flanders, 370, 382

1

INDEX Count of Flanders, 370, 382, 385 613

Arnuff III, Count of Flanders, 370, Baldwin V (the Debonnaire), Count of Biron, Regent of Russia, 493
382 Bjorn, Chief of the Skioldungs, 480
Flanders, 370, 382, 385 Bjorn Erickson, Chief of the
Arnulf, Roman Emperor, of the West, Baldwin VI of Mons, Count of
Skioldungs, 480
65, 262, 385 Flanders, 370, 382, 387 Bjorn Ironside, Chief of the
Arpad, Chief of Hungary, 284, 295, Baldwin VII (the Axe), Count of
Skioldungs, 480
297 Flanders, 370, 382, 385 Blanca, Queen of Navarre, 325, 350
Arthur, King of the Britons, 130 Baldwin VIII of Hainaut, Count of Bogdan, Prince of Moldavia, 535
Boleslaus (the Chaste), King of
Arund Kilbrenner, Chief of the Flanders, 371, 382
Skioldungs, 480 Baldwin IX, Emperor of Poland, 522

Astolfo, King of the Lombards, 61 Constantinople, 372, 382, 385, 559 Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia, 601
Ataulphus, King of the Visigoths, 320, Baliol, King of Scotland, 152 Boleslaus I (the Brave), King of

348 Barkiarok, Grand Sultan of the Seljuk Poland, 506, 507, 509, 521
Athalaric, King of the Ostrogoths, 31, Empire, 594
Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia, 601
47 Basarab I, Prince of Walachia, 524, Boleslaus II (the Bold), King of
Athanagild, King of the Visigoths, 534
Poland, 508, 521,
348 Basil, Grand Duke of Valdimir, 505
Attila, Chief of the Huns, 29-30, 54, Basil I, Grand Duke of Moscow, 505 Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia, 601
Basil I (the Macedonian), Emperor of Boleslaus HI (the Wrymouth), King
232, 266, 267
Byzantium, 592 of Poland, 508, 509, 521
Augustus (Octavius), Roman Basil II, Emperor of Byzantium, 539,
Boleslaus IV (the Curly), King of
Emperor, 6, 8, 9-15, 16, 24, 46, 592
318, 319, 353-354, 573 Poland, 521
Augustus II of Saxony (Wettin), King Basil II, Grand Duke of Moscow, 505 Boris I (Michael Simeon), Czar of
of Poland, 461, 512, 516, 517, 522 Basil HI, Grand Duke of Moscow,
Augustus III (Wettin), King of Bulgaria, 524, 538, 550
Poland, 512, 517, 519, 522 505 Boris II, Czar of Bulgaria, 550
Basil IV Chouiski, Czar of Russia, Boris HI, King of Bulgaria, 545, 546,
Aun hinn Gamle (the Old), Chief of
505 547, 548, 549, 551
the Ynglings, 480 Baudouin I, King of Belgium, 378,
Boris Godunov, Czar of Russia, 505
Aurelian, Roman Emperor, 25, 46, 379, 380, 381, 382, 409 Borivoj I, Count of Bohemia, 601
Bayezit I (Lightning), Sultan of the Borivoj II, Duke of Bohemia, 601
524 Boso of Aries, King of Provence, 65
Aurelio, King of Asturias, 349 Ottoman Empire, 578, 594 Braut-Onund, Chief of the Ynglings,
Autharis, King of the Lombards, 47
Bayezit II (Bajazet), Sultan of the 480
Avitus, Roman Emperor, of the West,
Ottoman Empire, 580, 594 Bretislav I, Duke of Bohemia, 601
47 Beatrix, Queen of the Netherlands, Bretislav II, Duke of Bohemia, 601

Azeddin Kaikus I, Sultan of Rum, 405, 406, 408^09, 410 Brynhild, Queen, of the Franks, 56,
Bela I, King of Hungary, 297 57, 234, 261
594 Bela II, King of Hungary, 297
Bela III, King of Hungary, 286, 297 Caesar, Gaius Julius, Roman Ruler,
Azeddin Kaikus II, Sultan of Rum, Bela IV, King of Hungary, 287, 297
Bela Miklos, Regent of Hungary, 297, 3-9, 23, 46, 51, 55, 127-128, 318,
594 368-369
298
B Berengaria, Queen of Castile, 323, 350 Caka, King of Bulgaria, 551
Berengarius I of Friuli, King of Italy,
Balbinus, Coregent of Roman Empire, Caligula (Gaius Caesar), Roman
48
46 Berengarius II of Ivrea, King of Italy, Emperor, 16
Baldwin I, Emperor of Byzantium, Canute (Cnut), King of England,
48
593 Bermurfo I (Veremund; the Deacon), 135-136, 228
Baldwin I, King of Flanders, 131 Canute II (the Great), King of
Baldwin I (the Iron Hand), Count of King of Asturias, 349
Bermudo II, King of Leon, 350 Denmark, 413, 414, 430, 433, 446
Flanders, 369, 382, 385 Bermudo III, King of Leon, 350 Canute IV (Knud; the Holy), King of
Baldwin II, Count of Flanders, 370, Bernard, King of Italy, 48
Bertharit, King of the Lombards, 47 Denmark, 414, 430
382 Birger II Magnusson, King of Canute VI, King of Denmark, 414,

Baldwin II, Roman Emperor, of the Sweden, 448, 481 415, 430
Birger Jarl, Regent of Sweden, 48
East, 593 Caracalla, Roman Emperor, 21, 24,
Baldwin III, Count of Flanders, 370,

382

Baldwin IV (of the Handsome Beard),

614 125, 131, 369, 385 INDEX
Charles II, King of England, 101,
28,46 Charles XII, King of Sweden, 438,
104, 168, 192, 193, 194, 195. 198, 459-462, 481, 489, 516
Carcus, Roman Emperor, 46
Carinus, Roman Emperor, 46 229, 362 Charles XIII (Carl), King of Norway
Carl XVI Gustaf (Bernadotte), King Charles II, King of Spain, 102, 103,
and Sweden, 439, 446, 463, 464,
of Sweden, 477, 478-479, 481 204, 333, 351 481
Carloman, King of Bavaria, 48
Carloman, King of the Franks, 61, 66, Charles II, Prince of Monaco, 609 Charles XIV John (Bernadotte), King
Charles II (the Bad), King of of Norway and Sweden, 439, 446,
125, 262
Navarre, 79-80, 81, 350 464-465, 466, 467, 481
Carloman, Mayor of the Palace, 60,
Charles II (the Fat), Roman Charles XV, King of Norway and
125
Emperor, of the West, 48, 65, 125, Sweden, 446, 466, 467-468, 470,
Carlos I, King of Portugal, 365-366, 262 481
367 Charles III, King of Spain, 334, 347, Charles Albert, King of Bohemia, 274
351 Charles Martel (Charles of the
Carol I of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Charles III (the Noble), King of
(Charles Eitel Frederick), King of Navarre, 350 Hammar), Mayor of the Palace,
Romania, 529-531, 536 Charles III (the Simple), King of the
Franks, 65, 66, 125, 385, 386 58-60, 125, 233, 234, 262, 384
Carol II, King of Romania, 530, 531, Charles IV, King of Spain, 334, 335, Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and
532, 533, 536 347, 351
Charles IV (the Fair), King of France, Sicily, 76-77, 595
Casimir I (the Restorer), King of 78, 125 Charles of Flanders, Regent of
Charles IV of Luxemburg, Holy
Poland, 507, 521 Belgium, 380, 382
Casimir II (the Just), King of Poland, Roman Emperor, 240, 243, 263
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 36, Charlotte, Grand Duchess of
509, 521 Luxemburg, 409, 605, 606
89-91, 170, 171, 174, 246, 247,
Casimir III (the Great), King of 263, 269, 270, 272, 281, 290, 325, Childebert I, King of the Franks,
Poland, 508, 509, 522 328-330, 332, 351, 394-395, 396, 55-56, 57, 124
410, 581
Casimir IV (the Jagiellonian), King of Childebert II, King of the Franks, 124
Poland, 511, 522 Charles V (the Wise), King of France, Childebert III, King of the Franks,

Cassander, King of Macedonia, 571 79-82, 98, 125, 155 59, 60
Catherine de' Medici, Regent of Childeric I, King of the Franks, 54,
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor,
France, 92-94, 95, 126 124
Catherine I, Empress of Russia, 492, 207, 248, 263, 274, 281 Childeric II, King of the Franks, 59,

493, 505 Charles VI (the Well-Beloved), King 124
Catherine II (the Great), Empress of
of France, 81-84, 125, 157, 161 Childeric III, King of the Franks, 124
Russia, 270, 491, 492, 494, 495, Chilperic I, King of the Franks, 56,
505, 516, 517 Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor,
57, 58, 124
Cerdic, King of Wessex, 1 30 263
Charibert, King of the Franks, 56, Charles VII (Karl Sverkersson), King Chilperic II, King of the Franks, 60,

