Conflict Between India and Pakistan - An Encyclopedia

84 INDUS WATERS TREATY

Satellite photograph of the Indus River Valley in Pakistan and Soon after the 1947 partitions, Pakistan accused
western India. (Corel) India of deliberately cutting off supplies. India’s
supposed intention was to divert the waters of the
three main eastern rivers into irrigation canals ser-
ving its own territory by 1962.

In accordance with World Bank suggestions,
however, the two governments agreed in 1960 that
feeder canals should be dug from the western rivers
to supply the areas of Pakistan that had hitherto de-
pended on the eastern rivers. Financial help was
promised under the auspices of The World Bank.

As a result, Pakistan had the use of the western
rivers and India that of the eastern. At the end of the
20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the
Indus Waters Treaty is often cited as an example of
what India and Pakistan can achieve together when
they agree.

See also Indus River; Punjab; Sind.
References
Razvi, Mujtaba. The Frontiers of Pakistan. Karachi, Pak.:

Dacca National Publishing House Ltd., 1971.
Spate, O. H. K. India and Pakistan: A General and

Regional Geography. New York: Methuen, 1954

river’s gradient is low and in some places carries INTER-SERVICES INTELLIGENCE (ISI)
down enough detritus to raise the riverbed above Pakistan has two civilian intelligence agencies and
the level of the surrounding plains with the conse- two military intelligence services. The civilian Intel-
quent threat of flooding. ligence Bureau (IB) is responsible for national police
affairs and counterintelligence. Along with the po-
As a protection against floods, the river is con- lice’s Special Branch, it reports to the interior minis-
fined by bunds (levees). Near Tatta its distributaries ter and prime minister. Overshadowing them (in
begin to spread out on their way to the sea. This large part because the post of IB director is now
deltaic region is generally level but also infertile. The filled by an army general) are the army’s Directorate
marshes make good pasturage, and rice grows of Intelligence, responsible for military intelligence
abundantly where cultivation is possible. broadly defined and the increasingly influential
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI).
See also Indus Civilization; Indus Waters Treaty (1960).
References Army intelligence now has a Corps of Intelli-
Ahsan, Aztzaz. The Indus Saga and the Making of gence. The ISI’s head is a lieutenant-general ap-
pointed by the army chief, but he reports to the
Pakistan. Lahore, Pak.: Nehr Ghar Publications, prime minister. (When there is no prime minister,
1996 the ISI’s director reported to General Pervez
Spate, O. H. K. India and Pakistan: A General and Musharraf in his capacity as chief executive.) About
Regional Geography. New York: Methuen, 1954 80 percent of ISI is drawn from Pakistan’s three mil-
itary services and there is a small cadre of civilians.
INDUS WATERS TREATY (1960) Most of ISI’s officers are on deputation from the
The partition of the subcontinent in 1947 not only army. The ISI is primarily responsible for Pakistan’s
divided territory, notably in Punjab and Bengal, but foreign intelligence. This means in effect a principal
also left India in control of the headwaters of the concentration on India but with some attention to
rivers needed by both countries. The vast and com- Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Iran, and other
plex Indus River system was supplemented by an ex- neighboring states.
tensive network of irrigation canals in the Punjab
and the Sind.

ISLAM 85

The year 1971 was significant for the ISI and led without the British Empire, the formation of
to a considerable expansion of its personnel and ac- a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim
tivities. Because it was believed that Bengali IB offi- State appears to me the final destiny of the
cers could not be trusted in East Pakistan, the ISI Muslims, at least of Northwest India.
was heavily relied on and began to recruit Islamist
groups, including students, for counterinsurgency This was the first time that the idea of a separate
operations. When Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came back to state for the Muslims had been put forward on the
high office in 1972, he increased the budget of the platform of a political party.
ISI substantially and used the organization in Af-
ghanistan to spy on domestic opponents. During See also Baluchistan; Muslim League; Punjab; North
the Soviet Union’s occupation of Afghanistan West Frontier Province; Sind.
(1979–1989), the ISI was expanded considerably
with support coming from both Saudi Arabia and References
the United States. Its resources, influence, and for- Bahadur, Lal. The Muslim League: Its History, Activities
eign contacts swelled considerably as well. It also ex-
panded its authority to include Pakistan’s domestic and Achievements. Lahore, Pak.: Book Traders, 1979
arrangements, especially from 1999 under the direc- Cohen, S. “Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear War in South
tion of President Musharraf.
Asia: Unknowable Futures.” In Ramesh Thakur and
See also Afghanistan; Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali; Musharraf, Oddny Wiggen, eds. South Asia in the World: Problem
Pervez; Research and Analysis Wing (RAW). Solving Perspectives on Security, Sustainable
Development and Good Governance. Tokyo: United
References Nations University Press, 2004
Cohen, S. P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC:
IRREDENTISM
Brookings Institution Press, 2004 “Irredentism” derives from Italian sources and
Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst means unredeemed, a claim to gain or regain terri-
tory. It thus posits a revisionist claim to territory
and Company, 1998 usually on the ground that the claimant group or
government believes it has a legitimate basis for its
IQBAL, MUHAMMAD (1873–1938) claim. In Indo-Pakistan relations, the best–known
Poet and putative father of Pakistan, Muhammad and most contested and substantial claim is that of
Iqbal is recognized as the national poet for the coun- Pakistan to the whole of Kashmir, principally on the
try that only came into being nearly a decade after ground of self-determination for the Muslim ma-
his death. Born at Sialkot in Punjab to devout and jority population of that state and on the supposi-
pious Muslim parents who inculcated the teachings tion that, in the event of there being a free plebiscite,
of Islam in him, he was educated at Government a majority of Muslims would vote to join Pakistan.
College, Lahore, where he graduated in 1899 and was
appointed lecturer in philosophy. He then studied See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK); Kutch (Cutch),
philosophy in Cambridge and also qualified as a bar- Rann of.
rister. He began practicing law in Lahore but soon
gave it up to write full-time. Soon he was recognized ISLAM
as a thinker of importance and the most distin- Islam is of great significance in South Asia’s past and
guished Urdu poet of his time. He was knighted in present. Today it is the state religion of Pakistan and
1922 in recognition of his distinction as a poet. of Bangladesh, and India has the second largest
Muslim population in the world, after Indonesia.
Temperamentally he was unsuited to politics,
and his only notable contribution in this respect was Islam—“the inner peace that comes from sub-
as president of the All India Muslim League in 1930 mission to the will of Allah”—spread through Ara-
when he said: bia in the last 10 years of the life of Mohammad (ca.
570–632) and was carried so rapidly eastward and
I would like to see the Punjab, North-West westward that by the early 8th century, Muslim
Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan armies had entered Sind (now part of Pakistan) and
amalgamated into a single state. Self- taken Toledo in Spain. Islam thus became a complex
government within the British Empire or ingredient within South Asia from the 8th century
down to today.

86 ISLAM

While the Sunni majority of Muslims has always turn, however, in the 1940s and again since the early
accepted the legitimate succession of Mohammed’s 1980s. Changes in the regional environment, in ad-
first four caliphs, the influential Shia minority ac- dition to the emergence of a much more politicized
knowledges the authority only of Mohammad’s and at times violent aspects of Islam, introduced a
son-in-law, Ali, and his descendants. This sectarian new phenomenon of sectarianism to Pakistan.
division, the emergence of rival caliphates (in Bagh-
dad, Cairo, and Cordoba), and a shift of political The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in late De-
power through Syria to Iraq broke the early unity of cember 1977 brought funding from the United
Islam. Though receding in Europe by 800, Islam States and Saudi Arabia for (mostly Sunni) Islamic
survived as a pervasive culture in substantial parts of radical groups to fight against Kabul’s pro-Soviet
Asia, west and south of China. Between ca.1000 and incumbents. The 1979 Islamic revolution that
1350, armies, traders, and proselytizers carried ended the monarchy in predominantly Shia Iran
Islam widely into northern India. ushered in a new wave of Shia radicalism in the re-
gion. When the then Pakistani military ruler, Gen-
Differences between the majority Sunni and mi- eral Zia-ul-Haq, tried to introduce his own concept
nority Shia Muslims thus date back to the earliest of Sunni Islam, bloody conflict broke out. Radical
days of Islam and are directly linked to the issue of groups such as Sipah-e-Sahaba and Tehreek-e-
succession following the death of the Prophet Jafria have their roots in the professions, policies,
Muhammad. The Shia believe that, after Prophet and clashes of those days. Many believe that during
Muhammad’s death, his son-in-law, Ali, should have this period and afterward, Pakistan became the bat-
been given the reins of administration. They still re- tleground for a proxy war, a stage on which differ-
gard him as the first iman, or spiritual leader. The ent organizations and countries belonging to vari-
Sunni, however, believe that the appointment of one ous schools of extremist Islam supported members
of the Prophet’s companions, Abu Bakr, as the first of their faith and belief.
Caliph was correct.
From the 1990s, the phenomenon of the Taliban
The Sunnis also respect Ali as the fourth caliph of (literally, students) also fueled this violence, as a
Islam. In 661 Ali was murdered, and his chief oppo- number of Sunni extremist groups found both
nent, Muawiya, became caliph. It was the death of refuge and training grounds in Afghanistan. Vio-
Ali that led to the great schism between Sunnis and lence continued sporadically in different forms
Shias. Muawiya laid the foundation of family rule in even after the country’s central government seemed
Islam, and he was later succeeded by his son, Yazid. to be in the saddle. In the early 21st century, new,
But Ali’s son, Hussein, refused to accept his legiti- more radical groups have emerged, and they target
macy, and fighting followed. Hussein and his fol- each other with venom. Between the incumbencies
lowers were massacred in battle near Karbala in 680. of General Zia and General Pervez Musharraf in
The deaths of both Ali and Hussein gave rise to the Pakistan, successive military and/or political
Shia characteristics of martyrdom and sense of be- regimes have tried to tackle the problem but with-
trayal. Even in the early 21st century, Shia all over out notable successes, their disclaimers to the con-
the world commemorate the killing of Hussein with trary notwithstanding.
processions of mourning, in Pakistan and other
parts of the Muslim world. The events of September 11, 2001, in the United
States, wreaking great terrorist damage and de-
Shia Islam has always been the faith of the poor struction on American soil, produced dramatic
and oppressed, of those waiting for deliverance. It is changes in perceptions and policies around the
seen as a messianic faith awaiting the coming of the world. In 2002 President Musharraf launched a
so-called hidden Iman, Allah’s messenger who will major campaign against Islamic extremists, ban-
reverse their fortunes and herald the reign of divine ning several groups. Within weeks, however, many
justice. Today, the Shia make up about 15 percent of had resurfaced with new names but the same old
the total worldwide Muslim population. In Pak- characteristics, and they were again outlawed by
istan, as in most Islamic countries, the differences Pakistan’s government in 2003. Yet recent history
between Sunni and Shia were initially confined to seems to suggest that declaring radical groups ille-
academic debate, and violent incidents were ex- gal and outlawed does little or nothing to solve the
tremely rare. The relationships took a dramatic problem.

ISMAY, BARON HASTINGS LIONEL 87

In fact some Sunni extremist groups based in ISMAY, BARON HASTINGS LIONEL
Pakistan seem to have been redefining their agen- (1887–1965)
das, joining up with suspected al-Qaeda groups in A distinguished British Army officer and public ser-
a so-called “global jihad.” At least two groups, with vant, Baron Hastings Lionel Ismay was born in
bases in Pakistan, have been involved in attacks India. He was chief of the viceroy’s staff from the
against other minorities, particularly Christians. spring of 1947 until early 1948 and Lord Mountbat-
Yet another group was found to be involved in the ten’s chief adviser and executor in the critical
two attacks on President Musharraf’s life in De- months that produced India and Pakistan as inde-
cember 2003. The group’s leader, Amjad Farooqui, pendent, mutually distrustful states.
was subsequently killed in a gun battle with secu-
rity forces. Initially Ismay had hoped that partition could be
avoided, but he came to accept its draconian neces-
Senior Pakistani officials believe that the cycle of sity. After his extensive war efforts, Ismay was tired
violence in 2004–2005 is partly sectarian and partly by the time he became Mountbatten’s right-hand
linked to the efforts by extremist groups to destabi- man in India. But his sense of duty was high and, as
lize the government. Having been hit in Karachi and one of his biographers wrote
Quetta by government forces, it appears that terror-
ist groups then returned to the Punjab to carry out [H]is performance as a catalyst, a
their activities. These same officials say that attacks tranquillizer, and a constructive negotiator
on Sunni gatherings in Mutan in early 2005 suggest was exemplary. Trusted by all parties, by his
that, after a series of attacks against Shia mosques, a calmness and accumulated wisdom he
new group of extremists may have emerged to balanced the mercurial energy of
avenge the killings. After a brief respite in 2003, 2004 Mountbatten, who more than once
was a particularly bad year for internal violence in despatched him to London to conduct critical
Pakistan. Between 1980 and 2005, more than 4,000 negotiations. (Lewin 2004, 438–40)
people have been killed in Shia–Sunni violence in
Pakistan. Subsequent to his service alongside the last
viceroy, Ismay was chair of the council for the Festi-
See also Afghanistan; al-Qaeda/al-Qa’ida; Taliban; Zia- val of Britain (held in 1951), secretary of state for
ul-Haq, Muhammad. Commonwealth Relations in Churchill’s second ad-
ministration, and then as the first secretary-general
References of NATO.
Esposito J. L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. New York:
See also Mountbatten of Burma.
Oxford University Press, 1999 References
Maley, William, ed. Fundamentalism Reborn? Lewin, Ronald. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

Afghanistan and the Taliban. New York: Hurst and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004
Company, 1998 Wingate, Lord Ismay. Memoirs. London: Heinemann.
Pande, B. N. Islam and Indian Culture. Patna: Khuda
Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, 1987 1960
Zahab, Abou M., and R. Olivier. Islamic Networks:The Ziegler, P. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York: Alfred
Afghan-Pakistan Connection. New York: Hurst and
Company, 2004 A. Knopf, 1985



JAMAAT-I-ISLAMI (JI) J
This Islamic movement was founded in 1941 in op-
position to the Muslim League–led Pakistan move- Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
ment. Following the emergence of Pakistan, the JI and Company, 1998
moved its headquarters from East Punjab and
worked for the Islamization of the state. Stringent JAMMU-KASHMIR. SEE KASHMIR: ORIGIN
membership requirements have limited the JI’s im- OF INDO-PAKISTAN DISPUTE.
pact, but its discipline and organization have been
displayed in the many street rallies and agitations it JANA SANGH
has mobilized against what it has castigated as un- A Hindu-chauvinist party, Jana Sangh was formed
Islamic governments. The JI led the 1953 anti- in 1951 with its strength mainly in Hindi-speaking
Ahmadi agitation and opposed both Mohammed urban northern India. It merged with the Janata
Ayub Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, though it even- Party in 1977 and reemerged as the Bharatiya Janata
tually broke with Nawaz Sharif. Party (BJP) after 1980. Much of its political leader-
ship was drawn from the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
The JI came closest to influencing governmental Sangh (RSS).
policies during the early part of Zia’s regime in the See also Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP); Janata Party;
late 1970s. It eventually split from Zia because of its
criticism of what it characterized as merely cos- Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).
metic state-sponsored Islamization and because of References
the restrictions imposed on its powerful student or- Hardgrave, R. L., and S. A. Kochanet. India: Government
ganization Jamiat-e-Tuleba-e-Pakistan in 1984. The
JI closely supported Gulbudding Hekmatyar’s fun- and Politics in a Developing Nation, 6th ed. Fort
damentalist Hezb-i-Islami during Afghanistan’s Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000
turbulent civil war and Soviet occupation, and the
support continued after the Soviet withdrawal. The JANATA DAL
JI has also supported Kashmiri militants and earlier A party formed from the Jan Morcha, the Janata
aided opponents of East Pakistan’s Awami League in Party faction of the Lok Dal and a Congress Party
1970–1971. splinter known as the Congress (S). In 1989 it had
141 of the 144 seats held by the National Front in
Despite the JI’s opposition to Anglo-American the parliament that formed the government led by
styles of democracy, it has contested national and Vishwanath Pratap Singh. After several splits and
provincial elections (with the exception of the Feb- mergers, by 2002 it survived only in the state of
ruary 1997 polls) including the 1985 partyless elec- Karnataka.
tions. It has met with little electoral success, however, See also Janata Party; Jan Morcha.
because of its inability to expand beyond narrow References
lower-middle-class urban support. Informed com- Hardgrave, R. L., and S. A. Kochanet. India: Government
mentators stress, however, that, despite its limited
electoral impact, the JI can influence politics and Politics in a Developing Nation, 6th ed. Fort
through both street agitation and formulating an Is- Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000
lamic agenda to which all parties have to respond.
89
See also Muslim League; Punjab.
References
Cohen, S. P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC:

Brookings Institution Press, 2004

90 JANATA PARTY

JANATA PARTY reputation as an economist of distinction, as a
The Janata Party was created out of a wide variety of leader in the Indian Civil Service (ICS), and as
opposition parties to fight primarily against the chairman of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Congress Party in the 1977 election, which was Trade (GATT) in the 1950s. He rendered signal ser-
called immediately after the end of the Emergency vices to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). He was
(1975–1977). It formed Indira Gandhi’s govern- governor of Jammu-Kashmir (1973–1977).
ment in 1977–1979. It merged with the Jan Morcha
and other parties to form the Janata Dal. Popularly known as LK, Jha was born in the
Darbhanga district of Bihar. He graduated from
See also Emergency; Janata Dal; Jan Morcha. Benares Hindu University and Trinity College,
References Cambridge, where he was a student of such
Hardgrave, R. L., and S. A. Kochanet. India: Government renowned economists as Arthur Cecil Pigou, John
Maynard Keynes, Sir Dennis Holme Robertson,
and Politics in a Developing Nation, 6th ed. Fort and Joan Robinson. He joined the ICS in 1936.
Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000 After serving in Bihar in the districts and in the
provincial secretariat, he was seconded to the gov-
JAN MORCHA ernment in 1942. He worked successively as deputy
Jan Morcha, meaning People’s Movement, was secretary to the Chief Controller of Imports and
founded in October 1987 as a nonparty populist op- Exports, joint secretary to the Ministry of Com-
position group by Vishwanath Pratap Singh and merce and Industry, and secretary for the Ministry
others who had been expelled from Congress six of Heavy Industry. He was India’s principal repre-
months earlier. Later it merged with the Janata Dal. sentative in the General Agreement of Tariffs and
Its major leaders other than Singh left the party in Trade (GATT) and its chair (1957–1958). He was
April 1991. Singh, who had been finance and then secretary of the Department of Economic Affairs in
defense minister under Rajiv Gandhi, became a con- the Ministry of Finance in 1960 and was appointed
troversial figure because of his efforts to tackle tax to the newly created post of principal secretary to
evaders and to eliminate corruption, especially from then Prime Minister Lal Bahadu Shastri in 1964
governmental arms deals. He was the principal ar- and then continued in the same capacity under
chitect of India’s new liberal economic policy. He Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
was ousted from Rajiv Gandhi’s government in
April 1987. From July 1967 to May 1970, Jha held the office
of governor of the Reserve Bank of India when he
In the summer of 1988, the Jan Morcha merged stressed the importance of strengthening India’s
with the Janata Party and the two Lok Dal factions banking system, especially in contributing to eco-
to become the new Janata Dal. Also in the summer nomic growth. In May 1970 he became India’s am-
of 1988, Singh won a dramatic victory in a parlia- bassador to the United States. When the Bangladesh
mentary by-election in Allahabad in his home state War broke out in 1971, Jha was a principal and in-
of Uttar Pradesh. Singh became India’s prime min- fluential presenter of India’s case.
ister from November 1989 to November 1990 and
leader of the Janata Dal. From 1977 he was a member (and the deputy
chairman) of the Brandt Commission, playing a
See also Janata Dal; Uttar Pradesh. major role in shaping its two main reports. Jha was
References a committed advocate of economic liberalization, a
Hardgrave, R. L., and S. A. Kochanet. India: Government process that has gained much subsequent momen-
tum in India. He argued that, although economic
and Politics in a Developing Nation, 6th ed. Fort liberalization may temporarily bring in its wake ad-
Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000 verse terms of trade, it would in the long run lead to
increases in exports and greater competitiveness in
JHA, L. K. (1913–1988) the economy.
Lakshmi Kant Jha was one of India’s most distin-
guished and versatile public servants. He was secre- Jha died in Pune in mid January 1988, remaining
tary to Prime Minister L. B. Shastri and then for In- fully committed to his work to the last. Indeed, at
dira Gandhi. He was India’s ambassador to the the time of his death he was a member of India’s
United States between 1970 and 1973. He built up a

JINNAH, MOHAMMED ALI 91

upper house of Parliament, the Rajya Sabha, and ,to References
perpetuate his memory, a lecture series (the L. K. Jha Cohen, S. P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC:
Memorial Lecturers) was instituted.
Brookings Institution Press, 2004
See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK); Bangladesh ;
Gandhi, Indira; Shastri, Lal Bahadur. JINNAH, MOHAMMED ALI (1876–1948)
Ali Mohammed Jinnah, the first and foremost
JIHAD (JIHARDI) leader of Pakistan, was born in Karachi, the son of a
Jihad is the term used in Islam for holy war, which wealthy merchant. He became principal begetter of
derives from the Arabic for struggle. Hence a jihardi an independent Pakistan and inherently suspicious
is someone who wages a holy war. Muslims are of India and its probable policy. He studied in Bom-
duty-bound to oppose those who reject Islam, by bay (later Mumbai) and Lincoln’s Inn, London, and
armed struggle if necessary. Historically, jihad has was called to the bar in 1897.
been invoked to justify both the expansion and the
defense of Islam, though not necessarily by military He soon built up a large and lucrative legal
attack. An associated polemical vocabulary relevant practice in Bombay. In 1910 he was elected to the
to Indo-Pakistan relations has acquired consider- viceroy’s legislative council and, already a member
able usage, especially since the 1990s, relating to ac- of the Indian National Congress, in 1913 he joined
tivities by groups variously called freedom fighters the Indian Muslim League (ML). As its president
or terrorists, notably, for example, regarding Af- in 1916 he brought about a peaceful coexistence
ghanistan, Kashmir, and Pakistan’s North West agreement between the ML and the Indian Na-
Frontier region, such as Waziristan. tional Congress Party through the Lucknow Pact.
He resigned from the Indian National Congress in
See also Islam. 1920, opposing its noncooperation policy against

An Afghan mujahedeen (“one engaged in struggle,” or jihad) demonstrates the positioning of a hand-held surface to air Stinger missile in
1988, when the mujahedeen were backed by the United States against the Soviets in control of Afghanistan. After the withdrawal of the
Soviet Union from Afghanistan in 1989, the mujahedeen warlords fought a civil war against the royalists. When the Taliban came to
power in 1994, former mujahedeen formed the opposition Northern Alliance, which still controls the area around Mazar-e Sharif.
(Department of Defense)

92 JOHNSON, LYNDON BAINES

the Raj. He led the independents in the legislative JOINT DEFENCE COUNCIL
assembly from 1923. Powerful in the Muslim (OR COMMITTEE)
League, he took the lead in seeking Hindu–Muslim This was a project proposed by Mountbatten,
unity. Much of Pakistan’s history is closely associ- Britain’s last viceroy of India, that the two successor
ated with M. A. Jinnah, who came to personify states should meet regularly and deal with joint se-
Pakistan, especially from 1947 until his death from curity problems. In 1947, Britain still appeared likely
cancer. Jinnah was a—and perhaps the—domi- to have a considerable military interest and presence
nant figure for South Asian Muslims from the in the subcontinent, and senior British officers were
1920s onwards. prominent in the training of both India’s and Pak-
istan’s armed forces.
References
Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim Mountbatten initially believed that the continu-
ing unity of the Indian armed forces, British-raised
League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge, and mostly -officered, was essential. For a brief
UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985 while—days rather than weeks—it seemed that Mo-
Robinson, F. “Jinnah, Mohamed Ali. 1876–1948.” Oxford hammad Ali Jinnah, as well as Jawaharlal Nehru,
Dictionary of National Biography, vol. 30. New York: would support the idea of a Joint Defence Commit-
Oxford University Press, 2004 tee, and the committee met for a few times after Au-
Wolpert, S. Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford gust 1947. It soon became clear, however, that Indo-
University Press, 1984 Pakistan relations were too tense and mutually
suspicion-laden for the proposal to be permanent
JOHNSON, LYNDON BAINES (1908–1973) and practical.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, popularly known as LBJ,
was the 36th president of the United States (1963– See also Jinnah, Mohammed Ali; Mountbatten of
1969), during which years he oversaw American re- Burma; Nehru, Jawaharlal.
lations with India and Pakistan. Born in Texas, he
became a teacher and congressman’s secretary be- References
fore being elected a Democratic representative to Ziegler, P. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York: Alfred
the U.S. Congress in 1937. He became a senator in
1948 and then a skillful but ruthless leader of the A. Knopf, 1985
Democratic majority in that house. Vice president
under John F. Kennedy as of 1960, he became presi- JUNAGADH
dent immediately after Kennedy’s assassination in In 1947, the Princely State of Junagadh had a Mus-
November 1963. He was elected president in the lim nawab as head of state, who ruled over a pre-
1964 elections by a huge majority. dominantly Hindu population, in this respect
being like the much larger state of Hyderabad, sit-
By the time Johnson became president, Jawahar- uated on the northwest coast of India with a pop-
lal Nehru was ill and palpably aging. He had lost ulation of about 700,000 inhabitants in 1947. Its
self-confidence after India’s dramatic setbacks at boundaries were ill defined and intermingled with
the hands of China in October 1962. President Hindu neighbors, making its future as part of
Johnson had no special rapport with any of India’s India seem most likely—until Muslim League
leaders, as was evident during the Indo-Pakistan politicians took office in the state just before the
armed clashes in 1965, and Washington concurred mid August transfer of power. Encouraged by Mo-
quietly with the peace talks being held in Tashkent hammad Ali Jinnah, they procrastinated briefly,
in January 1966. then at the last moment acceded to Pakistan. The
Indian government soon became fearful that, if
The escalation of the war in Vietnam led to mass they acquiesced in the nawab’s move , they would
protests within the United States and abroad and to be in a weak position if the nizam (the sovereign)
personal attacks and abuse on Johnson personally. tried to follow the lead of his fellow Muslim leader
He was not notably a traveling president and never and accede to Pakistan. On the other hand, if they
personally visited South Asia. After 1969, he retired intervened by force or by exerting economic pres-
from active politics. sure, they could be construed as encouraging sim-
ilar action by Pakistan vis-à-vis Kashmir. Thus the
See also Kennedy, John Fitzgerald; Nehru, Jawaharlal.

JUNEJO, MUHAMMAD KHAN 93

question of what is to happen to Junagadh became the 1960s and held minor offices. He was selected by
a curtain raiser for the roughly analogous cases of Zia predominantly because of his Sindhi back-
Hyderabad and Kashmir ground and support.

Faced with this small but exemplary Junagadh Junejo attempted, with some mild-mannered
imbroglio, Lord Louis Mountbatten, Jawaharlal courage, to be an active independent prime minis-
Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel, Jinnah, and Liaquat ter, but his efforts in this respect brought him to
Ali Khan each sought to determine what they re- clash with Zia, who was not temperamentally in-
garded as a rightful outcome. A provisional gov- clined to share power. Relations between the two
ernment of Junagadh was set up in Bombay (later men deteriorated when Junejo pressed on with an
Mumbai) that became a focus for revolt within the investigation into the massive explosion at the Ojhri
state. The nawab fled the country. The state coun- arms depot camp (situated in a heavily populated
cil soon had second thoughts about accession to area between Islamabad and Rawalpindi), which
Pakistan. On November 8, 1947, the dewan (the threatened to embarrass the Inter-Services Intelli-
ruler) appealed to India to take over the adminis- gence (ISI) and perhaps Zia as well. When Zia sum-
tration before it entirely collapsed. This invitation marily removed Junejo from office in May 1988, he
was accepted, and Indian troops moved swiftly cited ethnic violence in Karachi and the prime min-
into the state. ister’s inability to bring forward a Shariat bill. In re-
ality Junejo’s independent line on an Afghan settle-
Pakistanis continued to maintain that Junagadh ment had been the major factor in Zia’s annoyance
had legally acceded to their country and that India with his prime minister.
had committed aggression. A referendum of Febru-
ary 1948, under Indian auspices, produced a large The prime minister ensured Pakistan’s signature
majority in favor of accession to India. on the Geneva Accord of April 1988, providing for
the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, but at the
See also Hyderabad; Princely States. cost of losing office. Junejo then joined the Islamic
References Democratic Alliance (IDA), which entered the 1988
Ziegler, P. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York: Alfred elections. Eventually, following his death, the Pak-
istan Muslim League split into Junejo and Nawaz
A. Knopf, 1985 Sharif factions.

JUNEJO, MUHAMMAD KHAN (1932–1993) See also Sharif, Nawaz; Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad
Muhammad Khan Junejo was a Sindhi landlord and References
politician who became Pakistan’s prime minister in Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
1985 following Zia-ul-Haq’s lifting of martial law in
December 1985. He had been active in politics since and Company, 1998



KALAM, A. P. J. ABDUL (1931–) K
Dr. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was pres-
ident of India, and thus also the constitutional head See also Nuclear Weapons; South Asian Association for
of state, from 2002 to 2007. Born in October 1931 Regional Cooperation.
into a Muslim family, he was educated at the
Madras Institute of Technology. He joined the R References
and D Organization Defence of the government of Chandra, Ramesh. Scientist to President: President A.P.J.
India in 1958 and then India’s Space Research Or-
ganization in 1963. He held a number of scientific Abdul Kalam. New Delhi: Gyan, 2002
and space-related jobs and was principal scientific Pruthi, Raj. President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. New Delhi:
adviser to the Indian government from 1999 to
2001. Anmol Publications, 2003

In 1982 he conceived India’s Integrated Guided KARACHI
Missile Development Programme. He gained a Karachi is the principal seaport, chief commercial
number of national awards, including the Indira and industrial center, and the most populous city of
Gandhi Award for National Integration in 1997. In Pakistan. It lies on the Arabian Sea immediately to
his first address to a joint sitting of both houses of the northwest of the delta of the Indus River. The
Parliament after the election of a new Lok Sabha hinterland in the north is virtually desert. Formerly
(lower house of India’s Parliament) in 2004, Presi- the capital of Sind province, Karachi is the head-
dent Kalam stressed that the new United Progres- quarters of the district and division of Karachi.
sive Alliance government, led by the Indian Na- Karachi grew to its present size and eminence in a
tional Congress (INC) Party and inducted into comparatively short time. When the British an-
office on May 22, 2004, would be secular and pro- nexed Sind in the early 1840s, there was only a fish-
poor. He also made it clear that India was intent on ing village with a small fort and a ditch called
pursuing an independent foreign policy that would Kalachi-jo-Kun with two gates: one called the
stress the promotion of a multipolar world. The Kharadar (the saltwater gate) facing the sea, and the
new government would give its highest priority to other called Mithadar (the sweetwater gate) facing
building closer political, economic, and other types the Lyari River.
of ties with its neighbors in South Asia and to
strengthening South Asia’s Association for Regional The greatest single stimulus to the growth of
Cooperation (SAARC). “Dialogue with Pakistan on modern Karachi was the expansion of irrigation in
all outstanding issues will be pursued on a sustained Punjab and Sind, which gave it a great export trade,
basis within the framework of the Simla Agreement mainly in wheat and cotton. And the development
and all subsequent agreements between the two of international air transport, especially after World
governments, including the Joint Statement of 6 War II, considerably increased Karachi’s impor-
January 2004,” he said. These were declaratory aims tance, as did the fact that it was designated the cap-
mostly, for he could not actualize them decisively in ital city of Pakistan upon independence in 1947. In
a mere few years as president (2004–2007). On July 1957 the Karachi Development Authority was
25, 2007, the 72-year-old former governor of Ra- founded to plan the city’s growth.
jasthan, Pratibha Patil, was sworn in as India’s pres-
ident, the first woman to occupy that office, in suc- In October 1959 the capital was transferred to
cession to Abdul Kalam. Islamabad, though many offices of the central

95

96 KARAKORAM NATURE PARK

government remained at Karachi. From August 1, with the Kashmir Study Group. Washington, DC:
1960, the Federal Capital Area came to be known as Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005
the Federal Territory of Karachi. The Federal Terri-
tory was merged in the province of West Pakistan on KARGIL
July 1, 1961, as a division with a total area of 8.405 Kargil is a district of Ladakh in Jammu-Kashmir
square miles and a population of 2.1 million in 1961 where, from May to July 1999, India and Pakistan
and about 10 million in 2005. fought a war at an altitude of over 10,000 feet along
a 200-kilometer (124-mile) trans-Himalayan front.
Today Karachi is the major airway, railway, road, This was no mere border skirmish, such as had oc-
and port center for linking with the rest of Pakistan curred in the preceding 15 years across the 740-
and the rest of the world. After partition, there was kilometer (459-mile) Line of Control (LoC) and
a great influx of people from all over India. In the 110-kilometer (68-mile) Actual Ground Position
1951 census, 58.7 percent of the city’s inhabitants Line (AGPL). This fourth war of Kashmir was
were refugees (Mohajirs), and this influx has posed fought at formidable icy mountainous height, only
long-term political problems for Pakistan, not least months after the much publicized peace talks be-
of which is the Mohajir-Sindhi conflict in Karachi. tween India and Pakistan that were held princi-
pally in Lahore. This was India’s first television war
Today Karachi provides major links in air com- and fought only a year after both countries had
munications with all parts of India, Australia, conducted nuclear tests, thus broadcasting that
Malaysia, East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Prox- both had nuclear weapons capabilities. Fortu-
imity to oil fuels, ample space at sea level, relative nately, they were not used by either country in
immunity from heavy rains and floods, and mini- Kargil in 1999.
mum frequency of low cloud cover all favor Karachi
as an airport, and it is largely for climatic reasons In July of that year, the Indian government set up
that it has been preferred as a main communica- a committee of four members (chaired by a leading
tions and services base to Kolcatta or Mumbai. Indian strategist K. Subrahmanyam) to investigate
and report on the Kargil War. The terms of reference
See also Punjab; Sind. were basically two:
References
Musharraf, P. In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. New York: To review the events leading up to the
Pakistani “aggression” in the Kargil District of
The Free Press, 2006 Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, and
Spate, O. H. K. India and Pakistan: A General and
to recommend such measures as are
Regional Geography, 2nd ed. New York: Methuen, considered necessary to safeguard national
1960 security against such armed intrusions.