124 of Sweden, 480 124
Charles VII (the Victorious), King of
Charlemagne (Carl the Great), Roman Chindaswind (Cindasuinto), King of
France, 84-85, 86, 98, 126, 161 the Visigoths, 348
Emperor, of the West, 33, 48,
61-64, 125, 130, 233-235, 243, Charles VIII (the Affable), King of Christian I, King of Denmark, 417,
262, 266, 301, 369, 384-385, 414, France, 86-87, 98, 126, 245, 394
598 425, 430, 446, 481
Charles VIII (Karl Knutsson), King Christian II, King of Denmark,
Charles, Duke of Lorraine, 67 of Sweden, 450, 481
Charles, King of Bohemia, 601 417-418, 430, 437, 446, 450, 451,
Charles (the Bold), Duke of Charles IX, King of France, 92-94, 481
Christian III, King of Denmark, 418,
Burgundy, 393 126, 513 419, 431, 437, 446
Charles (the Good), Count of Christian IV, King of Denmark, 416,
Charles IX, King of Sweden, 453, 418, 419-420, 421, 431, 438, 446
Flanders, 371, 382, 387 Christian V, King of Denmark, 418,
Charles I, Emperor of Austria, 279, 455, 481 421-422, 431, 438, 446
Charles X, King of France, 98, Christian VI, King of Denmark, 416,
280, 281, 297 422, 431, 438, 446
Charles I, King of England, 99, 168, 118-119, 126 Christian VII, King of Denmark, 418,
423, 424, 429, 431, 439, 446
184, 186-192, 229 Charles X Gustavus, King of Sweden, Christian VIII, King of Denmark,
Charles I, King of Hungary, 297
Charles I, King of Navarre, 350 455-458, 481 424, 425^26,431
Charles XI, King of Sweden, 458-459, Christian IX, King of Denmark, 418,
Charles I (the Bald), Roman
464, 481
Emperor, of the West, 48, 64-65,

INDEX Byzantium, 592 615
Constantine IV, Emperor of
426, 427, 431, 440 Montenegro, 308, 316
Christian X, King of Denmark, 219, Byzantium, 592
Constantine V, Emperor of Dan Mykillati, King of Denmark, 430
426, 427, 431 David Bruce, King of Scotland, 1 54
Christina, Queen of Sweden, 455, 456, Byzantium, 592 Decius, Roman Emperor, 25, 46
Constintine VI, Emperor of Demetrius, Grand Duke of Valdimir,
457, 458, 481
Christopher I, King of Denmark, 430 Byzantium, 576, 592 505
Christopher II, King of Denmark, 430 Constantine VII, Emperor of Demetrius I Poliorcetes, King of
Christopher III of Bavaria, King of
Byzantium, 592 Macedonia, 571
Denmark, 430, 446, 481 Constantine VIII, Emperor of Demetrius II, King of Macedonia, 571
Christopher Bathory, Prince of
Byzantium, 592 Demetrius Donski, Grand Duke of
Transylvania, 298 Constantine IX, Emperor of Moscow, 483, 484, 485, 505
Cisneros, Cardinal, Regent of Spain,
Byzantium, 593 Desiderius, King of the Lombards, 32,
351 33, 47, 62
Constantine X Ducas, Emperor of
Claudius I, Roman Emperor, 16-17, Didius Julianus, Roman Emperor, 46
Byzantium, 593
23, 46, 128 Constantine XI, Emperor of Dimitri (the Imposter), Czar of
Russia, 505
Claudius II (Gothieus), Roman Byzantium, 579, 593
Constantine Asen, King of Bulgaria, Diniz, King of Portugal, 357, 366
Emperor, 25, 46
Cleph, King of the Lombards, 32, 47 550 Diocletian, Roman Emperor, 21,
Clodio, King of the Franks, 124 Constantine Brancoveeanu, Prince of
Clothaire I, King of the Franks, 25-26, 28, 46, 558, 575
Walachia, 527, 528, 535 Dirk I, Count of Holland, 385, 386,
55-56, 124, 234, 261 Constantine Cantemir, Prince of
409
Clothaire II, King of the Franks, Moldavia, 535 Dirk II, Count of Holland, 409
Constantine Mavrocordat, Prince of Dirk III, Count of Holland, 385, 386,
56-57, 58, 124, 234, 261
Walachia and Moldavia, 528, 535 409
Clothaire III, King of the Franks, 59, Constantine Serban, Prince of Dirk IV, Count of Holland, 409
124 Dirk V, Count of Holland, 386, 387,
Walachia, 534
Clothaire IV, King of the Franks, 58, Constantine Ypsilanti, Prince of 409
60 Dirk VI, Count of Holland, 409
Walachia, 535 Dirk VII, Count of Holland, 409
Clovis I (Chlodwig), King of France, Dirk of Alsace (Didrik), Count of
54-55, 124, 231-233, 261, 369, 384 Constantius I (Chlorus), Roman
Flanders, 371, 382
Clovis II, King of France, 59, 124 Emperor, 25, 26, 28, 46, 52 Domald, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Clovis III, King of France, 59, 124 Domar, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Constantius II, Roman Emperor, 21,
Commodus, Coregent of Roman Domitian, Roman Emperor, 20, 21,
27, 47, 52
Empire, 21, 24, 46 Cromwell, Oliver, Protector of 23, 24, 46
Conrad I, King of the Franks, 262
England, 187, 188, 189-195, 229 Don John, King of Navarre, 350
Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, Cromwell, Richard, Protector of
Drahomire von Stoder, Regent of
236, 262, 507 England, 195, 229 Bohemia, 601
Cunibert, King of the Lombards, 47
Conrad III, Holy Roman Emperor, Cyril, Regent of Bulgaria, 551 Dyggve, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Cyrus (the Great), King of Persia, 573
263 E
D
Conrad IV, Holy Roman Emperor, Earl Haakon, King of Norway, 413,
Dagobert I, King of the Franks, 57, 433, 446
263 58, 59, 124, 261, 384
Conrad of Mazovia, King of Poland, Ebn Alhamar, King of Granada, 349
Dagobert II, King of the Franks, 124 Ebn Ismail, King of Granada, 349
522 Dagobert III, King of the Franks, 59, Ebn Ostman, King of Granada, 349
Edgar (the Pacific), King of England,
Constans I, Roman Emperor, 27, 47 124
Dag-Spaka (the Wise), Chief of the 134, 135, 228
Constans II, Emperor of Byzantium,
576, 592 Ynglings, 480 Edmund I (the Magnificent), King of
Damaskinos, Archbishop, Regent of
Constantine I, King of Greece, 563, England, 134, 228
Greece, 566, 571
564, 571 Danilo II, Lord of Montenegro, 316 Edmund II (Ironsides), King of
Danilo Petrovic, Prince-Bishop of
Constantine I (the Great), Roman England, 135, 228
Edred, King of England, 134, 228
Emperor, 21, 24, 26-27, 33, 46, 52,
128, 129, 538, 558, 574, 575
Constantine II, King of Greece, 346,
566, 568-569, 571

Constantine II, Roman Emperor, 27,

46, 574
Constantine III, Emperor of

616 Eric I (the Evergood), King of INDEX
Denmark, 430
Edward (the Confessor), King of Ethelwulf, King of Wessex, 131, 228,
Eric I (Haarik), King of Denmark, 369
England, 136-137, 138, 140, 228 430
Eudes of Paris, King of France, 65,
Edward (the Elder), King of England, Eric I Bloodaxe, King of Norway,
433, 446 66, 125
134, 228
Eric II, King of Norway, 446 Eugenius, Roman Emperor, of the
Edward (the Martyr), King of Eric II (Haarik), King of Denmark,
West, 47
England, 134-135, 136, 228 430 Euric, King of the Visigoths, 348
Eric II Emune, King of Denmark, Eystein, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Edward I, King of Portugal, 366 Eystein, King of Norway, 445
Edward I (Longshanks), King of 430 Eystein I, King of Norway, 435-436,
Eric III Lam, King of Denmark, 430
England, 76, 77, 150, 151-152, Eric IV (the Plowpenny), King of 446
228, 389 Eystein II, King of Norway, 434, 446
Denmark, 415, 430
Edward II, King of England, 78, Favila, King of Asturias, 349
Eric V Klipping, King of Denmark, Fedor I, Czar of Russia, 486, 505
152-153, 228 Fedor II, Czar of Russia, 505
415, 430 Fedor III, Czar of Russia, 483, 488,
Edward III (Black Prince), King of Eric VI Maendved, King of Denmark,
489, 505
England, 78, 79-80, 81, 146, 153. 430
154-155, 156, 228 Eric VII of Pomerania, King of Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 277,
294
Edward IV, King of England, 86, 161, Denmark, 416, 417, 430, 446, 451,
163-165, 229 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor,
481
Edward V, King of England, 164, 263, 269, 270, 272, 281, 600, 601
Eric XII, King of Sweden, 481
165-166, 229 Eric XIV, King of Sweden, 452, 453, Ferdinand I, King of Aragon, 351
Ferdinand I, King of Portugal, 358,
Edward VI, King of England, 168, 481
Eric Arsaell, Chief of the Skioldungs, 366
174-177, 229 Ferdinand I, King of Romania, 377,
413, 480
Edward VII, King of England, 212, Eric Bjornson, Chief of the 530, 531, 532, 536
217, 218, 219, 220, 230, 426 Ferdinand I (the Great), King of
Skioldungs, 480
Edward VIII, King of England, 218, Eric Emundson, Chief of the Leon and Castile, 322, 350
220, 221, 222, 223, 230 Ferdinand I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
Skioldungs, 480
Edwy, King of England, 134, 135, 228 Eric Raefillson, Chief of the King of Bulgaria, 220, 544, 546,
Egbert, King of Wessex, 130, 228
Egill Tunnadolgi, Chief of the Skioldungs, 480 551
Erik IX Jedvarsson (Saint Erik), King
Ynglings, 480 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor,
Elizabeth, Queen of Hungary, 297 of Sweden, 480
Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 94, 246, 247, 263, 270, 281, 292
Erik X Knutsson, King of Sweden, Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, 351
168, 174, 177, 178-183, 229, 399,
400, 452 480 Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor,
Erik XI Ericksson, King of Sweden,
Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 263, 273, 281
218-219, 223, 224, 225, 230, 408 480 Ferdinand III (the Saint), King of
Erik XII Eriksson, King of Sweden,
Elizabeth Petrovna, Empress of Castile, 323, 350
Russia, 491, 493, 494, 505 480 Ferdinand IV, King of Castile, 350
Erik Axelsson Tott, Regent of Ferdinand V, King of Spain, 88, 91,
Ella, King of Sussex, 130
Emanuel I, King of Portugal, 360, 367 Sweden, 481 168, 170, 171, 317, 324-326, 327,
Emanuel II, King of Portugal, 220, 329, 351
Ernst, Duke of Austria, 281 Ferdinand VI, King of Spain, 347,
365, 366, 367 Ernst, Margrave of Franconia, 281 351
Emetic, King of Hungary, 297 Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, 335,
Emerich Tokoli, Prince of Ertugrul, Chief of the Kayis, 578 336-337, 347, 351
Ethelbald, King of Wessex, 131-132, Ferdinand of Portugal, Count of
Transylvania, 298 Flanders, 372, 382
228 Ferenc Szelasi, Regent of Hungary,
Emund Slemme, Chief of the Ethelbert, King of Wessex and Kent, 298
Filip Halstensson, King of Sweden,
Skioldungs, 480 131-132, 228
Engelbrekt Englebrektsson, Regent of Ethelred I, King of Wessex, 130, 132,

Sweden, 450, 481 228
Eraric, King of the Ostrogoths, 47 Ethelred II (the Unready), King of
Ergica, King of the Visigoths, 348
Eric, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 England. 134, 135, 228
Eric, King of Kent, 129 Ethelstan, King of England, 66, 134,
Eric, King of Norway, 446
Eric (the Victorious), Chief of the 135, 228

Skioldungs, 480

1

INDEX Frederick of the Palatinate, King of 617
Bohemia, 601
480 Galba, Roman Emperor, 18, 46
Fiolner, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Frederick Wilhelm (Great Elector), Galerius, Roman Emperor, 25-26, 46
Elector of Brandenburg, 248, 251 Gallienus, Roman Emperor, 46
Florian, Roman Emperor, 46 Gallus, Roman Emperor, 46
Frederick William I, King of Prussia,
Floris I, Count of Holland, 386, 409 217, 249, 251, 264 Garcia, King of Leon, 349
Floris II (the Fat), Count of Holland, Garcia Ramirez IV, King of Navarre,
Frederick William II, King of Prussia,
409 251, 264 350
Floris III, Count of Holland, 409 Garcia Sanchez I, King of Navarre,
Floris IV, Count of Holland, 410 Frederick William III, King of
Floris V, Count of Holland, 387, 410 Prussia, 251, 252, 258, 264, 497 350
Francis I, King of France, 88, 89-91, Garcia Sanchez II, King of Navarre,
Frederick William IV, King of
98, 126, 169, 170, 173, 246, 270, Prussia, 251, 253, 255, 264 350
281, 581, 584 Garibald, King of the Lombards, 47
Francis I de Paula, Prince of Frederik I, King of Denmark, 416, Gaspar Bekesy, Prince of
Liechtenstein, 603 419, 431, 446
Transylvania, 298
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederik II, King of Denmark, 418, Geiseric, Chief of the Vandals, 29, 30
419, 431, 446 Gelon, Tyrant of Syracuse, 554
112, 114, 264, 275, 276, 277, 281 George, King of Saxony, 264
Francis II, King of France, 92, 98, Frederik III, King of Denmark, 418, George, King of the Hellenes, 426
421, 422, 431, 438, 446 George I, King of England, 205-206,
126, 175
Frederik IV, King of Denmark, 418, 212, 229
Francisco Febo, King of Navarre, 350 422, 431, 438, 446 George I, King of Greece, 200, 427,
Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria,
Frederik V, King of Denmark, 418, 562-564, 571
277, 278, 279-280, 281, 294-296 422, 431, 438, 446 George I Terter, King of Bulgaria,
Francis Joseph I, Prince of
Frederik VI, King of Denmark, 423, 540, 551
Liechtenstein, 603 424, 425, 431, 439, 446
Francis Joseph II, Prince of George II, King of England, 104,
Frederik VII, King of Denmark, 425, 206-208, 212, 229
Liechtenstein, 603 426, 431, 467
Francis Rakoczy II, Prince of George II, King of Greece, 315, 530,
Frederik, VIII, King of Denmark,
Transylvania, 292, 295, 298 220, 426, 427, 431 564, 565-566, 571
George II Terter, King of Bulgaria,
Frederick, Duke of Austria, 281 Frederik IX, King of Denmark, 426,
Frederick I, Duke of Austria, 28 427, 428, 431 551
Frederick I, King of Prussia, 248,
Frey-Yngve, Chief of the Ynglings, George HI, King of England, 105,
251, 264 480 208-210, 212, 229
Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy
Fridlief I, King of Denmark, 430 George IV, King of England, 209,
Roman Emperor, 35, 72, 240, 242, Fridlief II, King of Denmark, 430 212, 213, 216, 230
Fridlief HI, King of Denmark, 430
263 Frode I, King of Denmark, 430 George V, King of England, 218, 220,
Frederick I of Hesse, King of Sweden, Frode II, King of Denmark, 430 221, 230
Frode III (the Pacific), King of
462, 481 George VI, King of England, 218,
Denmark, 430 220. 221, 223, 224, 230, 315
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frode IV, King of Denmark, 430
Frode V, King of Denmark, 430 George of Podebrad, King of
35, 73-74, 76, 263, 386, 436 Frode VI, King of Denmark, 430 Bohemia, 601
Frode VII, King of Denmark, 430
Frederick II (the Fighter), Duke of Fruela I, King of Asturias, 349 George Rakoczy I, Prince of
Fruela II, King of Leon, 349 Transylvania, 298
Austria, 269, 281
Gabriel Bathory, Prince of George Rakoczy II, Prince of
Frederick II (the Great), King of Transylvania, 298 Transylvania, 292, 298
Prussia, 104, 249-250, 251, 264,
270, 463, 491, 494, 497 Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Georghe Bibescu, Prince of Walachia,
Transylvania, 292, 298 535
Frederick HI, Emperor of Germany,
217, 251, 258, 259, 264 Gabriel Radomir, Prince of Bulgaria, Georgios Kondylis, Regent of Greece,
550 571
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor,
Geta, Coregent of Roman Empire, 24,
244, 263, 281
Frederick V, Elector Palatine of 46
Geza, Prince of Hungary, 285, 297
Germany, 186 Geza I, King of Hungary, 297
Frederick Augustus I (the Just), King Geza HI, King of Hungary, 297
Giscard d'Estaing, Valery, Co-Prince
of Saxony, 264
Frederick Augustus III, King of of Andorra, 599

Saxony, 264
Frederick Henry, Stadholder of the

United Provinces, 400, 410

618 Haakon IV (the Old), King of INDEX
Norway, 435, 436. 446
Gjergj, Skander Bey (Lord Hedwig (Jadwiga), Queen of Poland,
Alexander), 596 Haakon V (Longlegs), King of
510, 522
Glycerius, Roman Emperor, of the Norway, 436, 446 Helge, King of Denmark, 430
Haakon VI, King of Norway, 417,
West, 47 Heliogabalus (Elagabalus), Roman
Godfred, King of Denmark, 413, 430 446
Godfrey, King of Friesland, 385 Haakon VII, King of Norway, 220, Emperor, 24, 46
Henry, Emperor of Byzantium, 593
Godfrey (the Hunchback), Duke of 315, 426, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, Henry, King of Bohemia, 601
446 Henry, King of Portugal, 360. 367
Lorraine, 386 Henry I, King of Castile, 350
Gontram, King of the Franks, 56 Hadrian, Roman Emperor, 21, 46, Henry I, King of France, 69, 125, 239
Henry I, King of Navarre, 350
Gordianus I (Africanus), Roman 128, 129, 319 Henry I, Margrave of Franconia, 281
Henry I (the Bearded), King of
Emperor, 25, 46 Hakam I, Amir of Cordova, 348
Hakam II (Alhaken), Caliph of Poland, 522
Gordianus II, Coregent of Roman Henry I (Beauclerc), King of England,
Cordova, 348
Empire, 46 Halfdan I, King of Denmark, 430 70, 141, 143, 228
Halfdan II, King of Denmark, 430 Henry I (the City-Builder; Fowler),
Gordianus III, Roman Emperor, 26, Halfdan III, King of Denmark, 430
Halfdan Huitben, King of Norway, King of Saxon Empire, 66, 262
46 Henry II, Duke of Austria, 268, 281
445 Henry II, King of Castile, 324, 350
Gorm (the Old), King of Denmark, Halfdan Millde, King of Norway, 445 Henry II, King of England, 71-72,
Halfdan Svart (the Black), King of
412, 413, 430 143, 144-146, 228
Norway, 432, 445 Henry II, King of France, 91-92, 98,
Gratian, Roman Emperor, of the Halsten Stenkilsson, King of Sweden,
126
West, 27, 47 480 Henry II, Margrave of Franconia, 281
Gregory Ghica, Prince of Moldavia, Hans, King of Denmark, 417, 418, Henry II (the Pious), King of Poland,