KARAKORAM NATURE PARK The Kargil review committee report (also known as
The Karakoram Nature Park is the idea, formulated the Subrahmanyam Report) was released almost in
by the Kashmir Study Group in its report of 1997, its entirety to the public in December 1999. It
proposing that a substantial part of Kashmir should ranged more widely than just analyzing the Kargil
be designated and maintained as a nature park clashes of 1999 to place this episode in the context of
under the joint auspices of India and Pakistan but India’s policies vis-à-vis Pakistan since 1947, and it
without changing the question of political jurisdic- made extensive recommendations under 11 sub-
tion. The idea basically is that an Indo-Pakistan heads, in Chapter 14, the penultimate chapter of the
project could be brought into being, which would report. The subheads concerned:
demonstrate practical cooperation between the two
countries. 1. National Security Council.
2. Intelligence.
See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK). 3. Counter-Terrorist Operations.
References 4. Border Management.
Kashmir Study Group. 1947–1997: The Kashmir Dispute 5. Defence Budget and Modernisation.

at Fifty: Charting Paths to Peace. New York: Kashmir
Study Group, 1997
Schaffer, Teresita C. Kashmir: The Economics of Peace
Building: A Report of the CSIS South Asia Program

KASHMIR: ORIGINS OF THE INDO-PAKISTAN DISPUTE 97

6. National Security Management and In October 1947, Pushtu tribespeople from Pak-
Decision Making at the Apex. istan’s North West Frontier Province invaded Kash-
mir. Worried by increasing deterioration in law and
7. India’s Nuclear Policy. order and mounting communal tensions, the Ma-
8. Media Relations and Information. harajah asked for armed assistance from India. The
9. Technology. viceroy, Earl Louis Mountbatten, made clear to the
10. Civil Military Liaison. Maharajah that military help could be forthcoming
11. Declaratory Policy for the LoC. only if the state were to accede to India and that this
would only be provisional pending a “referendum,
There was no similar Pakistan inquiry into Kargil plebiscite or election.” According to the terms of
that was published, though it may be that a govern- Kashmir’s accession, India’s jurisdiction over the
ment-sponsored investigation was held but its find- state was to extend to external affairs, defense, and
ings not publicly released communications. Exactly when Hari Singh signed
the instrument of accession has been deeply con-
See also Ladakh; Lahore; Siachen Glacier. troversial for over 50 years. According to official In-
References dian accounts, Singh fled from Srinagar in the early
“Kargil Review Committee Report.” 1999. http: hours of the morning of October 26, arriving in
Jammu later in the day. There he was met by Rao
//nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/KargilRCB.html Bahadar Pangunni (“VP”) Menon, representative
Musharraf, P. In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. New York: of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, and promptly
signed the instrument of accession. On the morn-
The Free Press, 2006 ing of October 27, Indian troops were airlifted into
Srinagar.
KASHMIR: ORIGINS OF THE INDO-PAKISTAN
DISPUTE Recent research from British sources has indi-
In August 1947 as the Indian subcontinent was be- cated that Hari Singh did not reach Jammu until the
coming independent from Britain, the rulers of the evening of October 26 and that, due to poor flying
565 Princely States, whose lands made up two-fifths conditions, Menon was unable to get to Jammu
of India and an aggregated population of about 99 until the morning of October 27, by which time In-
million, were told by the departing imperial power dian troops were already arriving in Srinagar. To
to join either India or Pakistan. There was to be no support the theory that the Maharajah acceded be-
third choice. fore Indian troops landed, Indian sources have now
suggested that Hari Singh signed an instrument of
The present-day Indian state of Jammu-Kashmir accession before he left Srinagar but that it was not
became part of the Mogul empire under Akbar in made public until later. This was because Hari Singh
1586, having earlier been under Hindu rulers. After had not yet agreed to include the Kashmiri leader,
a period of Afghan rule from 1756, it was annexed Sheikh Abdullah, in his future government. To date
by the Sikh rulers of the Punjab in 1819. In 1920 no authentic original document has been made
Ranjit Singh transferred the territory of Jammu to available.
Gulab Singh by the Treaty of Amritsar. Soon British
supremacy was imposed and recognized, until the Pakistan immediately contested the accession,
Indian Independence Act of 1947. By this act the suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Mahara-
states were required to accede either to India or to jah acted under duress, and that he had no right to
Pakistan. sign an agreement with India when the standstill
agreement with Pakistan was still in force. Pakista-
In 1947 the ruler of Jammu-Kashmir, Maharajah nis also argued that, because Hari Singh fled from
Hari Singh, whose state was contiguous to the two the Kashmir Valley, he was not in control of his
new countries, prevaricated and could not decide state and therefore not in a position to make a de-
on which country to accede to, preferring the status cision on behalf of his people. Pakistanis claim,
quo or full independence, neither of which was then and subsequently, that there is a dispute over
practical at that time. He was a Hindu-Dogra, but the state and status of Jammu-Kashmir, and the
the state’s population was predominantly Muslim. accession issue forms a significant aspect of their
He signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan so
that services such as trade, travel, and communica-
tions would be uninterrupted. India did not sign a
similar agreement.

98 KASHMIR: ORIGINS OF THE INDO-PAKISTAN DISPUTE

View of a mountain pass in Kashmir, the subject of bitter disputes between India and Pakistan for over half a century. (Corel)

argument. By stating that the instrument of acces- raf’s crackdown on militants helped to bring the
sion was signed on October 26, when it clearly was two countries back from the brink of war.
not, Pakistanis believe that India has not shown
good faith and consequently that this invalidates Tension between India and Pakistan also in-
the instrument of accession. Indians argue, how- creased following an attack on an Indian army base
ever, that, regardless of the discrepancies over tim- in Indian-occupied Kashmir on May 14, 2002. The
ing, the maharajah chose to accede to India and he attack, which killed 31 people, was attributed to Is-
was not under duress. On the basis of Hari Singh’s lamic terrorists infiltrating the Kashmir Valley from
accession, India claims ownership of the entire Pakistan. It led also to widespread criticism of Pres-
state, including the approximately one-third of the ident Musharraf for allegedly failing to combat ter-
territory currently administered by Pakistan. In rorism in Kashmir.
1949 Maharajah Hari Singh was obliged by the
government of India to leave the state and hand In February 2002, 58 Hindu pilgrims returning
over the government to Sheikh Abdullah. Hari from Ayodhya were killed when their train was set
Singh died in exile in Bombay (later Mumbai) in on fire following a confrontation with a Muslim
1962. crowd at Godhra in Gujarat. These clashes led to
three months of intense intermittent communal ri-
There were about 35,000 deaths between the oting, during which at least 800 Muslims died from
outbreak of the Kashmir insurgency in 1988 and attacks by Hindus. Relations between India and
2005. Negotiations with Pakistan regarding the fu- Pakistan deteriorated following terrorist bombings
ture of this disputed territory began in July 1999. in Bombay (Mumbai). Subsequently, however,
Hopes of avoiding further violence were set back in Indo-Pakistan official relations improved with the
December 2001 in an attack on the Indian parlia- two countries embarking on their most promising,
ment by suicide bombers; 13 people died. No group if uncertain, attempts at peacemaking for years.
claimed responsibility, but Kashmiri separatists
were blamed. Pakistani President Pervez Mushar- Elections of mayors, municipal corporations,
councils, and committees were held from January 8
to February 17, 2005, in India’s northern state of

KENNEDY, JOHN FITZGERALD 99

Jammu-Kashmir, the first civic elections to be held and developed a report on the history, geography,
in the state for 27 years. Despite calls from militant and demographics of the Kashmir region.
separatist groups, such as Lashkar-i-Tolba (LiT), for
a boycott of the rolls and a campaign of intimida- See also Abdullah, Dr. Farooq; Abdullah, Sheikh
tion and violence that killed at least four candidates Mohammad; Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK).
and six activists, turnout averaged about 60 percent
and in some districts was over 80 percent. References
Kashmir Study Group. 1947–1997: The Kashmir Dispute
In the election for the Jammu municipal council,
where for the first time some 100,000 Kashmiri Pan- at Fifty: Charting Paths to Peace. Kashmir Study
dits were on the electoral polls, the Bharatiya Janata Group: New York, 1997
Party (BJP) was second only to the Indian National Schaffer, Teresita C. Kashmir: The Economics of Peace
Congress Party in its tally of seats. Commentators Building: A Report of the CSIS South Asia Program
reported the civic elections as strengthening local with the Kashmir Study Group. Washington, DC:
government institutions and tending to undermine Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005
the influence of separatist extremists.
KASHMIRI PANDITS
See also Kashmir Study Group (KSG). These Brahmins from Kashmir, members of this
References distinct community, established themselves in
Bose, Sumantra. The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, northern India first at the Mughal courts and then,
from the mid 19th century, in the service of the
Self-Determination and a Just Peace. Thousand Oaks, Dogra rulers of Kashmir. Jawaharlal Nehru’s family
CA: Sage Publications, 1997 were Pandits originally from the Vale of Kashmir,
Brecher, Michael. The Struggle for Kashmir. New York: and India’s first prime minister was generally known
Oxford University Press, 1952 to the British as Pandit Nehru. The community de-
Chopra, V. D. Genesis of Indo-Pakistan Conflict on veloped and sustained a strong cohesion while
Kashmir. New Delhi: Patriot, 1990 adopting many aspects of Urdu and Persian court
Evans, A. 2005 “Kashmir: A Tale of Two Valleys— cultures. As a highly literate and socially elitist
Kashmir Valley to the Neelum Valley.” Asian Affairs group, the Kashmiri Pandits were among the first to
(March 2005) discuss and then implement social reform. As ethnic
Lamb, A. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990. violence has increased in Kashmir since the late
Hertingfordbury, UK: Roxford Books, 1991 1980s, Kashmiri Pandits have fled from the Vale to
settle in Jammu, elsewhere in India, or overseas.
KASHMIR STUDY GROUP (KSG) However, Pandits are still influential in the bureau-
The Kashmir Study Group (KSG) was first founded cracy and professions of India way beyond their nu-
in 1996 by an American citizen and businessman merical size.
who was born in Kashmir. In mid 2005, the KSG had
25 members, with diplomatic, academic, and politi- See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK); Nehru, Jawaharlal.
cal backgrounds. Most of the members are Ameri- References
can, but two are from Britain and one from Ger- Evans, A. 2005 “Kashmir: A Tale of Two Valleys—
many. The members of KSG have conducted many
meetings with interested parties, made studies of the Kashmir Valley to the Neelum Valley.” Asian Affairs
region, and published reports of their findings. (March 2005)
Malik, I.H. Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International
In 1988 some members of KSG, in consultation Dispute. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003
with several Indians and Pakistanis, developed the Pant, Kusum. The Kashmir: Pandits. New Delhi: Allied
Livingston Proposal, Kashmir—A Way Forward. This Publishers Ltd., 1987
proposal was presented to government officials in Sender, H. The Kashmiri Pandits: A Study of Cultural
India, Pakistan, and Kashmir. The reaction from Choice in North India. New York: Oxford University
many in South Asia, while guarded, was generally Press, 1988
positive, and suggestions were made to develop the
idea. Based on these suggestions, an extended set of KENNEDY, JOHN FITZGERALD (1917–1963)
proposals was put forward in February 2000. To aid John Fitzgerald Kennedy, known as JFK, was the
the understanding of and publicity for the Liv- 35th president of the United States (1961–1963),
ingston Proposal, a task force of the KSG studied the youngest president, and the first Roman
Catholic to be elected to that office. As president, he

100 KHAN, ABDUL GHAFFAR

had to assess the significance of the Sino-Indian Despite his own patchy education A. G. Khan
border war in October 1962 while preoccupied campaigned energetically from 1910 onward to
with Soviet missiles being emplaced on Cuban soil popularize schooling among the illiterate Paktun
and thereby posing the threat of direct attack on the tribespeople of the Frontier. He clashed with the
American homeland. Kennedy sent John Kenneth British in April 1919, when he organized a public
Galbraith, the celebrated Harvard professor of eco- meeting to protest against the Rowlatt Act of that
nomics, as U.S. ambassador to India, and Galbraith year. He was then arrested, for the first time, but re-
eventually published a substantial memoir of his leased shortly afterward. Thereafter he embarked on
time in New Delhi in this role. a life that came to involve prolonged periods of im-
prisonment meted out by either British or Pakistani
For Kennedy and Nehru, their coincidental pe- authorities. He resumed his educational activities in
riod of being at the pinnacle of political power in 1921, opening an Azad High School at Utmanzai
their respective countries was brief, being confined and forming the Anjuman Islah-ul-Afghania (Soci-
to Kennedy’s presidency of two and three quarter ety for the Reform of the Afghans) to carry on his
years until his assassination in November 1963. work. By this date he had also been elected president
However, they disagreed on Goa and the nuclear test of the provincial Khilafat Committee. His so-called
ban treaty. Kennedy tried—unsuccessfully—to treat anti-British activities culminated in his arrest of De-
India as he did China, which had distinctly different cember 17, 1921. On his release, his followers hon-
policies toward the Soviet Union than did India, and ored him with the title Fakhr-i-Afghan (Pride of the
he was impatient with what he took to be Nehru’s Afghans), along with that of the Frontier Gandhi.
intransigence over Kashmir. Nevertheless, Kennedy The rest of his long life was punctuated by political
was more inclined than some of his foremost advis- activism and periods of imprisonment, including
ers to take India seriously, certainly more seriously incarceration for most of World War II.
than Pakistan, despite the latter’s formal alignment
and India’s nonalignment. Abdul Ghaffar Khan was released from jail in
January 1950 but banned from the Frontier. In 1955
See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK); Goa; Nehru, he headed the campaign against the merging of the
Jawaharlal. provinces of West Pakistan into one unit, soon lead-
ing to further controversy with the authorities. The
References campaign also led to a rift with his elder brother, Dr.
Hilsman, R. To Move a Nation: The Politics of Foreign Kahn Sahib, who in October 1955 became the chief
minister of the newly integrated West Pakistan.
Policy in the Administration of John F. Kennedy. New After another brief spell in prison, Abdul Ghaffar
York: Doubleday, 1967 Kahn joined Baluch and Sindhi nationalists and af-
Schlesinger, M. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the terward joined Punjabi and Bengali politicians to
White House. Boston: Houghton-Miffflin, 1965 form the Awami National Party (ANP) in 1957. It
Sorensen, Theodore C. Kennedy. Boston: Hodder campaigned for the dissolution of the One Unit
Headliner, 1965 Scheme and demanded federal reorganization to
give greater regional autonomy. Khan was arrested
KHAN, ABDUL GHAFFAR (1890–1988) in October 1958, along with other opposition lead-
Abdul Ghaffar Khan was a leading Pushtun nation- ers. He was released the following April, avowedly
alist and advocate of Gandhian nonviolence who on account of his“age and indifferent health,”but he
played significant roles in both Indian and Pakistani was disqualified from being a member of any
politics during his long life. Born in the village of elected body and placed under restrictive orders. He
Utmanzai in the Peshawar district of the North West defied these to tour the Frontier and was subse-
Frontier Province (NWFP), he attended the Munic- quently rearrested on April 12, 1961. His health de-
ipal Board High School in Peshawar and the Ed- teriorated rapidly because he was incarcerated in the
wardes Memorial Mission School but left before by now familiar surroundings of Haripur prison.
completing his studies to obtain an army commis- Shortly after his release in January 1964, he traveled
sion. Apparently he abandoned this career because to England for medical treatment. Abdul Ghaffar
he had witnessed a British subaltern insulting an In- Khan embarked on a lengthy self-imposed exile in
dian officer. He then spent a brief time in a school at
Camp Upur and attended Aligarh Muslim Univer-
sity, a famous seminary for Muslims.

KHAN, ABDUL QADEER “AQ” 101

Afghanistan in December 1964. He briefly visited weapons program. Born in Bhopal, India, he mi-
India in November 1969 to receive the Nehru Peace grated to Pakistan at the age of 16. Graduating from
Award. The formation of a NAP government in the Karachi University, he went on to study metallurgi-
Frontier in 1972 enabled him to return to Pakistan. cal engineering at a number of European universi-
A caravan of 6,000 vehicles escorted him from the ties. He worked for four years at the Physical Dy-
Afghan border. namics Research Laboratory in Holland. He
returned to Pakistan in 1975 and, for professional
Within two months, however, the Zulfi Bhutto and patriotic reasons, offered his services to Zulfikar
regime had dismissed the Frontier government and Ali Bhutto’s nuclear program. Bhutto rather dra-
arrested Wali Khan and the other top NAP leaders matically claimed in the early 1970s that he would
for “anti-state activities.” Abdul Ghaffar Khan was encourage the Pakistani production of an Islamic
later arrested to prevent his return to Afghanistan. bomb.
After the deposition of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, General
Zia-ul-Haq reversed the policy of repression. After Khan built up a network of scientists and offi-
some hesitation, Khan was allowed to return to Af- cials that allegedly supplied West German, Dutch,
ghanistan, and for the next two years he shuttled be- and British blueprints and suppliers’ lists. Earlier
tween it and Pakistan. Soon, however, he was at log- Pakistani efforts had concentrated on the reprocess-
gerheads with the Pakistani authorities because he ing route to nuclear weapons production. Dr. Khan
urged the refugees from the Soviet invasion of Af- sought an alternative that would be less vulnerable
ghanistan to return home, denying that the war in to international pressure through the enrichment of
Afghanistan was a jihad. In December 1985, he at- uranium at centrifuge plants at Sihala and Kahuta.
tended the centenary celebrations of the National During the 1980s components for the enrichment
Congress in India, but he was by now increasingly process were clandestinely acquired from high-
frail. On May 15, 1987, he was admitted to the hos- technology Western firms.
pital in Bombay but was discharged a month later
and traveled to Delhi, where he suffered a stroke on In May 1998 Pakistan detonated some nuclear
July 4, 1987. From then until his death, he never devices, a few days after India had conducted nu-
fully recovered consciousness. After an attack of clear tests, both countries thereby advertising the
pneumonia, he died in Peshawar on January 20, 1988. fact (in the face of much criticism from other coun-
tries) that they had become nuclear-weapon capa-
In a rare demonstration of agreement, the gov- ble. The network around Khan traded nuclear tech-
ernments of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan each nology–related documents and materials with Iran,
declared a period of official mourning. He was in a Libya, and North Korea and offered them to at least
real sense a citizen of all three countries. An in- one other country: Iraq. The materials conveyed to
tensely religious man who lived an austere life, he other countries included centrifuges to enrich ura-
nonetheless acted as a secular conscience in each of nium and a document describing how to cast ura-
these three countries where he had spent most of his nium to build a type of nuclear warhead. The Inter-
long life. national Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) repeatedly
has said, especially since 1998, that more informa-
See also Afghanistan; Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali; North West tion is needed on what the Pakistani network had
Frontier Province; Rowlatt Acts; Zia-ul-Haq, provided to Iran and others. Dr. Khan effectively
Muhammad. lives under house arrest in Islamabad , having been
given immunity from prosecution by President Per-
References vez Musharraf in 2004 after he publicly admitted his
Korejo, M. S. The Frontier Gandhi, His Place in History. role in overseeing the nuclear network. Pakistan has
taken no other action against members of Khan’s
New York: Oxford University Press, 1993 group, about a dozen of whom were initially de-
Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: tained but subsequently released by the authorities.