535 430, 446, 481 522
Grigore Ghica, Prince of Walachia, Harald Fairhair (Haarfagre; Harold
Henry II (the Saint), Holy Roman
534 I), King of Norway, 65, 432^*33,
435, 436, 446 Emperor, 238, 239, 262
Grimoald, Mayor of the Palace, 47, Harald Sigurdson, Joint King of Henry III, King of Castile, 350
Norway, 434 Henry III, King of England, 74, 75,
261 Harde-Knud (Hardicanute; Canute I),
King of Denmark, 430 150-151, 228
Gudrod Mikillati, King of Norway, Harold, King of Denmark, 413, 430 Henry III, King of France, 94-95, 98,
Harold I (Harefoot), King of England,
445 136, 228 126, 399, 400, 513, 522
Harold II, King of England, 136-140,
Guiscard, Robert, Duke of Apulia and 228 Henry III (the Black), Holy Roman
Harold II Gravpelt, King of Norway,
Calabria, 34 446 Emperor, 236, 239, 262
Gustavus I (Eriksson Vasa), King of Harold III Hardrade, King of
Norway, 138, 434-435, 446 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, 34,
Sweden, 451-453, 464, 481 Harold IV Gilchrist, King of Norway,
Gustavus II Adolphus (the Great), 446 236, 237-240, 241, 263, 386, 508
Harold Blaatand (the Bluetooth), Henry IV, King of Castile, 324, 350
King of Sweden, 453-455, 456, King of Denmark, 67, 237, 413, Henry IV (Bolingbroke), King of
458, 481 430
Gustavus III, King of Sweden, 463, Harold Hen, King of Denmark, 430 England, 157-161, 229
464, 481 Harold Hildetand, King of Denmark, Henry IV (the Great), King of
Gustavus IV Adolphus, King of 430. 480
Sweden, 463-464, 481 Harthacnut, King of England, 136, France, 95, 96-97, 98, 126, 184
Gustavus V, King of Sweden, 465, 137, 228
Harthacnut (Canute III), King of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, 242,
469, 471, 472, 475, 481 Denmark. 430
Gustavus VI Adolf, King of Sweden, Havar, King of Denmark, 430 263
Henry V, King of England, 83-84,
468, 472, 476-477, 478, 479, 481
Guthrum, King of the Danes, 133 159, 160-161, 162, 229

Guy de Dampierre, Count of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor,

Flanders, 372, 382, 387, 388 147, 240, 263
Henry VI, King of England, 84, 85,
Guy of Spoleto, King of Italy, 48, 65
161-164, 229
H Henry VII. King of England. 87,

Haakon I (the Good), King of 167-168. 169. 170. 229, 245
Norway, 433, 446 Henry VII of Luxemburg. Holy

Haakon II, King of Norway, 446 Roman Emperor, 263
Haakon III Sverreson, King of

Norway, 446

INDEX Ismail, Shah of Persia, 580 619
Ismail I, King of Granada, 349
Henry VIII, King of England, 88, 89, Ismail II, King of Granada, 349 Flanders, 372, 382
91, 168-174, 229 Ivalio, King of Bulgaria, 541, 550 Johan Georg I, Elector of Saxony, 419
Ivan I (Kalita), Grand Duke of Johann Kemeny, Prince of
Henry of Burgundy, King of Portugal,
355-356, 366 Moscow, 485, 505 Transylvania, 298
Ivan I Alexander, King of Bulgaria, Johan Sverkersson (John I), King of
Henry Probus, King of Poland, 522
Heracleonas, Coregent of Byzantium, 551 Sweden, 448, 480
John, King of Hungary, 511
592 Ivan II, Grand Duke of Moscow, 505 John, King of Saxony, 264
Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, Ivan II Stephen, King of Bulgaria, John (the Blind), King of Bohemia,

574, 575, 592 551 600, 601, 605
John (Lackland), King of England,
Herman von Baden, Duke of Austria, Ivan III (the Great), Czar of Russia,
483, 484, 485, 486, 505 35, 72, 73, 74, 146, 147-150, 228
281 John (the Terrible), Prince of
Ivan III Asen, King of Bulgaria, 550
Hisham I, Amir of Cordova, 348 Ivan III Sishman, King of Bulgaria, Moldavia, 526, 535
Hisham II, Caliph of Cordova, 321, John I, Count of Holland, 388, 410
551 John I, King of Aragon, 351
348 Ivan IV (the Terrible), Czar of John I, King of Castile, 350, 358
John I, King of France, 125
Hisham III, Caliph of Cordova, 348 Russia, 483, 485-486, 491, 500, John I, King of Portugal, 358, 359,
Honore III, Prince of Monaco, 609 505, 513
Honorius, Roman Emperor, of the Ivan V, Emperor of Russia, 489, 493, 366
505 John I Zimisces, Emperor of
West, 28, 29, 47, 320, 354 Ivan VI, Emperor of Russia, 493, 494,
505 Byzantium, 592
Hugh Capet, King of France, 66, Ivar Vidfadme, King of Denmark, John II, King of Aragon, 351
430, 480 John II, King of Castile, 325, 350
67-68, 125 John II, King of Portugal, 360, 367
Izhaslav, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505 John II, Prince of Liechtenstein, 603
Hugh of Aries, King of Italy, 48 Izhaslav II, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505 John II (the Good), King of France,

Hugleik, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Jacob van Artevelde, Governor of 79-80, 98, 125, 154-155, 390
Flanders, 382, 389 John II Casimir Vasa, King of
Iacob Eraclid (the Despot), Prince of
Moldavia, 535 Jacquiline, Countess of Holland, Poland, 514, 522
390-392 John II Comnenus, Emperor of
Iancu of Hunedoara, Prince of
Transylvania, 297, 525 James I, King of England, 153, 168, Byzantium, 577, 593
181, 183-186, 229 John III, King of Portugal, 361, 367
Ibrahim I, Sultan of the Ottoman John III Ducas, Emperor of
Empire, 583, 594 James I, Prince of Monaco, 609
James I (the Conqueror), King of Byzantium, 593
Ieremia Movila, Prince of Moldavia,
535 Aragon, 322, 351 John HI Sobieski, King of Poland,
James II, King of Aragon, 351
Igor, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505 James II, King of England, 101-102, 512, 515, 516, 517, 520, 522, 583
Inge I, King of Norway, 446 John III Vasa, King of Sweden, 453,
Inge Baardson, King of Norway, 446 168, 187, 192, 198-201, 203, 204,
Inge Halstensson (the Younger), King 239 481, 511, 513
John IV, King of Portugal, 361, 362,
of Sweden, 480 James IV, King of Scotland, 168, 169,
Inge Stenkilsson (the Elder), King of 367
171 John IV Lascaris, Emperor of
Sweden, 480
Ingiald Illrada, Chief of the Ynglings, James V, King of Scotland, 171, 174 Byzantium, 593
James VI, King of Scotland, 153, 168, John V, Emperor of Byzantium, 593
480 John V, King of Portugal, 362, 367
Ingild, King of Denmark, 430 181, 183-186, 229
Inigo Arista, King of Navarre, 350 Jane, Queen of Navarre, 90, 92-93 John V Palaeologus, Emperor of
Irene, Empress of Byzantium, 576,
Jean, Grande Duke of Luxemburg, Byzantium, 593
592 John VI, King of Portugal, 363-364,
Isaac I Comnenus, Emperor of 605, 606
Jerome Napoleon, King of 367
Byzantium, 593 John VI Cantacuzene, Emperor of
Isaac II Angelus, Emperor of Westphalia, 111, 112, 113
Joanna of Constantinople, Countess of Byzantium, 593
Byzantium, 540, 593 John VII, Emperor of Byzantium, 593
Isabella, Queen of Spain, 170, 317, John VIII, Emperor of Byzantium,

324-326, 327, 329, 351 593
Isabella II, Queen of Spain, 325,
John Adam, Prince of Liechtenstein,
337-338, 339, 347, 351, 374

620 INDEX

603 30, 31-32, 33,47, 558, 574, 575 289, 297
John Albert, King of Poland, 511, 522 Justinian II, Emperor of Byzantium, Ladislaus Spindleshanks, King of
John Asen I, King of Bulgaria, 539,
575, 592 Poland, 521
540, 550 Lambert, King of Italy, 48
John Asen II, King of Bulgaria, 540, K Latcu, Prince of Moldavia, 535

550 Kaikhosru III, Sultan of Rum, 594 Leo I (the Great), Emperor of
John Caragea, Prince of Walachia, Kaliman I, King of Bulgaria, 550 Byzantium, 592
Kaloyan, King of Bulgaria, 539, 540,
535 Leo II, Emperor of Byzantium, 592
John Charles, Prince of Liechtenstein, 550 Leo III (the Isaurian), Emperor of
Keszek (the Black), King of Poland,
603 Byzantium, 575, 592
John Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein, 522 Leo IV, Emperor of Byzantium, 592

603 Khaikhosru II, Sultan of Rum, 594 Leo V (the Armenian), Emperor of
John Joseph I, Prince of Kilidy Arslan I, Sultan of Rum, 594
Kilidy Arslan II, Sultan of Rum, 594 Byzantium, 592
Liechtenstein, 603 Kilidy Arslan III, Sultan of Rum, 594 Leo VI, Emperor of Byzantium, 592
John Kastrioti, Chief of Kruje, 596 Knud III Magnussen, King of Leonor, Queen of Navarre, 350
John Sigismund, Prince of Leontius, Emperor of Byzantium, 592
Denmark, 430 Leon Tomsa, Prince of Walachia, 534
Transylvania, 298 Knut Eriksson (Knut VI), King of Leopold I, Coregent of Austria, 273,
John Sobieski, King of Poland, 273,
Sweden, 480 275, 281
274 Knut Holmgersson (Lange), King of
John Vladislav, Prince of Bulgaria, Leopold I, King of Belgium, 373, 374,
Sweden, 480
550 382, 403^04
John Zapolya, Prince of Transylvania, Konstantin, Grand Duke of Valdimir,
Leopold I, Margrave of Franconia,
290, 298 505 266-268, 281
Jons Bengtsson Oxenstierna, Regent of
Ladislas I, Duke of Bohemia, 601 Leopold I of Austria, Holy Roman
Sweden, 481 Ladislas II, King of Bohemia, 601
Jorunder, Chief of the Ynglings, 480 Ladislas of Bohemia, King of Emperor, 147, 274, 281

Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, 263 Hungary, 272, 297 Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor,
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 250, Ladislas Posthumus, King of
250, 264, 275, 281
264, 270, 275, 280, 372 Bohemia, 601
Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain, 111, Leopold II, King of Belgium, 374,
Ladislaus, Duke of Austria, 281 375-379, 382, 404
113, 335-336 Ladislaus I (Saint Laszlo), King of
Joseph Emanuel, King of Portugal, Leopold II, Margrave of Franconia,
Hungary, 286, 295, 297 281
362-363, 367 Ladislaus I Herman, King of Poland,
Joseph of Austria, Regent of Hungary, Leopold III, Coregent of Austria, 281
508, 521 Leopold III, King of Belgium, 376,
298
Joseph Wenzel, Prince of Ladislaus I Lokietek (the Short), King 377, 378, 380, 382
of Poland, 509, 522 Leopold III (the Pious), Margrave of
Liechtenstein, 603
Ladislaus I of Poland, King of Franconia, 281
Jossus of Moravia, Holy Roman Hungary, 284, 297
Leopold IV, Duke of Austria, 281
Emperor, 263 Ladislaus II, King of Hungary, 297 Leopold IV, Margrave of Franconia,
Ladislaus II (the Exile), King of
Jovian, Roman Emperor 27, 47 281
Poland, 521
Juana, Queen of Spain, 328, 329, 351, Leopold V, Duke of Austria, 281
394 Ladislaus II Jagiello, King of Poland, Leopold VI (the Glorious), Duke of
509, 510, 522
Juana I, King of Navarre, 350 Austria, 281
Juana II, King of Navarre, 350 Ladislaus III, King of Hungary, 297 Leopold of Hohenzollern, King of
Juan Carlos I, King of Spain, 342, Ladislaus III of Varna, King of
Spain, 259
345, 346, 347, 351 Poland, 510, 511, 522 Leszek (the White), King of Poland,
Ladislaus IV, King of Hungary, 297
Juliana, Queen of the Netherlands, Ladislaus IV Vasa, King of Poland, 521
404, 405, 406, 407, 408^09, 410
505, 522 Leuva, King of the Visigoths, 348
Julianus (Julian the Apostate), Roman Ladislaus V, King of Hungary, 284, Leuvigild, King of the Visigoths, 348
Libussa, Leader of the Sclavs, 267
Emperor, 21, 27, 47, 52, 53
Licinius, Roman Emperor, 21, 26, 27,
Julius Nepos, Roman Emperor, of the
46
West, 30, 47 Liutprand, King of the Lombards, 47
Justin I, Emperor of Byzantium, 592
Justin II, Emperor of Byzantium, 592 Livius Severus, Roman Emperor, of
Justinian I, Emperor of Byzantium,
the West, 47
Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, 151

INDEX 621

Lorand Lepes, Vice-voivode of 126 Mahommed VII, King of Granada,

Transylvania, 298 Louis XVIII, King of France, 98, 115, 349
117-118, 126, 337
Lothair, Rival King of France, 67 Mahommed VJII, King of Granada,
Louis of Hungary, King of Poland,
Lothair I, Roman Emperor, of the 510 349

West, 48, 64, 125, 262 Louis-Philippe I (the Citizen King), Majorian, Roman Emperor, of the

Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of France, 98, 118, 126, 218 West, 47
Louise-Hippolyte, Princess of Monaco, Malik Shah, Grand Sultan of the
242, 263
609 Seljuk Empire, 594
Lothair II, King of Italy, 48 Lucius Aurelius Verus, Coregent of
Mamoun, Sultan of Almohade, 349
Louis (the Great), King of Hungary, Roman Empire, 22, 46 Manuel I Comnenus, Emperor of

287, 288, 297 Ludwig I, King of Bavaria, 264 Byzantium, 593
Ludwig II (Louis), King of Germany, Manuel II Palaeologus, Emperor of
Louis I, King of Portugal, 367
48, 64, 65, 262, 264 Byzantium, 593
Louis I (Ludwig; the Pious), Roman Ludwig II (Louis), King of Italy, 48 Manuel Palaeologos, Emperor of
Ludwig III, King of Bavaria, 264
Emperor, of the West, 62, 64, 125, Constantinople, 82
Ludwig IV of Bavaria, Holy Roman
233, 262 Marcianus, Emperor of Byzantium,
Emperor, 263
Louis I of Newers (Crecy), Count of Luis I, King of Spain, 102, 347, 351 574, 592
Luis Hutfn, King of Navarre, 350
Flanders, 373, 382, 389-390 Luitpold, Regent of Bavaria, 264 Marcus Aurelius (Annius), Roman

Louis II, King of Hungary, 290, 297, M Emperor, 21, 22-23, 46, 52, 266,
319
600, 601 Macrinus, Roman Emperor, 24, 46 Margaret, Countess of Flanders, 372,
Magnus (the Good), King of 382
Louis II, Prince of Monaco, 607 Margaret, Queen of Navarre, 90
Denmark, 430, 434, 446 Margareta of Constantinople,
Louis II de Male, Count of Flanders, Magnus I Birgersson (Ladulas), King Countess of Flanders, 371, 382
Margaret of Parma, Regent of the
373, 382, 390 of Sweden, 48 Netherlands, 396-397
Margrethe I, Queen of Denmark, 416,
Louis III (the Child), Roman Magnus II, King of Norway, 446 417, 430, 437, 446, 449, 450, 451,
Magnus II (Barefoot), King of 481
Emperor, of the West, 65, 66, 125, Margrethe II, Queen of Denmark,
Norway, 446 426, 428, 429, 431
262 Magnus II Eriksson, King of Maria I, Queen of Portugal, 363, 364,
367
Louis III of Burgundy, King of Italy, Sweden, 436, 449, 481 Maria II, Queen of Portugal, 363,
367, 374
48 Magnus HI (the Blind), King of Maria Cristina, Regent of Spain, 325,
Norway, 446 339, 340, 341, 351
Louis IV (d'Outremer), Rival King of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria,
Magnus IV, King of Norway, 446 207, 270, 274, 275, 280, 281, 293
France, 66-67, 125 Magnus VI (the Lawmender), King of Marie de' Medici, Regent of France,
99, 126
Louis V (the Indolent), Rival King of Norway, 435, 436, 446 Marie Theresa, Queen of Hungary,
Magnus VII, King of Norway, 446 104
France, 67, 125 Magnus Henriksson, King of Sweden, Martin I (the Humane), King of
Aragon, 351
Louis VI (the Fat; the Wide Awake), 480 Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, 393
Magnus Ladulas, King of Sweden, 448 Mary, Queen of Hungary, 287, 297
King of France, 69-70, 125
Mahmut I, Sultan of the Ottoman Mary (Stuart), Queen of Scotland,
Louis VII (the Young), King of
Empire, 594 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181-183
France, 70-72, 125, 144, 145
Mahmut II (Malmud), Sultan of the Mary I (Tudor), Queen of England,
Louis VIII (the Lion), King of Ottoman Empire, 586-587, 594
91, 168, 174, 176, 177-178, 229
France, 73, 74, 125 Mahommed I, King of Granada, 349
Mahommed II, King of Granada, 349 Mary II, Queen of England, 195,
Louis IX (Saint), King of France, Mahommed HI, King of Granada,
200-203, 212, 239
75-76, 125 349
Masaud I, Sultan of Rum, 594
XLouis (Hutin; the Quarrelsome), Mahommed IV, King of Granada, 349
Mahommed V, King of Granada, 349
King of France, 78, 125 Mahommed VI, King of Granada, 349

Louis XI, King of France, 85-86, 126,

165, 393

Louis XII (Father of his People),

King of France, 88-89, 126, 169,

245

Louis XIII (the Well-Beloved), King

of France, 98, 99, 126

Louis XIV (the Great), King of

France, 100-104, 126, 197, 201,

203, 204-205, 243, 333, 401^02

XVLouis (the Well-Beloved), King of

France, 98, 104-105, 126, 207, 492

Louis XVI (the Beloved), King of

France, 98, 105-107, 126

Louis XVII, King of France, 98, 107,

622 316 INDEX
Michael (the Brave), Prince of
Masoud II, Sultan of Rum, 594 Miron Barnovschi Movila, Prince of
Transylvania, 291, 298 Moldavia, 535
Matei Basarab, Prince of Walachia, Michael (the Brave), Prince of
527, 534 Mohammed, Grand Sultan of the
Walachia, 525, 526, 527, 534
Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor, 263, Michael I, Emperor of Byzantium, Seljuk Empire, 594