Hurst and Company, 1998 See also Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali; Nuclear Weapons.
Tendulkar, Dinanath Gopal. Abdula Ghaffar Khan. New References
Musharraf, P. In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. New York:
Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1967
The Free Press, 2006
KHAN, ABDUL QADEER “AQ” (1936–)
Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan is widely considered to be
the principal brain behind Pakistan’s nuclear

102 KHAN, ABDUL WALI

KHAN, ABDUL WALI (1917–2006) political negotiations were deadlocked and increas-
Abdul Wali Khan, founder of Pakistan’s Awami Na- ingly embittered. Yahya desperately ordered a mili-
tional Party (ANP), died in late January 2006 in Pe- tary crackdown in East Pakistan on March 25, 1971,
shawar, aged 89. He was the political heir of his fa- prompting the declaration of an independent
ther, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890–1988), who Bangladesh and setting up his main conflict, which
was known as the Frontier Gandhi for the way he culminated in the defeat of the Pakistan army by In-
championed a nonviolent struggle for an indepen- dian and local Bahini forces and the emergence of a
dent, united, secular India. Wali Khan began his po- substantially independent Bangladesh.The subse-
litical life in the Khudai Khidmatzar Party, founded quent unconditional surrender on December 16,
by his father. He was successively president of the 1971, led to calls in West Pakistan that he be tried as
Awami National Party (ANP), the National Demo- a traitor. He resigned from office and was sentenced
cratic Party (NDP), and the ANP, which he founded to five years’ house arrest.
in 1986. He surprised many by his retirement from
active politics in 1990 after an election defeat, but he See also Awami League (AL); Ayub Khan, Mohammed;
remained the political mentor of the ANP and was Bangladesh; Indo-Pakistan War of 1947–1948;
widely regarded as the last leader who could unify Pakistan People’s Party (Shaheed Bhutto) PPP (SB).
the ethnic Pashtun people.
References
KHAN, AGHA MUHAMMAD YAHYA Choudhry, G. W. The Last Days of United Pakistan.
(1917–1980)
Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan was the Pakistani Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974
Army commander-in-chief and president who Cohen, S. P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC:
presided over the dissolution of Pakistan as a conse-
quence of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, which cul- Brookings Institution Press, 2004
minated in the emergence of the newly independent Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
state of Bangladesh.
and Company, 1998
Born at Chakwal in the Jhelum district of the
Punjab, the son of a police superintendent, Yahya KHAN, IMRAN (1952–)
was commissioned into the army in 1938 after at- Pakistan’s former cricket captain, Imran Khan, en-
tending Punjab University and the Indian Military tered his country’s national politics in 1966. He is a
Academy, Dehra Dun. He served in Britain’s Eighth member of a famous cricket-playing Pushtun fam-
Army in World War II. After independence he was ily who settled in Lahore. Imran was educated at the
promoted successively to become chief of the gen- prestigious Aitchison College in Lahore and then at
eral staff in 1957. In 1966 he was promoted to com- Keble College, Oxford. He entered professional
mander-in-chief. When Mohammed Ayub Khan re- cricket as an all-rounder. Soon his dashing style and
signed on March 25, 1969, Yahya succeeded him as considerable successes with both bat and ball made
president. him hugely popular in both Pakistan and India, es-
pecially because television was converting cricket
The two and a half years in office proved to be into an international spectactor sport. Pakistan en-
disastrous for Pakistan. Ironically, this quintessential joyed its greatest ever international success during
soldier sought, unsuccessfully, to be a political inno- his time as captain from 1982 onward, the apex of
vator. He dissolved the One Unit Scheme and, after which was victory in the 1992 World Cup.
the introduction of the Legal Framework Order, ap-
proved the holding of Pakistan’s first national elec- In the early 1990s Imran Khan sought to present
tion under direct adult suffrage. But his expectation himself as a “born-again” Muslim and critic of the
that the election would lead to stable, civilian-led so-called brown sahib culture in which he had
government was not met. The parties supporting grown up. During the 1997 general election cam-
his plans performed locally. The People’s Party of paign, however, it was not always easy to escape this
Pakistan (PPP) emerged as the dominant power in playboy past. His marriage to Jemima Goldsmith,
West Pakistan and the Awami League as over- from a rich Jewish family, whom he later divorced,
whelmingly strong in the eastern wing. Postelection also raised accusations of Jewish funding for his ac-
tivities.

Imran first entered public life outside cricket as a
fund-raiser for the Shaukat Khanum Memorial
Cancer Hospital and as an outspoken critic of Pak-

KHRUSHCHEV, NIKITA 103

istan’s rampant corruption. He appeared to be sup- istan, and he publicly equated opposition to the
ported by forces from the right of Pakistan politics Muslim League with hostility to Pakistan. The Ob-
who were looking for what they called a third op- jectives Resolution was passed while Liaqat was
tion. His relations with Pakistan’s other well-known prime minister to provide an Islamic basis for future
celebrity in the western world, Benazir Bhutto, be- constitutions. By the time of his assassination, Li-
came increasingly fraught. By the time of the Febru- aqat appeared to be on the verge of both reactivat-
ary 1996 opening ceremony of the Sixth Cricket ing the Muslim League and steering Pakistan’s for-
World Cup, jointly hosted by India and Pakistan, eign policy into a more Islamic direction.
Imran was persona non grata. After months of spec-
ulation and an unexplained bomb blast that de- He was gunned down by a hired assassin in
stroyed the outpatient wing of the hospital, Imran Rawalpindi’s army cantonment. Liaquat is still
finally founded his Tehrek-e-Insaaf (Truth Move- revered as the Quaid-I Millat political leader. Dur-
ment) Party on April 25, 1996. The February 1997 ing the 1980s, the Mohajir Qaumi Mahaz (MQM)
elections came too early for his fledgling party to be- encouraged his veneration as a specifically Mohajir
come established. His party’s failure to capture a sin- figure. Liaquat married Irene Pant in 1933. After her
gle National Assembly or provincial assembly seat conversion to Islam, Pant was known as Begun
was nonetheless unexpected. Imran maintained that Raan’a Liaqat Ali Khan. She held a number of pub-
there had been electoral rigging and pledged to lic appointments, including those of ambassador to
carry on his political career. Holland and Italy. She served briefly under Zulfikar
Ali Bhutto as governor of Sind.
In 1997, Khan formed a party—Pakistan’s
Tehreek-e-Insaf (Movement for Justice) Party. Ten See also Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali; Jinnah, Mohammed Ali;
years later his party had only one seat (his own) in Muslim League.
the national parliament. Although he is still re-
garded in some quarters as a national hero for lead- References
ing Pakistan’s cricket team to victory in the 1992 Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
World Cup, and his popularity seems to have risen
since he took a critical stand against General Pervez and Company, 1998
Musharraf, his critics and political opponents dis-
miss him as a political lightweight. KHRUSHCHEV, NIKITA (1894–1971)
Nikita Khruschev was the first secretary of the So-
He was taken into custody and house arrest by viet Communist Party (1953–1964) and prime min-
General Musharraf in November 2007 but released ister (1958–1964). He played the leading role in de-
only two weeks later to enable him possibly to run Stalinizing Soviet politics after Stalin’s death in
in the general elections scheduled for early January March 1953, and he pioneered good open relations
2008. with India, notably by undertaking visits to India,
See also Bhutto, Benazir; Cricket. Burma, and Afghanistan between mid November
and mid December 1955, during which he endorsed
KHAN, LIAQUAT ALI (1895–1951) India’s position on Kashmir and promised further
Liaquat (or Liaqat) Ali Khan was a rich landowner aid and assistance to India. Born in the Ukraine,
in the United Provinces, a lawyer, a Muslim League Khrushchev joined the Communist Party in 1918,
leader, and the first prime minister of Pakistan. Dur- fought in Russia’s civil war, and rose rapidly in the
ing the Muslim League Movement, he was general party’s hierarchy. In 1939 he became a full member
secretary of the party and acknowledged as Mo- of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. Within
hammed Ali Jinnah’s right-hand man. He was fi- months of Stalin’s death he became first secretary of
nance member of the interim government in 1946. the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).
With the launching of Pakistan as an independent At the 20th congress of the CPSO in 1956, he de-
state, as of mid August 1947, he became simultane- nounced Stalin and his cult of personality.
ously prime minister and minister of defense. Even
as governor-general, Jinnah remained the leading Among the notable events during his political
political figure until his death in 1948. Liaqat en- preeminence were the Hungarian uprising of 1956,
couraged the processes of centralization for Pak- the Suez War of 1956, and the failed attempt to in-
stall missiles permanently on Cuban soil. Russia
played a formally neutral but actually pro-Indian
position regarding the Sino-Indian War of 1962.

104 KISSINGER, HENRY ALFRED

Khrushchev was the first Soviet leader to engage in
direct personal relations with some Western leaders.

A notably ebullient personality, he was deposed
from office in 1964 and forced into retirement,
being replaced by Brezhnev and Kosygin.

See also Afghanistan; Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK);
Russia.

References
Khrushchev, N. Khrushchev Remembers. Boston: Little,

Brown and Company, 1970
Lyon, P. Neutralism. Leicester, UK: Leicester University

Press, 1963
Taubman, William. Khrushchev: The Man and His Era.

New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004

KISSINGER, HENRY ALFRED (1923–) Henry Alfred Kissinger, U.S. national security adviser
American political scientist, diplomat, and public (1969–1975) and secretary of state (1973–1977). He utilized his
servant, Henry A. Kissinger skillfully used top-level connections with Pakistan to inaugurate an American-Chinese
links with Pakistan to inaugurate in the early 1970s détente. (Library of Congress)
a détente in his country’s links with China and was
thereby regarded with some suspicion by most In- Kissinger, H. Diplomacy. New York: Simon & Schuster,
dian policy makers. Kissinger was President 1994
Richard M. Nixon’s adviser on national security af-
fairs in 1969 and became secretary of state under KRISHAK PRAJA PARTY (KPP)
Presidents Nixon and Gerald Ford. Seemingly tire- This radical Bengali party was founded by Fazlul
less when traveling and in intensive negotiation, he Huq (Haq) in April 1936. It did well in East Ben-
personified and popularized the notion of shuttle gal constituencies in the 1937 elections and
diplomacy. formed a coalition government with the Muslim
League from 1937 until December 1941. Follow-
He was born in Furth, Germany, but his family ing Huq’s split with the Muslim League, it became
immigrated to the United States in 1938 to escape a prominent part of the Progressive Coalition As-
Nazi persecution of the Jews. He studied at Harvard sembly Party, which survived in office until March
and after war service worked for a number of pub- 1943, though by the time of the 1946 provincial
lic agencies before joining the Harvard faculty elections it had lost a lot of its members to the
(1962–1971). Muslim League. After independence, KPP sup-
porters formed the core of Fazlul Huq’s Krishak
He was the main U.S. figure in the negotiations Sramik Party, which played a prominent role in
to end the Vietnam War (for which he shared the the United Front’s crushing victory over the Mus-
1973 Nobel Peace Prize). He preferred relations with lim League in the spring 1954 provincial elections
Pakistan rather than with India, especially in regard in East Pakistan.
to China and the Vietnam War. After leaving public See also Haq, Fazlul; Muslim League.
office in 1977, he returned to academe and to lucra-
tive consultancies. Kissinger was an influential back-
ground figure during the administration of Presi-
dent Ronald Reagan, in which several of his protégés
served.

See also Nixon, Richard Milhous.
References
Hersh, Seymour. The Price of Power: Kissinger in the

Nixon White House. New York: Summit Books, 1984
Kissinger, H. The White House Years. London: Weidefeld

& Nicolson and Michael Joseph, 1979

KUTCH, RANN OF 105

References the Rann is believed to be a dry bed and arm of the
Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst sea, interspersed with marshes, wells, and springs.
Those near the Rann are saline, and there is some
and Company, 1998 salt production. Many local small hills and streams
are almost dry except during the rainy season.
KUTCH (CUTCH), RANN OF
The Rann of Kutch is a territory contested by India Cutch was under British rule from 1815 to 1947.
and Pakistan, especially the western sector of the In 1965 a much publicized dispute arose over the
Great Rann known as Sir Creek, which is part of the boundary line between India and Pakistan. Fighting
Indus River’s extensive delta and where the river’s broke out in April between the regular forces of
marshy distributaries tend to change courses with both countries and stopped only when Great Britain
climatic variations. intervened to secure a cease-fire. The dispute was re-
ferred by the United Nation’s secretary-general to a
The Rann is bounded on the north and north- tribunal, which in 1968 allotted about 10 percent of
west by Sind (Pakistan), on the east by two districts the border area to Pakistan and about 90 percent to
of India’s Gujarat, on the south by the Gulf of Cutch India.
and part of Gujarat, and on the west and southwest
by the Arabian Sea. The Rann consists of the Great References
Rann on the north and the Little Rann to the south- Razvi, Mujtaba. The Frontiers of Pakistan. Karachi, Pak.:
east, consisting of about 18,129 square killometers
(7,000 square miles) and nearly 5,180 square kil- Dacca National Publishing House Ltd., 1971
lometers (2,000 square miles), respectively. Overall, Spate, O. H. K. India and Pakistan: A General and

Regional Geography, 2nd ed. New York: Methuen,
1960



LADAKH L
Ladakh is a valley of the upper Indus River and a
range at the northwestern section of the Hi- References
malayas, giving their name to the large eastern dis- Spate, O. H. K. India and Pakistan: A General and
trict of Kashmir, known to Indians at least since
1950 as the frontier district of Ladakh in the state Regional Geography, 2nd ed. New York: Methuen,
of Jammu-Kashmir, as one of its tehsils (subdivi- 1960
sions). Before the cease-fire agreement between Lamb, A. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990.
India and Pakistan, effective from January 1949, the Hertingfordbury, UK: Roxford Books, 1991
district, then known as the Ladakh and Baltistan
wazarat, included as its northwestern part Balti- LAHORE
stan, or little Tibet, and had three tehsils (Ladakh, Pakistan’s most populous and genuinely historical
Kargil, and Skardu). The eastern end of the cease- city, Lahore has been the venue for a number of
fire line crossed the Ladakh Valley and bisected the Indo-Pakistan negotiations. Situated near Pak-
Ladakh Range. This left Baltistan to the north and istan’s Punjab boundary with India, Lahore is an
Leh, the district capital, with southern Ladakh in- important junction on Pakistan’s western railway
cluding the whole of Leh tehsil and most of Kargil, system with connections to Karachi, Peshawar, and
on the Indian-controlled side. Quetta and with India through Wagah. It is a lead-
ing commercial and banking city and the center of
With the partitions of the Indian subcontinent one of Pakistan’s principal industrial regions, with
in August 1947, Ladakh as a district of Jammu- many cotton, silk, shoes, rubber, iron, steel, and
Kashmir became embroiled in the disputes be- other mills. It is also notable for its gold and silver,
tween India and Pakistan. Both countries claimed lace, and ornaments. Lahore is the chief educa-
that state as part of their territory. In October tional and cultural center of Pakistan. It is the seat
1947 tribespeople from the North West Frontier of the University of the Punjab (founded in 1882),
of Pakistan invaded from the north, and Indian the oldest and largest in Pakistan, with numerous
airborne troops were flown in to repel their ad- colleges and institutes.
vance. The same month the Hindu-Dogra ruler of
Kashmir, Maharajah Hari Singh, announced that The site of Lahore was occupied from early
his state, although predominantly Muslim in pop- times. Much of it stands well above the surround-
ulation, would accede to the Indian union. India ing country, raised on the remains of a succession
referred the dispute to the United Nations and a of former buildings. The name “Lahore” appears
cease-fire came into operation in early January under more than a dozen forms in its history, one
1949. of which, Lohawar, means the love of Loh. Hindu
tradition traces the origin of Lahore to Loh, or
The rival forces halted on a cease-fire line, which Lava, son of Rama, hero of the epic Ramayana. It
divided the state into two parts, the greater part of was under the Mogul empire that Lahore attained
Ladakh district falling to India. Subsequently all ef- its greatest magnificence when it became a place
forts at a permanent settlement have failed, and of royal residence. The reigns of Humayum,
there were armed clashes between Indian and Chi- Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb
nese troops in the Aksai Chin (northeast salient of
Ladakh) and between Pakistan and India in Kargil 107
across the Skardu-Leh road in 2002.

See also Kargil.

108 LAHORE RESOLUTION

marked the golden period in the annals and archi- Virtually all official intergovernmental discourses
tecture of the city. between India and Pakistan are conducted in the
English language.
From the accession of Bahadur Shah to the es-
tablishment of the rule of Raajib Singh in 1799, References
however, its history was one of successive invasions King, R. Nehru and the Language of Politics of India. New
and conquests. The Sikhs ruled Lahore from 1765 to
1849 until at the end of the Second Sikh War, when York: Oxford University Press, 1999
it came under British domination with the rest of
the Punjab. LASHKAR-E-TAIBA
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) is an insurgent group active
Ranjit Singh made it the capital of his kingdom. in Jammu-Kashmir since the mid 1990s. It was
Under British rule, it became the capital of the launched as a Pakistan-based movement professing
province of Punjab and remained so until the parti- an ultraorthodox version of Sunni Islam. Like Jaish-
tion in 1947, when it became the capital of West e-Mohammad, LeT is predominantly composed of
Pakistan. From 1955 until 1959, it was the capital of Pakistani religious radicals. Its leader is Hafiz Mo-
the unified province of West Pakistan. According to hammad Sayeed, a Pakistani academic turned fun-
the 1998 census, the population of Lahore was 5.06 damentalist activist. LeT cadres have been responsi-
million, making it by far Pakistan’s second most ble for a large percentage of fidayeen attacks on IJK
populous city after Karachi (which was 9.2 million). (India’s Jammu and Kashmir) since 1992 and are
the prime suspects regarding a number of massacres
See also Karachi; Punjab. of non-Muslim civilians. LeT tend often to behead
their victims. Along with Jamaat-I-Islami, LeT was
LAHORE RESOLUTION (1940) formally banned in Pakistan in January 2002.
In the Lahore Resolution, the Muslim League first
explicitly demanded the creation of Pakistan. The Challenging the shackles of official restraint,
resolution was moved by a Bengali, Fazlul Huq the LeT came out in early May 2004 in opposition
(Haq). This foundational resolution foreshadowing to the Indo-Pakistan détente. In articles in its
Pakistan postulated a confederate state with the de- house publication, it called for an escalation of the
centralization of power to federating units, though jihad in Jammu-Kashmir. On May 2, Hafiz Mo-
without specifying how much provincial autonomy hammad Sayeed, head of the Lashkar’s parent or-
or how much centralization—central issues for Pak- ganization, the Jammat-ud-Dawa, called for Pak-
istan’s subsequent political history. istan-administered Kashmir to be declared “as a
base camp for Jihardis to launch attacks in occu-
See also Muslim League. pied Kashmir.”

LANGUAGE Writing in Ghazwa, he also asserted that the
India’s constitution provides that the official lan- jihad in Jammu-Kashmir would escalate after the
guage of the Union still be Hindi in the Devanagari ongoing Indian elections. The Voice of Islam, for its
script. Hindi is spoken by over 30 percent of the pop- part, promised that the Lashkar would “continue to
ulation. The constitution also originally provided dispatch the dead bodies of Indian soldiers until Ju-
that English should continue to be used for all offi- nagarh, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Deccan, Gur-
cial purposes until 1965 (15 years after the constitu- daspur, Manwadar, and Kashmir become part of
tion came into force). But the Official Languages Act Pakistan.”
1963, stipulated that, after the expiration of this pe-
riod, English might continue to be used in addition The Lashkar seemed incensed by the quiet sup-
to Hindi, for all official purposes of the Union for port that ordinary people in Pakistan had shown for
which it was being used immediately before that day the détente process with India. Discussing recent
and for the transaction of business in parliament. Indo-Pakistan cricket matches, the Zarb-e-Taiba as-
serted that “the sports of a mujahid are archery,
Urdu is the national language and the lingua horse-riding and swimming. Apart from these three
franca of Pakistan, though only spoken by about 10 sports, every other hobby is un-Islamic.” Under the
percent of the population. English is used in diplo- intoxication of cricket,” it asserted, “Pakistanis have
macy, higher education, and central government. forgotten that these Hindu players come from the
About 60 percent of the population speak Punjabi. same nation that had raped our mothers, sisters,

LUCKNOW 109

daughters, wives and daughters-in-law. These Hin- India until 1947, and subsequently it has been the
dus had desecrated our mosques and copies of the capital of Uttar Pradesh, the populous political
Holy Koran. They are the same Hindus who had heartland of the Indian Union. Situated in north
dismembered Pakistan.” central India 410 kilometers (225 miles) southeast
of Delhi and 330 kilometers (200 miles) northwest
References of Benares (Varanasi) on the river Gomali (or
King, R. Nehru and the Languages of Politics of India. Gumbi), a major tributary of the Ganges.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1999 Lucknow has played a role in a number of his-
torical events. A British garrison was besieged for
LIAQUAT-NEHRU AGREEMENT (1950) five months during the Indian Mutiny of 1857 in
In April 1950, Jawaharlal Nehru made his first visit one of the most publicized episodes of the mutiny.
to Pakistan since independence (accompanied by The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was concluded at a joint
his daughter Indira and son-in-law Feroze Gandhi). session of the Congress, and the Muslim League
He was met at Karachi by Prime Minister Liaquat called for self-government from British rule. Sub-
Ali Khan and his entire cabinet. Discussions re- sequently, Lucknow became a focal point of the
volved around issues relating to partition, but no movement for an independent Pakistan. Lucknow
specific agreement was reached on Kashmir or on is a center of Indian and Islamic culture, as well as
other outstanding issues. an industrial and commercial city, with many
See also Khan, Liaquat Ali; Nehru, Jawaharlal. magnificent buildings, schools, and government
offices.
LUCKNOW
Lucknow was the capital seat of the United See also Indian National Congress; Muslim League;
Provinces of Agra and Oudh during British rule in Uttar Pradesh.



MACMILLAN, HAROLD (1894–1986) M
Harold Macmillan was a British politician and
prime minister (1957–1963) who supported 1964. He became chancellor of Oxford University
Britain’s highly controversial Government of India in 1960 and was made an earl on his 90th birthday
Act of 1935 and who in 1958 was the first serving in 1984.
British prime minister to visit India and Pakistan.
He was born in London, the grandson of the pub- See also Eisenhower, Dwight David; Kennedy, John
lisher Daniel Macmillan. After war service, he stud- Fitzgerald; Nehru, Jawaharlal.
ied at Oxford and became a Conservative minister
to Parliament in 1924. Then for 20 years he was a References
member of the left reformist wing of the party. Horne, A. Harold Macmillan: The Official Biography.
Eventually he became minister of housing (1951–
1954), minister of defense (1954–1955), foreign sec- Vol. I, 1894–1956; Vol. II, 1957–1986. New York:
retary (1955, during which time he was not notably Macmillan, 1989
interested in South Asian matters), and chancellor
of the exchequer (1955–1957). MAHABHARATA
Mahabharata is the major Sanskrit epic of Hindu
A strong advocate of military intervention culture and history and a holy book. Dating from
against Nasser’s regime in Egypt in 1956, he was the first millennium BCE, its 110,000 couplets
among the first in the British cabinet to urge with- make it the longest epic in the world. It was orally
drawal when he saw the consequences of the eco- transmitted and later became literature, printed
nomic and diplomatic opposition wielded by the in Sanskrit and in other languages. Various edi-
Dwight D. Eisenhower administration. Macmillan tions were brought together and published in the
succeeded Anthony Eden as prime minister in Jan- 10th century as the Mahabharata. The central plot
uary 1957. concerns the conflict between two related fami-
lies, the Kurus (spirits of evil) and Pandus (spirits
Macmillan worked closely with President John of good). Woven around this story are myths, leg-
F. Kennedy, especially regarding relations with the ends, folk tales, and metaphysical pieces. For con-
Soviet Union, China, and India, and on nuclear temporary Indians, some of the Mahabharata
matters. Kennedy in particular consulted with provides rich metaphors or analogies for Indo-
Macmillan during the 1962 Sino-Indian War, Pakistan relations.
which was simultaneous with the Cuban missile
crisis. In January 1958, Macmillan set off on a six- References
week-long Commonwealth tour, of some 35,000 Baxter, Craig. The Jana Sangh: A Biography of an Indian
miles and 34 different overnight stops, principally
endeavoring to repair the damage inflicted by the Political Party. New York: Oxford University Press,
Suez War misadventure. 1971
Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian: Writings on
After some initial iciness, Macmillan was Indian Culture, History and Identity. London:
greeted and flattered by Jawaharlal Nehru. Penguin, 2005
Macmillan was welcomed in Pakistan, though he Thapar, Romila. Cultural Transactions and Early India:
had some foreboding at the state of Pakistan and Tradition and Patronage. New York: Oxford
the bitterness of Indo-Pakistani relations. In 1963, University Press, 1987
Macmillan resigned from the prime ministership
due to ill health and left the House of Commons in 111

112 MAHAJAN, PRAMOD

MAHAJAN, PRAMOD (1949–2006) late and media-friendly of the BJP’s leaders, Maha-
Pramod Mahajan was sometimes described as jan was often on television—an aspect of popular
India’s first modern spin doctor, whose organiza- media of increasing importance because even the
tional and tactical skills helped to transform the poorest villages were coming to own at least one
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) from a sometimes ex- communal television set.
tremist Hindu organization into a mainstream po-
litical force, especially as demonstrated in the years Mahajan’s general record of success was punctu-
1998–2006. Before his murder by a jealous younger ated with a severe setback in 2004. He concocted the
brother, Mahajan was widely regarded as the forth- slogan “India’s Shining” for the 2004 general elec-
coming leader and fund-raiser for the BJP and likely tion in which the BJP claimed credit for India’s eco-
to induct, by his skills and example, a new genera- nomic revival and rising international reputation,
tion of leaders into his party. but for some of the middle classes and villages the
slogan had no positive resonance. At the polls in
Mahajan was born into a lower-middle-class 2004 the BJP was defeated after six years at the head
Hindu family in the south of Andhra Pradesh state. of a coalition government. Mahajan took the blame
He soon migrated with his family to a small town for this debacle, but his own political standing soon
in western Maharashtra, of which the great port generally recovered and he resumed prominence.
city of Bombay (Mumbai) is the capital. He gradu-
ated with a degree in physics, a postgraduate degree See also Advani, Lal Krishna; Bharatiya Janata Party
in political science, and a diploma in journalism. In (BJP); Hindutva; Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
the mid 1970s he joined the magazine of the (RSS); Vajpayee, Atal Bihari.
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Tarun
Bharat, as a subeditor. MANILA TREATY (1954). SEE SOUTH EAST
ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION.
At the time of his assassination, Mahajan was
emerging as the most likely political leader of the MASS MIGRATION. SEE DIASPORAS.
BJP. He stood as part of a young, eloquent, media-
conscious second generation of parliamentarians MCMAHON LINE
and their backers and supporters who were waiting The McMahon Line is the northeastern border of
to succeed the aged old guard, most notably Atal India with China, charted by British officials at the
Bihari Vajpayee and Lal Krishna Advani, who had time of World War I but unmarked. It is recognized
risen to political prominence propounding a Hindu by India as the legitimate border with China. But
nationalism. Mahajan was general secretary of the China rejected India’s claim and overran this terrain
BJP’s parliamentary board and its central election in the October 1962 Sino-Indian War.
committee, the party’s two highest policy-making References
bodies. He was also a minister to parliament and a Lamb, Alastair. The China-India Border. New York:
captivating orator in Telegu and English. Although
an accomplished political strategist, Mahajan rarely Oxford University Press, 1964
contested or won elections himself, entering parlia- Maxwell, Neville. India’s China War. London: Jonathan
ment mostly through the Rajya Sabha, the indirectly
elected upper house. Even those, however, who had Cape, 1970
reservations about his political integrity did not
doubt his political acumen and determined com- MENON, RAO BAHADAR VAPAL PANGUNNI
mitment to Hindu hegemony. (“V. P.”) (1894–1966)
V. P. Menon began service as a clerk in the Home
Mahajan’s reputation rose rapidly after the 2003 Department of the government of India in 1914.
regional elections in three important states, in From 1917 until the transfer of power in August
which the BJP snatched unexpected victories, but 1947, he was in continuous association with the
India’s political ground was beginning to move. The various stages of constitutional reform in India. He
Hindutva Movement, the BJP’s guiding philosophy, was promoted by successive stages to the position
had been discredited by anti-Muslim riots, espe- in 1942 of constitutional adviser to the governor-
cially in Gujarat where many Muslims were slaugh- general. This important position he held until Au-
tered during communal clashes. As the most articu- gust 1947. He held other posts, including that of
secretary to the cabinet. In 1947 he was specially se-
lected for the post of secretary to the newly created

MENON, V. K. KRISHNA 113

Ministry of States. In this capacity he worked di- MENON, V. K. KRISHNA (1897–1974)
rectly under Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the deputy Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon was an Indian
prime minister of India. By the time the new con- diplomat, minister of defense, and outspoken critic
stitution came into force on January 26, 1950, the of the United States and of Pakistan, especially at the
565 Princely States had been integrated into the United Nations (UN) in 1950s. He was born into a
pattern of the republic. large and wealthy family and studied at the Univer-
sity of Madras and the London School of Econom-
After his retirement from the states ministry in ics, at which time he also qualified as a barrister.
1951, he was for some time the acting governor of During his years in London he became friendly with
Orissa. Menon, having acted as constitutional ad- India’s future prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.
viser to the governor-general and later as secretary With India’s independence in 1947, Nehru ap-
to the newly created Ministry of States, then played pointed Menon as high commissioner in London,
a major part in creating the new Indian order. In an office he held for five years.
1956 Menon published an authoritative historical
account of the events in which he was closely in- On several occasions he headed India’s delega-
volved, which he entitled The Story of the Integration tion at the UN, playing a publicly prominent role in
of the Indian States and dedicated to Sardar Vallab- articulating and formulating India’s nonaligned for-
hbhai Patel. eign policy, with Nehru preferring the description
an independent foreign power. Menon was elected
See also Mountbatten of Burma; Patel, Vallabhbhai; to the lower house of the Indian parliament in 1957
Princely States. and again in 1962. From 1956 to 1957, he was a
minister without portfolio in Nehru’s cabinet, and
References from 1957 to 1962 he was minister of defense, a pe-
Menon, V. P. The Story of the Integration of the Indian riod that ended in personal ignominy and the end of
Nehru’s support for him.
States. New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1956
Schofield, V. Wavell: Soldier and Statesman. London:

John Murray, 2006

Chinese foreign minister Chen Yi, left, toasts Indian defense minister V. K. Krishna Menon, right, in Geneva, Switzerland, at a time
when their two countries were at peace. Soviet foreign minister Andrei Gromyko, center, looks on. (Library of Congress)

114 MIRZA, ISKANDER

Menon’s overall record as minister of defense After a succession of weak prime ministers had
was a sad one; the Indian public and some members come and gone, Mirza dissolved the National As-
of the Congress attributed the debacle in the 1962 sembly on October 10, 1958, and proclaimed mar-
war to his neglect of military preparedness vis-à-vis tial law. This move was considered by many at the
China. On one occasion when he was minister of time as a preemptive strike to prevent elections,
defense, all the service chiefs tendered their resigna- which might have curtailed the Pakistan establish-
tions in protest against the minister’s policy of ne- ment’s foreign policy interests. As early as May 1958,
glecting India’s military preparedness, especially Mirza had confided to the U.S. ambassador to Pak-
along the northern border. istan that “only a dictatorship would work in Pak-
istan.” Mirza briefly shared power with Mohammed
Menon largely escaped censure on this occa- Ayub Khan following the coup, but within three
sion because of Nehru’s support and protection. weeks he was out of office and in exile in London.
But immediately following China’s successful He died in 1969 and was buried in Teheran
three-pronged assault on India in October 1962,
Menon tendered his resignation in the face of See also Ali Choudhry Muhammad; Ayub Khan,
widespread criticism and calls for him to step Mohammed; Bogra.
down. Nehru was reluctantly compelled to see
Menon leave office. Thereafter Menon’s political References
fortunes plummeted. He virtually left the Con- Ayub Khan. Friends Not Masters: A Political
gress and allied himself with the leftist block, out-
side parliament, though he remained an idiosyn- Autobiography. New York: Oxford University Press,
cratic independent. 1967
Gauhar, Altaf. Ayub Khan: Pakistan’s First Military Ruler.
See also Nehru, Jawaharlal. Lahore, Pak.: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993
References Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York:
Brecher, M. Nehru: A Political Biography. New York: Hurst and Company, 1998

Oxford University Press, 1959 MOHAJIR QAUMI MAHAZ (MQM)
George, T. J. S. Krishna Menon: A Biography. London: The Mohajir Qaumi Mahaz (MQM) party was
founded in March 1984 by Altaf Hussain and other
Jonathan Cape, 1964 members of the All-Pakistan Mohajir Students Or-
ganisation (APMSO). The MQM represents the
MIRZA, ISKANDER (1899–1969) Urdu-speaking Mohajir population who migrated
Iskander Mirza was governor-general and president from India at the time of the creation of Pakistan,
of Pakistan (1956–1958). Born in Bombay into a including General Pervez Musharraf’s family. In the
Shia family from West Bengal during the Raj, he beginning, it appealed especially to lower-middle-
served in the Indian Political Service while retaining class Mohajirs who felt discriminated against by the
his military commission (he was the first Indian state’s preferential politics regarding employment
from Sandhurst to be commissioned). He became and admission to educational institutions. It also
Pakistan’s defense secretary in 1949 and governor of fed on the tensions stemming from rapid socioeco-
East Pakistan in 1954, both posts in which he was a nomic change in such cities of Mohajir settlement
prime spokesperson for Pakistan’s relations with as Karachi and Hyderabad. The MQM also re-
India. flected the increasing ethnicization of Pakistani
politics.
He was interior minister in Bogra’s cabinet of tal-
ents, which followed Muhammad Ghulam’s dis- The MQM rapid rise to prominence and then to
missal of the Constituent Assembly, and the follow- power in Karachi was primarily at the expense of the
ing year he succeeded the ailing Ghulam as Jamaat-I-Islami (JI). The MQM was propagated
governor-general. By this time political power had and propelled by the spread of ethnic riots between
slipped from the hands of true politicians to those of the Mohajirs and Pushtuns from the mid 1980s on-
the bureaucrats and their military allies. In this situ- ward. Altaf Hussain’s leadership and claim to be
ation Mirza encouraged the formation of the Re- launching what he called a Mohajir nationality ac-
publican Party. After the promulgation of the 1956 companied the MQM’s growing prominence in
constitution, Mirza took the post of president. local bodies. The party governs Karachi and other

MOHAJIR QAUMI MAHAZ 115

cities in Sindh province. The movement soon ac- measures did, however, bring some calm to Karachi
quired a reputation not only for violence and the in- by the spring of 1996. Charges of killings were later
timidation of opponents, but also for promoting used by President Farooq Leghari against Benazir
local public benefits. Bhutto’s administration. MQM supporters cele-
brated the dismissal of the government on Novem-
Following its winning of 13 National Assembly ber 5, although they were less pleased with the ap-
seats in the 1988 elections, the MQM acquired con- pointment of the Sindhi nationalist, Mumbaz Ali
siderable political leverage. It became part of the Bhutto, as caretaker chief minister. The MQM(A)
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) coalition both nation- won 28 Sindhi assembly seats and 12 National As-
ally and in Sindh. Relations with Benazir Bhutto’s sembly seats in the February 1997 elections, once
government became acrimonious over such matters again beating the MQM(A).
as Mohajir accusations of police wrongdoings and
the contentious issue of the repatriation of Biharis In late May 2007, the Muttehida Qaumi Move-
from camps in Bangladesh. The MQM’s decision to ment (MQM, formerly known as the Mohajir
support Nawaz Sharif ’s September 1989 no- Qaumi Mahaz) threatened to withdraw its support
confidence motion against the PPP government from the federal and Sindhi provincial govern-
took the incumbency by surprise. ments after criticism that it provoked clashes that
left more than 40 people dead in Karachi, Pakistan’s
Thereafter law and order declined rapidly in largest city.
both urban and rural Sindh, culminating in a no-
torious day in Hyderabad on May 27, 1990, when MQM’s founder, Altaf Hussain, is a firebrand
the police opened fire in a Mohajir locale. The en- speaker who is based in Edgware, northwest Lon-
suing violence led to the end of Benazir Bhutto’s don, England. He fled Pakistan in 1992 after the
first administration within three months. In the army crackdown on his party, alleging that it was in-
1990 elections the MQM redemonstrated its polit- volved in terrorist activities.
ical power, ruling in Sindh for the next 19 months.
The violence arising from disagreements between Hussain, by profession a pharmacist, was con-
supporters of Altaf Hussain [MQM(A)] and the victed and sentenced to 25 years in prison in absen-
Haqiqi faction [MQM(H)] was part of the back- tia by an antiterrorism court for kidnapping and
ground to the so-called Operation Clean-Up of torturing an army officer. He was also accused and
May 1992. Army raids uncovered torture chambers sought for several cases of murder, though he denies
and arms caches in areas of Karachi previously all the charges.
controlled by the MQM(A), but army support for
the rival MQM(H) did not result in long-term Hussain directs his followers in Karachi by ad-
electoral benefits. dressing them regularly by telephone. Despite its eth-
nic-based politics, the MQM claims to be the only
Despite Altaf Hussain’s continued exile in Lon- significant political force in Pakistan to stand up
don, the MQM(A) won decisively in the 1993 openly for secular values. Hussain became a British
provincial elections following the dismissal of citizen during Tony Blair’s Labour government.
Nawaz Sharif, although it boycotted the national
polls. After a brief period of reconciliation the Critics of Hussain—among them Imran Khan,
MQM(A) resumed street fighting with the PPP fol- the former cricket captain of Pakistan who became
lowing the controversial decision to form a new an active politician—have repeatedly demanded
Malir district of Karachi in March 1994. The with- that Hussain be expelled from Britain. Khan has
drawal of the army in December 1994 led to gun said that he will discuss the issue with British au-
battles between the rival factions of the MQM coin- thorities whom he accuses of giving sanctuary to
ciding with increasing sectarian clashes and Moha- Hussain.
jir-Sindhi violence.
See also Bhutto, Benazir; Ershad, Hossain Muhammad;
In May–June 1995 armed clashes broke out in Jamaat-I-Islami (JI); Pakistan People’s Party
Karachi between the MQM(A) and the police and (Shaheed Bhutto) PPP (SB); Sharif, Nawaz.
rangers. Talks between the PPP and MQM(A) failed
to bring about peace. Ruthless counterinsurgency References
Hardgrave, R. L., and S. A. Kochanet. India: Government

and Politics in a Developing Nation, 6th ed. Fort
Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000