270, 273. 281, 291 592 Mohammed I, Amir of Cordova, 348
Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, Michael I, Emperor of Russia, 483, Mohammed II, Caliph of Cordova,

289, 290, 297, 525, 601 487, 488, 505 348

Mauregato (the Usurper), King of Michael II, Emperor of Byzantium, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Ottoman
Asturias, 349
592 Empire, 525
Maurice, Emperor of Byzantium, 574, Michael II Apafi, Prince of
592 Mohammed III, Caliph of Cordova,
Transylvania, 292, 298
Maurice of Orange, Stadholder of the Michael III, Emperor of Byzantium, 348
United Provinces, 400, 410
592 Mohammed Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 585,
Maxentius, Roman Emperor, 27, 46 Michael IV, Emperor of Byzantium,
Maximian, Roman Emperor, 25, 46 596
577, 592
Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico, Michael V, Emperor of Byzantium, Mohammed bin Yacoub, Sultan of
121, 122, 277, 278, 374
577, 593 Almohade, 349
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, Mojmir I, Leader of the Great
Michael VI, Emperor of Byzantium,
86, 87, 88, 89, 169, 171, 172, 245, Moravian Empire, 600, 601
263, 270 271, 272, 281, 329, 593 Mondhir, Amir of Cordova, 348
Moulay Hacen, King of Granada, 349
393-394 Michael VII, Emperor of Byzantium, Moyses Szekely, Prince of
Maximilian I Joseph, King of Bavaria,
577, 593 Transylvania, 298
264
Michael VIII Palaeologus, Emperor of Mstislav, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, Byzantium, 593 Murat, King of Naples, 111, 117
Murat I (Murad; Amurath), Sultan of
263, 270, 272, 281, 398, 514 Michael Apafi, Prince of Transylvania,
Maximilian II Joseph, King of 292, 298 the Ottoman Empire, 541, 563,

Bavaria, 264 Michel Asen, King of Bulgaria, 550 593
Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki, King
Maximinus, Roman Emperor, 27, 46 Murat II (Murad II), Sultan of the
Maximinus Thrax, Roman Emperor, of Poland, 522 Ottoman Empire, 579, 594

25, 46 Michael of Tver, Grand Duke of Murat III (Murad), Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire, 594
Maximus, Roman Emperor, of the Valdimir, 505
Michael Palaeologus, Regent of Murat IV (Murad), Sultan of the
West, 47, 52 Ottoman Empire, 594
Byzantium, 593
Mehmet I (Mohammed I), Sultan of Michael Racovita, Prince of Walachia, Murat V, Sultan of the Ottoman
Empire, 587, 594
the Ottoman Empire, 578, 579, 535
594 Mieszko (the Stumbling), King of Musa, Interregnum Sultan of the
Mehmet II (Mohammed), Sultan of Ottoman Empire, 594
the Ottoman Empire, 579, 580, Poland, 521
594 Musa, Moorish Amir, 320-321, 348,
Mehmet III (Mohammed), Sultan of Mieszko I, King of Poland, 506, 521 354
the Ottoman Empire, 594 Mieszko II Lambert, King of Poland,
Mehmet IV (Mohammed), Sultan of Mustafa I, Sultan of the Ottoman
the Ottoman Empire, 515, 583, 521 Empire, 594
594
Mieszko III (the Old), King of Mustafa II, Sultan of the Ottoman
Mehmet V (Mohammed), Sultan of Empire, 584, 594
Poland, 521
the Ottoman Empire, 588, Mustafa III, Sultan of the Ottoman
589-590, 594 Miguel, King of Portugal, 363, 364, Empire, 594
Mehmet VI (Mohammed), Sultan of 367, 374
the Ottoman Empire, 578, 590, Mustafa IV, Sultan of the Ottoman
591, 594 Mihai Sturdza, Prince of Moldavia, Empire, 586, 594
Merovech (Meerwig), King of the 535
Franks, 54, 58, 124, 233 Mustafa Kemal, Pasha of Turkey, 589
Michael, King of Bulgaria, 551 Miklos Horthy of Nagybanya, Regent
Michael, King of Romania, 531, 532, of Hungary, 296-297, 298 N
533-534, 536
Milan, Prince of Serbia, 304, 316 Napoleon I (Bonaparte), Emperor of
Michael, Prince of Serbia, 304, 305, Milan I, King of Serbia, 304-305, 316
Milos Obrenovic, Prince of Serbia, France. 37, 107-117, 119, 126,
210-211, 241, 251-253, 270, 301,
303-304, 305, 316 303, 335. 363, 372, 403, 423, 439,
Mircea (the Old), Prince of Walachia,

525, 534

INDEX 623

461, 463, 464, 466, 496, 497, 518, Olaf V, King of Norway, 442, 443, Paul, King of Greece, 315, 346
585, 596, 598 444, 446 Paul, Regent of Yugoslavia, 313-314,

Napoleon II, Emperor of France, 111, Olaf Geirstada, King of Norway, 445 315, 316
Olaf Skottkonung, King of Sweden, Paul I, Emperor of Russia, 495-496,
114, 117, 126
Napoleon III (Charles Louis 448 497, 505
Olaf Traetelia, King of Norway, 445, Paul I, King of Greece, 566-568, 571
Napoleon), Emperor of France, 38, Pedro I, King of Navarre, 351
480 Pedro I, King of Portugal, 357, 366
111, 113, 120-124, 126, 216, 257, Pedro I (the Cruel), King of Castile,
278, 403, 410 Oleg (Helgi), Grand Duke of Kiev,
81, 155, 323, 324, 350
Nazar, King of Granada, 349 483, 505 Pedro II, King of Aragon, 74-75,
Neagoe Basarab, Prince of Walachia, Olga (Saint), Regent of Kiev, 483, 505
351
526, 534 Olybrius, Roman Emperor, of the
Pedro II, King of Portugal, 362, 367,
Nero, Roman Emperor, 16, 17-18, 23, West, 47 374
Ordono I, King of Asturias, 349
46 Ordono II, King of Leon, 349 Pedro III, King of Portugal, 367
Ordono III, King of Leon, 322, 350 Pedro III (the Great), King of
Nerva, Roman Emperor, 20, 46 Orhan (Orkhan), Sultan of the
Aragon, 76-77, 323, 351
Nicephorus I, Emperor of Byzantium, Ottoman Empire, 578, 593 Pedro IV, King of Portugal, 364, 367
538, 592 Oscar I, King of Norway and Sweden, Pedro IV (the Ceremonious), King of

Nicephorus II, Emperor of 440, 441, 446, 465^66, 467, 481 Aragon, 351
Byzantium, 592 Oscar II, King of Norway and Pedro V, King of Portugal, 364, 367
Pelayo, King of Oviedo, 322, 349, 355
Nicephorus III Botaniates, Emperor Sweden, 440, 441, 446, 466,
of Byzantium, 577, 593 468^69, 470, 471, 481 Pepin I (the Elder), Mayor of the

Nicholas I, Emperor of Russia, 215, Osman I (Ottoman), Emir of the Palace, 58, 60, 125, 261, 384
467, 492, 498, 499, 500, 505, 585 Ottoman Empire, 578, 593
Pepin II (L'Heuristal), Mayor of the
Nicholas I, King of Montenegro, 308, Osman II (Young Osman), Sultan of
316 the Ottoman Empire, 594 Palace, 58, 59, 125, 261, 384

Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia, 426, Osman III, Sultan of the Ottoman Pepin III (the Short), Mayor of the
492, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505
Empire, 594 Palace, 60, 61, 125, 233, 234, 261
Nicholas Alexander, Prince of
Walachia, 534 Otho, Roman Emperor, 18, 46 Perdiccas II, King of Macedonia, 571
Perdiccas III, King of Macedonia,
Nicholas Mavrocordat, Prince of Ottar Vendilkraka, Chief of the
Walachia, 535 Ynglings, 480 571

Niels (the Elder), King of Denmark, Otto, Coregent of Austria, 281 Perseus, King of Macedonia, 571
430 Otto, King of Bavaria, 264
Otto, King of Greece, 374 Pertinax, Coregent of Roman Empire,
Njord, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Otto I (the Great), Holy Roman 24, 46
Numa Pompilus, Mythical King, 46
Emperor, 48, 67, 236, 237, 262, Pescennius Niger, Roman Emperor,
o 266, 271
Otto I (Otho), King of Greece, 561, 46
Odin (of the North), King of 571 Peter, Emperor of Byzantium, 593
Denmark, 412, 430, 480 Peter (the Lame), Prince of Moldavia,
Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, 237,
Odoacer, Chief of the Visigoths, 30, 535
31 262 Peter I, Czar of Bulgaria, 550
Peter I, Prince-Bishop of Montenegro,
Olaf (the Lap-King), Chief of the Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, 237,
Skioldungs, 480 316
238, 262 Peter I (the Great), Emperor of
Olaf (the Mild), King of Denmark,
430 Otto IV of Saxony, Holy Roman Russia, 461, 489-491, 492, 493,
494, 500, 505, 527
Olaf I (the Hungry), King of Emperor, 35, 73-74, 263, 388 Peter I Karadjordjevic, King of
Denmark, 430 Ottokar I, King of Bohemia, 601 Serbia, 305, 308, 310, 316
Ottokar II of Bohemia, King of
Olaf I Tryggvason, King of Norway, Peter II, Emperor of Russia, 492, 493,
413, 433, 446 Austria, 267, 268, 269, 281, 600,
601 505
Olaf II, King of Denmark, 430, 446
Olaf II Haraldson (Saint), King of Otto of Bavaria, King of Hungary, Peter II, King of Yugoslavia,
297 313-315, 316, 530
Norway, 433, 434, 435, 446
Olaf III (the Peaceful), King of Patrascu (the Kind), Prince of Peter II, Prince-Bishop of
Walachia, 534 Montenegro, 316
Norway, 435, 436, 446
Peter III, Emperor of Russia, 491,