116 MOHAJIRS

MOHAJIRS See also Mohajir Qaumi Mahaz (MQM); Sind.
The Mohajirs are predominantly Urdu-speaking References
migrants, originally from the United Provinces in Cohen, S. P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC:
1947—and were named after the migrating com-
panions of the Prophet Mohammad. Facing the Brookings Institution Press, 2004
acute problems of migration and resettlement in
1947, they included some of the best educated and MOUNTBATTEN OF BURMA (1900–1979)
most pro-Pakistan of all Indian Muslims. Many In- Admiral of the Fleet Earl Mountbatten had a distin-
dian Muslim families, having decided to opt for the guished career as a sailor and statesman, including a
new state of Pakistan, had to choose between going brief but meteoric impact in 1946–1947 as Britain’s
to the east or the west wing. Some families found last viceroy of India and as the first governor-
themselves divided and scattered into both wings. general of independent India.
The Mohajirs were part of Pakistan’s initial ruling
elite but became marginalized in the 1970s. In Pak- He was a great-grandson of Queen Victoria,
istan’s first 25 years, they operated at the national cousin of Queen Elizabeth II, and uncle of Prince
(not provincial) level, though located largely in the Philip Mountbatten. He was known to all the British
Sindh. They constituted only 3 percent of the pop- Royal family as Uncle Dickie. His father, Prince
ulation but held 21 percent of government jobs. Louis of Battenberg, was first sea lord in 1914. Re-
They were prominent in the army (two army chiefs nouncing his foreign titles, his father was created
were Mohajirs, including President Pervez Mushar- Marquis of Milford Haven in 1917, and in conse-
raf). Seven of the twelve biggest businesses were quence for much of his life Earl Mountbatten was
controlled by Gujarati-speaking Mohajirs. known as Lord Louis.

His career of public service had three peaks: as
supreme commander, South East Asia Command

Lord Louis Mountbatten hands over power to Quaid-i-Azam Mahomed Ali Jinnah on August 14, 1947, the official date of Pakistan’s
formation. (Library of Congress)

MUMBAI 117

(SEAC, 1943–1945); as last British viceroy and first MUHAMMAD, GHULAM (1895–1956)
governor-general of India; and then as head of the Muhammad Ghulam was a civil servant who be-
British Navy and chairman of Britain’s chiefs of came governor-general of Pakistan from October
staff. As head of SEAC, he initially led a defensive 1951 to August 1955. A Pushtu from Julhundur, he
but then a triumphantly victorious campaign in built up a reputation as a financial expert under
northeast India and Burma; in September 1945 he British rule, both in the Indian Audit and Accounts
presided over the surrender of the southern Japa- Service and in administrative posts in Hyderabad
nese armies in Singapore. and Bhopal. He became the first finance minister
upon the independence of Pakistan. After Ali Khan
Late in 1945, Clement R. Attlee, Britain’s prime Liaquat’s death he became Pakistan’s third gover-
minister, chose Mountbatten to succeed Archibald nor-general.
Percival Wavell as viceroy of India with instruc-
tions to transfer power either to a united India or Muhammad Ghulam was a tough, ambitious,
to more than one successor state by June 1948. and rather authoritarian figure who arguably has-
Faced with a deteriorating situation of political di- tened the undermining of parliamentary democ-
vision and mass migrations and violence, by June racy in Pakistan by his dismissal of Khwaja Naz-
1947, Mountbatten gained acceptance of a plan imuddin from the office of prime minister in April
both from the leaders of the Indian National Con- 1953 and also the Constituent Assembly (the lower
gress and of the Muslim League and from the house of parliament). He relied heavily on the sup-
British government. The plan called for the trans- port of Mohammed Ayub Khan and the military.
fer of power to two dominions, India and Pakistan, Plagued with ill health, he resigned as governor-
on August 15, 1947. Mountbatten remained as general in 1955 and died soon after. Iskander Mirza
governor-general of independent India until June succeeded him.
1948.
See also Ayub Khan, Mohammed; Mirza, Iskander.
Unlike Wavell, his immediate predecessor as References
viceroy, Mountbatten had great support and discre- Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
tionary authority from the British government. He
was instrumental in shortening the timetable for the and Company, 1998
British withdrawal to the two successor govern-
ments of India and Pakistan, and he infused the MUMBAI
whole complex process of the transfer of power with Mumbai is the official name, since 1995, of Bombay,
energy and purposefulness, especially in regard to India’s most populous city and the only natural
the integration of the Princely States. deepwater harbor on the western coast of the sub-
continent. It is built on a group of islands linked by
Mountbatten believed and openly advocated causeways.
that there should be joint détente arrangements for
the two successor states and that he would be the Bombay was ceded to Portugal in 1534 and then
governor-general for both countries. These latter to Britain in 1661. It was the headquarters of the
ambitions were thwarted by Mohammed Ali Jin- East India Company in the subcontinent from 1685
nah’s determination to be the first governor-general to 1708. It is a major airport and railway terminus,
of Pakistan. Mountbatten and his wife, Edwina, had has two prestigious universities (founded in 1916
exceedingly close relations with Jawaharlal Nehru. and 1957), and is well-known for its textile, carpet,
Mountbatten was murdered by Irish terrorists while machines, chemicals, oil products, and exports.
on a sailing holiday off the northwest coast of Ire- There’s a nuclear reactor at nearby Trombay.
land in late August 1979.
The city was damaged by a series of terrorist
See also Ali, Choudhury Muhammad; Attlee, Clement bomb attacks in 2003. It is a celebrated center for
Richard; Jinnah, Mohammed Ali; Nehru, India’s film industry (and is colloquially known as
Jawaharlal; Wavell, Archibald Percival, First Earl Bollywood), as well as a center for making Hindi
Wavell. and Marathi language films. Presently and prospec-
tively, Mumbai is a principal nodal city for India’s
References air and naval contacts and for trade with Pakistan,
Ziegler, P. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York: Alfred particularly with Karachi.

A. Knopf, 1985

118 MUSHARRAF, PERVEZ

References
Srinivasan, T. N. Eight Lectures on India’s Economic

Reforms. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000

MUSHARRAF, PERVEZ (1943–) Pervez Musharraf was head of Pakistan’s armed forces from 1999
Pakistani military leader and president (1999–), to 2007 and president from 1999 to 2008. His military and
born in New Delhi, Pervez Musharraf is the second political power was in steep decline from 2007 to 2008. (Pakistan
of three sons whose father was in public service Mission to the UN)
since 1947 specializing in financial matters within
Pakistan’s foreign policy. Musharraf immigrated tonomy from regions such as Baluchistan and the
with his family to Karachi, Pakistan, in 1947, joined North West Frontier Province.
the army, and was a career soldier for 35 years. He
fought in the 1965 and 1971 wars against India. He On the positive side, General Musharraf has
rose through the ranks and in 1998 was appointed tried to make progress in talks with the government
army chief by Nawaz Sharif. He supported and may of India, notably over the future of Kashmir, but at
have helped plan Pakistan’s invasion of Indian-held the same time he has allowed militant groups to
territory in the Kargil sector of Kashmir in 1999. continue their attacks on Indian forces in that ter-
ritory. Musharraf also has presided over an eco-
Angered by Nawaz Sharif’s decision, under nomic program of privatization, helping to attract
American pressure, to withdraw from the Kargil ter- a notable increase in foreign aid and investment.
ritory and upon learning that he had been sacked as However, the benefits of that growth have failed to
army chief, Musharraf seized power in 1999 in what filter through to the bulk of the Pakistani popula-
was in effect a countercoup. He became head of a tion and have done little or nothing to stabilize the
military-dominated government, dissolved parlia- political situation.
ment, suspended the constitution, and reestablished
a National Security Council. When he came to power in 1999, Musharraf was
widely regarded as a potential savior of the country
In 2001, he assumed a major role, especially in from the corruptions of civilian rule and a staunch
conjunction with the United States, in interna- opponent of Muslim fundamentalism. As a boy he
tional efforts against terrorism, particularly those had lived in Turkey with his family for some years,
focused on Afghanistan. In April 2002, he received and by 1999 he was said to have modeled himself on
apparently overwhelming support in a controver- Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the modern Turkish
sial nationwide referendum to extend his term of
office for another five years. Also in late 2002, he
was once more at the center of international atten-
tion during the confrontation between Pakistan
and India over Kashmir. He survived assassination
attempts by Islamic extremists in 2002 and again in
December 2003.

In the eight years since he first seized power in
1999 from the civilian government of Prime Minis-
ter Nawaz Sharif, General Musharraf has repeatedly
promised that his country would become a full-
fledged democracy, and he has repeatedly failed to
make it so. Instead, he has allowed the military to
entrench itself more in business, reinforcing its role
as a state within the state; he has allowed funda-
mentalist groups to flourish, partly as a counter-
weight to the established political parties he mis-
trusted; and he has presided over a pronounced
decline in the power and authority of the central
government and a rise in demands for greater au-

MUSLIM LEAGUE 119

state, who established a secular democratic constitu- militants, who killed 22 soldiers and wounded 11.
tion while maintaining a military order. Pakistan’s army struck back with days of so-called
punitive action in the Mir Ali district (where north-
By 2007 General Musharraf had failed on two ern Waziristan meets the southern section of the
fronts. He had allowed some of his generals to sup- North West Frontier Province), where General
port Jihadism, greatly increasing its influence in Musharraf had said that al-Qaeda had taken refuge.
public life. He also had repeatedly balked at reintro- Thousands of people fled air strikes against villages.
ducing genuine free and fair democratic elections. The bodies of dozens of Pakistani soldiers, many
with their throats slit, were recovered. According to
The former civilian governments of both official figures, 200 militants and 50 soldiers were
Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto were riddled killed. An unknown number of civilians also died.
with corruption, and the international community Subsequently, commentators reported mounting
was inclined to give General Musharraf the benefit concern within the army over killing fellow citizens.
of the doubt in 1999, while ironically going Between July and early October 2007, Pakistan’s se-
through the motions of condemning the over- curity forces lost more than 250 men, many in sui-
throw of democracy. cide bombings. More than 200 soldiers taken cap-
tive in southern Waziristan in August 2007 were
In October 2007, by launching a second coup freed three months later.
d’état (this time an incumbency coup, called by its
perpetrators a state of emergency, accompanied by General Pervez Musharraf was reelected for an-
the imposition of martial law), Musharraf acutely other five-year term as Pakistan’s president on Oc-
embarrassed the United States and other allies, in- tober 6, 2007, but his victory was overshadowed by
cluding the United Kingdom. The evidence suggests a court case that could yet strip him of power. Pak-
that Musharraf’s second coup was not so much istan’s Supreme Court ruled on October 5, 2007,
against fundamentalist groups as against the judges that, while the election could go ahead, the results
of the Supreme Court. It seems that they might not could not be officially announced until it was de-
have confirmed his eligibility to stand for election as cided whether Musharraf was eligible to be a candi-
president before he had given up his military uni- date. Under Pakistan’s constitution, military person-
form and retired from the army; so he dismissed his nel cannot stand until two years after retirement.
high-level judicial critics. The verdict was released on October 17, 2007. The
poll was skewed by abstentions that gave Musharraf
There are no easy solutions to Pakistan’s instabil- 99.3 percent of the vote in the four provincial as-
ity, and few believe that democratic elections alone semblies, the National Assembly, and Senate. In sev-
will bring about a fundamental transformation and eral assemblies his opponent received no votes. The
lasting order and peace. Furthermore, no stability is court disqualified Musharraf, and Musharraf re-
possible without the close involvement of the mili- sponded by “disqualifying” the court.
tary and security establishments. But the experience
of 1999–2007 suggests that weak and indecisive mil- See also Afghanistan; Bhutto, Benazir; Karachi; Sharif,
itary rule provides no solution either. Nawaz.

Siding with America in its war with the Taliban References
and al-Qaeda has not notably helped General Per- Ahmad, Ishtiaq, and A. Bashir. India and Pakistan:
vez Musharraf to recruit friends and allies at home.
Domestic opposition to his pro-American stance Charting a Path to Peace. Pakistan: Islamabad Society
stiffened in 2007 following some of the most inten- for Tolerance and Education, 2004
sive fighting since Pakistan’s army entered the law- Musharraf, Pervez. In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. New
less tribal belt bordering Afghanistan at America’s York: The Free Press, 2006
behest in 2001.
MUSLIM LEAGUE
Pakistan’s army has received drubbings from The Muslim League was formed in Dhaka (1906) as
militants with links to the Taliban and al-Qaeda. On the All India Muslim League, a religious organiza-
October 6, 2007, while General Musharraf was tion to safeguard and promote Islamic worship in
being reelected as Pakistan’s president, militants at- British India. The League became a political move-
tacked a truck full of paramilitary troops with a ment in 1935 under the leadership of Mohammed
roadside bomb in North Waziristan. An army con-
voy that rumbled to the scene was ambushed by 300

120 MYANMAR

Ali Jinnah as Muslims left the India National Con- References
gress Party ostensibly because it had become pre- Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman, Jinnah, the Muslim
dominantly Hindu in policy and aspirations. The
breach widened with congressional state electoral League and the Demand for Pakistan. New York:
victories in 1937. The Muslim League supported Cambridge University Press, 1985; Lahore, Pak.:
India’s full participation in World War II, but it in- Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1999
tensified its demand for Muslim autonomy and, Jalal, Ayesha. Democracy and Authoritarianism in South
from 1942 onward, advocated a separate Muslim Asia. A Comparative and Historical Perspective. New
Pakistan. The League’s uncompromising policies York: Cambridge University Press, 1995
led to partition, and by 1946–1947 there was no Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York:
doubt that Jinnah and the League had over- Hurst and Company, 1998
whelming support from India’s extensive Muslim
population. MYANMAR
Myanmar is bounded on its eastern flanks by
After Jinnah’s death in 1948, the League never China, Laos, and Thailand and to its west by the In-
again found a leader of comparable stature. New dian Ocean, Bangladesh, and India. From 1947 to
parties emerged in Pakistan, and in the general 1971, when what was then East Pakistan, Myanmar
election of 1955 the League lost the absolute ma- was intimately affected by Indo-Pakistan relations
jority it had enjoyed since the launching of the but less since 1958 when soldiers took over govern-
state. The formation of the Republican Party in ment in Rangoon (the same year as Mohammed
1956 was a further blow to the League and led to Ayub Khan’s coup in Pakistan) and thereafter basi-
the emergence of a national non-Muslim League cally followed an isolationist and certainly a
leadership. The Muslim League was dissolved markedly unilateralist foreign policy. On June 9,
along with other parties in the Mohammed Ayub 1989, the government changed the name of the
Khan martial law period, but in 1962 the Conven- country in English from Burma to the Union of
tion and Council Muslim League came into exis- Myanmar.
tence. This started a trend for the proliferation of
mostly personality-based Muslim Leagues, all of Myanmar is inhabited by many ethnic national-
which have attempted to claim the historic mantle ities. There are over 135 national groups with the
of the founders of Pakistan, especially that of Jin- Bamars (Burmen) comprising just under 70 per-
nah. The neofundamentalism of the 1980s thus led cent of the population, forming the largest group.
to a revival for the League, which won 17 of 73 In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Burmese
seats for the National Assembly in 1984 and sup- kingdom was militaristic and fought against Thai-
ported the ruling Islamic Democratic Alliance land (formerly Siam), sacking its capital on at least
(1990–1993). two occasions. After Burma’s invasion of the king-
dom of Assam, the British East India Company re-
In India, too, a vestigial Muslim League survives. taliated in defense of its Indian interests and in
A number of scholars have commented on the 1826 drove the Burmese out of India. Territory was
League’s weak institutionalization and faction- annexed in South Burma, but the kingdom of
ridden provincial branches even in the heydays of Upper Burma, ruling from Mandalay, remained in-
the late 1940s and early 1950s. After Zia-ul-Haq’s dependent. A second war with Britain in 1852
lifting of martial law in 1985, Muhammad Khan ended with the British annexation of the Irrawaddy
Junejo formed a Pakistan Muslim League (OML). Delta. In 1885 the British invaded and occupied
After his death and during the constitutional crisis Upper Burma. In 1886 all Burma became a
of 1993, it split into PML(N) and PML(J) factions. province of Britain’s Indian Empire. There were vi-
The latter sided with the Pakistan People’s Party olent uprisings and much pronationalist activity,
(PPP) in both the 1993 and the 1997 polls. Its rela- especially among the University of Rangoon’s stu-
tionship with the Punjab branch of the PPP was un- dent body in the 1930s. In 1937 Burma was admin-
easy during Benazir Bhutto’s second administration istratively separated from India by the British and
(October 1993–November 1996). permitted some degree of self-government, and in-
dependence was achieved in January 1948. In 1958
See also Bhutto, Benazir; Jinnah, Mohammed Ali; Zia- there was an army coup, and another in 1962, led
ul-Haq, Muhammad.

MYANMAR 121

by General Ne Win, who installed a revolutionary and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). The mili-
council and dissolved parliament. tary junta did not accept the outcome of the 1990
general election, and the leader of the party that
The council ruled until March 1974 when the won the elections, Aung San Suu Kyi (who was
country became a self-proclaimed one-party social- awarded the Nobel Peace Prize), was put under
ist republic. On September 18, 1988, the armed house arrest.
forces seized power again and set up the State Law



NARAYANAN, KOCHERIL RAMAN (1920–2005) N
Indian diplomat and statesman, Kocheril Raman
Narayanan was his country’s vice president his presidential term (1997–2002), Narayanan twice
(1992–1997) and president (1997–2002). Naray- dissolved the Lok Sabha after determining that no
anan was the first Dalit (formerly known as an un- one was in a position to secure the confidence of the
touchable) to attain high office. He was born in a house.
thatched hut at the village of Uzhavoor in Kottayam
district, Kerala, on October 27, 1920. He was the See also Dixit, J. N.; Menon, V. K. Krishna; Nehru,
fourth of seven children of a physician who prac- Jawaharlal.
ticed herbal medicine. He gained a degree in En-
glish literature at the University of Travancore and References
then became a temporary lecturer at University The Times (London) (November 11, 2005)
College, Trivandrum, in 1943. Narayanan then
spent a year working as a journalist, but in 1945 he NATIONALISM. SEE TWO-NATIONS THEORY.
went to England where he studied political science
under Harold Laski and worked as the London cor- NEHRU, BRAJ KUMAR (1909–2001)
respondent of the Social Welfare Weekly (edited Widely known as BK, Braj Kumar Nehru was one of
from Bombay) and The Hindu. He was also active in India’s most prominent and long serving public ser-
Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon’s India League. vants and diplomats. A cousin of Jawaharlal, he rep-
resented India at reparations talks after World War
Laski recommended Narayanan to Jawaharlal II and in the important sterling balance negotia-
Nehru, who arranged for the young man to join tions with Britain. He served as India’s high com-
India’s Foreign Service in 1949. He served with mis- missioner in Britain and later as ambassador to the
sions in Rangoon, Tokyo, London, Islamabad, Can- United States. For 14 years he was chairman of the
berra, and Hanoi, as well as holding various posts at investment committee of the United Nations, until
the Ministry of External Affairs, including headship his retirement in 1991.
of the Policy Planning division. He was India’s am-
bassador to Thailand (1967–1969), to Turkey Nehru was educated at Allahabad University, the
(1973–1975), and to China (1976–1978). He spoke London School of Economics, and Balliot College,
Chinese and was the first Indian ambassador in Bei- Oxford. He qualified as a lawyer and in 1934 joined
jing for 15 years. After retiring from the Foreign Ser- the Indian Civil Service (ICS). Within the ICS he
vice in 1978, Narayanan became vice chancellor of became prominent among those who helped India
Jawaharlal Nehru University, but 18 months later he to navigate in the challenging years following inde-
was appointed by Indira Gandhi as India’s ambas- pendence. He was generally suspicious of Pakistan’s
sador to the United States, where he served until policies via-à-vis India.
1984.
His many posts included the governorships of
Narayanan was elected to the Lok Sabha for Assam, Kashmir, and Gujerat. In 1997 he published
three successive terms in 1984, 1989, and 1991, rep- his memoirs, Nice Guys Finish Second, which cov-
resenting Ottapalam in Kerala; he was minister for ered several decades of his and India’s vicissitudes.
planning (1985), for external affairs (1985–1986), He was supportive of his niece, Indira Gandhi, dur-
and then for science and technology for three years. ing her declared Emergency.
He was a member of the Indian delegation to the
United Nations’ General Assembly in 1979. During

123

124 NEHRU, JAWAHARLAL

References
Nehru, Brajkumar. Nice Guys Finish Second. New York:

Viking, 1997

NEHRU, JAWAHARLAL (1889–1964) Jawaharlal Nehru, who held office from 1947 to 1964, was the
Indian statesman and long-time prime minister and first prime minister and foreign minister of independent India
foreign minister concurrently (1947–1964), Jawa- until his death. (Library of Congress)
harlal Nehru was born in Allahabad into a family
with Kashmiri roots, his father, Motilal, a prosper- successors’ states to the Raj. In the months before his
ous lawyer. Jawaharlal was educated in England at death, moves were afoot, initiated by Sheikh Mo-
Harrow School (Winston Churchill’s school) and hammed Abdullah, to promote talks between Mo-
Trinity College, Cambridge, and then was admitted hammed Ayub Khan and Nehru, but these did not
to the English bar. He returned to the family home materialize. In fact, during his 17 years as India’s
and practiced in the High Court of Allahabad. In prime minister and foreign minister, Nehru had re-
February 1916 he was married in Delhi to a young, markably few bilateral meetings with his Pakistani
17-year-old, Kashmiri girl, Kamala, née Kaul, by counterparts. An intellectually self-reliant, rather
whom he had a daughter Indira in November 1917. solitary man with few close friends (the Mountbat-
During the summer of his wedding, Nehru spent tens and Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon being
several weeks wandering in Kashmir’s mountains the only notable rare exceptions after 1947), Nehru
leaving his family in the valley. Kamala soon became had the ability to make crowd-pleasing and memo-
a victim of tuberculosis and spent the last 10 years rable speeches. In the 1930s and 1940s, he published
of her short life in Switzerland and other sanatoria, several eminently readable books. His political ca-
vainly seeking a cure. She died late in February 1936. reer in India was probably at its height between
1950 and 1957, but his last two years were of illness
Nehru held an adult vision of himself as an In- and decline.
dian Garibaldi, working for independence. His fa-
ther’s influence and later that of Mahatma Gandhi The heyday of Nehru’s international reputation
encouraged him to enter and to persist actively in and influence came in the 1950s when he was
politics, as a member of the Indian Congress from widely regarded as a principal spokesperson for
1918 onward. He was imprisoned by the British in nonalignment [in contrast to a Pakistan that relied
1921 and spent 18 of the next 25 years in jail. In on formal alliances such as the Southeast Asia
1928 he was elected president of the Indian National Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Baghdad
Congress, an office he often held afterward. He was Pact] and a promoter of international settlements
the leader of the Congress’s Socialist wing until despite the Cold War.
1947. Despite being sympathetic to the allied cause
in World War II and opposed to the various forms
of fascism, in 1942 he, in common with other In-
dian National Congress Party leaders, turned down
the British government’s offer, brokered by Sir
Stafford Cripps, of dominion status for India. The
principal architect and formulator of India’s foreign
policy, Nehru distrusted most Pakistani leaders be-
lieving that their foreign policies were animated by
deep antipathy toward India and a fixation on Kash-
mir. Nehru never really established rapport with
Jinnah and probably had less genuine dialogue with
this preeminent Pakistani leader than did Mohan-
das Gandhi.

In the early years after independence, Nehru met
with Liaquat Ali Khan to deal with matters conse-
quent on partition and the formation of the two

NIXON, RICHARD MILHOUS 125

See also Gandhi, Indira; Gandhi Mohandas his outspoken exchange with Nikita Khrushchev.
Karamchand; Jinnah, Mohammed Ali; Mountbatten As the Republican presidential candidate in 1960,
of Burma. he lost the election narrowly to John F. Kennedy.
Standing for the governorship of California in
References 1962, he was again defeated.
Akbar, M. J. Nehru: The Making of India. New York:
Despite declaring that he was retiring from poli-
Viking, 1989 tics, he ran in and won the presidential election of
Desai Sar, R. D., and Anand Mohan, eds. The Legacy of 1968 by a small margin and was re-elected in 1972
by a large majority. The foreign policy of his presi-
Nehru: A Centennial Assessment. Springfield, VA: dency (1969–1974)—in many respects a Kissinger–
Nataraj Books, 1992 Nixon foreign policy—was notable principally for
Gopal, S., P. Kalhan, and S. Wolpert. Nehru: A Tryst the continuing controversy, at home and abroad,
with Destiny. New York: Oxford University Press, over the Vietnam War, especially the invasion of
1996 Cambodia in 1970 and the heavy U.S. bombing of
North Vietnam, which ended with the eventual
NEHRU, KAMALA (1899–1936) signing of a cease-fire in 1973. Other notable foreign
Nehru Kamala, née Kaul, came from a well-to-do policy matters were Nixon’s initiation of a strategic
Delhi family of Kashmir’s immigrants. She married arms limitation treaty with the Soviet Union, his re-
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1916. Becoming active in con- opening of U.S. relations with the People’s Republic
gressional politics, she was imprisoned by the of China in 1972, and his visit there in 1972, the first
British. She died of tuberculosis in Switzerland. by a U.S. president.

NEHRU, MOTILAL (1861–1931) In his long and tumultuous political career,
An extremely wealthy and successful Allahabad Nixon paid three contrasting visits to the subconti-
lawyer of Kashmiri Brahmin origin, Motilal Nehru nent. The first was in 1953, when he was Eisen-
was the father of Jawaharlal. Initially a supporter of hower’s vice president. In Pakistan he met Mo-
the British Empire, he came to be much influenced hammed Ayub Khan for the first time and
politically by his son Jawaharlal and gradually be- established rapport with him. Nixon noted that at
came a congressional nationalist. He was president that period of his career Ayub was strongly pro-
of the All India National Congress in 1928. American and advocated that Pakistan should be al-
lies and friends with the United States. Regarding
NIXON, RICHARD MILHOUS (1913–1994) others that Nixon met on this diplomatic safari, he
Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th president of recorded much later in his memoirs, published in
the United States (1968–August 1974) when he re- 1978, that the “least friendly leader I met on this trip
signed, the first U.S. president to do so, after being was Nehru.” In 1964, when Nixon visited Pakistan,
found guilty of being involved in the Watergate but not India, he was a lawyer/businessman and
scandal. In the offices of vice president and presi- spoke warmly of meeting “his old friend, President
dent, he had a lot to do in relations with India and Ayub Khan” again. In 1969, Nixon visited Pakistan
Pakistan. Richard Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, and India perfunctorily on the first leg of a presi-
California, into a lower-middle class Quaker family dential around-the-world trip, which subsequently
of Irish descent. He attended Whittier College and got only a passing mention in his memoirs, though
Duke University. After five years’ practice as a his partiality for Pakistan in Indo-Pakistan relations
lawyer, he served in the U.S. navy (1942–1946), was evident to observers.
then ran for Congress as a Republican in California
in 1947. He defeated his Democratic Party oppo- In 1970–1971 Nixon deliberately sought to tilt in
nent by accusing him of being a communist sym- favor of Pakistan and against India, arguing that
pathizer, a tactic he used often in his career. His India was now close to the Soviet Union despite its
outspokenness and tactical skills enabled him to avowed nonalignment. Nixon also claimed that, in
rise swiftly and high in political circles. After ser- 1971–1972, Indira Gandhi was hypocritical and du-
ving in the U.S. Senate (1951–1953), he became plicitous regarding the use of force and was plan-
vice president under Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953 ning to dismember Pakistan, possibly including
and was reelected in 1956. In 1959 on an official West Pakistan.
visit to Moscow, Nixon achieved much notice for

126 NONALIGNMENT

See also Ayub Khan, Mohammed; Eisenhower, Dwight Non-alignment means you have to have an inde-
David; Gandhi, Indira; Nehru, Jawaharlal. pendent foreign policy. And you take steps to safe-
guard your vital interest without injuring the inter-
References ests of other people. This needs a great deal of skills.
Ambrose, Stephen E. Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician. Natwar Singh also said the “NAM needs reform and
change.” The international agenda of the 1940s was
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987 different from the 1960s and 1970s. Forty years ago
Black, Conrad. Richard Milhous Nixon: The Invincible the great questions were apartheid, colonialism and
imperialism. You have a new agenda now. These are
Quest. London: Quercus Publishing, 2007 financial, terrorism, ecology, AIDS population.
Gopal, S. Jawaharlal Nehru. New York: Harvard Nonaligned countries should get together and assert
their view in the UN etc.
University Press, 1976–1984
Hersh, Seymour. The Price of Power: Kissinger in the See also Nehru, Jawaharlal; Singh, Karan.
References
Nixon White House. New York: Summit Books, 1984 Lyon, P.. Neutralism. Leicester, UK: Leicester University
Nadel, Laurie. The Biography of Richard Nixon. New
Press, 1963
York: Macmillan, 1991 Singham, A. W., and Shirley Hume. Non Alignment in an

NONALIGNMENT Age of Alignments. London: Zed Books, 1986
“Nonalignment” is a term that first acquired a Willetts, Peter. “The Non-Aligned Movement and
prodigious popular currency in the 1950s to signify
dissociation from the Cold War. There is some con- Developing Countries, in 2004.” Prepared for the
troversy as to who first coined the term, but it is very Annual Register. www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts
likely that it was first used by Indian spokespersons /PUBS/AR00-NAM.DOC
to convey the idea that their country was genuinely
independent and nonpartisan in relation to the NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
Cold War and would eschew membership in mili- The North West Frontier Province (NWFP) is the
tary alliances. area of mountainous country constituting a fron-
tier and strategic buffer in northwestern Pakistan,
The term “Non-Aligned Movement” (NAM) was east of Afghanistan. These border lands, known as
coined in the early 1970s and was straightaway in- the frontier region or more commonly as the tribal
vested with a pedigree that traced its origins back to areas, are now called special, and they extend in the
a meeting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Gamal Abdel Nasser, north to Chitral as far as the Hindu Kush Range
and Josip Broz Tito at the latter’s holiday resort is- and in the south as far as Baluchistan. In 1901 the
land of Brioni off the Adriatic coast and even more frontier region, with six settled districts (Peshawar,
decisively to a meeting in Belgrade of 25 states in Mardan, Kohat, Banu, Dera Ismail Khan, and Haz-
September 1961. From 1970 the movement has ara), was constituted into a separate province under
sought to meet regularly at the summit level every a chief commissioner. In July 1947, upon the parti-
three years and also for its member states to rally tion of the Punjab, a referendum was held in the
and campaign together on common causes. India NWFP, and the people of the province, including
was from the start a prominent and influential those of the tribal belt, voted overwhelmingly to
member. Pakistan joined the NAM only in 1979. join Pakistan.
Originally the NAM sought to promote decoloniza-
tion and to avoid what was regarded as domination After Pakistan became independent, propa-
by either the Western industrialized world or the ganda was carried on in the frontier areas by Af-
communist bloc. Since the early 1970s it has sought ghanistan for an independent Pathan state, vari-
also to provide a significant forum to set the politi- ously to be called Pakhtunistan or Pathanistan,
cal and economic priorities of developing countries which would comprise the whole of the old NWFP
and especially since the end of the Cold War to re- including the settled districts. In July 1949 the
sist the domination of the United Nations system by Afghan national assembly repudiated its treaties
the United States. with Britain regarding the tribal territories, specifi-
cally disavowing the Durand line as the agreed-on
Soon after becoming India’s new minister for ex- international boundary. Afghanistan’s attempts to
ternal affairs, in May 2004 Kunwar Natwar Singh
gave an interview in which he insisted that the NAM
and nonalignment are not synonymous. “We were
non-aligned before NAM was born,” he said.

NUCLEAR WEAPONS 127

promote Pathan separatism were renewed and in- tocol relating to the number of shrines open to vis-
tensified in 1955 when the NWFP was integrated itors, and the signing of the revised protocol on
with West Pakistan (from December 1971, Pak- shipping services. Sir Creek and Siachen remained
istan), leading to an armed incursion of the tribes under negotiation (for more information, see the
on the other side of the Durand line in September entries on these locations).
1960 and again in March 1961 and intermittently
from the 1980s onward. The United States put considerable pressure on
India and Pakistan to work out a nuclear risk reduc-
See also Afghanistan; Durand Line; Punjab. tion agreement. The May 1998 tests and subsequent
References confrontations between the two nuclear neighbors
Barton, Sir William. India’s North-West Frontier. since then had set alarm bells ringing across the
world. The Lahore Declaration of 1999, signed by
London: John Murray, 1939 former prime ministers Atal Bihari Vajpayee and
Shah, Mehtab Ali. The Foreign Policy of Pakistan. Ethnic Nawaz Sharif, began the process of moving toward
agreement when the two parties agreed to “take im-
Impacts on Diplomacy 1971–1994. London: I. B. mediate steps for reducing the risk of accidental or
Tauris, 1997. unauthorized use of nuclear weapons and discuss
Wolpert, Stanley. Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford concepts and doctrines with a view to elaborating
University Press, 1984 measures for confidence-building in the nuclear
and conventional fields, aimed at prevention of con-
NUCLEAR WEAPONS flict.” Foreign secretaries Shivshankar Menon and
Questions regarding the possession and utilization Riaz Mohammad Khan were finally disposed by late
of nuclear weapons have bedeviled Indo-Pakistan 2006 to initial an agreement on “reducing the risk
relations since the 1960s, because both countries from accidents relating to nuclear weapons.”
refuse to become parties to the Non-proliferation
Treaty (NPT) and its consequent requirements. The 1999 Lahore agreement borrowed language
from a similar agreement made between the United
The United States, Russia, Britain, and France, in States and the former Soviet Union, which said,
that order, tested nuclear weapons and then pos- “Each party undertakes to maintain . . . its existing
sessed them, becoming at first unitlaterally and then organization and technical agreement to guard
jointly committed to confining the possession of against the accidental or unauthorized used of nu-
nuclear weapons to themselves. Despite their efforts, clear weapons under its control.” Furthermore, the
China tested a nuclear device in October 1964 (only parties undertook “to notify each other immediately
two years after the Sino-Indian War) to the immedi- in the event of an accidental, unauthorized or any
ate alarm of India much more than of Pakistan. other unexplained incident involving a possible det-
India tested its first nuclear device in October 1974 onation of a nuclear weapon, which could create a
in the face of protest from Pakistan, though both risk of outbreak of nuclear war.” Such an agreement
India and Pakistan continued to stay outside the had been projected as a possible model for India
NPT system. and Pakistan by several U.S.-based think tanks over
the years.
Toward the end of 2006, it became apparent that
India and Pakistan were ready to sign a major Nuclear confidence-building measures (CBMs)
agreement on nuclear risk reduction. The two under discussion between India and Pakistan in-
countries managed to overcome serious differences clude the setting up of hotlines at the command and
on this issue in six years of hard negotiations, control levels. By 2005, dedicated communication
bringing them to the point where an agreement links existed between the director-generals of mili-
might be given mutually acceptable shape in the tary operations, but there have been discussions also
third round of the so-called composite dialogue. on the possibility of opening hotlines between the
Such an agreement was given a preliminary initial- two heads of government. Again borrowing from
ing by the respective foreign secretaries when they the U.S.–USSR example, India and Pakistan have
met in New Delhi in November 2006. At the same discussed the setting up of nuclear risk reduction
time, the foreign secretaries indicated that, in addi- centers to facilitate quick and accurate official com-
tion to nuclear risk, both sides had successfully con- munication. The earlier no-first-use treaty offer by
cluded agreements on the streamlining of visa
regimes, on the expansion of the 1974 bilateral pro-