494, 505

624 Philip VI (the Fortunate), King of INDEX

Peter Asen II, Czar of Bulgaria, 539, France, 78-79, 125, 154 Richard I (the Lion-Heart), King of
550 Philip of Orleans, Regent of France, England, 72-73, 145-148, 228

Peter Orseolo, King of Hungary, 286, 104, 126 Richard II, King of England, 81,
297 155-158, 159, 171, 228
Philippicus, Emperor of Byzantium,
Petronilla, Queen of Navarre, 322, 351 Richard III, King of England, 86,
592 165-168, 229
Petronius Maximus, Roman Emperor, Philippus (Philip the Arabian),
Richard of Cornwall, Holy Roman
of the West, 47 Roman Emperor, 25, 46
Petru Aaron, Prince of Walachia, 534 Phocas, Emperor of Byzantium, 574, Emperor, 263
Petru Cercel, Prince of Walachia, 534
Petru Musat, Prince of Moldavia, 535 592 Robert, Duke of Burgundy, 69
Petru Rares, Prince of Moldavia, 535 Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens, 554 Robert, Emperor of Byzantium, 593
Pharamoud, King of the Franks, 54, Premysl, Chief of the Sclavs, 267 Robert (the Strong), Rival King of

124 Probus, Roman Emperor, 25, 46 France, 65, 66, 67, 125
Philip, King of Macedonia, 571
Philip, King of Navarre, 350 Przemysi, King of Poland, 509, 522 Robert I, Count of Flanders, 370, 382,
386
Philip (the Good), Duke of Burgundy, Pupienus Maximus, Roman Emperor,
Robert II, Count of Flanders, 370,
390, 391-393 46 382
Philip (the Handsome), Count of Pyrrhus of Epirus, King of
Robert II (the Pious), King of France,
Holland, 393, 394, 410 Macedonia, 571 68-69, 125

Philip (of Swabia), Holy Roman R Robert III of Bethune, Count of
Flanders, 373, 382
Emperor, 263 Rachis of Friuli, King of the
Philip I, King of Spain, 325, 328, 329, Lombards, 47 Robert Bruce, King of Scotland,
152-153
351 Radbod, King of the Frisians, 384
Radu (the Great), Prince of Walachia, Roderic, King of the Visigoths, 348,
Philip I (the Amorous), King of 354
France, 69-70, 125 534
Rodolf, King of Burgundy, 65
Philip I of Alsace, Count of Flanders, Radu I, Prince of Walachia, 525, 534 Roe, King of Denmark, 430
371, 382 Radu Mihnea, Prince of Walachia, Rolf Krake, King of Denmark, 430

Philip II, King of Macedonia, 538, 534 Roman I, Prince of Moldavia, 535
Romanus I, Emperor of Byzantium,
555, 556, 571 Radu of Afumati, Prince of Walachia,
592
Philip II, King of Spain, 91, 95, 177, 526, 534
178-179, 181, 183, 269, 272, 325, Romanus II, Emperor of Byzantium,
330-332, 351, 361, 371, 395-400 Radu Serban, Prince of Walachia, 534
Ragnar Lodbrok, King of Denmark, 592
Philip II (Augustus; the God-given),
King of France, 35, 72-74, 125, 430, 480 Romanus III, Emperor of Byzantium,
147, 149 Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, 607,
577, 592
Philip II of Burgundy (the Bold), 608
Count of Flanders, 373, 382, 390, Ramiro I, King of Asturias, 349 Romanus IV, Emperor of Byzantium,
410 Ramiro I, King of Navarre, 351
Ramiro II, King of Leon, 350 593
Philip III, King of Spain, 332, 351, Ramiro II (the Monk), King of
400 Romulus (Quirinus), Mythical King,
Navarre, 351 2, 3, 46
Philip III, (the Bold), King of France,
76, 77, 125, 243 Ramiro III, King of Leon, 350 Romulus Augustulus, Roman

Philip III Aridaeus, King of Ramon Berenguer of Barcelona, King Emperor, of the West, 30, 47
Macedonia, 571 Rorik Slyngebaud, King of Denmark,
of Aragon, 322
Philip IV, King of Macedonia, 571 Recared, King of the Visigoths, 320, 430
Philip IV, King of Spain, 332, 351, Rotharis, King of the Lombards, 47
348
362, 401 Recared II, King of the Visigoths, 348 Rudolf I of Habsburg, Holy Roman
Philip IV (the Fair), King of France, Recceswinth, King of the Visigoths,
Emperor, 243, 263, 267, 268, 269,
77-78, 125, 154, 243, 388-389 348 270, 281
Philip V, King of Macedonia, 571 Rene I, King of Naples, 87, 91
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor,
Philip V (the Tall), King of France, Richard (the Fearless), Duke of
Normandy, 68 263, 272, 273, 281, 291, 298, 514
78, 125 Rudolf II of Burgundy, Rival King of
Richard (the Good), Duke of
Philip V of Anjou, King of Spain, Normandy, 68, 135 France, 48, 66, 67, 125

103, 204, 325, 333-334, 347, 351 Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, 271, 281
Philip VI, King of Macedonia, 571 Rupert of the Palatinate, Holy Roman

Emperor, 263

Rurik of Novgorod, Grand Duke of

Kiev, 483, 485. 487, 504, 505

INDEX Poland, 511, 512, 522 625
Sigismund II Augustus, King of
Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, Stephen III (the Lightning), King of
72, 147 Poland, 511, 512, 513, 514, 522 Hungary, 297

Salomon, King of Hungary, 297 Sigismund of Hungary, Holy Roman Stephen IV, King of Hungary, 297
Salomon (Coleman Beauclerc), King Stephen V, King of Hungary, 297
Emperor, 244, 263, 287, 288-289, Stephen Bathory, King of Poland,
of Hungary, 297 297, 601
Samuel, Prince of Bulgaria, 539, 550 Sigismund Rakoczi, Prince of 291, 298, 511, 513, 515
Sanchez I, King of Navarre, 350 Transylvania, 298 Stephen Bethlen, Prince of
Sancho (the Great), King of Navarre, Sigurd I (the Crusader), King of
Norway, 435, 446 Transylvania, 298
350 Sigurd II Mund, King of Norway, 446 Stephen Bocskai, Prince of
Sancho I, King of Portugal, 366 Sigurd Ring, King of Denmark, 430,
Sancho I (the Fat), King of Leon, 350 480 Transylvania, 291, 298
Sancho II, King of Leon and Castile, Sigurd Snogoie (Sigfred), King of Stephen Cantacuzino, Prince of
Denmark, 430
350 Silo, King of Asturias, 349 Moldavia, 535
Sancho II, King of Portugal, 356, 366 Stephen Dusan, Czar of Serbian
Sancho III, King of Castile, 350 Simeon, Grand Duke of Moscow, 505
Sancho III Ramirez, King of Navarre, Simeon I, Czar of Bulgaria, 539, 550 Empire, 302-303, 309
Simeon II, King of Bulgaria, 548, 551 Stephen Nemanja, King of Serbia,
350
Sancho IV, King of Castile, 350 Simeon Movila, Prince of Moldavia, 302, 307-308
535 Suleman, Interregnum, Sultan of the
Sancho V (the Wise), King of
Sisebut, King of the Visigoths, 348 Ottoman Empire, 594
Navarre, 350 Sisenando, King of the Visigoths, 348 Suleyman, Caliph of Cordova, 348,
Sancho VI (the Strong), King of Skiold, King of Denmark, 430
Smilitz, King of Bulgaria, 551 542
Navarre, 350 Sobjislaw, Duke of Bohemia, 601 Suleyman I (Suleiman; the
Sancho Abarca, King of Navarre, 350 Sophia, Regent of Russia, 488, 489,
Sancho Garces, King of Navarre, 350 Magnificent), Sultan of the
Sancho Ramirez, King of Navarre, 490, 505
Ottoman Empire, 580-582, 584,
351 Spithnjew I, Duke of Bohemia, 601 591, 594
Spithnjew II, Duke of Bohemia, 601 Suleyman II (Suleiman), Sultan of the
Sandjar, Grand Sultan of the Seljuk Ottoman Empire, 583, 594
Empire, 594 Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, Svante Nilsson Sture, Regent of
King of Poland, 494, 517, 518, 522 Sweden, 481
Sava, Prince-Bishop of Montenegro, Svatopluk, Leader of the Great
316 Stanislaus Leszczynski, King of Moravian Empire, 600, 601
Poland, 460, 512, 516, 517, 522 Svegdir, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Scarlet Calimah, Prince of Moldavia, Sverker (the Elder), King of Sweden,
535 Stauracius, Emperor of Byzantium 480
592 Sverker (the Younger) Karlsson, King
Sebastian, King of Portugal, 361, 367 of Sweden, 480
Selim I (the Grim), Sultan of the Stefanita, Prince of Moldavia, 535 Sverre, King of Norway, 436, 446
Stefan Razvan, Prince of Moldavia, Sveyn, King of Norway, 446
Ottoman Empire, 580-581, 594 Sviatopolk, Grand Duke of Kiev, 484,
Selim II, Sultan of the Ottoman 535
Stenkil, King of Sweden, 480 505
Empire, 582, 584, 594 Sten Sture (the Elder), Regent of
Selim III, Sultan of the Ottoman Sviatoslav, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505
Sweden, 481 Swartopluk, Duke of Bohemia, 601
Empire, 585, 586, 594 Sten Sture (the Younger), Regent of Sweyn I (the Splitbeard), King of
Seljuk, Chief of Turks, 576
Septimius Severus, Coregent of Sweden, 417, 450, 451, 481 Denmark, 135, 228, 413, 414, 430
Stephen, King of England, 143-144, Sweyn II Estrithson, King of
Roman Empire, 21, 24, 46
228 Denmark, 414, 430
Serban Cantacuzino, Prince of Stephen (the Great), Prince of Sweyn III Grade, King of Denmark,
Walachia, 534
Moldavia, 525, 526, 535 430
Sevius Tullius, Mythical King, 46 Stephen (the Little), Prince-Bishop of Swintilla, King of the Visigoths, 348
Syiatoslav, Grand Duke of Kiev, 484,
Severus, Roman Emperor, 46, 129 Montenegro, 316
Stephen I, Prince of Moldavia, 535 505
Siegbert I, King of the Franks, 56, 57, Stephen I (Istvan; Saint Stephen),
58, 124, 234, 261 Tacitus, Roman Emperor, 46
King of Hungary, 283, 284,
Sigismund, King of Sweden, 453, 481, 285-286, 297
488, 514, 517, 522 Stephen II, King of Hungary, 297