128 NUCLEAR WEAPONS

India was also a proposal suggested by U.S. think communication could spread confusion and actu-
tanks, but Pakistan rejected it immediately. ally add to nuclear risk

A draft nuclear risk reduction agreement was See also Ramanna, Dr. Raja
eventually hammered out through the composite References
dialogue to the satisfaction of the governments of Cohen, Stephen P. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington,
India and Pakistan by 2006, and it indicated a major
breakthrough for both sides. The absence of com- DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004
munication between New Delhi and Islamabad had Subrahmanyam, K. “Prospects for Security and Stability
been a source of major worry for strategic experts
on both sides, also emphasizing the need for trans- in South Asia.” In Stephen P. Cohen, ed. The Security
parency and communication to reduce the nuclear of South Asia: American and Asian Perspectives.
risk for both countries. For much the same reason, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987
proposals to open several hotlines have been re- Synnott, Hilary. The Causes and Consequences of South
jected so far because, experts say, many channels of Asia’s Nuclear Tests. International Institute for
Strategic Studies (IISS) Adelphi Paper No 332. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1999

OBJECTIVES RESOLUTION O
The Objectives Resolution was introduced by Li-
aquat Ali Khan and accepted by Pakistan’s Con- dancy from East Pakistani—and hence Bengali—
stituent Assembly in March 1949. It was a first main challenges.
step in preparing a constitution for Pakistan and See also Baluchistan; North West Frontier Province;
was written in Islamic terms, a feature that aroused
the resentment of Hindus who moved a series of Punjab; Sind.
amendments, none of which led to changes. References
Ayub Khan. Friends Not Masters: A Political
When Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan’s first prime
minister, moved the Objectives Resolution in the Autobiography. New York: Oxford University Press,
Constituent Assembly in March 1949, he suggested 1967
that Islam had “a distinct contribution to make” be- Gauhar, Altaf. Ayub Khan: Pakistan’s First Military Ruler.
cause its concept of social justice “meant neither Lahore, Pak.: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993
charity [n]or regimentation.” Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
and Company, 1998
The purpose of the resolution was to provide a
declaration of national objectives, but some aspects OPERATION BRASSTACKS
of the form of the new state were outlined in its pro- This was India’s code-name for massive military
vision. The state was to be democratic, with guar- maneuvers near Pakistan’s border from November
antees of fundamental rights and social justice to 1986 to January 1987. The scale of the maneuvers
all, and a federation of autonomous units. On the and Pakistan’s response in deploying its troops
day the Objectives Resolution was adopted, the As- near the border raised the specter of war in both
sembly established a Basic Principles Commission countries.
to consider the appropriate steps for inducting the References
constitution. Soon the detailed work of the Basic Ayub, Mohammed. “South-West Asia after the Taliban.”
Principles Commission was devolved on to sub-
committees. In Ramesh Thakur and Oddny Wiggen, eds. South
Asia in the World: Problem Solving Perspectives on
See also Khan, Liaquat Ali; Lahore Resolution (1940). Security. Sustainable Development, and Good
References Governance. Tokyo: United Nations University Press,
Callard, K. 1957. Pakistan: A Political Study. London: 2004
Turner, Barry, ed. Statesman’s Yearbook. Santa Barbara,
Allen & Unwin, 1957 CA: ABC-CLIO, 1987
Sayeed, Khalil B. The Political System of Pakistan. Ward, Inna, ed. Whitaker’s Almanac. 1987

Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1967 OPERATION GIBRALTAR
Operation Gibraltar is the code name for Pakistan’s
ONE UNIT SCHEME planned operation against India, formulated first by
The One Unit Scheme was the idea, ascendant the foreign office but then taken up by Mohammed
briefly in the mid 1950s, that the provinces of the Ayub Khan. The plan was based on self-preening
North West Frontier, the Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, and optimistic “lessons” from the Rann of Kutch
and the Princely States and Frontier regions should
be brought together into a united province of West 129
Pakistan. It was an idea that not only sought to re-
duce provincial rivalries within West Pakistan but
also to protect and maintain the center’s ascen-

130 ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC CONFERENCE

conflict and from limited Indo-Pakistani skirmishes Srivastava, C. R. “Lal Bahadur Shastri: Prime Minister of
fought earlier in the year. In early May 1965, Ayub India, June 1964–1966. A Life of Truth in Politics.” In
Khan decided that a second phase of his invasion A Dictionary of World History. New York: Oxford
plan involving a massive invasion of Kashmir across University Press, 1995
the Line of Control by disguised men, armed for
guerrilla and sabotage activities, should be un- ORGANISATION OF THE ISLAMIC
leashed. Thus, 30,000 men comprising the so-called CONFERENCE (OIC)
Gibraltar Forces were assembled in Murree, just The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
north of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. General Musa was founded in 1969 with the objectives of promot-
Khan, commander-in-chief of the Pakistan army, ing Islamic solidarity among member states, safe-
was initially critical of the plan masterminded by guarding Muslim holy places, and promoting the
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Aziz Ahmad. Musa was rights of all Muslim peoples. It had a membership of
soon distressed to find that, despite his objections, 57 members at the end of 2005.
Ayub soon decided to go ahead with the plan and to
carry out raids. The final go-ahead was given when Early in 1974, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was markedly
he visited Murree during the second week of July reluctant to agree to Bangladesh’s representation at
1965 to address a special conference of the force that year’s annual summit conference of OIC, to be
commanders of Operation Gibraltar. The operation held in Lahore, at a time when his government had
actually began on August 5, 1965, and ended in an not recognized East Pakistan’s legitimate successor
apparent military stalemate that was more disas- state, Bangladesh. Prevailing opinion among the
trous for Pakistan than it was for India. members of the OIC caused Bhutto to accept
Bangladesh’s attendance—in a delegation headed by
See also Ayub Khan, Mohammed; Azad Jammu- Mujib-Ur Rahman. Although India today has over
Kashmir (AJK); Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali. 100 million Moslems, it has not sought to become a
member of the OIC. Among India’s neighboring
References states, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Kyr-
Ayub Khan. Friends Not Masters: A Political gyzstan, Maldives, Oman, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turk-
menistan, and Uzbekistan are members.
Autobiography. New York: Oxford University Press,
1967 See also Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Islam; Lahore.
Gauhar, A. Ayub Khan: Pakistan’s First Military Ruler.
Lahore, Pak.: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993

PAKISTAN MUSLIM LEAGUE–NAWAZ P
(PML–N). SEE SHARIF, NAWAZ.
took over as leader of the party. The PPP (SB)
PAKISTAN NATIONAL ALLIANCE (PNA) fielded 35 National Assembly candidates and com-
The Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a multiparty peted for 55 Sindh provincial seats at the 1997 elec-
coalition, was launched in January 1977 to oppose tions. Despite some pockets of sympathy for
the Pakistan’s People Party (PPP) in national elec- Ghinwa in the interior of Sindh, she was defeated by
tions held that year. It included the Jamaat-I-Islami Begum Bhutto (Z. A. Bhutto’s widow and Benazir’s
(JI), Muslim League, Tehrik-I-Istiqlal (TI), and oth- mother) in the Larkana constituency. The PPP (SB)
ers. Despite drawing large crowds, the PNA per- emerged with only one National Assembly seat and
formed badly in the election, winning only 36 seats two seats in the Sindh assembly.
to the PPP’s 155. This led to allegations of ballot rig- See also Bhutto, Benazir; Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali; Sind.
ging. The PNA mounted street agitations in an at- References
tempt to force the PPP to hold fresh elections. The Feldman, Herbert. The End and the Beginning: Pakistan
military was used to restore order in Lahore and in
some other cities. 1969–1971. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975
Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst
Following negotiations between Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto and the PNA, General Zia-ul-Haq initiated and Company, 1998
what he called Operation Fair Play in early July 1977,
and soon the PNA split over the issue of political co- PAKTUNS. SEE PATHANS.
operation with Zia’s martial law regime. Some of its
members went into opposition, whereas the JI PATEL, VALLABHBHAI (1875–1950)
forged close links with Zia’s regime in its early days. This Indian lawyer and politician was also popularly
known as Sardar (leader). In 1947 Patel was second
See also Jamaat-I-Islami (JI); Pakistan People’s Party only to Jawaharlal Nehru as a towering figure in
(Shaheed Bhutto) PPP (SB); Tehrik-I-Istiqlal (TI). congressional and national politics, though he
lacked Nehru’s international linkages and interests.
References Patel was a staunch Hindu, conservative and
Talbot, I. Pakistan: A Modern History. New York: Hurst broadly identified with the business community. In
1947 he was inclined to be tough in dealings with
and Company, 1998 Pakistan, but Mohandas Gandhi persuaded him to
be more conciliatory and to work closely with
PAKISTAN PEOPLE’S PARTY Nehru, which he did as deputy prime minister and
(SHAHEED BHUTTO) PPP (SB) as the home minister in the Indian cabinet.
This faction of the PPP was founded by Mir Mur-
taza Bhutto, a brother of Benazir Bhutto, early in He was a lawyer by training and began his polit-
1996, soon after his return to Pakistan after 16 years ical career in local government in Ahmedabad from
of exile. He was elected to the Sindh provincial as- 1917. He joined the Gujarat sabha, a political body
sembly in 1993. The PPP (SB) clamored for a return of great assistance to Mohandas Gandhi during his
to the radical ideals of Z. A. Bhutto and the early political campaigns. He played a leading role in the
PPP. It was critical both of Benazir Bhutto’s leader-
ship and of her husband Asif Ali Zardari’s influence 131
within the PPP.

After Mir Murtaza Bhutto’s death during an en-
counter with police, his widow, Ghinwa Bhutto,

132 PATHANS

Kheda peasants’ Satyagraha (the struggle for inde- Pathans predominate north of Quetta between the
pendence by nonviolent noncooperative means) in Sulaiman Mountains and the Indus River. A tribal
1918 and in the Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, both border separates the so-called tribal areas from the
launched in opposition to the colonial government’s settled areas. Hill tribes ostensibly are governed by
attempts to raise the land tax on peasant farmers. their own chiefs but subject also to the Pakistan gov-
For his participation, Ghandi gave him the hon- ernment through political agents. Control over the
orific title of Sardar (wise leader). He joined the Salt tribal areas has frequently been thwarted by the re-
Satyagraha of 1930, the individual civil disobedi- fusal of tribespeople to obey their chiefs and by Af-
ence movement of 1940–1941 and the Quit India ghanistan’s recent and continuing involvement in
Movement of 1942, following each of which he international and civil war.
spent long periods in prison.
See also Afghanistan; North West Frontier Province;
He was, with Jawaharlal Nehru, a key negotiator Taliban.
on behalf of the Indian National Congress during
the talks leading to the transfer of power from the Reference
British in 1947. As deputy prime minister in newly Caroe, O. The Pathans. New York: Oxford University
independent India, he played a leading role in en-
suring the integration of most of the Princely States Press, 1958
within the Indian Union, and he strongly adhered to Spain, James W. The Way of the Pathans. New York:
the view that Kashmir should not be conceded to
Pakistan. Oxford University Press, 1962
Spain, James W. Pathans of the Latter Day. New York:
References
Gandhi, Rajmohan. Patel: A Life. Ahmedabad, Ind.: Oxford University Press, 1995

Navjivan Press, 1991 PLEBISCITE
Guha, Ramachandra. India after Gandhi: The History of A plebiscite is a direct vote by the whole body of cit-
izens in a state on a particular question or questions.
the World’s Largest Democracy. New York: Macmillan, The term is synonymous with referendum, meaning
2007 an expression of opinion by a whole community, as
Ziegler, Philip. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York, distinct from a general election, which means voting
Alfred A. Knopf, 1985 for a government on a whole range of issues. In
Indo-Pakistan relations, especially in the late 1940s,
PATHANS plebiscite was spoken of, but not acted on, as a de-
Pathans are the Pashto-speaking tribes of southeast- vice to determine Kashmir people’s wishes about
ern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Pashto, the future of their state.
an eastern Iranian language, has two dialects: The
soft, called Pashto (or Pushto), is spoken by the PRINCELY STATES
tribes of Afghanistan and those of Pakistan south of In 1947 there were 565 separate princely states, or
the towns of Kohal and Thal. The hard, called native states, which were principalities ranging in
Pakhto (or Pukhto), is spoken by the tribes of Pak- size from Hyderabad or Kashmir to petty principal-
istan north of those towns. The word “Pathan” is a ities, the smallest of which were only a few acres of
Hindi variant of the Pakhto word “Pakhtana,” which territory. Two main attitudes to their future pre-
means“speaks of Pakhto,”and it commonly refers to vailed in 1947. One was that the rights and respon-
speakers of both dialects. Pathans generally are sibilities of Britain, hitherto the paramount power,
farmers, herders, and warriors. would lapse as soon as British rule came to an end.
The states would then become fully independent
According to their own histories, the Pathans and would be free to negotiate new agreements if
originated in Afghanistan and are descended from a they thought it desirable to do so. Against this view
common ancestor. Several tribes are known to have were those, mostly in the ranks of the Congress, who
moved from Afghanistan to present-day Pakistan suspected that the British were bent on weakening
between the 13th and 16th centuries. In Afghani- the new state of India at birth by abetting balkan-
stan, Pathans are the predominant ethnic group, ization and perhaps in the future practicing further
and the main tribes are the Durranis, south of acts of divide and rule. What actually happened was
Kabul, and the Ghilzais, east of Kabul. In Pakistan, a tremendous amount of tension and conflict, either

PUTIN, VLADIMIR 133

with Pakistan or, as in the majority of states, with References
India. (Most princes were given and guaranteed pen- Singh Gopal, ed. Punjab Today. New Delhi: South Asian
sions, until much later Indira Gandhi repudiated
these arrangements.) Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Publishers, 1994
Kashmir proved to be the most contentious cases. Spate, O.H.K. India and Pakistan: A General and

See also Azad Jammu-Kashmir (AJK); Hyderabad; Regional Geography, 2nd ed. New York: Methuen,
Junagadh. 1960

References PUNJAB BOUNDARY FORCE (PBF)
Callard, K. Pakistan: A Political Study. London: Allen & Set up in 1947 to help implement the partition
process, the Punjab Boundary Force (PBF) was soon
Unwin, 1957 virtually overwhelmed by the enormity of its task
Menon, V. P. The Story of the Integration of the Indian and was soon disbanded. The PBF consisted of
55,000 troops, mainly British-officered (com-
States. New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1956 manded by a British major general) and included
detachments of Gurkhas, who were presumed to be
PUNJAB outside the main communal pulls of Muslim,
“Punjab” is a much used traditional, but variable Hindu, and Sikh identities. The force’s directive was
name for a large region in the northwest of the to diminish communal violence and to help with
South Asian subcontinent. For decades prior to the restoration of order. By the last week of August,
1947, Punjab was a province of British India. The however, the leaders of India and Pakistan had each
word itself literally signifies five waters or five rivers, decided that the PBF favored the other side and was
referring to the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and too weak to alter the course of events constructively.
Sutlej rivers, which, taken together, form the Panj- On August 29, 1947, a Joint Defence Committee
nad (Panchnad), which in turn joins the great river meeting in Lahore decided that the force should be
Indus. disbanded. The PBF had been well nigh over-
whelmed by the scale of violence and its tasks.
The name was applied primarily to the triangle
of mostly alluvial plains between the Indus and the See also Lahore.
Sutlej, stretching northward to the foothills of the References
Himalayas. Dominant British influence in the Pun- Ziegler, P. Mountbatten: A Biography. New York: Alfred
jab was established in the early 19th century. From
1849 to August 1947, the Punjab formed a major A. Knopf, 1985
province of British India, the boundaries of which
were frequently changed before and after 1947. The PUTIN, VLADIMIR (VLADIMIROVICH)
Punjab was constituted an autonomous province of (1952–)
British India in 1937. In 1947, the province was par- A leading Russian politician and president (1999–),
titioned between India and Pakistan into East and Vladimir Putin was born in Leningrad (now St. Pe-
West Punjab, respectively. tersburg). He graduated from Leningrad’s State
University in 1975 and began his career in the KGB
The name of “East Punjab” was changed to as an intelligence officer, stationed mainly in East
“Punjab (India)” under the constitution of India, in Germany (1975–1989). Following the collapse of
effect as of 1950. On November 1, 1956, the former the Soviet Union in 1991, he retired from the KGB
states of Punjab and Patiala, along with the East (Committee for State Security) and became first
Punjab States Union, were integrated to form the deputy mayor of Leningrad in 1994, moving to
State of Punjab within the Union Republic of India. Moscow in 1996.
On November 1, 1966, under the Punjab Reorgani-
zation Act of 1966, the state was reconstituted as a In 1998 he was appointed deputy head of man-
Punjabi State. agement in Boris Yeltsin’s presidential administra-
tion. He then became head of Federal Security and
The new Punjab state became a predominantly of Yeltsin’s Security Council. He was promoted to be
Punjabi-speaking Sikh area and Hariana a predom- Russia’s prime minister in August 1999. In Decem-
inantly Hindi-speaking area. Henceforth, the name ber 1999 Yeltsin resigned as president, appointing
“Punjab” became something of a misnomer. Only Putin as acting president until official elections were
the Beas (Bias) is wholly in the state, together with
the upper Sutlej.