Sigismund, Prince of Transylvania,
298

Sigismund I (the Old), King of

626 Tomislav, King of the Croats, 301, 1
312
Tank, Moorish Amir, 320, 348 INDEX
Tarquinius Priscus, Mythical King, 46 Tortila (Baduila), King of the
Tarquinius Superbus, Mythical King, Ostrogoths, 47 Vespasian, Roman Emperor, 16, 18,

46 Trajan, Roman Emperor, 20-21, 46, 19,46, 51
Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, 32, 47
Teobaldo I, King of Navarre, 350 319, 523, 524 Victoria, Queen of England, 121,
Teobaldo II, King of Navarre, 350 213-218, 230, 259
Teshoufin bin Ali, Sultan of Tughrul Beg, Grand Sultan of the
Viriato, Chief of Lusitanians, 354
Almoravide, 349 Seljuk Empire, 576, 594 Visbur, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Theodatus, King of the Ostrogoths, 47 Tulga, King of the Visigoths, 348
Theodebald (Hildibald), King of the Tullus Hostilius, Mythical King, 46 Vitellius, Roman Emperor, 18-19, 46

Ostrogoths, 47 u Vitiges, King of the Ostrogoths, 47
Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, Vittorio Emanuele II, King of Italy,
Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden,
47 38, 39, 40, 48, 338
Theodomir, King of the Visigoths, 348 460, 461, 481 Vittorio Emanuele III, King of Italy,
Theodora, Empress of Byzantium,
Umberto I, King of Italy, 40, 41, 48 42, 43, 45, 48, 547, 597
574, 593 Umberto II, King of Italy, 43, 45, 48, Vlad (the Impaler), Prince of
Theodora, Empress (Regent) of
376 Walachia, 525, 534
Byzantium, 592 Urraca, Queen of Leon and Castile, Vladimir (Saint; the Sunny), Grand
Theodore, King of Abyssinia, 215, 216
Theodore I Lascaris, Emperor of 350 Duke of Kiev, 483, 484, 505
Vladivoj of Poland, Duke of Bohemia,
Byzantium, 593 Valdemar I (the Great), King of
Theodore II Lascaris, Emperor of Denmark, 414, 430 601

Byzantium, 593 Valdemar I Birgersson, King of Vortigern, King of Kent, 129
Theodoric (the Great), King of the Sweden, 481 Vratislav I, Duke of Bohemia, 600,

Ostrogoths, 31, 32-33, 47 Valdemar II Sejr (the Victorious), 601
Theodoric I (Thierry I), King of the King of Denmark, 414, 415, 430
Vratislav II (Vaclav), Duke of
Visigoths, 30, 233, 261 Valdemar IV Atterdag (the Restorer),
King of Denmark, 415, 416, 417, Bohemia, 508, 600, 601
Theodosius I (the Great), Roman 430
Vsevolod, Grand Duke of Kiev
Emperor, of the East, 28, 29-30, Valdimir Monomachus, Grand Duke
47, 52, 54, 574 (1078-1093), 505
Theodosius II, Emperor of of Kiev, 505
Byzantium, 592 Valdislav Vlaicu, Prince of Walachia, Vsevolod, Grand Duke of Kiev
Theodosius III, Emperor of
Byzantium, 592 534 (1139-1146), 505
Theophilus, Emperor of Byzantium,
592 Valens, Roman Emperor, of the East, Vsevold, Grand Duke of Valdimir,
Theresa, Regent of Portugal, 356, 366
Theudebert, King of the Franks, 57 27, 28, 29, 47, 574 505
Theuderick, King of the Franks, 57
Theuderick IV, King of the Franks, Valentinian I, Roman Emperor, of the w
58
Theudes, King of the Visigoths, 348 West, 27, 47, 574 Wallia, King of the Visigoths, 348
Thierry III, King of the Franks, 59, Wamba, King of the Visigoths, 348
124 Valentinian II, Roman Emperor, of Wenceslaus (Wenzel; the Holy), Duke
Thierry IV, King of the Franks, 60,
124 the West, 27, 47 of Bohemia, 60
Wenceslaus I (Wenzel), King of
Thomas of Savoy, Count of Flanders, Valentinian III, Roman Emperor, of
Bohemia, 601
372, 382 the West, 47 Wenceslaus II (Wenzel), King of

Tiberius, Roman Emperor, 15-16, 46 Valerian, Roman Emperor, 25, 46, Bohemia, 600, 601
Wenceslaus III (Wenzel of Bohemia),
Tiberius II Constantinus, Emperor of 575
Byzantium, 592 Vanland (Valland), Chief of the King of Hungary, 297, 600
Wenceslaus III of Bohemia, King of
Tiberius III Apsimar, Emperor of Ynglings, 480
Byzantium, 592 Vasie Lupu, Prince of Moldavia, 527, Poland, 509, 522, 600, 601
Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, Holy
Titus, Roman Emperor, 16, 19-20, 46 535
Vasili, Prince-Bishop of Montenegro, Roman Emperor, 263, 601

316 Wilhelmina, Queen of the

Vermund (the Sage), King of Netherlands, 315, 404-^05, 407,
Denmark, 430 410

William, Duke of Austria, 281
William (the Conqueror), King of

England, 69, 131. 136, 137,
138-141, 228, 385
William I, Count of Holland, 409

INDEX William V, Stadholder of the 627
Netherlands, 372-373, 402^03,
William I, Emperor of Germany, 122, 410 Yaroslav of Tver, Grand Duke of
251, 253, 255, 256, 258, 264
William VI, Count of Holland, 390 Valdimir, 505
William I, King of the Netherlands, William Clito of Normandy, Count of Yngvar, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
403, 404, 410, 605 Yngve, Chief of the Ynglings, 480
Flanders, 371, 382 Yolande, Empress of Byzantium, 593
William I (the Silent), Stadholder of Youcef I, King of Granada, 349
the Netherlands, 183, 395-399 William of Holland, Holy Roman Youcef II, King of Granada, 349
Youcef III, King of Granada, 349
William II, Emperor of Gemany, 217, Emperor, 263, 386 Yousouf abou Yacoub, Sultan of
William of Wied, Ruler of Albania,
220, 251, 256, 257, 259, 260-261, Almohade, 349
264, 471 596 Yousouf bin Teshonfin, Sultan of
William II, King of the Netherlands, Witiza, King of the Visigoths, 348
404,410 Almoravide, 349
William II, Stadholder of the Yacoub bin Yousouf, Sultan of
Netherlands, 410 Almohade, 349 Yuri II, Grand Duke of Valdimir, 505
William II (Rufus), King of England Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, Grand
141-143, 228 Yahya bin Ali, Caliph of Cordova,
William III, King of England, 102, Duke of Valdimir, 505
192, 195, 200-203, 204, 212, 239, 348 Yuri Dolgoruki, Grand Duke of
401
William III, King of the Netherlands, Yaropolk, Grand Duke of Kiev, 505 Valdimir, 505
404, 410 Yaroslav (the Just), Grand Duke of
William IV, King of England, Zbigniew, King of Poland, 521
212-213, 230 Kiev, 483, 484, 505
William IV (Friso), Stadholder of the Zeno, Roman Emperor, of the East,
Netherlands, 402, 410 Yaroslav II, Grand Duke of Valdimir,
30, 31, 47
505 Zog I, King of the Albanians, 597